Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr.

Akeel Ali Wannas

2 Chapter 2 : Static Stability and Control

Lecture 4

Topics

2.1 Longitudinal Stability and Control

2.1.1 Longitudinal Control for Velocity Change

2.1.2 Maneuvering Flight

2.2 Lateral-Directional Stability and Control

________________________________________________________________

2.1.2. Maneuvering Flight

An important use of the longitudinal control is to provide an aircraft with a

maneuvering capability. Both steady, vertical pull-ups and constant altitude
banked turns will be considered in this section, subject to the constraint that the
aircraft's velocity remains constant while in steady curvilinear flight (i.e., thrust
An important use of the longitudinal control is to provide an aircraft with a
maneuvering capability. Both steady, vertical pull-ups and constant altitude
banked turns will be considered in this section, subject to the constraint that the
aircraft's velocity remains constant while in steady curvilinear flight (i.e., thrust
may be added to compensate for the increased drag due to the 𝛼 increase).
Stability derivatives due to thrust changes .also are assumed as zero. The
assumption of steady flight implies that all transient dynamic aircraft responses,
such as might be encountered by an abrupt entry into a pull-up, are neglected.
Only the pitch damping term will have a bearing upon the analysis, whereas the

1
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

influence of terms such as 𝑑𝛼/ 𝑑𝑡 and 𝑑𝑞/𝑑𝑡 will not be present. The constant
altitude, turning flight will be presented to show the difference in the elevator per
g from that obtained by steady pull-ups. Although either dimensional or
dimensionless stability derivatives could be used in the analysis, the
dimensionless form will be used initially followed by a conversion to the
dimensional form.

2.12.1 pull-up maneuver

Figure 2.4 shows an idealized aircraft in a steady, vertical pull-up maneuver.

Equilibrium of the z forces relative to the body axes may be expressed as

(2.7)

2
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

Fig. 2.3 Aircraft in a steady, vertical pull-up maneuver

It will be noted from Fig. 2 .3 that the positive change of normal acceleration
Δ𝑎𝑛 , which acts in the positive z direction is related to aircraft load factor n by the
following statement:

…(2.8)

Because steady, unaccelerated level flight corresponds to

..(2.9)

Dividing through Eq. (2.9) by (-m) converts the equation into dimensional
stability derivative form, i.e.,

3
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

…(2.10)

the dimensional stability derivatives are

The change in pitching moment for the steady pull-up maneuver is given by

…(2.11)

Multiplying by 𝑄𝑆𝑐/𝐼𝑦 provides the dimensional form with stability derivatives

…(2.12)

where

Equations (2.10) and (2.12) can be expressed in matrix form as

4
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

..(2.13)

Because the pitch rate term q is related to normal acceleration by Eq. (2.8), Eq.
(2.13) may be re-expressed as

….(2.14)

When one divides both sides of Eq. (2.14) by Δ𝛿 takes Δ𝛿 to a zero limit,
and premultiplies the resulting equation by the inverse. of the 2 x 2 matrix, an
expression for the acceleration sens1t1v1ty due to long1tud1nal control input is
obtained, i.e.,

which may be readily solved to yield

..(2.15)

where the determinant Δ is

5
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

From Eq. (2.15), the acceleration in a steady, vertical pull-up will be recognized
as

…(2.16)

Equation (2.16) may alternatively be expressed in terms of elevator per g using

dimensionless stability coefficients. Recognize that 𝑑𝑎𝑛 = − 𝑔𝑑𝑛, and assume
that 𝐶𝑣 << 𝐶𝐿𝛼 and 𝑍𝑞 << 𝑉; then one finds that

…(2.17)

It will be noted in Eq. (3.17) that elevator per g in a pull-up maneuver at constant
airspeed is a constant, and the constant will increase in value as the e.g. moves
forward (i.e., due to the increase in 𝐶𝑚𝛼 ).

Example 2.2

Estimate the normal acceleration sensitivity for the DC-8 aircraft operating at a
cruise flight condition, i.e.,

𝑥
𝑀 = 0.84 ℎ = 10058 𝑚 ( ) = 0.15
𝑐 𝑐𝑔
𝑍𝛼 = −202.5 𝑚/𝑠 −1 𝑀𝛼 = −9.149𝑠 −1 𝑍𝑞 = 0.0
𝑍𝛿 , = −10.57𝑚/𝑠 −1 𝑀𝛿 = −4.59 𝑠 −2 𝑉 = 251.4 𝑚/𝑠 −1
𝑀𝑞 = −0.924 𝑠 −1

Solution
6
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

Substituting this information into Eq. (2.16) and solving gives

𝑑𝑎𝑛 𝑚
= 83.8 . 𝑟𝑎𝑑 −1 = (0.15𝑔/𝑑𝑒𝑔)
𝑑𝛿 𝑠2

Note that because plus 𝑎𝑛 represents a negative load factor by the sign
convention, then 𝑑𝑛/𝑑𝛿 = −0.150 𝑔 /𝑑𝑒𝑔. Physically this corresponds to a
negative load factor being produced by a trailing-edge down ( +) elevator control
motion.

============ ============== ================ ============

2.1.2.2 Finding a maneuver point mp

The 𝑀𝛼 term in the determinant Δ of Eq. (2.15) is linearly related to the static
Δx
margin( ) . When the c.g. is located at the airframe's neutral point, 𝑀𝛼
c 𝑛𝑝

becomes zero and the steady-state velocity can change without elevator control
input (i.e., neutral speed stability). However, location of the c.g. at the neutral
point does not result in the airframe's acceleration response from longitudinal
control becoming infinite. The information contained in Δ a11ows one to define
a maneuver point.

Definition: When the e.g. is located at the maneuver point, the airframe has
infinite acceleration sensitivity to longitudinal control input commands.

On the assumption that 𝑍𝑞 << 𝑉, the denominator of Eq. (2.16) may be

expressed as

..(2.18)

The term in the brackets of Eq. (2.18) represents the location of the maneuver
point relative to the c.g., i.e.,
7
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

and the dimensionless distance from the neutral point is given by

…(2.19)

Because the pitch damping derivative is normally negative in sign, one finds that
the maneuver point for an aircraft is located aft of the neutral point.

Example 2.3

Estimate the stability margin between the neutral and maneuver points for the
DC-8 aircraft operating at a cruise flight condition, where

𝜌 = 0.4107569𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝐶𝑚𝑞 = −14.6 𝑆 = 241.5479𝑚2

𝑊 = 10432.625 𝑘𝑔 𝑐 = 7.0104 𝑚
Solution

Substitution of this data into Eq. (2.19) yields

This result states that an estimate of the maneuver point location at the assumed
flight condition for the DC-8 aircraft is 2.43% of the MAC aft of the neutral
point.

8
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

2.1.2.3 Steady banked flight with turn rate 𝛀

A sketch of an aircraft in a constant altitude, steady banked flight with turn rate Ω
is shown in Fig. 2.4. A typical turn rate for an aircraft under instrument flight
conditions is 180 𝑑𝑒𝑔/𝑚𝑖𝑛 (i.e., 2-min tum). The turn rate is a vector quantity
acting in a vertical direction and may be resolved into the aircraft's body-axis
oriented pitch and yaw rates at a bank angle 𝜙. In addition, the centrifugal force
component experienced as side force by the aircraft during a coordinated turn is
related to the lateral component of weight. These three relations may be stated as

Fig. 2.4 Aircraft in constant altitude, steady turning flight.

𝑟 = Ω cos 𝜙…….(2.20)

𝑞 = Ω sin 𝜙………(2.21)

𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜙 = 𝑚 Ω𝑉 cos 𝜙…….(2.22)

Applying Eq. (2.22) to Eq. (2.21) yields an expression for the aircraft pitch rate
that is induced by the steady turn. Here

𝑔
𝑞 = (1 − cos 2 𝜙)/ cos 𝜙 …….(2.23)
𝑉

9
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

The aircraft's normal force (z direction) due to aerodynamic terms will be in

equilibrium with the inertial components induced by the weight and centrifugal
force vectors, i.e.,

𝑍 + 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜙 + 𝑚Ω𝑉 sin 𝜙 = 0

which simplifies upon use·of Eq. (2.22) to

𝑍 = −𝑚𝑔/ cos 𝜙

Load factor 𝑛 is considered positive acting upwards, which corresponds to a

negative 𝑍 force. Therefore

𝑍
𝑛=− = 1/ cos 𝜙…….(2.24)
𝑚𝑔

A steady turn at a 60-deg bank angle induces a load factor of 𝑛 = 2, an effect

that is quite apparent during flight when one extends an arm forward while
executing a steeply banked turn. Application of Eq. (2.24) to Eq. (2.23) provides
an alternate expression for the turn induced pitch rate in terms of load factor, i.e.,

…(2.25)

An approach similar to that used in developing Eq. (2.9) can be followed to

describe the aerodynamic forces required to maintain equilibrium, i.e.,

Dividing through by −𝑚 and simplifying yields

…(2.26)

10
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

Substitution of Eq. (2.25) into Eq. (2 .12) corresponds to maintaining aircraft

pitching-moment equilibrium during the steady turn, i.e.,

…(2.27)

Combining Eqs. (2 .26) and (2.27) into matrix format and solving for Δ𝛼 and Δ𝛿
provides the following relations:

…(2.28)

Where

Unlike a vertical pull-up maneuver, the elevator per g in a steady tum is not a
linear function of load factor. The elevator required to develop load factor in the
turn, from Eq. (2.28), is

..(2.29)

The preceding relation may be re-expressed in an approximate dimensionless

stability coefficient form under the assumptions that both 𝐶𝐷 ≪ 𝐶𝐿𝛼 and 𝑍𝑞 ≪ 𝑉.

Here

…(2.30)

Where

𝐶𝐿 =lift coefficient when 𝜙 = 0

𝜇=dimensionless mas coefficient 2𝑚/𝜌𝑆𝑐

11
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

Δ = 𝐶𝐿𝛼 𝐶𝑚𝛿 − 𝐶𝐿𝛿 𝐶𝑚𝛼

======== ======== ======= ======= ======= ======= =====

Example 2.4

Estimate the elevator control required in steady banked turns at a 60 degree bank
angle for the DC-8 aircraft operating at a cruise-flight condition and Static margin
according to

𝜌 = 0.4107569𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝐶𝑚𝑞 = −14.6 𝑆 = 241.5479𝑚2

𝑊 = 104331.8 𝑘𝑔 𝑐 = 7.0104 𝑚 𝐶𝐿𝛼 = 6.744 𝑟𝑎𝑑 −1
𝑥
𝐶𝑚𝛼 = −2.017 𝑟𝑎𝑑 −1 for ( )
𝑐
= −0.15 𝐶𝐿𝑞 = 0.0
𝑐𝑔

𝐶𝐿𝛿 = 0.352 𝑟𝑎𝑑 −1 𝐶𝑚𝛿 = −1.008 𝑟𝑎𝑑 −1 𝐶𝐿 = 0.326

Solution

The dimensionless mass coefficient, which corresponds to the mass of the aircraft
normalized with respect to the air contained in a volume defined by the product of
𝑆 𝑐 /2, is given by

2 ∗ 104331.8 𝑘𝑔
𝜇= = 300[. ]
𝑘𝑔 2
0.4107569 3 ∗ 241.5479𝑚 ∗ 7.0104 𝑚
𝑚
𝑥
The determinant Δ. for the aircraft when ( ) = −0.15 is
𝑐 𝑐𝑔

Δ = 6.744 ∗ (−1.008) − (−2.017) ∗ 0.352 = −6.088 rad−1

The load factor for the aircraft at a 60-deg bank angle from Eq. (2.24) is

𝑛 = 1/ cos 𝜙 = 2

12
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

The elevator control required to maintain 𝑛 = 2.0 in a steady banked turn may
be estimated from Eq. (2.30) as

Δδ = −0.212 rad (= −6.95 deg)

Control angles for other bank angles may be found using the preceding two
calculations as guidelines.

An estimate of control angle requirements for the aircraft with other c.g. locations
requires a change in the 𝐶𝑚𝛼 stability derivative, which can be determined once
the neutral point is established.

𝑥
The static margin for ( ) = −0.15 can be found from Cmα and CLα using
𝑐 𝑐𝑔

fallowing Equation.

Δ𝑥 𝐶𝑚𝛼 2.017 𝑟𝑎𝑑 −1

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛 = − ( ) =− = = 0.299
𝑐 𝑛𝑝 𝐶𝐿𝛼 6.744 𝑟𝑎𝑑 −1

============= =============== =============== =============

(Home Work)

Estimate the elevator control Δδ required in Example 2.4, when the c.g. is located
at 0.20c.

𝑎𝑛𝑠 = −0.082 𝑟𝑎𝑑.

============= =============== =============== =============

13
Aircraft Stability and Control Lecture 4 Dr. Akeel Ali Wannas

Fig. 2.5 Estimate of elevator control vs bank angle.

The estimated variation of elevator angle as a function of bank angle is shown on

Fig. 2 .5 for various c.g. locations. Items to note include that

1) Longitudinal control is not linear with bank angle and ;

2) Moving the c.g. location forward places increased demands on the longitudinal
control.

14