Grammar:

The Essential Guide

Table of Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1: Understanding the Parts of Speech
Chapter 2: Examining Sentences
Chapter 3: Regular and Irregular Verbs
Chapter 4: Verb Tenses
Chapter 5: Clauses and Verb Forms
Chapter 6: Punctuation
Conclusion
 Introduction
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Grammar: The Essential Guide.

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 Chapter 1: Understanding the Parts of Speech

There are many words but all of them can be classified into eight
classes. These classes are referred to as the parts of speech. These classes are
as follows: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions,
conjunctions, and interjections.

Each class has a particular function which will examine more in depth.

Nouns
Names of people, animals, places and things are nouns. San Francisco, a
place is a noun. The computer is a noun and your name is a noun.

Pronouns
Pronouns are the words that can be substituted in place of a noun.

For example, the sentence below will sound very awkward.

Tony went to the kitchen for Tony’s knife, because Tony wanted to cut a
piece of Tony’s birthday cake.

Instead you can say:

Tony went to the kitchen for his knife, because he wanted to cut a piece
of his birthday cake. His and he are pronouns that are substituted for Tony’s
name.

Frequently used pronouns are:

I, me, you, yours, she, he, his, him, her, my, mine, us, we, all, our, ours,
we, it, its, they, their, them, this, that, these, those, any, anyone, other, both,
each, either, neither, few, many, some, someone, none, several, another,
anybody, everybody, everyone, nobody, somebody, no one, one, whoever,
whosoever

Verbs
When you or someone conveys an action or a statement about the
condition of a thing, it is referred to as a verb.
 Verbs have two main classes and they are action verbs and linking
verbs. Linking verbs are sometimes referred to as the “state of being” verbs.
Examples
The architect designed the house. (designed is the action verb)
The boy chased the bird. (chased is the action verb)

There are other verbs that do not express any action.

Example
If you say: Jill is sick. The verb “is” conveys no action whatsoever but it
connects the word sick and Jill. The verb in the previous sentence, is referred
to as a linking verb.

The sentence above includes the form of the verb to be. Forms of the
verb to be are: be, being, been, am, is, was, are, were.

Other examples of linking verbs are: look, stay, remain, turn, become.

Helping verbs
There are also another class of verbs known as helping verbs. These
verbs help the main verb so that we can garner more information about the
tense and meaning.

A list of these helping verbs include: having, will, might, could, are, is,
had, may, can, does, did, shall, would, has were, am, do, must, should, should
have, should have been, could have, could have been, have, have been, had
been, has been, was and be.
These are some of the frequently used helping verbs. Helping verbs are
also referred to as auxiliary verbs.

Verb phrase

As seen above, verbs can consist of more than one word. Verbs can
comprise of two or more words. When this occurs it is referred to as a verb
phrase. A verb phrase has one main verb and one or more helping (auxiliary)
verbs.
 Let us look at this example.
The women sit in the beautiful park.
The verb is “sit” which is one word.

The women are sitting in the beautiful park.

The principal or main verb is sitting. The auxiliary very is are.
The verb phrase is are sitting.

The women have been sitting in the beautiful park.

The verb phrase is have been sitting
The main verb is sitting and the helping verbs are have been

The women must have been sitting in the beautiful park.

The main verb is sitting and the three helping verbs are must have been.

Furthermore, a verb phrase can be divided by other words.

Has she been sitting on the step?
The verb phrase is has been sitting. She as we know is a pronoun.

Example
Do you know him? The verb phrase is do know

Adjectives
Adjectives are words that modify or describe nouns and pronouns. They
give a more detailed picture of something.

Examples of adjectives are in italics

The women sit in a beautiful park.
The men work in a huge firm.
Tony has a small cake.
The yellow door is closed.

Types of adjectives
 Articles
Words the, a, and an, are known as articles.
The word “the” is referred to as a definite article. “A” and “an” are
referred to as indefinite articles. The word “the” is referred to as definite
because it can be pointed out.

Example
I read the brochure on the counter.
Someone will know that you are referring to that particular brochure
rather than the brochure on the table or in the chair or in the desk.

If you say:
I read a brochure. No one will know what particular brochure you are
referring to.

Possessive Adjectives
Possessive pronouns can also be possessive adjectives.
These words are: my, their, your, our, his, her and its.

Demonstrative Adjectives
These adjectives demonstrate particular things.
These words are: those, these, this and that.

Example
This horror film is my absolute favorite.

Numbers adjectives
Numbers can be used as adjectives. They can also be nouns. You can
determine if it is used as an adjective in a sentence by asking “how many?”
Example
There are five umbrellas by the door.
Five is used as an adjective as you can ask, “How many umbrellas?”
Five is the answer.

Coordinate Adjectives
These adjectives are divided by a comma or “and” in a sentence. They
are placed one after the next and modify a particular noun.

Example
The blue and white cake.
Blue and white modifies the noun cake.

The brilliant, starry night.

Brilliant and starry modifies the noun night.

Note
Though you may see adjectives in a sentence it doesn’t necessarily mean
that they are coordinate adjectives.

For example:
The black sports car.
Black and sports are not divided by a comma as black modifies sports
car. To ascertain whether adjectives can be classified as coordinate
adjectives, insert the word “and” mentally. If “and” can be used, the
adjectives are coordinate adjectives and a comma can be inserted. If not, then
it is not.

The black and sports car sounds awkward, so the words are not
coordinate adjectives.

Interrogative Adjectives
Which, what and whose are referred to as interrogative adjectives and
they are used to inquire.

Example
Which cake is mine?
What restaurant are we dining?
Whose umbrellas are those?

Indefinite Adjectives
These adjectives are employed for things that are non-specific.
Examples of these are: few, several, no, many, are, any.
 Do you have any mustard?
There is no fruit in the fruit bowl.
We examined several magazines before buying them.

Attributive Adjectives
These adjectives give us information about quality or the characteristic
of something.

They can be classified in various categories

Shape, size and measurable qualities

These refer to physical characteristics and traits that can be assessed.

Examples
The rectangular box.
The tall women stood beside the short men.
The poor girl asked the wealthy women for money.

Origin adjectives

These adjectives give the source of a noun.

Example
The American doctor sat next to the Canadian businessman.

Color adjectives

We can use one of our former examples. The yellow door is closed.

Age adjectives

This grouping gives information about numbers and ages

Example
The young man helped the old woman.
My eight-year old nephew kicked the ball.

Observation adjectives
 These adjectives give more detailed description and measures. Words
such as interesting, best and beautiful are frequently used.

Example
The women sit in a beautiful park.
The man bought the cheapest wine.

Qualifier adjectives

They are deemed as part of a noun as when they are applied, more
identifiable specifics are given.

Example
The wooden house
The luxury sedan

Material adjectives

These adjectives are used to describe what an item is made from.

Examples
The gold bracelet was displayed next to the silver ring.
The silk dress hung in the store window but the cotton dress hung on the
rack by the door.

Adverbs
Adverbs modify a verb. They also modify adjectives, adverbs, or a
clause.

They can be identified as they can answer questions: when, where, how,
to what extent or in what manner?
Examples
When – You should cook now.
Where – He goes there every day.
How – She dances gracefully.
To what extent – It is awfully cold.
 In what manner – She chews loudly.

Position of an adverb in a sentence

Adverbs can be placed in the center or at the end, but they can also be
placed at the beginning.
Example
Sometimes, I run in the park.
Usually, I leave work at 5:15 p.m.

Adverbs can be recognized as they have “ly” at the end. For example
gracefully, promptly, carefully, happily, deliberately, awfully and quickly.

Moreover, adverbs inform us as to when the action took place. They are
referred to as adverbs of place. For example upstairs, here, there, inside,
everywhere.

Some adverbs inform us as to when and how the action occurred. They
are termed as adverbs of frequency and also adverbs of time.
Examples include: recently, today, yesterday, after, before, always, now.

Examples of adverbs that inform us about the magnitude of the action

include: very, quite, enough, almost, so, too, rather.

Examples of adverbs that intensify the meaning include: completely,

certainly, absolutely.

Adverbs that inform us about the way something was performed, is

referred to as adverbs of manner. Examples include: willingly, randomly,
briskly, happily, quickly, energetically, hurriedly.

Adverbs that inform us about the location where the action is being done
is referred to as adverbs of place. Examples include: below, beneath,
between, up, down, above, through, behind, around, away, north, south,
homeward, northwest, northeast, nearby, miles apart, far away.

Example
After a long day hiking, we traveled northwards.
 Her restaurant is nearby.

Preposition
The term given when the relationship between words in a sentence is
shown, is a preposition. Prepositions do not modify.

Types of prepositions
Time prepositions
Prepositions of place
Direction preposition

Time prepositions enable you to give a specific time. These words

include: at, in, on.
Examples
My anniversary is in February.
Many flowers bloom in spring.
My sick leave ends on Wednesday.
Meet me at the restaurant.

Prepositions of place
They inform us where an item, person or place is located.
These types of prepositions include: at, in, on.

Examples
I read the brochure on the counter.
The child is in the garden.

Note that some of the words that are prepositions can also be adverbs. It
all depends on the function of the word which causes it to be classified a
particular way.

Direction prepositions
These are prepositions that give us details about direction such as the
words, up, down.

Prepositional phrase
 The most basic definition of a prepositional phrase is a set of words
comprising of prepositions. The group of words has neither verb nor subject.
Instead, the group of words comprise of a preposition and a pronoun or a
preposition and a noun.

Examples
The fight occurred on the bridge.
On is a preposition, bridge is the object and “on the bridge” is the
prepositional phrase.

Conjunctions
A conjunction links words and group of words in a sentence.
Examples of conjunctions are: but, from and, as, because, neither, nor,
so.

Examples
She or I will bake the cake.
Conjunction “or” joins two pronouns.

I boxed and broke my arm.

Conjunction “and” joins two verbs.

Jill ran too fast and too quickly.

Conjunction “and” joins two adverbs.

It is an ugly but huge dog.

Conjunction “but” joins two adjectives.

Interjections
Interjections are words that are used to convey a strong and sudden
emotion and feeling. These emotions can range from surprise, exhilaration or
disgust.

Interjections can be sounds, such as phew.

Examples include: Bah! Alas! Well! Hey! Jeepers! Indeed!

 We have finally concluded this section that pertains to the part of
speech. Do note that some words can be classed in the different parts of
speech. Adjectives can be a noun and vice versa. A word can be a
preposition and still an adverb. For you to recognize what part of speech it is,
look at the function of the word in a sentence.
 Chapter 2: Examining Sentences

The Sentence

Two components must be part of a sentence and they are 1) the subject
and 2) the predicate.

The subject is a word or several words that inform us what or whom the
writer or speaker is referring to. The predicate informs us about the subject.
The predicate gives more detailed information by describing the subject or
tells us what is happening to the subject.

Examples
Subject Predicate
My brother relocated to Sweden.
The brochure has information about
blindness.
Those women are experienced bakers.

Sometimes the subject is placed before the predicate.

Example
Subject Predicate
My uncle bought a truck

Sometimes the subject is placed after the predicate.

Example
Predicate Subject
Speeding on the race track came the runners

A sentence can also have two or more subjects and two or more
predicates. If the subjects are linked by “and” it is referred to as a compound
subject.
 Example of two subjects linked by and.
My uncle and my father bought a truck.

If two subjects are linked by the word “or” it is referred to as an

alternative subject.
Example of two subjects linked by or
Either Wednesday or Thursday will be a good day to start painting.

Furthermore, a predicate may contain two or more descriptions or make

statements about the subject or subjects. This is known as a compound
predicate.

Example of one subject and a compound predicate

I sang and danced at the wedding.

Example of a compound subject (two subjects) and a compound

predicate (two predicates).
Tony and Jill washed the dishes and dried them.

Fragments
If you have a set of words, even if they are punctuated but the two
components (subject and predicate) are missing it is referred to as a sentence
fragment or just a fragment.

Example where subject is missing.

Interviewed the president.
(Who interviewed the president?)

The journalist interviewed the president.

This is now a complete sentence as a subject, the journalist has been
added.

Example where predicate is missing.

My uncle.
 Adding the predicate, completes the sentence.
My uncle bought a truck.

Note that at times, fragments are intentionally used for emphasis.

Though they are used to highlight a point more, or capture a reader’s
attention, they are not complete sentences.

Examples
To be sure.
Received your email yesterday.
Took your order.
Over and out.

Types of sentences
Declarative sentence
Interrogative sentence
Imperative sentence
Exclamatory sentence

A declarative sentence makes a statement and mainly gives information.

Example
My brother who lives in Sweden is a teacher.

An interrogative sentence asks a question.

Example
Where does your brother live?

An imperative sentence gives orders and commands.

Example
Take a picture.

An exclamatory sentence expresses a feeling or emotion.

What a disgrace she is!

Structure
In a declarative sentence, you can introduce the subject in different
ways. The subject can be placed first and then the predicate.

Example
I am reading a book. It is a book about Sweden. My brother sent it to
me. My brother lives in Sweden. He speaks Swedish.

In all the sentences, the subject is first and then the predicate.

Let us change the structure and use this example

On the counter my friend found an interesting magazine about pets.
The subject is positioned after the phrase on the counter.

When the subject is not in its usual place, meaning, when it is not placed
first in the sentence, it is called an inverted sentence.

Example
The girls skipped down the street.
(The subject is placed in the normal position.)

Down the street skipped the girls.

The sentence is inverted so that the sentence begins with a phrase and
the subject is now at the end.

Example
The girls stopped abruptly. (This is the normal order)
Abruptly, the girls stopped. (Inverted order)

Structure of imperative and exclamatory patters

When making a request or giving a command, the subject is hardly

expressed. If the subject is not given, then automatically it is understood that
“you” is the subject.

Example
Press the buzzer now!
 (The subject is not given so you becomes the subject)

(You) Press the buzzer now!

Please sign the letter.

(The subject is not given so you becomes the subject)

(You) Please sign the letter.

Even if a name is said to whom the command is given, the subject of the
sentence still is regarded as “you”.

Example
Tom, please sign the letter. (Tom is the person who is addressed.)

Tom, (you) please sign the letter.

If there are two individuals in the room with the name Tom, the speaker
would be able to differentiate which one he or she is addressing. If Tom 1 or
2 asks who the speaker is talking to, the speaker can answer by saying you,
and point out which one.

Nouns
As mentioned in chapter 1, nouns are the names of people, animals,
places and things. Nouns can be divided into two groups and they are proper
nouns and common nouns.

A proper noun is the name given to a specific person, place or thing and
they begin with a capital letter.

Examples
Tom Holland Atlantic Ocean
Jill Florida Eiffel Tower
Tony Manhattan Empire State
Building
 A common noun is the name given to any one of a class of things,
persons, or places.
Example
ocean tower
building country
state adults

Common letters are used for common nouns if they are in the sentence.
If they start a sentence, then the first letter should be capitalized. It is when
you are referring to a particular ocean or building for example that you
capitalize the word.
Example
The boat sailed on the ocean.
The boat sailed on the Atlantic Ocean.

Moreover, a common noun can describe a collection of things or a group

of persons.
Examples
jury, choir, herd, audience

Nouns that refer to a group of persons or collection of objects are

referred to as collective nouns.

Adjectives that are developed from a proper noun are called proper
adjectives.

Examples
Proper Nouns Proper Adjectives
Sweden a Swedish interpreter
America an American student

Capitalization

Names of specific places and persons are capitalized.

 Examples
Mrs. Clarke Jill Mills Senator Morris
Tony Conroy Yankee Stadium President Sandy
Rose

Geographic names are capitalized.

This includes countries, states, continents, cities, bays, harbors, lakes,
mountains, valleys etc.
Examples
Connecticut Manhattan Lake
Ontario Detroit River

Specific localities, regions and political divisions

Examples
Third Precinct the Orient

Names of building, bridges, parks, ships, railroads, dams, streets,

hotels and monuments are capitalized.
Examples
Empire State Building Eiffel Tower Ann Arbor
Railroad

Historical periods, historical events and documents are capitalized.

Examples
World War 1 French Revolution Seven
Years’ War

Governmental departments and bodies are capitalized.

Examples
Supreme Court of the Unites States Civil Service Commission

Political parties, companies, institutions, clubs, societies, businesses

and fraternities are capitalized.
Examples
Democratic Party Republican Party New York
University
American Red Cross
 Titles of ranks when annexed to a person’s name are capitalized.
Examples
Teacher Sandra Morris Senator Patterson
Doctor Allen
Professor Reed

Months of the year, days of the week, holidays and days of

extraordinary observance are capitalized.
Examples
Christmas Friday Fathers’ Day
Easter Sunday

Do not capitalize the names of seasons unless you are using

personification, which means that it is represented as if it is a person.
Personification is regularly utilized in poetry and creative writing.
Example
winter (not capitalized)
Winter’s icy stare (capitalized as personification is utilized)

North, south, east and west are capitalized only if they denote parts
of a country.
Examples
the Far East the Far West the Midwest

When you are referring to directions, north, south, east and west are not
capitalized.
Examples
The northern part of the country is beautiful
She travelled south to meet him.

Particular names of stars and planets are capitalized.

Examples
Milky Way Saturn Pluto

Words in the book titles, magazines, pictures, songs and articles are
capitalized.
Do not capitalize conjunctions, prepositions, and the articles the, an and
a unless they are at the beginning.

Examples
A Tale of Two Cities. The word “of” is not capitalized as it is not at the
beginning of the book title.
Marie Claire (a magazine)
How to Lose Weight (article)

Sacred books, the Bible, books of the Bible and words referring to
deity are capitalized.
Examples
Bible the Koran Talmud
Luke God Savior

The interjection O and pronoun I are capitalized.

Examples
I am here.
The first word of the Star-Spangled Banner is O
O say can you see, by the dawn’s early light…

The word “oh” isn’t capitalized unless it starts a sentence.

School subjects that are languages are capitalized. The other

subjects are not capitalized.
Examples
English French mathematics

Subjects in catalog listings and names of special courses are

capitalized.
Examples
Advanced Mathematics II Physics 101
Algebra 1

Words that depict family relationships are capitalized when a

person’s name is given.
 Examples
Uncle Tom Aunt Jill Cousin
Patrick

When mother and father are used without a pronoun they are
capitalized.
Examples
Mother told me to sit down.
Father advised me to apologize to my supervisor.

If a pronoun is placed before mother and father, you do not have to

capitalize them.
Example
She wanted to know more about my father’s job.

A compound word is a grouping of two or more words that operate as a

single component. If a compound word is used a proper noun, capitalize the
first word.
Example
Forty-second Street

If the second word is a proper noun, capitalize the first and second word.
Examples
Anglo-French Anglo-Indian

Special business departments can be capitalized or common letters can

be used. It depends on your preference or if there is a particular style that is
followed for the person or institution you are writing for.
Example
Claim Department or claim department

Plural Nouns
To make a noun plural, usually, you can add an s. This is the general
rule. Example the plural of girl is girls.
 These are the exceptions.
Nouns ending in sh, s, ch, x or z, add the letters es to make it plural.
Singular Plural
quiz quizzes
church churches
dress dresses
cervix cervixes
wish wishes

Nouns with an o at the end preceded by a vowel, add s.

Singular Plural
patio patios
folio folios

Some nouns with an o at the end and preceded by a consonant, add s or

es.
S
Singular Plural
piano pianos
zero zeros
photo photos
solo solos

ES
Singular Plural
potato potatoes
mosquito mosquitoes
tomato tomatoes

Some words can both take an s or es

Example
The plural of cargo can be cargos or cargoes.

Nouns with a y at the end that has a consonant before it, replace the y
with an i and add es.
 Singular Plural
baby babies
lorry lorries
family families

Nouns with a y at the end that has a vowel before it, generally an s is
added.
Singular Plural
boy boys
tray trays
valley valleys

Nouns that end in f, you first have to change the f to a v and add es to
make it plural.
Singular Plural
thief thieves
half halves

Nouns that end in fe, you first have to change the f to a v and add as s
Singular Plural
wife wives
knife knives

Some words ending in f can have a plural by adding either s or es

Singular Plural
scarf scarfs or scarves

Some nouns have a different word altogether or change letters to make it

plural
Singular Plural
mouse mice
tooth teeth

Some nouns remain unchanged whether you are referring to the singular
or plural form
Singular Plural
 sheep sheep
fish fish
series series

For compound words, you add an s to the main word to make it plural.
Singular Plural
father-in-law fathers-in-law

Both parts of some compound nouns have to change to make it plural

Singular Plural
woman-servant women-servants

If a word ends in ful, add s to the compound to make it plural.

Singular Plural
cupful cupfuls

S or es is added to a proper name to make it plural.

Examples
There is one Mary in my family.
My aunt and grandmother are named Mary. There are two Marys in my
family.

The two Roses in my class were sent out of the class.

Add an apostrophe s to letters, number, signs and symbols to make

them plural.
Examples
His 5’s look like 6’s.
Rose, please dot your i’s in that letter.

Some nouns are usually written in the plural form.

Examples
scissors
trousers
 When you are unsure of a word, research the plural form.

Pronouns
Pronouns are used to replace nouns. Earlier we had this example: Tony
went to the kitchen for Tony’s knife, because Tony wanted to cut a piece of
Tony’s birthday cake.

Instead you can say Tony went to the kitchen for his knife, because he
wanted to cut a piece of his birthday cake.

His and he are pronouns that are substituted for Tony’s name.

Pronoun I
I is the subject of a sentence. However, when I is used as the object in a
sentence, the word me should be used instead of I.
Incorrect: between you and I.
Correct: between you and me.

Subject: I ate the cake. Jill was there.

Object in a sentence change to me: Jill saw me eat the cake.

Incorrect: Jill saw I eat the cake.

Pronoun he and him

He is the subject of the sentence
Tony kicked the dog when Jim the neighbor was not looking.
He kicked the dog when Jim the neighbor was not looking.

Him is used as the object of the sentence.

Tony smiled at Jim.
Tony smiled at him.

Incorrect: Tony smiled at he. The sentence needs the object him.

Types of pronouns
Personal
Interrogative
 Demonstrative
Indefinite
Relative

A personal pronoun reveals if it refers to the individual speaking, the

individual spoken to or the individual or thing spoken about.

First person signifying the speaker

Singular Plural
I, me, my, mine we, us, our, ours

Second person signifying individual spoken to

Both singular and plural
you, your, yours

Third person signifying individuals or things spoken about

Singular Plural
he, his, him, she, her, hers, it, its they, them,
their, theirs

The pronoun “who” has other forms

whom and whose

When you add the word “self” or “selves” to pronouns they care known
as compound personal pronouns.
Examples
myself, herself, himself, yourself, yourselves, ourselves, themselves,
itself

Compound personal pronouns should not be used to replace a personal

pronoun.
Example
My uncle and I are grateful for the invitation.
Incorrect: My uncle and myself are grateful for the invitation.

Jim banned Tony and me from visiting him.

Incorrect: Jim banned Tony and myself.
 The purpose of compound personal pronouns is to refer to the same
person or thing that is the subject. Secondly, it is used to emphasize or
intensifies. The first purpose is referred to the reflexive use of the compound
and the latter as the intensive or emphatic use of the compound personal
pronoun.
Example of reflexive use
My uncle cut himself.
Himself refers to uncle, the subject.

Incorrect: My uncle cut herself.

Example of emphatic usage

I made the pie myself.

Interrogative pronouns
When asking questions, interrogative pronouns are used.
These pronouns are: who, whom, whose, which, that
They can be the subject and also the object in a sentence.

Which is your cake?

Who owns the dog?

Demonstrative pronouns
These pronouns point out specific things, people or places.
Singular Plural
this these
that those

Those are my uncle’s tools.

That is the dress I want to purchase.

Indefinite pronouns
These pronouns are used when specific things or people cannot be
pointed out.
 These are frequently used indefinite pronouns.
someone somebody something
some
several other others
ones
one another one no
one nothing
none nobody neither
many
few either
everybody everyone
everything each one each other
each
both all any
anybody
anyone anything

Relative pronouns
These pronouns link a phrase or clause to a noun or pronoun.
These are:
who, whose, whom, what, which, that

When ever and soever is added to any relative pronoun, it is referred to

as a compound relative pronoun.

Compound relative pronouns

whoever whomever whosoever
whosesoever
whatever whatsoever whichever
whichsoever
whomsoever

Who is used when referring to a person.

Which is used when referring to anything besides a person.
That can be used for either a person or thing.
 Chapter 3: Regular and Irregular Verbs

Verbs

A verb has three basic components and they are the present tense, the
past tense and past participle. The word tense indicates the time.

Present tense means it is occurring now, past it happened before.

Present Past
He smile at the baby. He smiled at the baby.

The past participle is used with has, have or had

Past participle
He had smiled at the baby.

There are regular and irregular verbs.

Regular verbs add a d or letters ed at the end of the present tense in
order for them to become the past tense.

Examples
Present Tense Past Tense Past
Participle
look looked
looked
cook cooked
cooked
clean cleaned
cleaned
bake baked
baked

Irregular verbs
The past tense of irregular verbs are formed in several ways. Depending
on the word, you simply have to add a vowel. There are others where the past
tense and past participle are completely different.

Most errors are made with verbs so it is best to learn the irregular ones.

Here is a list of the popular yet irregular verbs that you should
familiarize yourself with to minimize errors.

Present Tense Past Tense Past

Participle
awake awoke
awoken
arise arose
arisen
backslide backslid
backslid or backslidden
be (am) was
been
bear bore
borne
beat beat
beaten
become became
become
begin began
begun
bend bent
bent
bid (goodbye) bid or bade bid
or bidden
bind bound
bound
bite bit
bitten
bleed bled
bled
 blow blew
blown
break broke
broken
breed bred
bred
bring brought
brought
broadcast broadcast or broadcasted
broadcast or broadcasted
build built
built
burn burned or burnt
burned or burnt
buy bought
bought
catch caught
caught
choose chose
chosen
cling clung
clung
come came
come
creep crept
crept
deal dealt
dealt
dig dug
dug
do did
done
draw drew
drawn
drink drank
drunk
drive drove
 driven
eat ate
eaten
fall fell
fallen
feed fed
fed
feel felt
felt
fight fought
fought
find found
found
flee fled
fled
fling flung
flung
flow flew
flown
forget forgot
forgotten
forsake forsook
forsaken
freeze froze
frozen
get got
got or gotten
give gave
given
go went
gone
grind ground
ground
grow grew
grown
handwrite handwrote
handwritten
 hang (a painting etc) hung
hung
hang (a person) hanged
hanged
have had
had
hear heard
heard
hide hid
hidden
hold held
held
keep kept
kept
know knew
known
lead led
led
learn learned or learnt
learned or learnt
leave left
left
lend lent
lent
light lit or lighted
lit or lighted
lose lost
lost
make made
made
mean meant
meant
meet met
met
mistake mistook
mistaken
mow mowed
mowed or mown
outgrow outgrew
outgrown
overcome overcame
overcome
overdo overdid
overdone
overtake overtook
overtaken
overthrow overthrew
overthrown
pay paid
paid
prove proved
proved or proven
read read (pronounced as red)
read (pronounced as red)
ride rode
ridden
ring rang
rung
rise rose
risen
run ran
run
saw (as in using a tool) sawed
sawed or sawn
say said
said
see saw
seen
seek sought
sought
sell sold
sold
send sent
sent
 shake shook
shaken
shine (polish something) shined
shined
shine (light) shone
shone
shoot shot
shot
show showed
shown
shrink shrank
shrunk
sing sang
sung
sink sank
sunk
sit sat
sat
sleep slept
slept
slide slid
slid
sling slung
slung
smell smelt or smelled
smelt or smelled
speak spoke
spoken
spell spelt or spelled
spelt or spelled
spend spent
spent
spilled spilled or spilt
spilled or spilt
spin spun
spun
spit spat
 spat
spoil spoiled or spoilt
spoiled or spoilt
spring sprang
sprung
stand stood
stood
steal stole
stolen
stick stuck
stuck
sting stung
stung
stink stank
stunk
stride strode
stridden
strike struck
struck or stricken
strive strove
striven
swear swore
sworn
sweep swept
swept
swell swelled
swelled or swollen
swim swam
swum
swing swung
swung
take took
taken
teach taught
taught
tear tore
torn
 tell told
told
think thought
thought
thrive thrived or throve
thrived or thriven
throw threw
thrown
tread trod
trodden
understand understood
understood
uphold upheld
upheld
wake waked or woke
waked or woken
wear wore
worn
weave weaved or wove
weaved or woven
weep wept
wept
win won
won
wind wound
wound
withdraw withdrew
withdrawn
withhold withheld
withheld
withstand withstood
withstood
wring wrung
wrung
write wrote
written
Verbs that remained unchanged
 Present Past tense
Past participle
bid (offer something) bid
bid
burst burst
burst
cost cost
cost
cut cut
cut
cast cast
cast
hit hit
hit
hurt hurt
hurt
let let
let
put put
put
quit (also quitted) quit
(also quitted) quit
rid rid
rid
set set
set
shed shed
shed
shut shut
shut
slit slit
slit
split split
split
spread spread
spread
thrust thrust
 thrust

Other verbs you should familiarize yourself with

Lie vs. Lay

Lie
Lie means to be or stay in a horizontal position or reclining position. It is
a present tense verb. The subject is what is in the horizontal position.
Example
When watching the news I usually lie on the couch

Lay
Lay means to place something or set something down. It is a present
tense verb.
I lay down the brochure.

Parts of lie
These are the various forms of the verb
Present Past
Past Participle
lie lay
lain

Examples
Uncle lies down on the sofa. (present tense)
The pencil lies on the book. (present tense)
Uncle lay on the couch yesterday. (past)
The pencil has lain on that book for the entire month. (past participle)

You will notice that the past of lie is lay. It should not be confused with
the present tense lay that means to set something down.

Parts of lay
Present Past
Past Participle
 lay laid
laid

Examples
Uncle lays tiles in Jim’s home. (present tense)
Uncle laid tiles in Jim’s home. (past tense)
Uncle has laid tiles for many months. (past participle)

The other verb lie means to tell a fib or false statement. These are the
parts of that verb.
Present Past
Past Participle
lie lied
lied

Be sure not to confuse this verb and the tenses with the other lie which
means to be or stay in a horizontal or reclining position.

Verb tense
Thus far we have examined the present tense, the past tense and past
participle.
The other three tenses are the future tense, the present perfect and future
perfect.
 Chapter 4: Verb Tenses

We can combine all six tenses of verbs and group them into simple and
perfect tenses.

Simple Tenses Perfect Tenses

present present perfect
past past perfect
future future perfect

The present tense

The present tense is used to depict when something occurs at the
moment. It is also used when an idea or concept is widely accepted as true or
to depict a habitual action.
Examples
Tom kicks the ball. (present time)
Uncle works in a mechanic shop. (habitual action)
Patience is a virtue (concept accepted as true)

Present tense can also be used to indicate future time.

Example
If it snows tomorrow, I shall build a snowman.

The past tense

This tense depicts what has already occurred. We have looked in depth
at the various past tense of frequently used verbs.

The future tense

This tense depicts future time. It is formed by using the present tense of
the verb and either shall or will. Use shall when you have the pronouns we
and I. Will is used with pronouns he, they, it, you.
Examples
I shall wash the curtains tomorrow.
 He will wash the curtains tomorrow.

Auxiliary verbs are known as helping verbs and the more frequent usage
are do, have and be.

The parts of do include: to do, does, did, done, doesn’t or did not
Different parts of have include: has, having, had, hadn’t or had not.
The parts of the verb be are also: to be, am, been, is, wasn’t, are,
weren’t and were not.

Furthermore, besides do, have and be there are other auxiliary verbs
which are called modal auxiliary verbs. We have discussed two of them
which are shall and will which comprises the future tense
Here is the full list:
shall, will, would, should, ought to, might, must, may, could, can

Let us know look at the perfect tenses.

Present perfect

The present perfect tense comprises of the auxiliary verb has or have
along with the past participle of the main verb.

The present perfect tense is used to signify:

• that the time happened before writing or speaking about it
Examples
I have seen three of my neighbor’s kittens.
Jill has washed the curtains.
They have just finished playing football.

• that the action or situation is still ongoing in the present

Examples
My brother has lived in Sweden since 2015.
My uncle has worked in the mechanic shop on the corner for
fourteen years.
 • when a repeated action has occurred in a time period
that is not particularly distinguishable
Examples
I have read that book five times. (no details are known as to when
specifically the book was read)

Tony has eaten at that café several times.

• an action when the exact time is not relevant or unknown.

Examples
Have you seen that documentary?
The dog has chewed my favorite shoe.

Past perfect
This tense signifies action that was finished by a definite period in the
past. The time occurred before now. It comprises of the auxiliary had with the
past participle of the main verb.
Examples
By the time Jim came to the front door, Tony had run away.
I had just eaten the last slice of cake when my uncle asked for more.

The future perfect tense

The future perfect tense signifies action that will be completed in the
future.
It is formed by using the auxiliaries will have or shall have along with
the past participle of the main verb.

Remember that shall and will is used to denote the future tense and shall
have and will have is used to indicate the future perfect tense.

Shall have is utilized for the first person and will have for the second
and third persons.
Examples
The man will have retired before his daughter graduates.
By next year, I shall have completed my internship.
 Note the various forms of the verb to be. To be can be used as a main
verb and can also be utilized as an auxiliary verb.

The verb to be
Person Present Tense
First person I am, we are
Second person you are, you are
(latter you referring to several
people)
Third person she is, he is, it is
they are

Person Past Tense

First person I was, we were
Second person you were, you were
Third person she was, he was, it was,
they were

Person Future Tense

First person I shall be, we shall be
Second person you will be, you will be
Third person she will be, he will be, it
will be, they will be

Person Present Perfect Tense

First person I have been, we have
been
Second person you have been, you have been
Third person she has been, he has
been, it has been
they have been

Person Past Perfect Tense

First person I had been, we had been
Second person you had been, you had been
Third person she had been, he had
been, it had been
they had been

Person Future Perfect Tense

First person I shall have been, we
shall have been
Second person you will have been, you will
have been
Third person she will have been, he
will have been
it will have been, they will have been

Progressive forms of action

Additionally, if the action is continuing or progressing, there is a verb
form that is used to signify this. This form is referred to as the progressive
form.

To formulate it, you have to use a form of the verb to be along with ing
form of the main verb. The ing form of a verb is referred to as the present
participle.
Let us examine the various forms using the verb run.

I am running behind you. (present progressive)

I was running behind you. (past progressive)
I shall be running behind you. (future progressive)
I have been running behind you. (present perfect progressive)
I had been running behind you. (past perfect progressive)
I shall have been running behind you (future perfect progressive)

Emphatic forms
To better emphasize an idea or expression what is referred to as
emphatic forms are frequently used. However, note that they are only utilized
in the present tense and past tense. The auxiliary verbs do, does and did are
used.
Examples
I do believe you. (present tense)
 Jill did wash the curtains. (past tense)
She does run fast. (present tense)

Note also that present form of the verb is used for the emphatic forms
whether or not is the present emphatic or past emphatic tense.

Also, when do, does and did are used for questions, it is not referred to
as the emphatic forms. Naturally they are used to ask questions. Moreover,
when do, does or did is used to denote “accomplish” it is not referred to as
the emphatic form.
Example
We did our chores slowly. (here the word “did” means accomplish)

We have already explored the use of the words shall and will. To recap
remember that the future tense is formed by using the present tense of the
verb and either shall or will. Use shall when you have the pronouns we and I.
Will is used with pronouns he, they, it, you.
I shall wash the curtains tomorrow.
He will wash the curtains tomorrow.

There is another way of using shall and will and it is completely

different to the future tense. When you wish to communicate a threat,
something that is compulsory, determination or a willingness to perform an
action, shall and will are used.

However it is a completely opposite rule when compared to the future

tense rule. Will is used for the first person and shall is used for the second
and third persons.
First person I will go, we will go
Second person you shall go, you shall go
Third person he shall go, she shall go, they
shall go

Exception to this rule

If will or shall is followed by expressions such as be pleased, be
delighted, be happy, be glad, be sorry, shall and will is used the same was in
the future tense rule. Shall will be used for the first person and will for the
second and third persons.
Examples
I shall be delighted to sponsor you.
You will be pleased to know I got the job!

Should/Would
The past tense of shall is should and the past tense of will is would.
However there are other conditions where shall and would are used.

Would is normally applied to convey a customary action. It is used for

first, second and third persons.

Example
Every Saturday we would watch a thriller. (habitual action)

Should is applied to convey obligation. Ought is also used. It is applied

for the first, second and third persons

You should go to work.

Simple futurity
To express an expectation of something that is likely to occur or some
form of eagerness you can use shall and will. The same rules apply as the
future tense. The first person uses shall and the second and third person uses
will.
I shall go to town tomorrow.

Do not substitute “of” for the word have

The word “of” is a preposition.
The neighbor should of been more vigilant is incorrect. Instead it should
read.
The neighbor should have been more vigilant.
The word “of” should not be utilized as a component of a verb phrase.

Active and Passive Voice

Voice is the terminology used to show whether the subject is acting or at
the receiving end of the action.

Active
The subject is the doer in the sentence when it is written in the active
voice.
Example
Jim painted his house. (Jim is the doer and this is the active voice)

Passive
The verb in this type of voice is at all times a verbal phrase. The subject
is the receiver of what was done. In some instances the doer may be unknown
or the doer’s name is not given.
Examples
The house was painted by Jim.
The house was painted. (in this example the reader does not know who
painted the house)
The helping verb “to be” is needed to make the voice passive. This verb
was examined previously.

The passive voice is created by using the verb to be with the past
participle of the main verb. This main verb is what conveys the action. In the
sentence, The house was painted by Jim, “was” is a form of the verb to be
and painted is in the past participle format.

The active voice is preferred when speaking and writing. The passive
voice is applied when someone wishes to accentuate the receiver more than
the doer.

So we have learnt that verbs signify the tense, convey the voice and now
we will examine another function. Verbs convey the mood.

The three moods are

indicative
imperative
subjunctive
 The indicative mood is applied when someone wishes to make a
statement or ask a question.
Examples
The secretary typed the letter.
Did you listen to the Presidential debate?

The imperative mood is applied when someone wishes to communicate

a request or make a command.
Examples
Answer the phone, Jill.
Come here now!

The subjunctive mood is used to communicate a wish, a condition that is

the opposite of a fact, expressing a need or a suggestion.
Examples
I wish I were in Hong Kong.
If my uncle were here I would bake him a cake for his birthday.
You will note that “were” is the form that is used.
Person Past Tense
First person If I were
Second person If you were
Third person If he were

In the subjunctive, verbs that end with s, in the present tense, the s is
removed when referring to the third person.
Example
If my uncle fail to arrive on time, I will leave home.
I suggest that she work with you in the future.

The verb have has one form only.

Example
If she have the time, she will give you a tour of the house. (subjunctive)
She has the time and will you a tour of the house. (indicative)
When expressing a wish, if, as though, and as if are frequently utilized.

Verb Agreement
 A verb must agree with the subject.
She is invited to the seminar. (correct)
She are invited to the seminar (incorrect)
You is invited to the seminar (incorrect)

In a simple sentence, one can identify which subject has to agree with
the verb.
She bakes for her uncle.
I bake for my uncle.
They bake for their uncle.

Linked by “and”
When two subjects are linked by the word “and” it needs a plural verb.
Jill and Tom bake for their uncle.

Exceptions
1. If the word formed by “and” is part of a unit, a singular verb is used.

Example
Egg and cheese is my favorite sandwich.

2. If the two subjects refer to the same person or thing, the singular part of
the verb is applied.

Examples
His companion and sweetheart is loyal to him. (in this example his
companion and sweetheart refers to the same person)
The typist and receptionist is very efficient.

If the two subjects on the other hand referred to two different

people, then the plural form of the verb will be applied. You can use the
word “his” and “the” to make the distinction that there are two subjects.
Examples
His companion and his sweetheart are loyal to him. (note the word
his before sweetheart)
The typist and the receptionist are very efficient.
 Singular subjects linked by nor, or, either or, neither nor
Where two singular subjects are linked by nor or or, the verb is
singular. Either or and neither nor also takes the singular verb. It means
either the first subject or the second subject. It does not mean the two subjects
but one option.
Examples
Tom or Tony is going to walk Jim’s dog.
Neither Tom nor Tony is responsible for smashing Jim’s window.

Mixed subjects linked by nor, or, either or, neither nor

When a sentence is linked by nor, or, either or, neither nor, and one
subject is plural and the other subject is singular, the verb reflects the subject
that is closer to it.
Example
Neither the girl nor the women were happy. (plural subject is closer to
verb)
Neither the women nor the girl was happy. (singular subject is closer to
verb)

Some writers prefer to put the plural subject closer to the verb so the
verb takes a plural form. Whether or not you prefer this method, remember
the rule and apply it correctly.

Verb agreement with collective nouns

A noun that describes a group of people or objects is known as a
collective noun. Example, jury, herd, audience. If the collective noun
signifies individuals acting as a unit, the noun is considered as a singular. On
the other hand, if they are acting independently the noun is considered as
plural.
Examples
The audience is opposed to the proposal. (acting as a unit)
The audience have returned to their dorms. (acting separately)
The jury has reappeared and ready to give its verdict. (as a unit)
The jury have left and gone to their homes. (as individuals)
 To differentiate when individuals are operating separately, you can use
words like members, people or similar word so readers can make the
distinction.
Examples
The students in the audience have returned to their dorms.
The members of the jury have left and gone to their homes.

Prepositional phrases
The subject of the sentence will not be in a preposition phrase. These are
sometimes referred to as intervening phrases. Whatever is the subject in the
sentence, ensure that the verb agrees with it.
Examples
Resources (for the kids’ project) have arrived.
Irrelevant documents, as well as an empty plastic bag, were thrown in
the trash bin.

Indefinite pronouns
Everyone, one, no one, anyone, someone, nobody, anybody, everybody,
somebody, neither and each other always need a singular verb.
Examples
Only one of the students is a female.
Someone is responsible for stealing my watch.

When the words, each, every, and many a, starts a sentence the subject
is singular.
Examples
Every book and magazine was searched properly.
Many a woman wishes that she had looked after herself more.

Pronouns many, both, few, several need a plural verb.

Examples
Several were happy, the rest were sad.
A few were excited.

Pronouns all, any, none, some take a singular or plural verb based on
the context of the sentence. If the meaning is that there is a quantity or a
mass, the verb should be singular. If the meaning is that it is a number then
verb should be plural.

Some of the mayonnaise is mixed with tuna. (refers to quantity so the

verb is singular)
Some are going to eat. (refers to more than one individual so a plural
verb is used)

Are any of the women going to the mall? (refers to more than one so a
plural verb is used)
Is there any mustard left in the container? (refers to quantity)

Note that some nouns are plural in spelling but the meaning is singular
and will need a singular verb. Example mathematics.
Examples
Mathematics is not my favorite subject.
(mathematics begins with a capital M as it starts the sentence)

Special words
Words such as pliers, scissors, shears, trousers, are plural nouns and take
a plural verb. If you use a pair of scissors then it will take a singular verb.
Examples
A pair of scissors is on the table.
The scissors are on the table.

Plural nouns which convey quantity, extent or weight, will need a

singular verb.
Examples
Two inches is what I prefer.
Five miles is the nearest town.

The words part and half can take a singular or plural verb depending on
the context. If the meaning is section or mass, the verb is singular. If they
refer to a number, the verb should be plural.
Examples
Half of the cake was eaten. (refers to a section so the verb is singular)
 Half of the students were absent. (refers to a number so the verb is
plural)

If the word number has the article “the” before it, it is singular and needs
a singular verb.
Example
The number of girls absent from class was alarming.

If the word number has the article “a” before it, it is plural and needs a
plural verb. Example
A number of girls were absent from class.
 Chapter 5: Clauses and Verb Forms

Sentences can be classified further into various clauses. Previously we

examined declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences.
Another way to identify sentences is by clauses. A clause is a set of related
words.

Independent or main clause

This set of words has a subject and predicate. It can stand by itself as an
entire thought has been expressed.
Examples
Tom kicked the ball.
The referee blew the whistle.

Dependent or subordinate clause

This type of clause cannot stand by itself. A subordinate clause does not
communicate an entire thought. It can be identified as it starts with a relative
pronoun or a subordinate conjunction. Such words include: where, after,
although, because.
Example
though it is not his bicycle.

Types of subordinate/independent clauses

Adjective clause
Adverbial clause
Noun clause

Adjective clause
The adjective clause is also referred to as the relative clause. Adjectives
and adjective clauses modify nouns and pronouns.
Example
The woman who caught the bouquet was once a dancer. (the clause who
caught the bouquet, modifies the word woman)
 Adverbial clause
The adverbial clause operates as an adverb. To recap, remember that an
adverb modifies, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives. Likewise, an adverbial
clause also modifies, verbs, adverbs, and adjectives.
Example
He always stop misbehaving when he hears his mother’s voice. (the
clause when he hears his mother’s voice, modifies the verb)

Noun clause
This type of clause function like a noun. As a noun is used as a subject
of a sentence, so too can a noun clause function as the subject of a sentence.
Example
What the salesclerk conveyed was incorrect.

Note that words, what, where, how and that can also introduce adverbial
and adjective clauses. So you cannot look at those words and determine that
it is a noun clause. To know whether a noun clause is used, look at the
manner in which it is applied in a sentence. For example, if someone asks
you, “what was incorrect?” you can answer “what the salesclerk conveyed”
and therein you will be able to distinguish the clause.

Example
How you manage to complete crossword puzzles in less than one hour
amuses her. (You can ask, “what amuses her?” and the answer will be your
noun clause)

Verbals
There are three verb forms which are referred to as verbals. Verbals
function as a different part of speech in a sentence. They act as adjectives,
adverbs and nouns.
The three forms are: participles, infinitives and gerunds.

Participles
The more frequently used participle is the participle that ends in ing.
This is known as the present participle and is used as an adjective.
Example
He has a thriving restaurant. (thriving modifies restaurant)
 The present participle, most times end in ing. The past participle end in
t, ed, d, n, or en. The past participle of some irregular verbs have specific
endings. We looked at the most frequently used ones previously in our list.
Example of a past participle
The nurse, called to the bedside, took the patient’s temperature. (the past
participle called operates as an adjective to modify nurse)

Dangling participle
Be aware of what is referred to as a dangling participle which means that
there is no word available in the sentence for the participle to modify. To
avoid this error, you will have to rephrase the sentence.
Example
Running through the yard, a shoe-buckle was lost. (What was running
through the yard? Surely it cannot be a shoe-buckle)

Rephrasing the sentence

While he was running through the yard, he lost a shoe-buckle.

You will be able to recognize a dangling or loose participle as the

sentence sounds awkward with it.

Misplaced modifier
This occurs when the participle is not placed in the proper position in a
sentence.
Example
Diving into the pool, the man was rescued by the instructor.
The man did not dive into the pool as he was already in the water. It was
the instructor who dived into the pool to rescue the man. Diving into the pool
should modify the word instructor and not the man. The sentence should
read:
Diving in the pool, the instructor rescued the man.

Here is another example

Drenched with ketchup and mayonnaise, I thoroughly enjoyed the
hamburger.
Drenched with ketchup and mayonnaise modifies the word I which is
the wrong word. It was the hamburger that was drenched. The sentence
should read:
I thoroughly enjoyed the hamburger drenched with ketchup and
mayonnaise.

Participles are used as adjectives, but they also form part of a verb
phrase. Example
Jill is mopping the floor. (mopping is part of the verb phrase. You will
remember that the other part is the auxiliary verb)

To recap, remember that the participle can function as an adjective and a

verb.

Gerunds
The gerund functions as a verb and noun. You regularly use them
though you may have been unaware of the term.

Gerunds are created with verbs but also perform as nouns. Therefore,
they can be utilized as the subject, the object of a verb or preposition or as a
predicate noun.
Examples
Swimming is Jill’s favorite exercise. (gerund operates as the subject. It
acts as a noun)
Jill loves swimming. (here it is used as a direct object of the verb loves)
Jill obtains exercise by swimming. (here it is an object of the preposition
by)

The infinitive
The infinitive is formed with the word to and the verb form. You should
be mindful that “to” by itself is a preposition so to distinguish a preposition
and an infinite observe what word comes after to. If it is a verb then it is an
infinitive.

An infinitive can operate as an adjective, an adverb or a noun.

Functioning as an adjective
Examples when the infinitive is used as an adjective
 My request to play was evident. (to play the infinitive modifies the noun
request)
She asked permission to stay. (the noun permission is modified by to
stay)

Functioning as a an adverb
As an adverb, the infinitive modifies a verb, an adverb or an adjective.
When it is used as an adverb, the infinitive convey purpose or degree. When
it modifies a verb, often times it conveys purpose. It is sometimes referred to
the infinitive of purpose.

Examples when it modifies a verb

The workmen stopped to eat. (to eat modifies the verb stopped. Readers
are aware of why the workmen ceased working)
The nurse returned to assist. (to assist modifies the verb)

Examples when it modifies an adjective

The women were nervous to smile. (the adjective nervous is modified by
the infinitive to smile)
I am happy to leave. (the adjective happy is modified by the infinitive to
leave)
 Chapter 6: Punctuation
We will examine the basic grammar rules. These are the basic rules.

Period

The period or full stop is applied at the end of a declarative and

imperative statement.

Earlier we mentioned that a declarative sentence makes a statement and

mainly gives information. We used the example: My brother who lives in
Sweden is a teacher.

Also note that a declarative statement can have an indirect question. Do

not use a question mark but instead use a full stop.
Example
He asked her if her father was working. (correct)
He asked her if her father was working? (incorrect)

The lecturer asked Jill why she had skipped the class. (correct)

An imperative sentence gives orders and commands. Example: Take a

picture.

When making a request, of if a question is asked as a matter of being

courteous, you can use a period at the end rather than a question mark.
Note that a question mark gives it a more personal and direct approach.
The period makes the sentence more standardized and conveys a customary
practice.
Example
Would you please take your seat before the boss arrives for the meeting.
(it is routine to be seated for a meeting)

The period is used after initials and abbreviations.

Example
Ph.D. Mr. Mrs.
Dr. Sr. D.M. Richards

When an abbreviation is at the end of a sentence, use one period. Do not

use two periods.
Example
Deliver the cake to A.M.J. (correct)
Deliver the cake to A.M.J.. (incorrect as two periods are used)

Use periods to indicate that words have been omitted.

These are the rules.

Three (3) periods convey that words in a passage are excluded. These
dots are known as an ellipsis. Place a single space on either side of the period.
Example
“O beautiful … for amber waves of grain.”

Three periods also indicate hesitation. In this context they are referred to
as suspension points as they heighten the suspense.
Example
“Well I don’t know how to tell you this … you see I … what I mean to
say is … I don’t love you.”

Four (4) periods are used when the excluded words are at the end of the
quote. These dots are also called an ellipsis.
For example
“O beautiful for spacious skies … .”

The comma

After clauses and phrases which are used as an introduction in a

sentence, a comma is needed.
We have already discussed adverbial dependent clauses. When the
dependent clause comes before the main clause a comma is used.
Example
After Tony had kicked the dog, he ran away. (comma needed)
 We discussed the various types of verbals. They are participles, gerunds
and infinitives.

After a participial phrase that is used as the intro of a sentence, a

comma is used.
Example
Seeing the woman he admired, he took her picture.

A comma is placed after an opening infinitive phrase.

Example
To be happy, you must follow your dreams.

Note that if the subject is an infinitive, you do not need to show a

separation.
Example
To be happy is her objective.

A comma is used after transitional words, introductory and

explanatory expressions, phrases and clauses.
These include transitional words such as consequently, however,
therefore, moreover, besides. Commas are also used after phrases. For
example of course and as a result.
Examples
Therefore, you should leave now.
Surely, that is a lie!

A comma is not usually placed after the word “also” unless you want to
show emphasis.
Example
He also realized that his cap was stolen. (no comma)
Also, he realized that his cap was stolen. (comma used to show
emphasis)

In grammar, the word appositive is a phrase or word that explains or

identifies another.
A comma is used with appositives.
 Example
Jim Fields, our neighbor, is an accountant. (the reader is informed that
Jim is the neighbor)

If the appositive is placed at the end of the sentence, a comma should be

inserted before it.
Example
I delivered the package to Mel, the waitress at the new restaurant

A comma is placed between a series of words, clauses or phrases.

Example
Jill watered the garden, mowed the lawn, emptied the trash bins, and
took a nap.

Note that a comma is placed before the conjunction that links the last
two items.

No comma should be placed if the words are considered as a unit

Example
I ordered coffee, an egg and cheese sandwich, and a salad. (egg and
cheese is one unit so there is no comma between egg and cheese)

A comma is used to differentiate a place, month or year.

Example
Chicago, Illinois
October 2, 2016

A comma is placed before direct quotes in a sentence.

Example
The businessman asked, “How much will you invest?”

Semicolon

It is used to separate independent coordinate clauses when a

coordinate conjunction is not used.
Example
She did not accept my answer; she suggested that I do more research.
 A semicolon is placed before a coordinate conjunction between two
independent clauses that are punctuated.
Example
The teacher ordered pens, paper, pencils, and rulers; but her order was
ignored.

A semicolon is placed before words for instance, for example, that

is, namely.
Example
The dresses are available in four colors; namely, black, white, blue, and
green.

If a comma is not as effective in showing separation when using lists,

a semicolon is used.
The speakers at the lecture series were Mr. Don Jones, the current
treasurer of the guild; Mrs. Allison White, the sister of the secretary; and Mr.
Jim Fields, the former treasurer.

The colon

Place a colon before different points or a list of items.

Example
This is what the deli offers: cupcakes, buns, pies, hotdogs, hamburgers,
and sandwiches.

The colon is placed before a clause or phrase.

My supervisor reminded me of the maxim: Honesty is the best policy.

Note that the first letter is capitalized after the colon, as it is the
beginning of a sentence.

It is used to separate parts of titles, numerals references and

numerals.
Example
The time is 3:06 p.m.
 Parenthesis ( )
A parenthesis highlights phrases, words, clauses, sentences which
are independent clauses. The phrases, words, clauses, sentences
elaborate or translate something to make it comprehensive.

Example
Jim (my next door neighbor) is going on a vacation.

When enclosing a letter, number, or symbol when utilized as an

appositive, use a parenthesis.
Example
The teacher ordered thirty (30) pencils for her class.

Dash –

The dash highlights an abrupt change of thought

Example
He was convinced that his brother – surely, all of his siblings – wanted
him to return to university.

A dash signifies an afterthought or summarizing thought

Example
I shall wash your dishes, make your breakfast, sweep the floor, do the
laundry – attend to your needs as you are ill.

The dash indicates “to” and “and” when used between dates and
numbers.
Example
I told him to call anytime from 3: 05 p.m. – 3: 30 p.m.

The dash is used for emphasis, when a word or phrase is repeated.

Example
I invited him for a slice of cake – a slice of cake – not for dinner!

Question marks
 After an interrogative sentence that ask a direct question use a
question mark.
Example
Is your brother coming home?

Question marks are straightforward.

Exclamation marks

After sentences that convey emotion, surprise, feeling, commands

and to show emphasis, use an exclamation mark.
Example
Watch out!
Click the link and order now!
The expiration day is tomorrow!

Quotation marks
American and British rules are different when it pertains to quotation
marks. In the American style commas, periods are placed within the quotation
marks whether or not they are in the original material.

Direct quotations are enclosed by quotation marks.

Example
“Where,” my father asked, “are you hiding the remote?”

You will note that the second part of the quote is not capitalized as it is
the second part of the quote that was not completed in the first part.

The woman said, “You made a mistake.”

You will notice that a capital letter is used as nothing was said before to
interrupt the quote.

Song titles, titles of poem, magazine article titles, chapters of books

and other titles are enclosed with quotation marks.

Titles of books and magazines in typing and writing are underlined and
italicized in printing.

Quotation marks differentiate a word, words, phrases, slangs and

expressions within a sentence.
The plural of “parenthesis” is parentheses.

Single quotation marks

Single quotation marks are used to differentiate a quotation with a
quotation
Example
My father said, “You must remove all the ‘trash’ from under your bed.”

The more you write and develop your skills, the better you will
remember these rules.
 Conclusion

Thank you again for downloading this book!

As you become more familiar with the grammar rules and implement
them in your writing and speaking until it becomes routine, your
communication level will considerably get better.

You will become more cognizant of how great writers and poets
implement the rules and in some instances even push the limit to heighten the
suspense, intensify drama and elaborate.

Great writers and poets know these essential rules. It’s time for you to
improve your skills, exhibit what you have learnt and ultimately excel.

Finally, if you enjoyed this book, please take the time to share your
thoughts and post a review on Amazon. It’d be greatly appreciated!

Thank you and good luck!

 Table of Contents
Introduction
Chapter 1: Understanding the Parts of Speech
Chapter 2: Examining Sentences
Chapter 3: Regular and Irregular Verbs
Chapter 4: Verb Tenses
Chapter 5: Clauses and Verb Forms
Chapter 6: Punctuation
Conclusion