Module-I

1) Discuss the characteristics of database approach.

1. Self-Describing Nature of a Database System: It has a complete definition or description of the
database structure and constraints. This definition is stored in the system catalog, which contains
information such as the structure of each file, the type and storage format of each data item, and
various constraints on the data. This information stored in the system catalog is called, Meta-data and it
describes the structure of the primary database. This allows the DBMS software to work with different
databases.
2. Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction: Called program-data independence.
Allows changing data storage structures and operations without having to change the DBMS access
programs. The structure of data files is stored in the DBMS catalog separately from the access programs.
Data Abstraction: A data model is used to hide storage details and present the users with a conceptual
view of the database.
3. Support of Multiple Views of the Data: A database typically has many users, each of whom may
require a different perspective or view of the database. A view may be a subset of the database or it
may contain virtual data that is derived from the database files but is not explicitly stored.
4. Sharing of Data and Multiuser Transaction Processing: A multiuser DBMS, as its name implies, must
allow multiple users to access the database at the same time. This is essential if data for multiple
applications is to be integrated and maintained in a single database. The DBMS must include
concurrency control software to ensure that several users trying to update the same data do so in a
controlled manner so that the result of the updates is correct.

2) With neat dig, explain 3-schema architecture.

3-schema architecture also called 3 levels of architecture.
This architecture contains three layers or levels of the database management system:
1. The internal level has an internal schema, which describes the physical storage structure of the
database. The internal schema uses a physical data model and describes the complete details of data
storage and access paths for the database.
2. The conceptual level has a conceptual schema, which describes the structure of the whole database
for a community of users. The conceptual schema hides the details of physical storage structures and
concentrates on describing entities, data types, relationships, user operations, and constraints. A high-
level data model or an implementation data model can be used at this level.
3. The external or view level includes a number of external schemas or user views. Each external
schema describes the part of the database that a particular user group is interested in and hides the rest
of the database from that user group. A high-level data model or an implementation data model can be
used at this level.

3) Discuss the advantages of using DBMS.

1. Controlling Redundancy: In File Processing System, duplicate data is created in many places because
all the programs have their own files. This creates data redundancy which in turns wastes labor and
space. In Database Management System, all the files are integrated in a single database. The whole data
is stored only once at a single place so there is no chance of duplicate data.
2. Restricting Unauthorized Access: A DBMS should provide a security and authorization subsystem,
which is used for specifying restrictions on user accounts. Common kinds of restrictions are to allow
read-only access (no updating), or access only to a subset of the data.
3. Providing Persistent Storage for Program Objects: Object-oriented database systems make it easier
for complex runtime objects (e.g., lists, trees) to be saved in secondary storage so as to survive beyond
program termination and to be retrievable at a later time.
4. Providing Storage Structures for Efficient Query Processing: The DBMS maintains indexes (typically
in the form of trees and/or hash tables) that are utilized to improve the execution time of queries and
updates.
The query processing and optimization module is responsible for choosing an efficient query execution
plan for each query submitted to the system.
5. Providing Multiple User Interfaces: Many types of users with varying levels of technical knowledge
use a database, a DBMS should provide a variety of user interfaces. These include query languages for
casual users; programming language interfaces for application programmers; forms and command codes
for parametric users; and menu-driven interfaces and natural language interfaces for stand-alone users.
Both forms-style interfaces and menu-driven interfaces are commonly known as graphical user
interfaces (GUIs).
6. Representing Complex Relationships among Data: A database may include numerous varieties of
data that are interrelated in many ways. A DBMS must have the capability to represent a variety of
complex relationships among the data as well as to retrieve and update related data easily and
efficiently.
7. Enforcing Integrity Constraints: Data integrity means that the data is accurate and consistent in the
database. Data Integrity is very important as there are multiple databases in a DBMS. All of these
databases contain data that is visible to multiple users. So it is necessary to ensure that the data is
correct and consistent in all the databases and for all the users.
8. Providing Backup and Recovery: Database Management System automatically takes care of backup
and recovery. The users don't need to backup data periodically because this is taken care of by the
DBMS. Moreover, it also restores the database after a crash or system failure to its previous condition.
4) Discuss Database languages and interfaces.
Database languages:
a) Data Definition Language: The language is used to create database, tables, alter them, etc. With this,
you can also rename the database, or drop them. It specifies the database schema.
CREATE: Create new database, table, etc. ALTER: Alter existing database, table, etc.
DROP: Drop the database RENAME: Set a new name for the table.
b) Data Manipulation Language: The language used to manipulate the database like inserting data,
updating table, retrieving record from a table, etc. is known as Data Manipulation Language –
SELECT: Retrieve data from the database INSERT: Insert data UPDATE: Update data
DELETE: Delete all records
c) Data Control Language: Grant privilege to a user using the GRANT statement.
GRANT: Give privilege to access the database. REVOKE: Take back the privilege to access the database.
d) Transaction Control Language: Manage transactions in the Database using the Transaction Control
Language –
COMMIT: Save the work. SAVEPOINT: Set a point in transaction to rollback later ROLLBACK: Restores
since last commit
Database Interfaces:
Menu-Based Interfaces for Web Clients or Browsing – These interfaces present the user with lists of
options (called menus) that lead the user through the formation of a request. Basic advantage of using
menus is that they removes the tension of remembering specific commands and syntax of any query
language.
Forms-Based Interfaces – A forms-based interface displays a form to each user. Users can fill out all of
the form entries to insert a new data, or they can fill out only certain entries, in which case the DBMS
will redeem same type of data for other remaining entries.
Graphical User Interface – A GUI typically displays a schema to the user in diagrammatic form. The user
then can specify a query by manipulating the diagram.
Natural language Interfaces – These interfaces accept request written in English or some other language
and attempt to understand them. A Natural language interface has its own schema, which is similar to
the database conceptual schema as well as a dictionary of important words.
Speech Input and Output – There is an limited use of speech say it for a query or an answer to a
question or being a result of a request it is becoming commonplace Applications with limited
vocabularies such as inquiries for telephone directory, flight arrival/departure.
Interfaces for DBA – Most database system contains privileged commands that can be used only by the
DBA’s staff. These include commands for creating accounts, setting system parameters, granting account
authorization, changing a schema, reorganizing the storage structures of a databases

5) Explain different types of end users? And main activities of each.

a) Casual End Users – These are the users who occasionally access the database but they require
different information each time. They use a sophisticated database query language basically to specify
their request and are typically middle or level managers or other occasional browsers. These users learn
very few facilities that they may use repeatedly from the multiple facilities provided by DBMS to access
it.
b) Naive or parametric end users – These are the users who basically make up a sizeable portion of
database end users. The main job function revolves basically around constantly querying and updating
the database.
The following tasks are basically performed by Naive end users:
Ex. Reservation clerks for airlines, railway, hotels, and car rental companies basically check availability
for a given request and make the reservation.
c) Sophisticated end users –These users basically include engineers, scientist, business analytics and
others who thoroughly familiarize themselves with the facilities of the DBMS in order to implement their
application to meet their complex requirement. These users try to learn most of the DBMS facilities in
order to achieve their complex requirements.
d) Standalone users –These are those users whose job is basically to maintain personal databases by
using a ready- made program package that provides easy to use menu-based or graphics-based
interfaces, An example is the user of a tax package that basically stores a variety of personal financial
data of tax purposes. These users become very proficient in using a specific software package.

6) Discuss data model and it types.

Data Model is the modeling of the data description, data semantics, and consistency constraints of the
data. It provides the conceptual tools for describing the design of a database at each level of data
abstraction.
Types of Data Model:
a) High Level or Conceptual Data Models: It describe that what data is stored and how can we retrieve
that data. It uses concepts to describe what data is stored are entities , attributes ,and relationships. So
E-R model in the category of conceptual level.
Ex.

b) Low level or Physical Data Models: It describe how data is stored in the computer. Because user has
no interest to know that where data is stored so this portion is always hidden to the users. These models
are used specially for computer specialists.
c) Representational or Implementation Data Models: between these two models representational
model is come which hide some details of data storage and some represent to the end users. It
represent data by using record structures so sometime it is called record based data models .This model
is mostly used in traditional DBMS. This model also include relational data model ,Network and
Hierarchical model.
Hierarchical Model was the first DBMS model. This model organizes the data in the hierarchical tree
structure.
Network Model This model is an extension of the hierarchical model. It was the most popular model
before the relational model. It replaces the hierarchical tree with a graph.

Relational Model is the most widely used model. In this model, the data is maintained in the form of a
two-dimensional table. All the information is stored in the form of row and columns.