Descriptive Research Design

What is Descriptive Research?

According to Voxco (2021), Descriptive research design is employed to describe a specific
phenomenon by witnessing it in its natural setting. It is significant to highlight that the researcher does not
influence or modify any variables in the descriptive technique of research, unlike experimental research,
where the researcher just identifies, observes, and measures the variables rather than beginning with a
hypothesis (Okir & Luzano, 2020). Descriptive research is an appropriate choice when the research aims
to identify characteristics, frequencies, trends, or categories. It is useful when there is not too much is
known yet in a topic or problem.
Sampling
The descriptive method of research employs random sampling in selecting a sample group.
Probability and non-probability sampling are the two main sampling methods for quantitative research.
Probability Sampling
This sampling involves the random selection, that allows the researcher to make strong statistical
inferences about the whole group.
Ways to obtain a probability sample:
Simple random sampling: each person in the population has an equal chance of being selected. A simple
random sample is a subset of individuals chosen from a larger set in which a subset of individuals is
chosen randomly, all with the same probability. It is a process of selecting a sample in a random way
Example:
If you want to select sample of 100 students from a school with 5000 students.
– You would get list of all 5000 students and number each from 1 to 5000.
– Use a table of random numbers to produce 100 numbers that fall between 1 and 5000 and
select those 100 students to be in your sample.
Cluster Sampling - In statistics, cluster sampling is a sampling plan used when mutually homogeneous
yet internally heterogeneous groupings are evident in a statistical population. It is often used in marketing
research.
An example of single-stage cluster sampling – An NGO wants to create a sample of girls across five
neighboring towns to provide education. Using single-stage sampling, the NGO randomly selects towns
(clusters) to form a sample and extend help to the girls deprived of education in those towns.
Systematic sampling-In survey methodology, systematic sampling is a statistical method involving the
selection of elements from an ordered sampling frame. The most common form of systematic sampling is
an equiprobability method.
As a hypothetical example of systematic sampling, assume that, in a population of 10,000 people, a
statistician selects every 100th person for sampling. The sampling intervals can also be systematic, such
as choosing a new sample to draw from every 12 hours
Stratified sampling- In statistics, stratified sampling is a method of sampling from a population which
can be partitioned into subpopulations. A stratified sample is one that ensures that subgroups (strata) of a
given population are each adequately represented within the whole sample population of a research study.
For example, one might divide a sample of adults into subgroups by age, like 18–29, 30–39, 40–49, 50–
59, and 60 and above.
Proportionate sampling: The cases are drawn from each stratum in proportion to their prevalence in the
population. Proportional sampling is a method of sampling in which the investigator divides a finite
population into subpopulations and then applies random sampling techniques to each subpopulation
Example: If population is 70% men and 30% women, then sample proportionately to ensure 70% men in
sample.
Non-probability Sampling
- it involves non-random selection determined by convenience or other factors, making it simple
to gather data.
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling method where units are selected for inclusion in the
sample because they are the easiest for the researcher to access. Researchers are using a sample of
individuals that is readily available.
Examples: Schools nearby, undergrads.
Quota sampling is a convenience sampling, but you ensure that you get particular proportions of certain
individuals.
Examples: Half boys and half girls; 20 4-, 6-, and 8-year-olds
Voluntary response sampling - A voluntary response sample is mostly determined by accessibility,
much like a convenience sample. People volunteer themselves rather than the researcher selecting and
approaching them directly (e.g. by responding to a public online survey). Samples of voluntary responses
are inherently biased since certain people will always be more likely to volunteer than others.
Example: All of the university's students receive the survey, and many of them choose to respond. This
can undoubtedly provide you some insight into the subject, but you can't be assured that the respondents'
views reflect those of all students since they are more likely to be individuals with strong feelings about
the student support services.
Purposive Sampling - With this kind of sampling, also known as judgement sampling, the researcher
uses their knowledge to choose a sample that will be most helpful to their research goals.
Example: You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of disabled students at your
university, so you purposefully select a number of students with different support needs in order to gather
a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.
Snowball sampling - Snowball sampling can be used to find participants by recruiting them through
other participants if the population is difficult to reach. As you make more contacts, the quantity of people
you have access to "snowballs."
Example: You are looking into local homeless people's experiences. Probability sampling is not feasible
because there is no comprehensive list of all homeless people in the city. One person you meet agrees to
take part in the study, and she connects you with other local homeless people she knows.

Purpose of Descriptive Research

The aim or purpose of this research design is to describe, explain and validate research findings
are the three main purposes of descriptive research. A descriptive research design can use a wide variety
of research methods to investigate one or more variables (Business Research Methodology, 2022).
Descriptive research aims to gather data to comprehensively describe a phenomenon, circumstance, or
population. More particular, it assists in providing answers to the research problem's what, when, where,
and how questions rather than its why and to explore the factors in question, it uses a variety of research
methodologies (Voxco, 2021).
Methods
1. Observational method
 Observations allow the researcher to gather data on behaviors and phenomena without having to
rely on the honesty and the accuracy of respondents.
 Observational method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to understand
how people act in real life situations. Quantitative observations are analyzed with the help of
statistical survey data analysis. 
 Examples of quantitative observations include observation of any variable related to a numerical
value such as age, shape, weight, height, scale, etc.
For example, a researcher can understand the satisfaction of a customer with their recent purchases by
asking them to rate their satisfaction on a Likert scale ranging from 1 (very unsatisfied) to 7 (very
satisfied).
2. Survey method
  The survey method includes recording the answers of respondents through surveys or
questionnaires. Surveys can include polls as well. They are the most common tool for collecting
market research data.
 Survey research allows the researcher to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for
frequencies, averages and patterns.
 Surveys are generally used to collect feedback from the respondents. It should have a survey that
taps into both open-ended and closed-ended questions.
Open-ended and Close-ended Questions
Open-ended and closed-ended questions make up the survey. You need to make the best use of
the two types to gather insightful data. It involves asking respondents to answer the question in their
own words. It is a text-based question where you give the respondent space to write their answer in.
Examples:

 Why did you choose STEM strand in your Senior High School?
 What are the challenges you are facing in this school year?
Closed-ended questions involve providing answer options to the respondents. The respondents
select their answers from the predetermined options instead of writing their answers. You can ask the
respondents exactly what you want to know, and use the list of options to gather the intended
response. Surveys involving closed-ended questions can be completed in less time than open-ended
questions.
Examples:
 Are you satisfied with your chosen track? (Yes or No)
 Would you refer changing your strand? (Yes or No)
3. Case study method
This can be used to describe the characteristics of a specific subject such as person, group, event
or organization. Instead of gathering a large volume of data to identify the patterns across time or
location, case study gathers detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined subject.
Case studies are limited in their scope. They don’t allow the researcher to make cause-effect
conclusions or accurate predictions. This is because these associations could reflect the bias on the
researchers’ part instead of a naturally occurring phenomenon. Another reason why case studies are
limited in scope is that they could just be reflecting an atypical respondent in the survey (Voxco,
2022).
Instruments
1. Questionnaires- A questionnaire is a research tool that consists of a series of standardized
questions to ask one or more respondents in order to collect statistically significant information
on a certain topic.
A questionnaire's primary goal is to gather information from the respondents. It's a somewhat cheap,
rapid, and effective approach to get a lot of data even if the researcher isn't there to get the responses in-
person. However, it's crucial to remember that a questionnaire is not the same thing as the analysis of the
responses. This is done through surveying.
Types of questionnaires

Descriptive Questionnaire Analytical Questionnaire

To capture or record the scope of a specific topic An analytical questionnaire is created to

or issue within a population of interest, that is, investigate and clarify connections between
what is now present, a descriptive questionnaire is specific concepts, or the reasons why particular
constructed. circumstances arise.

The majority of the questionnaire's questions are Analytical questionnaires are used in theory
concerned with the prevalence of particular development and hypothesis testing and typically
behaviors or viewpoints. assess two or more variables.

A questionnaire to determine the percentage of An analytical questionnaire to investigate the

voters and non-voters is an illustration of a association between lifestyle and TV viewing
descriptive questionnaire. behavior is an example.

2. Survey
In survey research, questions or polls are used to get respondents' opinions on a certain subject.
Because they may be conducted using a variety of digital and non-digital means, including email,
websites, and phone surveys, surveys are a cost-effective technique of data collection. Surveys are
frequently used to study a region's demographics or to determine the public's opinion on social or political
issues.
In order to improve products and strategies and the consumer experience, they are frequently
employed in market research to get user input (CX). Net Promoter Score (NPS) surveys, brand
monitoring surveys, and conjoint analysis surveys are a few examples of common market research
questionnaires.
3. Observations
-With this approach, researchers keep a distance from the subjects they are studying and observe
them in their natural habitat. By doing so, they can collect data on the traits and behaviors under
investigation without having to rely on respondents to provide truthful and precise answers.
The observational approach is thought to be the best one for conducting descriptive research.
Age, weight, height, and other such quantitative observations are a few examples.
4. Case Study
-Instead of acquiring a wide volume of data to find correlations and trends, case studies include
gathering precise data on a specifically defined subject. Researchers can develop theories through case
studies that can broaden the scope of evaluation when researching the phenomenon.
Data Gathering Procedure
A) Determine what information you want collect
-Choose a topic that you wish to collect and explore. Where and who will you collect it
from, and how much data should be collected.
B) Set a time frame for data collection
-In this step, you start to formulate your plan on how to collect the data. You should
establish a timeframe for data collecting in your planning process to know the duration of your
study.
C) Determine your data collection method
-Choosing an appropriate method is crucial in gathering data. There are various methods
to collect data (such as surveys, interview, and observation). In order to choose a right method in
collecting your data, you need to consider what type of information you wish to collect, the
timeframe in which you'll obtain the data and their aspects you determined.
D) Collect the data
-Once you finalized your plan, you can start your data collection strategy and start
collecting data. You can collect data through conducting some data collection methods (surveys,
interviews) from your respondents. Organizing and checking the data is necessary since there
might be some updates to your plan as condition change and you get new information
E) Analyze the data and implement your findings.
-Once the data is all collected, it needs to be analyzed and organized. The analysis phase is
crucial since it turns raw data into valuable insights.
Statistical Analysis
• Mean: average, most common
• Median: score in the center of the distribution
• Mode: most frequent score (Most repeated)
• Standard Deviation: measures the dispersion of a dataset relative to its mean and is calculated as
the square root of the variance.
Variance- statistical measurement of the spread between numbers in a data set. 
• Skewness: How symmetrical a range of numbers to form a bell-shaped curve?
Data Analysis
Descriptive Analysis is the type of analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize data
points in a constructive way such that patterns might emerge that fulfill every condition of the data. It is
one of the most important steps for conducting statistical data analysis.
Central Tendency
Measures of central tendency focus on the average or middle values of data sets, whereas
measures of variability focus on the dispersion of data. These two measures use graphs, tables and general
discussions to help people understand the meaning of the analyzed data.
 Measures of central tendency describe the center position of a distribution for a data set. A person
analyzes the frequency of each data point in the distribution and describes it using the mean, median, or
mode, which measures the most common patterns of the analyzed data set.
Measures of Variability
Measures of variability (or the measures of spread) aid in analyzing how dispersed the
distribution is for a set of data. For example, while the measures of central tendency may give a
person the average of a data set, it does not describe how the data is distributed within the set.
So, while the average of the data maybe 65 out of 100, there can still be data points at both 1 and
100. Measures of variability help communicate this by describing the shape and spread of the data set.
Range, quartiles, absolute deviation, and variance are all examples of measures of variability.
Consider the following data set: 5, 19, 24, 62, 91, 100. The range of that data set is 95, which is
calculated by subtracting the lowest number (5) in the data set from the highest (100).
Distribution
Distribution (or frequency distribution) refers to the quantity of times a data point occurs.
Alternatively, it is the measurement of a data point failing to occur. Consider a data set: male, male,
female, female, female, other. The distribution of this data can be classified
Table that indicates how many, and is some cases the %, of individuals in the sample that fall into
different categories.
Simple frequency distribution: If using numbers (scores) possible scores are arranged from lowest to
highest and then the frequency of each score is shown.
Example:

Frequency Table:
Number of Movies Seen in the
Last 6 Months Reported by
Psychology Students

Grouped frequency distribution: combine values into a set of equal class intervals.
Relative frequency: proportion of the total number of scores that fall into each interval
• class interval must be mutually exclusive
• class intervals must encompass all scores
• all class intervals should be the same size