Dr. Christy M.

Dykstra
cdykstra@sdsu.edu
How Are Pollutants Released?

Focus of the
atmospheric
dispersion model
we will discuss

Point Source Volume Source

Line Source
2
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling

A Gaussian or “normal” distribution can be utilized to approximate the ground-level

pollutant concentrations at given distances both downwind and horizontally from a
point source (e.g., stack).
• Most widely-used model
• Utilized in nearly all of the EPA-approved computer-based dispersion models
• Model the dispersion of non-reactive pollutants from an elevated source
• Employs one or more equations, which predict the steady-state concentration at
some point (x, y, z) downwind from the source

3
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling

Understand the
axis orientation!
z

+y

-y 4
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling

By BMacZero - This is a vector conversion of File:Gaussian Plume.png, Public Domain,

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=19017674
5
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling

The solution of a steady-state partial differential equation, developed from a mass

balance, yields the Gaussian Dispersion Equation:
𝑄 1 𝑦2 1 𝑧−𝐻 2 1 𝑧+𝐻 2
𝐶= ∗ exp − ∗ 2 ∗ exp − ∗ + exp − ∗
2𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑧 2 2 𝜎𝑧 2

C = steady-state concentration at a point (x, y, z), μg/m3

Q = emissions rate, μg/s
σy, σz = horizontal and vertical spread parameters, m [Use Figures 20.7 and 20.8, respectively]
u = average wind speed, m/s
y = horizontal distance (crosswind) from plume center line, m
z = vertical distance from the ground level, m
H = effective stack height (H = h + Δh, where h = physical stack height and Δh = plume rise), m

6
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling

The solution of a steady-state partial differential equation, developed from a mass

balance, yields the Gaussian Dispersion Equation:
𝑄 1 𝑦2 1 𝑧−𝐻 2 1 𝑧+𝐻 2
𝐶= ∗ exp − ∗ 2 ∗ exp − ∗ + exp − ∗
2𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑧 2 2 𝜎𝑧 2

7
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling

Ground-level (z = 0) and centerline (y = 0) concentration:

𝑄 1 𝐻2
𝐶= ∗ 2 exp − ∗ 2
2𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2 𝜎𝑧

For Q = 100,000 μg/s, u = 5 m/s, H = 20 m, stability class C

8
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Stability Classes
• “Stable Air” = less vertical motion (bad air pollutant dispersion)
• “Unstable Air” = more vertical motion (good air pollutant dispersion)
• Atmospheric stability classes have been categorized into classifications of “A” (very
unstable) to “F” (very stable), with “D” being neutral
• Wind speed and incoming solar radiation are the primary factors taken into account
to determine the atmospheric stability class
• The selection of atmospheric stability class has a direct impact on σy and σz

9
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Wind Speed
• Wind speed increases with increasing elevation
𝑝
𝑧2
𝑢2 = 𝑢1 ∗
𝑧1

u2 = wind speed at higher elevation

u1 = wind speed at lower elevation
z2 = the higher elevation
z1 = the lower elevation
p = an exponent related to stability class and surface roughness [Use Table 20.3]

Note: “Surface wind speed” = 10 m off the ground

10
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Averaging Time
• The Gaussian equation is based on a 10-minute average concentration
• For averaging time longer than 10 minutes (up to about 5 hours), the following
equations relate the 10-minute concentration to the concentration for a different
averaging time:
10 0.2 10 0.5
𝐶𝑡 = 𝐶10 𝐶𝑡 = 𝐶10
𝑡 𝑡
t < 10 minutes t > 10 minutes

t = averaging time, min

Ct = concentration for averaging time, t

11
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Maximum Downwind Concentration and Distance

• The maximum downwind concentration is located along the centerline (y = 0) and is
dependent on the stability class, effective stack height (H), wind speed (u) and
emission rate (Q).
𝑄 𝐶𝑢
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ∗
𝑢 𝑄 𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝐶𝑢
= exp[ 𝑎 + 𝑏(ln 𝐻) + 𝑐(ln 𝐻)2 +𝑑(ln 𝐻)3 ]
𝑄 𝑚𝑎𝑥

a, b, c, d = retrieve from Table 20.4 based on stability class

12
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Temperature Inversion

https://cotton.ces.ncsu.edu/2018/07/a-simple-science-experiment-temperature-inversion/ 13
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Temperature Inversion
• Acts as a lid to prevent upward dispersion of pollutants
• Assumed to reflect pollutants similar to the way the ground does
• With two reflecting surfaces (i.e., ground and inversion layer), an infinite number of
images is required.
• A trapped plume is modeled with
+∞
𝑄 1 𝑦2 1 𝑧 − 𝐻 + 2𝑗𝐿 2 1 𝑧 + 𝐻 + 2𝑗𝐿 2
𝐶= ∗ exp − ∗ 2 ∗ ෍ exp − ∗ + exp − ∗
2𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧 2 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑧 2 2 𝜎𝑧 2
−∞

L = height from the ground to the bottom of the inversion layer

j = number from -2 to +2
14
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Fumigation

𝑄 1 𝑦2
𝐶= 0.5
exp − ∗ 2
(2𝜋) 𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝐻 2 𝜎𝑦

15
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Stable Layer Aloft – for x > 2xL

𝑄 1 𝑦2
𝐶= 0.5
exp − ∗ 2 At x = xL: 𝜎𝑧 = 0.47 𝐿 − 𝐻
(2𝜋) 𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝐻 2 𝜎𝑦

x=0 xL x

16
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Equations

𝑄 1 𝑦2 1 𝑧−𝐻 2
1 𝑧+𝐻 2
x < xL Eq. 20.1 𝐶=
2𝜋𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑧
∗ exp − ∗ 2 ∗ exp − ∗
2 𝜎𝑦 2 𝜎𝑧 2
+ exp − ∗
2 𝜎𝑧 2

Interpolate between the N/A

xL < x < 2xL concentrations calculated
at xL and 2xL
𝑄 1 𝑦2
x > 2xL Eq. 20.8 𝐶= 0.5
exp − ∗ 2
(2𝜋) 𝑢𝜎𝑦 𝐻 2 𝜎𝑦

17
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts
What is the difference between “tall” and “short” stacks?
• Tall stacks
• > 2.5 times as tall as the tallest of the nearest buildings
• Stack gases with high buoyancy and exit velocity (>1.5 max average wind speed expected)
• Exhibit significant plume rise
• Furnaces with large heat emission rates (> 10 MW)

• Short stacks
• < 50 m
• Stack gases with low buoyancy but perhaps high velocity
• Exhibit small plume rise
• On “small” sources
• Not as well studied, often exhibits large deviations from the Gaussian model due to interactions with
local terrain and buildings

18
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Why do we build tall stacks?

• Main purpose is to reduce local

concentrations
• Mass emission rate is not reduced by
having a tall stack
• Is the additional cost for building taller
stacks “worth it”?

Thermal power plant EGRES-2, Kazakhstan

http://kazakhworld.com/10-facts-about-kazakhstan/
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Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Tall Stack Design Procedure

1. Analyze the meteorology

2. Make a preliminary hazard assessment
3. Test various cases of physical stack parameters (height, diameter), plume rise
models, and plant locations in conjunction with the “worst-case meteorology
4. Consider effects of local terrain
5. Review your results – do they make sense?

20
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Plume Rise

centerline
Δh

h H

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Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Plume Rise – Vertical Forces

Momentum Buoyancy

Plume

Drag

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Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Plume Rise – Formulas Δh =

Method Terms include: Formula(s)
Holland formula Stack gas velocity, vs; Stack diameter, Equation 20.13
ds; Heat emission rate, QH; Mean wind
speed at stack height, u
Concawe formula Heat emission rate, QH; Mean wind Equation 20.14
speed at stack height, u

Briggs method 1. Buoyancy flux, FB 1. Equation 20.19 with MWs = 28.9

2. Downwind distance to point of 2. Equation 20.15 or 20.16,
final plume rise, xf depending on FB value
3. Plume rise, Δh 3. Equation 20.17 or 20.18,
depending on x and xf values

23
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Building Downwash
Ron L. Petersen, Sergio A. Guerra & Anthony S. Bova (2017) Critical review of the building downwash
algorithms in AERMOD, Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 67:8, 826-
835, DOI:
Recent field10.1080/10962247.2017.1279088
and wind tunnel studies have shown that AERMOD can overpredict concentrations by factors of 2 to 8 for certain building
configurations. A detailed review of the theory supported by CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) and wind tunnel simulations of flow
over simple rectangular buildings revealed the following serious theoretical flaws: enhanced turbulence in the building wake starting
at the wrong longitudinal location; constant enhanced turbulence extending up to the wake height; constant initial enhanced
turbulence in the building wake (does not vary with roughness or stability); discontinuities in the streamline calculations; and no
method to account for streamlined or porous structures.

24
Gaussian Dispersion Modeling – Additional Concepts

Downwash

1. 4. 7.

2. 5. 8.

3. 6. 9.

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Other Air Pollution Dispersion Models
EPA Approved Software Models
• AERMOD Modeling System - A steady-state plume model that incorporates air dispersion based on planetary
boundary layer turbulence structure and scaling concepts, including treatment of both surface and elevated
sources, and both simple and complex terrain.

• CALINE3 - A steady-state Gaussian dispersion model designed to determine air pollution concentrations at
receptor locations downwind of highways located in relatively uncomplicated terrain.

• CAL3QHC/CAL3QHCR - CALINE3 based CO model with queuing and hot spot calculations and with a traffic
model to calculate delays and queues that occur at signalized intersections.

• CTDMPLUS - A refined point source gaussian air quality model for use in all stability conditions for complex
terrain.

• OCD - A straight line Gaussian model developed to determine the impact of offshore emissions from point, area or
line sources on the air quality of coastal regions.

https://www.epa.gov/scram/air-quality-dispersion-modeling-preferred-and-recommended-models
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Assigned Reading for this Section

Chapter 20

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