SED 12 Contemporary Indian and Education English

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TAMIL NADU OPEN UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AND

REHABILITATION
B.ED SPL.ED
(Distance Mode)
SEMESTER - I
SED – 12
CONTEMPORARY INDIA & EDUCATION
No. 577, Anna Salai, Saidapet,

Chennai – 600 015
www.tnou.ac.in
REHABILITATION
January, 2021
© Tamil Nadu Open University

All Rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by
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Nadu Open University. Further information on Tamil Nadu Open University
programmes may be obtained from the University Office at Saidapet, Chennai -
600 015 and Website: www.tnou.ac.in
20-03-2021
Dear Learner,
Warm Greetings!
I deem it a great pleasure in welcoming you to our vibrant Open and Distance Learning family of Tamil
Nadu Open University (TNOU). Being approved by the University Grants Commission and Distance
Education Bureau, the TNOU is striving hard to ensure qualitative Open, Distance and Online Education
(ODOE). The University is contributing not only serving to reach the unreached, but also enhancing the Gross
Enrolment Ratio (GER) by offering various programmes at different levels for the needy and interested.
You are taking up the B.Ed.,Special Education programme as a professional study by merit. The
B.Ed.Special Education Programme offered by the TNOU is recognized by the Rehabilitation Council of
India (RCI), the University Grants Commission (UGC) and the State Government. You might be aware
that the trained teachers/personnel/professionals who come out from this programme of study can work
in the special schools, inclusive setting, colleges and rehabilitation centres, and such certified persons
alone are eligible to work with, train persons with disabilities as per the law enforcement in our country.
The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 stated that all the children with disabilities
between 6-18 yrs of age are to be considered for inclusive education. Accordingly, the syllabus
of B.Ed.Spl.Ed.Programme has been framed and updated including current practices, latest
policies and Acts, and innovative models and strategies in the field of disability and non-disabil-
ity areas. The Self -Learning Materials (SLM) prepared with the help of subject experts and as
per the UGC Guidelines & SLM Policy of TNOU. The handy SLM would be very much helpful
for you, and teachers, parents, and other professionals dealing with persons with disabilities.
I wish you great success in all your endeavors and to become a versatile special educator.
With regards,
(K.PARTHASARATHY)
REHABILIATION
SED – 12
CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION
BLOCK 1
Philosophical Foundations of Education-
BLOCK 2
Understanding Diversity
BLOCK 3
Contemporary Issues and Concerns
BLOCK 4
Education Commissions and Policy
BLOCK 5
Issues and Trends in Education
SED – 12 CONTEMPORARY INDIA AND EDUCATION
COURSE INTRODUCTION
Education has a vital role to play in the development and enlightened and
progressive society. The Teacher is an agent of social changes in a learning society.
As a good teacher you need to be aware of various aspects of Education and their
role in India. The course deals with various commissions in education especially in
inclusive education. The Course “Contemporary Education in India" consists of five
Blocks.
The first Block deals with the Philosophical Foundations of Education and
further divided into five Units explaining Education and its Concept, Definition and
scope, agencies of Education like School, Family, Community and Media,
Philosophies of Education, and the Classical Indian Perspective. ‘’
The Second Block deals with the Understanding of Diversity and further divided
into five Units. The first Unit deals with Concepts of diversity. The second Unit
deals with the types of diversity. The third Unit deals with the Education for
understanding diversity. The fourth Unit deals with the addressing diverse learning
needs, and the fifth Unit with Diversity- global perspective.
The third Block deals with the Contemporary issues and concerns and further
divided into five Units. The first Unit deals with the Universalization of School
Education in India. The second Unit deals with Issues of Universalization
Retention and Universal Enrollment. The third Unit deals with the Issues of
Equality and Equity. The fourth Unit deals with Equality of Educational
Opportunity. The fifth Unit deals with the inequality in Schooling.
The fourth Block deals with the Education Commissions and policy related to
School Education and further divided into five Units. The first Unit deals with
Constitutional Provisions on Education. The second Unit deals with National
Commission and Policies. The third Unit deals with National Acts. The fourth Unit
deals with deals with Programmes and Schemes. The fifth Unit deals with the
International Conventions and Policies.
The fifth Block deals with the Issues and Trends in Education and further divided
into five Units. The first Unit deals with challenges of education from preschool to
senior secondary school, the second Unit with Inclusive Education as Rights Based
Model. The second Unit deals with the Complementarities of Inclusive and Special
Schools. The third Unit deals with the Language Issues in Education. The fourth
Unit deals with the Community participation in Education.
BLOCK -1 PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF
EDUCATION
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Unit 1 Meaning of Education

1.1 Definitions of Education
1.2 True Definition of Education
1.3 Aim of Education in India

1.4 Aims of Education in Ancient India
1.5 Aims of Education in Medieval India
1.6 Aims of Education in British India
1.7 Aims of Education in Independent India
Unit 2 Agencies of Education
2.1 Media: Importance of Mass Media

Unit 3 Philosophies of Education
3.1 Idealistic View in Education
3.2 Naturalistic View in Education
3.3 Realistic View in Education
3.4 Pragmatic View in Education
3.5 Existentialist View in Education

Unit 4 Classical Indian Perspective
4.1 Vedanta Dharsan (Vedic Period in Education)
4.2 Jainism and Budhism (Medieval Period of Education)

4.3 Modern Period in Education
Unit 5 Indian Philosophers
5.1 Contribution of Sri Aurobindo to Education

5.2 Contribution of Mahatma Gandhi to Education
5.3 Contribution of Rabindranath Tagore to Education
5.4 Contribution of J.Krishnamoorthy‟s to Education
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Let us Sum Up
Glossaries
Answers to Check your Progress

Suggested Readings
INTRODUCTION
In this Block the Concept of Education, Agencies of Education,

Educational Philosophies, Classical Indian Perspective about
education and Indian philosophers‟ contribution of education has been
explained.
OBJECTIVES
After completion of this Block you will be able to understand:

 Education: Concept, Definition, Scope
 Agencies of Education: School, Family, Community and Media
 Philosophies of Education
 Classical Indian Perspective
 Indian Philosophers Contribution of Education
UNIT 1 MEANING OF EDUCATION
The term "Education" has been derived from the Latin term
"Educatum" which means the act of teaching or training. A group
of educationists say that it has come from another Latin word
"Educare" which means "to bring up" or "to raise"
A few others interpret, the word "Education" has originated from

another Latin term "Educere" which means "to lead forth" or "to
come out". All these meanings indicate that education seeks to
nourish the good qualities in man and draw out the best in every
individual. Education seeks to develop the innate inner capacities
of man.
By educating an individual we attempt to give him some
desirable knowledge, understanding, skills, interests, attitudes
and critical 'thinking. That is, he/she acquires knowledge of
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history, geography, arithmetic, languages and sciences.
He/she develops some understanding about the deeper

things in life, the complex human relations and the cause and
effect relationship and so on. He/she gets some skills in writing,
speaking, calculating, drawing, operating some equipment etc.
He/she develops some interests in and attitudes towards social
work, democratic living, co-operative management and so on.
As an individual in the society, he/she has to think critically

about various issues in life and take decisions about them being
free from bias and prejudices, superstitions and blind beliefs.
Thus, he has to learn all these qualities of head, hand and heart
through the process of education.
After completion of this Unit, you will be able to

 Describe the concept of Education
 Explain the aims of Education
1.1 Definitions of Education
The Concepts of Education as given by prominent Indian

educationists are as follows.
"Education is something which makes man self-reliant and selfless"
– Rigveda
"Education is for liberation"

- Upanishad
"Nothing is more purifying on earth than wisdom”

- Bhagavad Gita
“Education is the manifestation of the divine perfection, already existing

in man”
- Vivekananda
"By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in the Child
and man body, mind and spirit”
- Gandhiji
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"The widest road leading to the solution of all our problems is
education."
- Tagore
"Education which will offer the tools whereby one can live for the divine,
for the country, for oneself and for others and this must be the ideal of
every school which calls itself national"
- Sri Aurobindo
"Education is unfoldment of what is already enfolded in the germ. It is
the process through which the child makes internal external”
- Friedrich William roebel
"Education is the capacity to feel pleasure and pain at the right moment.
It develops in the body and in the soul of the pupil all the beauty and all
the perfection which he is capable of"
- Plato
"Education of man commences at his birth, before he can speak, before

he can understand he is already instructed. Experience is the forerunner
of the perfect"
- Rousseau
"Education is the creation of a sound mind in a sound body. It develops
man's faculty, especially his mind so that he may be able to enjoy the
contemplation of supreme truth, goodness and beauty of which perfect
happiness essentially consists”
- Aristotle
1.2 True Definition of Education
The different meanings and definitions of education as

given above lead us to the conclusion that education should have a
comprehensive definition. Thus, education may be defined as a
purposive, conscious or unconscious, psychological, sociological,
scientific and philosophical process, which brings about the
development of the individual to the fullest extent and also the
maximum development of society in such a way that both enjoy
maximum happiness and prosperity. In Short, education is the
development of individual according to his needs and demands of
society, of which he is an integral part. The above remarks of
different educators highlight the following special features of
education:
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 Education is both unilateral as well as bi-polar in nature.
 It is a continuous process
 It is knowledge or experience.
 It is development of particular aspects of human personality or a
harmonious integrated growth.
 It is conducive for the good of the individual or the welfare of the
society
 It is a liberal discipline or a vocational course.
 It is stabilizer of social order, conservator of culture, an instrument
of change and social reconstruction.
1.3 Aim of Education in India
Educational aims in India should be judged in relation to the lives

of the Indian people. Indian civilization is one of the ancient civilizations
of the world.
1.4 Aims of Education in Ancient India
The aim of education in ancient India was the ultimate outcome

of the Indian theory of knowledge and the corresponding scheme of life
and values. People in ancient India were greatly impressed and affected
by the fact of death as the central fact of life. Their one aim of life was to
solve the problem of death by achieving knowledge of the whole truth of
which life and death are arts and phases. The aim was not simply
abstract and theoretical. There were practical and concrete aims too.
The first was the acquisition of knowledge. This was evident in the Vedic
period. Inculcation of social and civic duties in the minds of the students
was also regarded as an important aim of education in those days.
Education for occupation was another important aim. Character training
and moral education was regarded as very important aim of ancient
Indian education.
1.5 Aims of Education in Medieval India
During medieval age, religion was the main guiding force in life
and society. Medieval civilization centered round religion. The Muslim
rulers of India generally took a keen interest in education and many of
them founded schools, colleges and libraries in various places in their
kingdoms. The mosque was a center of instruction and of literary
activity. Muslim education included those eternal teachings and values
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of the Quran and Haditha, which would promote moral and spiritual
knowledge. Islamic education aimed at both physical and mental
development of the students. Thus, it aimed at total development of
personality of individual.
1.6. Aims of Education in British India
The British uprooted the indigenous system of education in India

with definite intentions. The educational system established by the
British was colonial in character. It was designed to prepare Indians only
for taking certain subordinate positions in Government offices. It was not
intended to develop among the people capacities to take leadership and
initiative in different walks of life. The main educational objective can
better be understood from the following declaration in the educational
policy or Lord Bentinck (1835): “We want a class of persons Indian in
blood and colour but English in tastes in opinion, in morals and intellect.”
The Wood‟s Despatch declared almost the same policy. The aim of
British education was to inculcate European knowledge in the minds of
the Indians.
1.7 Aims of Education in Independent India
After independence the Indian leaders realized the inherent

defects in the system of education introduced by the British.
Universalisation of education was the need of the hour. Education must
be linked with national development in all directions. With these national
goals in view the Government of independent India set up different
committees and commissions for educational reforms in the desired
lines. These committees and commissions have formulated educational
aims and objectives.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the Block.
1. The term "Education" has been derived from the ……………….. term
"Educatum"
a) Latin
b) Greek
c) English
d) German
2. "The widest road leading to the solution of all our problems is
education." said by
a) Sri Aurobindo
b) Vivekananda
c) Tagore
d) Gandhiji
UNIT 2 AGENCIES OF EDUCATION
Indian society is a developing society. It consists of diverse castes,

creeds, religions and languages which are best with many social evils
and harmful traditions. Right from the birth child interacts with different
customs and traditions prevailing within the family and their
surroundings. Interactions of the child with different social forces, the
impact in more than one way. These multifarious diversities influence the
development of child in one way or the other. This influence may either
be good or bad. The present Indian society is influencing the
development of an individual very powerfully in various ways. It is a
matter of regret that these influences have been directed towards evils
and various criminal tendencies, which plague our society and are
increasing day by day threatening the very stability of our social
structure. Education is the only means to meet these sinister challenges
and stop this gradual decay. In other words, education should promote
higher social and moral ideals developing desirable habits, so that our
society is saved from impending decay and destruction. It is through
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education alone that the great ideal of emotional integration, unity in
diversities, national consciousness and national glory are realized.
To know the impact of societal forces on the development of child, one

should have a brief idea as to what are those societal forces which that
make an impact on the development of the child. Sir Godfrey Thompson
has written, „The whole of environment is the instrument of man‟s
education in the widest sense. But, in that environment certain factors
are distinguishable such as the home, the school, the church, the press,
the vocation, public life, amusement and hobbies.‟ Taking in the broader
sense education continues from birth to death. During whole life time
different societal forces keeps making its impact upon the person. All of
these societal forces are the agencies of education and have educative
influence upon the child. These institutions have been classified
differently by different educationalists.
 Explain the need and importance of various agencies of
Education
 Describe the various agencies of education
2.1 Types of Agencies in Education

Formal Agencies: School, organized entertainment centers, libraries,
pictures, galleries, games, cinema, educational programmes on radio,
T.V etc.
Informal Agencies: Family, community, religion, free play, market

place, fairs and exhibitions etc.
Howsoever classification may be made, but one thing is sure that there
are no single social forces which do not make any impact on the
development of child. All social forces interact with the child during
his/her growing up. A child encounters and experiences with each and
every elements of the society. All these elements proved to be beneficial
in development of the child and lead them towards maturity. Mature
people always remain ready to face any circumstances in his/her life.
Thus, all the societal forces help a child in his/her development.
10
Before discussing the impact let us discuss the role of some of the
important social agencies. These agencies are not the only agencies
and end in itself. There are several other social agencies which impact
the development of the child. However, for having an idea we are
discussing some major social agencies in brief. They are as follows:
Family: Home and family is the first institution of a child. A family

provides the basic habits to the child. If the environment of the family
remains conducive the development of the child takes place in a very
gentle manner. If the family provides defective environment, the child
develop bad qualities and character.
Community: The community is another informal agency of education for

a child. Moving out of the family a child automatically takes up the
membership of various groups in the community and through them
develops various aspects of his character and personality. Playing in
groups he develops his mind and body. He also experiences moral,
social and cultural development.
State: The modern welfare state is responsible for overall development

of every citizen. This is why so much attention is made for the education
of the child. For the overall development of a child state formulate
policies of education so that it may bring out a developed human
resource. The state shoulders the responsibility of establishing different
kinds of schools to realize this goal. It provides able and trained teachers
by establishing the training colleges for them so that when they impart
education they must keep in mind, the overall developmental aspect of
education.
Religion: We derive our values from religion. It plays a vital role in

guiding the life of a person. It binds us together and provides a direction
to proceed in life. A child develops his/her life by guiding himself/herself
from religion.
Library: There is little need to elaborate the role played by the libraries
in disseminating education and developing different aspects of the child.
People even maintain their personal libraries to fulfill their personal quest
for knowledge. The state maintains public libraries for the masses. It
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develops different habits in the child as well as the mental aspect of the
child.
Museum: Museums are very useful in imparting education of different

kinds to the child. The development in the knowledge that a person gets
from museum by roaming in these places cannot be derived from
anywhere else. It is a psychological principal that if the things are learnt
by visualizing, it becomes permanent. It develops different aspects of the
child.
Cinema: Cinema is one of the most important informal agencies of

education in the modern world, as it provides audio visual understanding
to the people. By means of cinema, it is possible to see incidents,
individuals and objects. It clears our concept and provides an
opportunity to develop different aspect of the personality such as mental,
moral, aesthetic aspects and so on.
Drama: Almost the popularity of cinema has reduced the public interest
in drama. But it has not replaced it completely. Drama is such an
effective mode, which develops the total aspect of personality of a child.
It is an important medium of imparting education to the child. In fact
drama itself is a complete institution of education. Not even the single
aspect of personality is there which doesn‟t get activated while
performing it.
Television: Television is the most powerful means of communication. It

stimulates more than one sense and hence the learning becomes more
permanent. It exercises a great influence on the human mind. It
develops different aspects of the personality of an individual.
Schools: The school is considered to be the most important agency of

education. It is the only agency which develops the individual‟s body,
mind, morals, religious thinking, and spiritual contemplations. It develops
overall aspect of the personality of the child.
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2.2 Media:
The present day world is facing two general problems information
explosions” and the “population explosion”. Information explosion means
an explosion of knowledge. Today, throughout the world, social and
technological changes are taking place rapidly due to expanding world of
information. So there is explosion of knowledge. New frontiers of
knowledge are opening day by day and the horizon of human knowledge
and understanding is expanding very fast.
On the other hand, with the explosion of knowledge there is also

population explosion. The student population is immensely increasing
year by year due to the growth of population and democratization of
education with varying levels of motivation and aspiration. The problem
of” population explosion” is more serious in the developing countries
than the developed one. India is facing serious difficulties both from
population as well as information explosion.
So the two general factors “information explosion” and ” Population

explosion” have posed critical problems for education. Due to this, it
results in more things to be learnt and more people to be taught. Today
there is a cry for “more education to more people in less time”. For
solving these problems successfully, educational technologies consisting
of various media of mass communication are essentially required. Both
qualitative improvement and quantitative expansion of education can be
facilitated and accelerated with the help of this mass media under
educational technology. So the mass-media has come to our rescue to
tackle this problem.
Education of tomorrow will be able to play its role more effectively by

making the individuals creative, active and efficient. Success of
education cannot be achieved merely by substituting mechanical
methods for human beings, but by developing new patterns using both
human beings and technological advancements in order to teach more
people better and more rapidly.
There are good numbers of media available for mass communication

such as radio, Television, newspapers and films etc. Previously, the
mass media was the form of illustrative, device were only marginal and
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individualized use happened. There was neither any coherent thinking
nor a scientific organization of these materials in the educational
process. But their increased use has been mainly due to interest and
initiative of certain teachers.
The media of communication is the medium by which a piece of

information or knowledge is communicated to us. This medium is the
message, which is of greater importance. Because, the same piece of
information when conveyed on a printed page or over the telephone by
radio, or television will appear different and have entirely a different
effect on us. Hence the effectiveness of a piece of information depends
upon the medium through which it is imparted. Thus, the mass-media
are not only the messages, but also the massage.
Because, it massages the sensory organs and stimulates them to

respond actively. Hence, the mass media is very important for class
room teaching as a part of the process of instruction. The sole objective
is to improve the teaching- learning process with the use of various
media. Therefore, the main purpose of mass-media in education, is to
benefit more students with fewer teachers or to obtain quality education.
In fact, the mass media have become a well of message around the
world of today and has entered into all the structures of daily life. It can
be used and in fact is being used as a means of education. So the role
of mass media in education is gaining importance every day.
2.3 Importance of Mass Media:
1. Mass Media provide information to the mass within a less time.

2. It takes a wide coverage of information regarding anything that is
happening in any corner of the world.
3. It brings the entire world to the individual or to the classroom.
Children spend hours together sitting in front of the television and can
visualize, hear and acquire knowledge about the world.
4. These media easily reach groups, allow repeated use, give more
reality, influence attitudes, show cause and effect relationships and
ultimately motivate the audience.
5. It sends information to remote places and helps in distant learning.
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6. It helps in modification of attitudes, inculcation of desirable values
and acquaintance with cultural heritage.
7. Mass media acts as an agency of social change.

8. Mass media are useful for reinforcing group dynamics and
interpersonal communication.
9. Mass media as means of communication makes ideas clear to

children and help them to acquire correct knowledge. They help in
simplifying and in giving vividness to explanation.
10. Mass Media makes the instruction concrete and stimulates

interest and excite curiosity in things.
“Education today, therefore, has a far greater responsibility than it had

ever before. It has to meet the demands of a dynamic world which
changes its character every day. Contemporary education has to be
more comprehensive and complete than it was ever before. The role of
the various agencies of education like home, society, community etc.
has consequently increased. The role of the mass media like television,
radio, cinema, newspaper has also increased.” So now-a-day, press,
radio, cinema, television, etc. are becoming more and more important in
an individual‟s life.
Mass media in education are press, radio, motion-picture, television, etc.

Mass media are many and these are technically called passive agencies
of education. They influence the attitude and behavior of the people
indirectly. These agencies cover entertainment, informatory propaganda,
historical record, education and improvement of moral judgment and
moral tone of the people.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
3.Which is Formal Agencies
a) Family
b) libraries
c) community
d) religion
4. Mass Media provide information to the mass within a more time.

True or False
UNIT 3 PHILOSOPHIES OF EDUCATION
The philosophy of education is a significant area of study both for

Western and Indian philosophers.
 Explain various views in Education (Idealistic, Naturalistic,
Realistic, Pragmatic, Existentialist)
The Western Perspective
Philosophy of education was not systematically set forth before

the twentieth century. In the west only Plato who produced a notable
philosophy of education (in his “Republic") in pre-twentieth century. He
was the first systematic philosopher to work in this field. Plato along with
John Dewey believed that philosophy of education occupied a central
place in philosophical thought. Dewey, in fact, once suggested that
“philosophy may even be defined as the general theory of education” As
we progress, we will discuss the different views of philosophy of
education in the Western and the Indian perspectives.
The western philosophy of education is divided based on the
origin of reality. The origin of reality to the idealistic philosopher is quite
different from the realistic or the pragmatic philosophers. Therefore the
perspective towards life for the idealistic philosopher is also different
from the other philosophers. Depending on the perspective towards life,
the aim of education is also different for the different philosophers.
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Therefore the division of western philosophy based on the theory of
reality has been observed in the following discussion.
3.1 Idealistic View in Education

The idealists believe that the soul is immortal, the world of ideas
is the real world and this world of ideas is not the world of senses. Mind
possesses the important power of thought. Butler maintains that
Descartes‟ dictum “I think, therefore I am”, is the first step toward all
knowledge.
Idealist defines man, in terms of mental activity, who must
recognize a mode of knowing other than experiences. H. H. Horne
insisted that the mind goes beyond experience in many instances. For
example, when the mind studies or examines the conditions of
experience itself, it is going beyond experience. Only due to mental
consciousness does one know that he is experiencing something.
Therefore reasoning, intuition etc. are modes of knowing for the
idealists.
Self-realization is the ultimate aim of idealistic philosophy of

education. It is a lifetime process and combines the efforts of the home,
church, school and other educational agencies. For Christian Idealists
this aim includes the ultimate union with God. The responsibility of
school is the pursuit of knowledge and the cultivation of the mind. Proper
attention is also given to the total behavioral pattern of the individual.
The Idealist do not object to the schools‟ attempting to develop physical
fitness, social efficiency and vocational competence of the individual.
But, for the idealists the intellectual studies are primary, because they
are concerned with changeless essences, universals and concepts.
In the West, Plato, for the first time introduced the philosophy of
education based on the philosophy of idealism. Plato and Aristotle were
basically concerned with the epistemological and teleological questions
such as “how is teaching possible?” or “what is education for?” Plato‟s
scheme of education is best described in his “Republic”. According to
Plato, the aim of education should be for the “safety of the unity of the
state, development of the qualities of citizenship, development of faith in
truth, goodness and beauty, development of personality, preservation of
social classes and development of human qualities.” Plato insisted that
true knowledge must be elicited from within and sought for in ideas and
not in particulars of senses. Production of the right type citizen (who is
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socially, economically, intellectually and politically useful and fit) is the
aim of education.
Plato‟s actual educational practices were derived from his theory

of ideas. Ideas constitute the important content of education. Man‟s
superior faculties are attributed to the soul (mind and reason) and
inferior attributes to the body (evil, change, corruption and the like). The
things of the mind are the concern of education. Other activities belong
to man's lower nature and should not be dignified by the term education.
Rather they should be called training, in the sense that one speaks of
training an animal.
Though he emphasized on the state and its safety, Plato, also
looks it the whole man and makes him realize his true nature. Again, the
Idealistic philosophy of education defends the inherent worth of the
individual and care for the dignity and value of human life. Idealism
believes that, man realizes the spiritual nature of the Divine Being.
Therefore, the educational aim is „man making‟ in its highest capacity.
Even though his specific plan was never put into practice, Plato‟s
view of society as an ordered division of classes. It has been the ideal of
educational conservatives throughout the ages. Like Plato, the medieval
educator believed that only the intellectuals should receive advanced
education. The modern conservatisms also accepted the divisions,
especially at the higher levels and called for a very rigorous selection of
candidates for advanced study according to their intellectual capacities.
Plato emphasizes on individual differences which means no human
nature is common to all men. But all men possess the same
fundamental powers of the soul. But the differences are the harsh
realities with which the rulers and educators must work. Again Plato
asserts that man‟s will is free. Recognition of the freedom of the will
shows man‟s responsibility for his actions and the attendant reward or
punishment for good and bad behaviour.
Another idealistic philosopher H. H. Horne, a professor at New
York University, thinks that, “The learner is a finite person, growing,
when properly educated, into the image of an infinite person, that his
real origin is deity, that his nature is freedom and that his destiny is
immortality.” Since the idealist defines man in terms of mental activity,
saying that he must recognize a mode of knowing aspects other than
experience. Horne insisted that the mind goes beyond experience in
many instances, for example, when the mind studies or examines the
conditions of experience itself, it is going beyond experience. Only due
to his mental consciousness can one know, what he is experiencing.
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Man constructs his view of the world outside himself. Thus, experience
does not determine what the mind knows.
Need of curriculum is another great factor for Horne. He

suggested that the criteria for selection of curricular content should be
the abilities and needs of the learner and secondly the requirements of
society and thirdly the nature of the universe in which we live. Meeting
the student‟s needs calls for work in the science (knowing), arts (feeling)
and the practical arts (doing or willing). Physics, chemistry, biology,
sociology, and similar courses give the student the knowledge of the
external world. Appreciation of music, drama, literature and the like,
assists man to make proper emotional adjustment to the world around
him. Finally vocational education provides him with the skills necessary
to maintain his own life as well as to become a productive member of the
society. Curriculum provided by Idealists is traditional in character. But
they liberally granted vocational education also. However, Horne
disagreed with Dewey and other liberals who ranked practical and
intellectual studies equally.
Horne gave one of the first systematic reactions against the

liberal philosophy of Dewey. Dewey advocated that the dualism of mind
and body is responsible for the insignificance of society and education.
Like Dewey, Home was critical of the liberalism of Rousseau, Herbert
and Spencer. He has used Dewey‟s “Democracy and Education” as a
text for his courses in the philosophy of education, ever since its
appearance. Horne disagreed with Dewey‟s basic philosophical position,
although he did grant that Dewey proposed the most significant change
in educational theory since Plato. For students to have some basis for
contrasting Dewey‟s educational philosophy with another system, Horne
published a book titled “The Democratic Philosophy o f Education -
Companion to Dewey‟s Democracy and education.
3.2 Naturalistic View in Education
The naturalistic philosophy of education is as old as idealistic

philosophy of education as it lays emphasis upon nature in every field of
education. The naturalistic philosophers of education derive the aims
and ideals, the means the methods of teaching and the principles of
curriculum and school management from the nature. The ancient
atomistic naturalism was presented by Democritus. Democritus
explained the composition of universe in terms of innumerable,
indivisible and indestructible atoms. This materialistic explanation of the
world was the ground of naturalism in education. Rousseau and Herbert
19
Spencer contributed a lot in the field of philosophy of education. Their
main emphasis was on the methodology and educational setting based
on naturalism.
According to Rousseau, education depends on the role of three
teachers in co-operation with one another. They are Nature, Man and
Things. What Rousseau thinks about the role of nature in the education
of child is an outcome of his concept of nature, which is enjoyable, living,
harmoniously balanced, useful, sympathetic and unexpressive methods
of education for child development Observation of nature therefore
becomes an essential factor in education. Rousseau says, “Observe
nature and follow the way she traces for you, she is ever urging children
to involve in activity, she hardens them by presenting them with all kinds
of difficulty, she teaches them very early as to what it is to suffer and
know grief”
The negative education that Rousseau indicates about the
education and about the child is based on the theory that he learns
where no one teaches. He gets worthy dividends from the capital of his
secondary experience which is never guided by any precept from the
teacher as such. “The new born infant is straight away a pupil not of a
tutor but of nature.” Rousseau therefore allows total freedom of
development of the child with all his activities in the ideal atmosphere of
nature that is his only nature. Rousseau whole heartedly believes that
education is a development from within and so, the child should be
allowed to develop by himself the innate capacities. The vast resource of
wisdom and experience is the only great book for him to learn. Only
facts are necessary for him, to learn and whatever instruction is to be
given is only to be directed as a means to an end and never an end in
itself.
Children are, Rousseau says, nothing but plants. The duty of one
interested in the education of the child is primarily to actively and
sincerely play the role of a gardener. As plants require appropriate and
careful cultivation for their normal growth and development children in
the same way require good education in the threefold avenue, to shield
them against all corruptions, to cultivate their sense of duty and to
enable each of them to cultivate and develop the body and the minds by
means of careful and cautious exercise of the sense organs. When
Rousseau speaks on negative education he emphasizes on losing time
rather than saving time as one of the most fundamental rules of
education.
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3.3 Realistic view in Education
Realism is an outcome of scientific development. This theory is

against spiritualism and opposed to idealism. The realistic philosophers
of education give importance to scientific process and say that after
scientific analysis of natural interests of the child and society, it is
necessary to know which interest is common to both and is equally
beneficial. Realistic view is directly related to life and society. It tries to
bring all joys and happiness in society with the analysis of the real
problem of the society. The supporters of realism are - Johann Friedrich
Herbart and Herbert Spencer.
Johann Friedrich Herbart has tried to make the aim of education
to much realistic. But he also emphasized morality and character
development like the idealists. He talked of development of many sided
interests. He emphasizes that by analyzing the interests of children
scientifically an effort should be made to know which interest is for the
better welfare of the child and society. After determining this, interests
should be developed in the context of different circumstances of life. It
should be affected in a practical way with a realistic view.
Spencer accompanied with the view, that education teaches man
to lead a complete life. A man has five types of duties that includes self-
preservation, earning a living, fulfilling duties of regarding race
preservation, fulfilling duties of a citizen and utilization of leisure. For
these above activities, Spencer feels the necessity of the study of
science. For preservation of health teaching of hygiene and for earning a
living, teaching of mathematics logic, physics and biology is necessary.
This will enable children to make their knowledge practical and they will
be able to use it in different situations of life. Education for worthy
citizenship and political awakening is also important for them to be
saved from false propaganda. Spencer is of the view that children
should be taught history and life and character of great men with this
aim. He also wants the child to be provided happy recreation for the
proper use of his leisure. By adopting all possible means, he wants to
give such education to man as to enable him to lead a happy life.
3.4 Pragmatic View in Education
In pragmatism, no importance is attached to the impracticable

and to things which cannot fulfil some purpose. The pragmatic
philosophers of education give attention to the practical and useful
things. Practical and useful does not simply mean theoretical, but
21
induces to do useful and practical work. The education based on this
ideology makes the child worthy and independent of the society.
Pragmatic philosophers of education consider the aim, nature,
organization and order of education should be such that, it may do
maximum good of man.
John Dewey argued that the mind body (spirit matter) dualism of
classical philosophy is responsible for the unnatural cleavages in society
and education such as labour-leisure, practical-intellectual, man-nature,
culture-vocation, subject matter- method, ends-means and others.
Dewey rejected the notion that the human mind is endowed from birth
with reasoning power or that its origin is in the spiritual soul. Mind is not
different from the body but one with it. All of main functions are natural
and none are supernatural. Dewey‟s denial of the validity of all kinds of
dualism is the touchstone of his educational philosophy. For him, the
removal of this unnatural dualism would give unity to education and life.
Dewey expected for a new system of education. In his "My
Pedagogic Creed" he argued that the demands of social situations
stimulated the child to act as a member of a unity, rather than as an
isolated individual. This social stimulation presses him to act for the
welfare of the group to which he belongs. Even the child‟s natural
instincts and tendencies must be directed into social useful channels. In
his own words Dewey wrote, “Education must begin with a psychological
insight into the child‟s capacities, interests and habits. These powers,
interests, and habits must be continually interpreted and we must know
what they mean. They must be translated into terms of their social
equivalents and into terms of what they are capable of in the way of
social service. The child has his own instincts and tendencies, but we do
not know what these mean until we can translate them into their social
equivalents. We must be able to carry them as the inheritance of
previous race activities. We must also be able to project them into the
future to see what their outcome and end will be.” It is, therefore,
impossible to determine the potentialities of an individual, unless he is
acting with others for the good of the group.
In rejecting the conservative notion that man is born with a
readymade mind which absorbs stimuli and knowledge from an
environment, he insisted that different people react to situations in
different ways because of the social milieu. Therefore, Dewey believes
that an individual derives his mental powers and other traits from
society. Therefore educational activities are of prime importance in
making man what he is.
22
For Dewey social freedom has important implications for
education. He believes that freedom consists in the ability to interact with
others in the various social groups which make up the human society.
Man‟s choice are almost entirely determined by environment and
training. Dewey‟s conception of human freedom tends to offset (do good
or balance) the extreme emphasis on individual freedom found in the
child-cantered school of the early liberals. It attempts to harmonize
individual freedom with social responsibility. It recognizes that to a great
intend, man acts in response to his environment, but, also possesses
the power to improve that environment for himself and others.
Neither Spencer nor Dewey believes Rousseau and his
followers, that the child could do no evil if left to follow his natural
tendencies. For them (Dewey and Spencer) man‟s nature was neither
innately good nor evil, but neutral. Hence it is important to provide the
proper environment in the school and the home so that the child‟s
behaviour will be directed along socially acceptable lines. Dewey
defended it in this way, “social environment forms the mental and
emotional disposition of behaviour in individuals by engaging them in
activities that arouse and strengthen certain impulses that have certain
purposes and entail certain consequences.”
Rousseau, Pestalozzi and other early liberals had initiated the

struggle against the conservative notion of education according to social
classes. But they never adopted a thorough going democratic
philosophy of education. Dewey‟s “Democracy and Education" is the first
treatise in the history of education which set out to dethrone the
“Republic” and “Laws of Plato” from their position of supremacy in
educational thought. Whereas Plato had taught that all men by nature
fall into three distinct classes and only one of these classes is fit to rule,
Dewey argued that all men have the potential to direct their own
activities in association with other equals. He repudiated the view, that
there is any authority external to that of the people themselves. Each
individual, then, in association and communication with others is equal to
all others with respect to rights, privileges and responsibilities.
Obviously, he concluded, a democratic society must see to it that equal
educational opportunities are available to all so that proper direction may
be given to all the affairs of individual and group living. Dewey advocates
that a democracy is more than a form of government. It is primarily a
mode of associated living and of conjoint communicated experience.
A.N. Whitehead did not consider that both reason and

experience (including science) are valid modes of knowing. Whitehead
23
added another dimension of knowing, that is the artistic. Man, he
explained, is employing the artistic mode when he relies upon feelings,
sensations, emotions and intuition rather than upon abstract reasoning
or the scientific method. In his own words, “Culture is activity o f thought,
and receptiveness to beauty and human feeling. A merely well -informed
man is the most useless on God‟s earth. What we should aim at
producing are men who possess both culture and expert knowledge in
some special direction. It is not what they are at eighteen. It is what they
become afterwards that matters.”
Whitehead defines education as “the acquisition of the art of the
utilization of knowledge must be utilized for survival in a scientific age.
He also believes that education is a lifelong process which
encompasses all aspects of human living.
Prof. Henry W. Holmes has analyzed the educational philosophy
of White head into four main postulates.
a. Process b. Utility c. Rhythm d. Ends of Education
Process means the living process. It includes the living, growing

and developing of the children. It is based on the present, not only on
past or future. It includes self activity.
Utility means living utility of education. Whitehead holds that

education has individual and national importance.
Rhythm is the living rhythm of education. Education must take
cognizance of the rhythmic character of growth. Periodic rise and fall of
energy, interest and power of attention are not to be overlooked. There
should be a balance between organized thought and social demands.
Rhythmic claims of child development are to be taken care of.
Educational ends should be based on the living religion, living
aesthetic enjoyment living courage and living quality of final education
ends.
Whitehead stands for culture and expert knowledge, sense of
style, and fashioning of power and restraining of power through
education. He does not favour too many subjects in the curriculum.
Various subjects should be organized and then be included in the
curriculum.
Whitehead again does not refer to educational literature or

research. He does not mention about individual differences or nature of
learning. No mention is made about the administration of schools or
24
economic and social aspects of education. Utility means living utility of
education. Whitehead holds that education has individual and national
importance.
Rhythm is the living rhythm of education. Education must take
cognizance of rhythmic character of growth. Periodic rise and fall of
energy, interest and power of attention are not to be overlooked. There
should be a balance between organized thought and social demands.
3.5 Existentialist View in Education
Existentialist philosophers of education approach towards the

humanistic aim of truth. The aim of education is the realization of inner
truth. Education provides the knowledge of self-existence and self-
realization. The student have their own facilities and immense
possibilities. The teacher helps the student to become what they want
and for himself but in doing that the teacher should not impose on the
student. It should be general and permissive in character, so that the
freedom of the student is not hampered. Existentialist philosophers of
education claim that the self is authentic which is related to facility and
possibility. They believe that the moral and religious education develop
the inner self and help in the realization of the infinite within the finite.
The existentialists particularly have laid emphasis upon religious and
moral education. Religion, allows a person to develop himself. Religious
education gives him an understanding of his existence in the cosmos. It
shows the religious path of self realization. It also makes him capable of
utilizing faith in self-dependence. Moral education is closely related to
religious education.
Existentialistic educators appreciated the Socratic Method as the

humanistic approach to philosophy of education. Socrates neither
established any school nor delivered lectures for the purpose of
education or examination. His method of teaching was confined to
asking questions and developing the issue till the conclusion is reached.
He himself pleaded ignorance and sought enlightenment from those with
whom he conversed. Existential philosophy seems to advocate Socratic
Method as a model.
Soren Kierkegaard, Karl Jaspers and Jean-Paul Sartre assert
that, childhood is a reality and it needs proper care, love and affection.
The child is born innocent He needs the aid of education for proper
growth of maturity and mastering the world. Children should never be
treated as objects. They should be allowed to develop their effective
25
behaviour especially by play and passion. Children have a spirit of
enquiry. They need encouragement from the teacher. Teachers are not
to impose any artificial standards on children.
As other schools of philosophy of education, existentialism also
believes that the purposes of education will vary with the age level of the
child. The main purposes of education are to inspire the child to know
himself. It should develop the child‟s capacity to reason and to solve his
various problems. The children should be taught to carry on meaningful
conversation and they should be made to realize their own
responsibilities.
Keeping the aim of all round development of the children the
existentialist philosophers of education suggested for the related
curriculum. Only scientific knowledge is not sufficient for student.
Science cannot help in inner realization and achievement of peace.
Besides science, the curriculum must include humanities, ethics and
religion. It should vary according to the age level of the children.
Humanities subjects are recognized as, valuable and important by Sartre
and Heidegger. Sartre believes that one should learn language before
his own potentialities. “I am what I say” is the declaration of Heidegger.
Sartre accepted aesthetic subject matter such as arts music and myths
as the sources of truth. Jaspers‟ importance was in, genuine science
along with anthropology and history. Modern science and technology is
also recognized as the important subject matter of education.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Notes: a) Write your answer in the space gigtven below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the
Block.
5. The……………………. believe that the soul is immortal
a) Naturalist
b) Realist
c) idealists
d) pragmatist
6. What is the aim of Pragmatic philosophers of education?

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
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UNIT 4 CLASSICAL INDIAN PERSPECTIVE
This Unit deals with the education during Vedic period, Medieval period
and modern period.
 explain the educational system during vedic period
 describe the education during Jainisma nd Budhism period

 narrate the education system during modern period
4.1 Vedanta Dharsan (Vedic period in Education)
In ancient India knowledge of the sacred Veda is recognized as

the second birth and the father of the birth is the teacher who imparted
knowledge of Vedas. So the teacher, is respected as pivot of whole
educational system. The ancient philosophy of education is especially
spiritual or idealistic in nature. The basic aim of Vedic education is to
attain liberation or Moksa. The Smkhya system also follows the Vedic
view of liberation as the aim of education. The Samkhya philosophy of
education believes that the deliverance or liberation is possible by
understanding the difference between Prakriti or matter and the Purusha
or soul. So education for Samkhya is to enable individuals to understand
the difference between matter and soul in order that he may get rid
himself of the miseries of the world. And to attain this practice, yoga is
necessary.
Education in Upanishadic philosophy of education is related to
social norms and it tried to conserve the cultural tradition of the society
of those days. The society was divided on the basis of „Vamas‟ and
„Ashramas‟. It tries to bring about social change and not only conserve
the social ethos. Aims suggested by Upanishadic philosophy of
education are
a. Character building.
b. Development of personality.
c. Knowledge of social roles and status
d. Vocational efficiency.
e. National integration.
Upanishadic aim of „philosophy of education‟ is therefore not one
sided. It emphasized an all-round development of a person. Its methods
27
are discussion method, questioning, induction and deduction. It is also
well known for its commentaries, illustrations, descriptions, narratives
and practical demonstrations.
Education in the Vedic period was influenced and shaped by the
Ashramas and the stages of a man‟s life that included brahmacharya (as
a student), garhasthya (as a householder), vSnaprastha (as a recluse),
and shannyasa (as a religious mendicant). These four stages were
integrally woven into a path to liberation or moksha. The foundation of
this path consisted in the brahmachari‟s entire approach to life and God.
Hence the significance of his introduction to the Vedic scriptures and all
the learning he did of the brahminic mantras and sutras (sacred
formulae and texts). Education was thus, not a thing to end with the first
stage but was only an introduction to the other stages of life. It was a
gradual and a lingering process of unfolding the spiritual personality to
the ultimate goal of self realization.
In Vedic philosophy the four purusharthas or aims of life have a
determining influence on the human individual. They are: artha (wealth),
kama (satisfaction of sense-desires), dharma (righteousness), and
moksha (liberation). The ashramas and the purusharthas together
provide the righteous direction for the common man to the ultimate goal
of life. At the level of brahmacharya, education, the student under the
teacher learns and practices the righteous and legitimate use of material
wealth. Wealth is used as a means and not an end in itself. Again he is
educated to make the righteous use of the sense faculties and derive
righteous enjoyment of life. Dharma designates the traditionally
„established order‟ which includes all duties, individual, social or
religious. Dharma includes all forms of righteous thought and deed.
These three leads to the moksha.
In ancient education system, Brahmacharya is compulsory for
students, which is very strict and with high moral discipline. The method
of instruction of education was generally oral. According to Chandogya
Upanishad the student has to serve the teacher by tending his cattle,
beg for food and announce it to the teacher and look after his sacred
fires and learn to Vedas. Besides these, the rules concerning his
conduct towards the teacher, the teachers wife and son, showing
respect, the food, drinks and actions allowed or prohibitednto students
are too numerous to be set out in detail. The student should speak the
truth, bathe every day, should not look at the sun, should avoid honey,
flesh, perfumes, the wearing of flowers, sleeping by day, rubbing oil on
the body, putting collyrium in the eyes, going in a cart, wearing shoes
28
and holding an umbrella, love affairs, anger, covetousness, infatuation,
vain discussions, playing on musical instruments, luxurious baths with
hot water, meticulous cleansing of the teeth, ecstatic status of mind,
dancing, singing, calumny of others, dangerous places, gazing at
woman or touching young women, gambling, serving a low person (or
doing very low work) injuring animals, obscene or harsh talk and non-
consumption of wine.
In Vedic education, it is accepted that knowledge can be gained
by three steps, Shravana or hearing, Manana or memorizing and
Dhyana or meditation. That was a major contribution of the Vedic period
to education. It was the primary duty of students to listen to recitation of
the Vedic scriptures. Shravana had special Vedic significance. The fruits
and the effect of the sacred rituals and sacrifices greatly depended on
the nature of the recitation. As reading materials were rare the principal
learning technique was listening.
Manana was the next method of learning. Student had to
memorize the sacred verses. Manana, is therefore the technique of
retaining and storing the sacred verses on one hand and interpretations
of these on the other.
The most significant method was dhyana or reflection. This is the
climatic mental exercise needed as part of the process of learning.
Dhyana means reflection on the meaning and applications on the sacred
verses. At an advanced level, dhyana amounts to meditation undertaken
by more advanced ascetics. Training in dhyana provided to students, is
a unique opportunity for imbibing the sacred principles of Hinduism in
general and of dharma in particular. Through constant reflection on
these principles it was supposed that a greater sense of commitment to
them would be developed. Therefore through the learning of the sacred
verses or religious rituals, the system of Vedic education aimed at the
development of the whole man: body mind and spirit.
But, in this philosophy of education the method of gaining
knowledge is theoretical. But Yoga system of philosophy of education is
different from other ancient system as it is theoretical as well as
practical. The aim of yoga is to control one‟s desires and aspirations. It is
to remove ignorance and to achieve wisdom. Teaching and practice of
yoga helps to acquaint students with the eight factors of yoga which are
known as Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, Dharana,
Dhyana and Samadhi. Practice of yogvais necessary for one‟s general
progress for the improvement of physical and spiritual aspect. It also
helps to solve mental and other problems of life.
29
Educational amplification of Gita again shows that education is
nothing but which enables one to see the existence of God in the soul of
each living being. In Gita the ideals of education are as follows:
1. Development of virtuous knowledge.
2. Development of personality and its refinement.
3. Harmony between the individual and social aims.

4. Development of intellect and reasoning ability.
5. Establishment of importance of one‟s duty.
6. Development of Inner consciousness.

The Gits advocates all round development of the learner. It
emphasized on the virtuous knowledge. Virtuous knowledge is that by
which we feel unity in diversity and see the abode of God in every
creature. Thus according to the Gita, education is that which, enables
one to see the existence of God in the soul of each living being. To
achieve this goal Gita suggests the personal and intellectual
development of the individual. Again Gita emphasizes on one‟s duty for
two purposes. First is for individual importance and second for social
responsibility. But without inner consciousness and knowledge he
cannot perform his own duty. Therefore the purpose of teaching of Gita
is the overall development of the individual.
4.2 Jainism and Budhism (Medieval period of Education)
In India the medieval history is witnessed into two faces: the

period of Buddhism and Jainism (about 600 B.C to 300 AD) and the
period of Muslim rule (1200-1757).
Jainism and Buddhism accepted non-violence as the aim of
education. Buddha emphasized on liberation as the ultimate goal and
knowledge and law of Karma as the means of liberation. It is the
liberation from the cycle of birth and death which is emancipation.
Therefore knowledge of the four supreme truths leads to emancipation.
These truths (aryasatyas), known as four noble truths are
1. This world is full of miseries (dukha)
2. Ignorance is the cause of miseries (dokhasamudaya)

3. There are cessation of miseries (dukhanirodha) and
4. There are ways to get rid of miseries (dukha-nirodh-marg).
30
By advocating these four noble truths according to Buddha the
ultimate aim of education can be achieved.
The religious aspirations and reaction of common men gave rise

to Buddhism and Jainism whose founders attempted to bring religion
down to the common man, place greater insistence on morality, self
control and good works, give more rational interpretation to human life
and satisfy the aspirations of all common man to believe in a personal
God.
During the Muslim ruling period in Indian history it was the mixed
educational system of Vedic and Islamic education. The Islamic
education flourished in India for a period of about five hundred years.
This period continued till the advent of British in India who started the
modern education.
In this period the aim of philosophy of education was derived
from the aim of the religion. The teaching of the Koran was brought to
focus. Again the aim is based on the practical skill for the social, cultural
and economic development. Both the Vedic and Islamic education was
influenced by their respective scriptures. The state provided aids to
Moktabs and were regularly given financial aid, the bigger institutions
were granted landed property for a permanent financial provision. The
Kings always gave status of eminence to scholars in their codes. Most of
the Madrasas and Moktabs were connected with Mosques. Therefore
the institutions were mainly meant for Muslim students.
The significance of reading writing and teaching in Islam is
obvious because, the very first message of Allah to his Prophet
Muhammad is in regard to reading, writing and teaching. Therefore in
Koran also the first priority is given to the education and the attaining
knowledge. To seek knowledge is a religious duty for every Muslim.
In medieval period the philosophy of education was not
influenced by secular education. The concept of secular education
started in the British period of education. All education was influenced by
religion since ancient to modern times. While the Hindus were instructed
by Hindu scriptures and sacred books, Muslim, Jainism and Buddhism
also followed their own scriptures.
The medieval period of philosophy of education had two aims,
one the propagation of the fundamental tenets and teachings of religion
and the others to make the student practically successful in deferent
vocations. The educational institutions, therefore used to teach various
arts and skills, such as sculptures, agriculture, medicine, painting, house
31
building and various types of crafts. Military science formed an important
part of curriculum everywhere since wars were usual phenomena.
Again the humanist tread is also unavoidable in the medieval

period. Some Muslim kings did try to propagate only Islamic teachings
through education. Others gave generous aids to Hindu pathsalas also.
The syllabi of medieval institutions included literature, grammar, logic,
philosophy, mathematics, law, astrology, history, geography, agriculture,
medicine etc. The medium of instruction in the Hindu institutions was
Sanskrit or regional languages and in the Muslim institutions Arabic and
Parsi. The method of teaching had an important role on memorization in
addition to the three R that included reading writing and arithmetic.
4.3 Modern period in Education
In India modern education started under the British rule. As the

Indian people educated in Hindu and Muslims institutions were not
useful for working at the British Government, therefore Lord Macaulay
drew up a plan of Western oriented education in India. On February 8,
1835, Macaulay presented his historical „minuets‟, making a bitter attack
upon Indian literature and culture. He laid stress on what he called
religious objectivity which meant the duty of England to teach Indians
what was good for their health. The policy developed on the basis of
Macaulay‟s educational views that gave primacy to the propagation of
European literature and science, suspension of scholarships for
students, neglect of publication of Eastern literature and encouragement
to propagation of English literature. This policy was accepted by Lord
Bentinck. English education in India was useful and professional and
vocational institutions started to provide education in medicine,
engineering law and other specialized areas.
The aim of British education was mainly creation of cogs for the
British machinery in India. However, along with the study of Western
language and literature, the study of oriental literature was also given a
place in the curriculum. Both English and Indian languages were
accepted as the medium of instruction.
Education under British control ended with the independence of
India on 15 August, 1947 and with it ended the period of modern Indian
education as distinguished from the contemporary period. The British
Educational system initiated Western influence of education in India. It
created social and political awareness in the country. It inspired literary
and cultural consciousness and developed nationalistic feelings.
32
However, it was definitely British oriented in order to serve British
interest, colonial in aim and practice. The Christian missionaries and the
British administrators encouraged Christian teachings in institutions.
All the traditionalists and the Western oriented Indian thinkers of
education criticized the British philosophy of education. They could
clearly see that, its aims and means were against national interest. The
philosophers of education of young India tried to reconstruct the values,
ideals and systems of education in India suitable to their culture and
philosophy. Therefore, long before India achieved freedom, these
illustrious thinkers particularly Swami Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo and
R.N. Tagore criticized the prevalent philosophy of education and
presented alternative philosophies. The reformists including Raja Ram
Mohan Roy, Annie Besant, M.G. Ranade and others asked for reforms
in education. The philosophers of education suggested plans for national
education. By education, Radhakrishnan means the process by which
we conserve valuable elements in our culture and discard the wasteful.
Though nationalists are in orientation and reformists in purpose,
contemporary Indian philosophers of education differed in their sources
of inspiration. While Vivekananda, Sri Aurobindo, Dayananda, Gandhi, R
N Tagore and Radhakrishnan drew inspiration from Indian philosophy,
J.L. Nehru and M.N. Roy were inspired by the Western philosophy of
education. Thus, the first group belongs to the traditional group of
contemporary Indian philosophers of education. Their roots were found
in ancient Indian philosophy education. They have interpreted the old
knowledge and principles in the light of new knowledge and in the
context of contemporary circumstances.
Like ancient Indian philosophy of education, traditional group of

contemporary philosopher of education also drew inspiration from
Vedanta philosophy. It only re-interpreted the ancient Vedanta
philosophy in the light of new knowledge. Therefore this is called Neo-
Vedantic philosophy. It is new since it synthesizes religion and science,
ancient Indian wisdom and modern Western thought. It accepted the
educational philosophy presented in different scriptures, suggesting
modifications according to contemporary conditions. For example
Gandhi‟s philosophy of education is based on socio-economic condition
of that time. He synthesizes the swadesi and svadharma and world
brotherhood and internationalism in the same field. But their thinking
was not conservative, narrow or reactionary. They presented a
philosophy of education founded upon man‟s states in the cosmos and
the human nature.
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Again contemporary Indian philosophers of education supported
an integral approver in almost every field of education, the aims, the
means, the curriculum, the teacher- student relationship, teaching
methods, school administration etc. It gives equal values of all types of
education. They also presented very pragmatic and practical scheme of
education though rooted in Vedanta idealism.
The second group consists of J.L. Nehru and M.N. Roy who were
well-versed in Western thought. They founded their educational
humanism on the Western naturalistic humanism. It is different from
religious humanism and based on general ideas, social and political
theory. They have firsthand knowledge of contemporary Indian politics
and presented philosophies of education in the context of their general
schemes of social and political reformation. Jawaharlal Nehru has
accepted education as the most important means to social change.
Education is the means to socialization, the tool which trains citizens in
the art of thinking. Education is the most important requisite, according
to Nehru, to open up the individual. Freedom from ignorance is as
essential as freedom from hunger.For economic and political reformation
improved human relations are also required. Social development is
inconceivable without mental development and broadening of mental
horizon achieves the spirituality. So education aims for the victory of the
mind and soul over lifeless matter. Nehru said, "Unless this conflict of
the spirit is solved there is going to be no peace in any country"
M.N. Roy is against any compulsion in education, because

compulsion is against liberty. Education should help man and women to
think rationally and to decide themselves, about the problems to be
solved. General education by government is the mental slavery which
promotes the masses to sing songs of patriotism, to salute the national
flag, to study the history edited by government and to work collectively to
achieve success of the state. This kind of national education is not true
democratic education.
Neither explaining his democratic new educational system, Roy
pointed out that as a pre-condition of democracy education is not
primary education nor is it traditional, higher or scientific education. It is
the process of raising the intellectual and cultural level of the masses.
Therefore, so long as the moral and cultural level of the people does not
rise, the aim of education is not realized. The aim of education is not
merely to provide the three R‟s but to create among the people a
consciousness towards humanity. It is the consciousness towards its
rights to be human beings and the consciousness of its excellence and
34
dignity. The purpose of education is to help them in utilizing their reason
in this thinking. Only this type of education leads to a real democracy not
only in a nation but in the whole world.
J. Krishnamurti believes that education helps in discovering the
significance of life. He said, “We may be highly educated, but if we are
without deep integration of thought and feeling, our lives are incomplete,
contradictory and torn with many fears. And as long as education does
not cultivate an integrated outlook on life, it has very little significance.”
For him to understand life, is to understand ourselves and that is both
the beginning and the end of education. Intelligence is the capacity to
perceive the essential, what is and to awaken this capacity, in oneself
and in others, is through education. The purpose of education is not to
produce mere scholars, technicians, and job hunters, but integrated men
and women who are free of fear. For only between such human beings
can there be enduring peace. Education should not encourage the
individual to conform to society or to be negatively harmonious with it,
but help him to discover the true values which come with unbiased
investigation and self-awareness.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

7. Jainism and Buddhism accepted………………………. as the aim of
education
a) violence
b) Danger
c) peace
d) Non-violence
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UNIT 5 INDIAN PHILOSOPHERS
5.1 CONTRIBUTION OF SRI AUROBINDO TO EDUCATION
Aurobindo was born in an educated middle class family in

Calcutta on 15th Aug. 1972. He went to England at the age of 7 and
lived there for 14 years. He received his education at Cambridge. At the
age of 18, he passed the entrance examination of the Indian Civil
Service.
Besides English, he mastered Latin and Greek languages as well

as learnt French, German and Spanish. In 1893, on his return from
England, he joined as professor of English at Baroda College in Gujarat.
Besides devoting himself to cultural and literary activities, learnt Bengali,
Gujarati, Marathi and Sanskrit. He joined the Indian National Congress
and became an active freedom fighter. He was a revolutionary and was
disappointed with the Moderates of the Indian National Congress. He
started the Bengali daily “Yugantar and English daily Bande Mataram” to
promote his revolutionary ideas. He was considered one of the most
dangerous leaders by the British government. From a revolutionary
freedom fighter, he became a philosopher and seer. In 1908, he was
sent to jail for the Alipore Bomb case. During this time, he turned to
yoga, meditation and study of religious, philosophical and spiritual
literature. This changed him a lot. He went to Pondicherry and spent his
remaining 40 years in his Ashram there. He changed himself and
involved in several educational and social activities. He proposed
theories of education which catered to Indian needs. He set up an
International Ashram and International Centre of education and social
activities. He also started a new experiment known as „Aurowill‟ as a city
of human unity.
Main Ideas of Aurobindo‟s philosophy
 Everyone has in him something Divine.
 The task is not to find it, butdevelop it and use it.
 This Divinity can be obtained by a spiritual discipline, called

yoga.
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 Aurobindo‟s concept of yoga is not that of a „sanyasi‟ who turns
away from life in order to turn towards God.
 Yoga is for the ordinary man, while he carries on his wordly

pursuits.
 If a merchant wishes to follow yoga, he regards his work as

Divine and does not use unfair practices to earn money.
 If a student looks for higher values, he must observe

„Brahmacharya‟ (self-control).
Aurobindo„s Views on Mind

His concept of mind is different from others. To him, the mind is the
primary means of manifestation in man. Mind is not a thing. It should not
be equated with the brain. It is a function or a process. The function of
mind expresses itself in higher mental processes in feelings, emotions,
attention, and memory etc. In his writings he brings out the different
planes of mind. They are:-
1) The ordinary mind

2) The higher mind
3) The illuminated mind
4) The intuitive mind
5) The over mind
6) The super mind.
Ordinary mind is divided into three different parts-thinking mind,

dynamic mind, and externalizing mind. The first is concerned with ideas
and knowledge, the second is concerned with forces of realization of
ideas, and the third with expression of them in life. Aurobindo also writes
about thinking mind and vital mind which may then be considered as
functions of mind. The action of the thinking mind is to doubt, to
question, to argue to reason, to be bold enough to reject if it is uncertain
and repeat the process again and again. Man„s mind is an imperfect
instrument to catch the full integral truth. According to Aurobindo, the
errors of conceptual mind must be corrected by the super mind which
acts as a link between sachidananda„ and universe, knowledge and
ignorance. Super mind is the divine gnosis (having special knowledge).
37
This super mind creates, governs and upholds the world. It is
omnipotent, omniscient and omnipresent. It is the Lord within. In it there
is no distinction of knowledge known or unknown. According to Sri
Aurobindo, super mind is a state of consciousness. One can acquire it
gradually. After acquiring it, one must use it for transforming his entire
being, his body, mind and soul which one attains through the super
mind. He becomes a superman, a janani„ or Gnostic at our own plane of
being. Ordinary mind can become a super mind by following yoga.
Integral Education
True education, according to Sri Aurobindo, is not only spiritual

but also rational, vital and physical. In other words it is integral
education. This integral education has been explained by Sri
Aurobindo„s closest collaborator, the Mother in these words. “Education
to be complete, must have five principal aspects relating to the five
principal activities of human being: the physical, the vital, the mental, the
psychic and the spiritual. This education is complete, complimentary to
each other and be continued till the end of life. Aurobindo„s scheme of
education is integral in two senses. Firstly, it is integral in the sense
inculcating all the five aspects of the individual being. Secondly, it is
integral in the sense of being an education not only for the evolution of
the individual alone, but also of the nation and finally of the humanity”.
The ultimate aim of education is the evolution of total humanity. In this
scheme of evolution, the principle of growth is unity in diversity. This
unity again, maintains and helps the evolution of diversity. The integral
school the ultimate aim of education is man-making. It prepares the
educand to work first as a human being and then as a member of a
nation and finally as an individual. The circles of moral responsibility and
loyalties proceed from wider to narrower and vice-versa. The man has to
develop first as a human being then as a citizen and finally as an
individual. Most of the present confusion of values is due to an inversion
of this order. That education which comes naturally, easily, effectively
and without strain is called integral education. Integral education is
complete education. Important aspects that constitute integral education
are:-
i. Strengthening of mental and physical aspects.

ii. Achievement of five principal aspects that include the physical,
vital, mental, psychic and spiritual. All the above five aspects
have to be developed together.
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iii. Development of the four aspects of truth namely, love,
knowledge, power, and beauty.
iv. Development of the vehicles of truth namely psychic for love,

mind for knowledge, vital for power and physical body for
expression of physical beauty.
Shri Aurobindo believes in these ultimate principles of

individuality, commonality and essentiality. These, in other words, are
the educand, the society and the humanity. Integral education, according
to him, must include evolution of all these three elements. These should
develop together. This is the purpose of the school. In his lectures at
Baroda college, Shri Aurbindo observed that the colleges and
universities should educate through their academics as well as through
social activities. The school cannot be isolated from society. If cannot
give total education in isolation. Its teachings have to be practiced in the
society outside it. In the integral school four types of rooms are required
to carry on various activities:
1. Rooms of silence,
2. Rooms of collaboration,
3. Rooms of consultation,
4. Lecture room.
Thus the, school will develop different types of activities such as

silence, collaboration, consultation and lectures. It will provide play,
activity, discovery, innovation and finally development of the powers of
the body, mind and spirit of the educand. In brief, the integral school will
provide opportunities for integral development. In fact, the aims,
curriculum and methods of teaching are in the light of these concepts of
integral education.
Aims of Education according to Integral Education:
Perfection of soul: The main aim of education is to help the

growing soul to draw out that is best and make it perfect for a noble
cause
Realization of inner self: Education should enable him to
realize his inner self which is a part of the universal consciousness. He
has to enter into right relationships not only within himself but also with
the people of country and with the universal society to which he belongs
39
Physical development: Physical development of the child is
another important aim of education. It will be misguiding to say that
those who are physically strong are mentally weak. Without physical
development no other development is possible.
Development of morality: Without moral and emotional
development, mental developmental becomes harmful to human
progress. The three essential factors for the moral development of a
child are emotions, impressions or habits and nature. So it is necessary
that the ideals of a teacher should be so high that the child by mere
imitation is able to reach higher stages of development.
The development of senses: Education should aim at the
training of senses. According to him senses can be trained fully when
manas, chitta and nerve are pure.
Development of consciousness: another important aim of
education is to develop consciousness. According to him it has four
levels. (i) Chitta (ii) Manas (iii) Intelligence (iv) Knowledge. A teacher
should develop all these four levels harmoniously. This will promote the
development of conscience.
Harmony of the individual and collectivity: Most of the socio-
political thinkers have either laid emphasis upon the individual or
collectivity. But Aurobindo aims at realization of harmony between
individuals and also between nations. His scheme of education therefore
is truly international. Explaining this ideal of Sri Aurobindo„s scheme, the
Mother said “For all world organizations, to be real and to be able to live,
must be based on mutual respect and understanding between nation
and nation as well as between individual and individual”. It is only in the
collective order and organization, in a collaboration based upon mutual
goodwill that lies the possibility of man being lifted of the painful chaos
where he is now. It is with this aim and in this spirit that all human
problems will be studied at the university centre, and their solution will
be given in the light of the supra-mental knowledge which Aurobindo has
revealed.
Cultivation of values: The present crisis of man is due to the
chaos of values. Old values have been challenged while new values
have not firmly taken their place. Character formation very much
depends on value. The supreme value in Sri Aurobindo„s thought is
harmony. Other values are spirituality, divinity, evolution, ascent,
transformation etc. the most important value required for all growth is
sincerity. Once that is developed, the rest follows.
40
Integral Curriculum:
Sri Aurobindo Ghosh prescribed a free environment for the
children to develop all the latent faculties to the full and suggested all
those subjects and activities of child„s interest to be included in the
principles of curriculum. All life is education. So curriculum is not
confined to a limited syllabus and a few text books. It should include all
those subjects which promote mental and spiritual development. It is a
means towards an end, not an end in itself, the end being the
development of integral personality. It should provide for leisure pursuits.
There should be flexibility to meet individual needs. Subjects of
curriculum should be able to motivate children. Curriculum should
involve creativity of life and constructive activities. Curriculum should be
interesting.
On the basis of the above principles, Aurobindo has prescribed the
following subjects in the curriculum
1. For primary stage: Mother Tongue, English, National History,

Art, Painting, General Science, Social Studies, and Arithmetic.
2. Secondary stage: Mother tongue, English, French, Arithmetic,
Art, Chemistry, Physics, Botany, Social Studies, Physiology, Health
Education.
3. University Stage: Indian and western philosophy, History of
Civilization, English, Literature, French, Sociology, Psychology, History
of Science, Chemistry, Physics, Botany, International relations and
integration.
4. Vocational Education: Arts, painting, photography, sewing,
sculptural, drawing, type, shorthand, collage industries, carpentry,
nursing, mechanical and electrical engineering, Indian and European
music, and dramatization.
Methods of Teaching:
The following principles of methods of teaching have been stressed by

Sri. Aurobindo.
1. Love and sympathy for the child
2. Education through mother tongue
3. Education according to the interests of the child
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4. Education through self experience
5. Emphasis on learning by doing
6. Education through co-operation of teacher and students in the

education process
7. Education according to the nature of child considering the
divinity in the child and latent gifts of mind and spirit
8. Freedom of child- free environment to gain more knowledge
through his own efforts.
Principles of Teaching and Learning:

The first principle is that nothing can be taught, but everything
can be earned. The teacher is a helper and guide, not an instructor or
task master. He doesn„t impart knowledge but shows him the way to
acquire Knowledge which is already within him.
The second principle is that the mind has to be consulted in its
growth. It is wrong to mould the child into the shape desired by the
parent or teacher ignoring and destroying the divine in the child. To face
the nature of the child to abandon its own dharma is to do permanent
harm, says Aurobindo.
The third principle of teaching is to work from near to far, from
the known to unknown. Education should be according to the nature of
the child. He says man„s nature is molded by his souls past, his heredity
and his environment. The past is the foundation, the present is the
material and the future is the aim and each should find its due place in
any national system of education.
Main Principles of Learning
 Concentration is the first principle of learning.

 „Abhyasa‟ or steady natural practice is the second principle of
learning.
The Teacher:
Sri Aurobindo has assigned a very important place to the

teacher. However, he has not made him central as in the ancient Indian
scheme. The teacher remains the philosopher and the guide. The Guru
does not have absolute authority. He aims at turning the disciple„s eye
42
towards the beacon light of his own Godhead. In fact the real teacher is
within the educand. He is the God. He is the ultimate guide and yet the
teacher plays an important role in arousing the educand towards God
within. He has cannot impose his opinions or demand passive surrender
from the educand. Sri Aurobindo compared the teacher to a gardener.
Sri Aurobindo emphasizes an inner relationship the educator and the
educand.
Describing as to who is a teacher, The Mother has laid down the

following qualifications.
• One must be a saint and a hero to become a good teacher.
• One must be a good yogi to become a good teacher.
• He should be absolutely disciplined and have an integrated
personality.
• He should be absolutely disciplined and have an integrated

personality.
• One must have the perfect attitude in order to be able to exact a
perfect attitude from one„s pupils.
• A teacher who does not possess a perfect calm, an unflinching
endurance and who are full of self-deceit will reach nowhere.
• He should be able to eliminate his ego, master his mind and

develop an insight into human nature.
• The most important thing in a teacher is not knowledge but the
attitude. • The teacher also should grow along with the pupils.
• The Mother says “If a teacher is to be respected, he must be
respectable”.
National System of Education:
Aurobindo strongly argued for national system of education

because, he found the defects in the prevailing system of education i.e.
denationalizing, degrading and impoverish the mind, soul and character.
Main Characteristics of the National System of Education:
Aurobindo pointed out the following elements:
43
(i) Human and spiritual values are complementary and
supplementary,
(ii) Education does not become national by tagging the word
„national‟ to the system,
(iii) Education should pay due attention to modern knowledge and
scientific progress,
(iv) Mere knowledge of Science does not make us educated in the
true sense. This must be related to powers of the human mind and spirit.
(v) There should be a balanced understanding of the national and
international relationships of universal humanity.
Moral Education: This should be on the following methods:
(i) Personal examples of the teachers and eiders.

(ii) Study of books having lofty examples.
(iii) „Satsanga‟ i.e., good company.
(iv) Suggesting and not commanding and imposing.
Discipline - Chitta Shuddhi i.e. purification of the mental and moral

habits should be the basis of discipline. This means to discriminate
between right and wrong impressions and to absorb right ones in the
mind. Sri Aurobindo advises teachers not to be arbitrary, despotic,
impatient and ill tempered.
Physical Education: Perfection is the true aim of education and

physical development is an integral part of perfection. Moreover without
physical development, „Dharma‟ cannot be performed. Only a healthy
body can contain a healthy mind. As the Sanskrit goes, „Shariram khalu
dharmasadhanam‟ (the body is the means of fulfillment of dharma).
Sri Aurobindo‟s Educational Establishment

The Ashram School: The school was originally started in 1943
for the children of Sri Aurobindo‟s disciples. It expanded gradually from a
Primary School to a full-fledged High School. There are resident as well
as day-students.
The International Centre of Education: The objectives

underlying the centre are:
44
1. To evolve a system of education for making it dynamic, ideal for
society.
2. To organize an environment, which may provide inspiration and

facilities for the exercise and development of the five aspects of
personality which includes the physical, the vital, the mental, the psychic
and the spiritual?
3. To emphasize the unity of all knowledge.
4. To develop the sense of oneness of mankind.
5. To discover and prepare for the role India has to play in the formation
of the new international harmony.
5.2 CONTRIBUTION OF MAHATMA GANDHI TO EDUCATION:
Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi is popularly known as „Gandhiji‟

out of reverence, “Bapu‟ out of affection, “mahatma‟ on account of the
saintly nature and „Father of the Nation‟, for his role in the Freedom of
India from British rule. He was born on October 2, 1869 at Porbander
which was a small state in the Kathiawar Agency of British India. His
Father was Diwan (Prime Minister) of Porbander & Mother was Putlibai.
He grew up with the Jain traditions. When 18 years old, he was sent to
London to study law. After returning from England, he started his law
practice at Bombay. Later Gandhiji gave up his legal practice. He
complexly devoted himself to the service of the people. He put into
practice „Satyagraha‟ and „Ahimsa‟.
Gandhiji‟s Educational Experiments:
1. Gandhiji‟s philosophy of life including philosophy of education

took shape in South Africa. His educational experiences at the Tolstoy
Farm at Transwal in South Africa proved very valuable to him in
formulating a new system of education suited to the needs of masses.
On the Farm, he undertook the responsibility of educating his own sons
and other children. The children had to devote 8 hours a day for
vocational training and only 2 hours to book learning. “Learning by doing‟
and learning by cooperation‟ became the chief methods of education.
2. Gandhiji came to India in 1914. Thereafter though he was
deeply involved in the freedom struggle. He continued his educational
experiments for a short time at Shantiniketan, then at Sabarmati Ashram
and finally at Sewagram Ashram established by him. Sewagram Ashram
45
is located 16km from Wardha. This place has a great significance as
Gandhiji not only formulated his scheme of Basic Education but also
fought the battle for freedom from here.
3. Gandhiji‟s writings on Education
Important publications on education and having hearing on
education are:
1. My experiments with truth.

2. Basic Education
3. Towards Need Education

4. True Education
5. To the students
6. Task Before Indian students
7. India of My Dreams
8. Medium of Instruction
9. Task force India
Gandhiji also wrote extensively on education is „Harijan‟-a paper

founded by him. Principal features of Gandhiji‟s philosophy of life:
Gandhiji s philosophy of life has a deep spiritual basis and the two
pillars of his thoughts were obviously “satya” and “ahimsa” which is
“truth” and “nonviolence” which is a happy combination of “karmayoga”
and “gyanyoga :
1. Realization of God: Mahatma Gandhi believed in

Ekeswarabad and thought that, only through the medium of God, the
manifestation of truth, love, life and knowledge if possible. He said, “God
pervades everything. God is life, Truth and Light.
2. Truth and Ahimsa (non-violence): Ahimsa is the only way,

Gandhiji suggested, that one can lead the ultimate destination of life.
Satya and ahimsa are the two sides of the same coin. They are
intertwined and it is practically impossible to separate them.”
„Satyagraha‟ implies holding of truth, love and purity.
46
Gandhiji‟s view Education:
Gandhiji summed up his ideas on education in these words, “By
education I mean an all-round drawing out of the best in child and man‟s
body, mind and spirit.” “All round‟ implies the harmonious development
of the individual. Man is neither mere gross animal body, nor intellectual
and nor the heart and soul alone. A proper and harmonious combination
of all these three is required for making the whole man. Any programme
on education which puts exclusive emphasis on one of these aspects of
the human personality is against the principle of education.
Objective of Education:
“The ultimate objective of education is not only a balanced and

harmonious individual but also a balanced and harmonious society, a
just social order in which there is no unnatural dividing line between the
haves and have-nots and everybody is assured of a living wage and
right to freedom.”
Education and Character:

Gandhiji said, “What education without character is and what
character without elementary purity?”
Learning by Earning:
According to Gandhiji, students should learn and side by side
earn by doing some work in the school.
Craft Centred Education:
Craft should become the source and centre of learning. Gandhiji

suggested crafts like weaving and spinning etc. About spinning Gandhiji
said, “Just as we cannot live without eating, so it is impossible for us to
attain economic “independence and banish pauperism.”
Self-sufficient Education:
Education should be imparted in such a way through crafts that

their products/manufactured articles by the students should meet some
expenditure in running the school.
47
Dignity of Labour:
Love for work with hands should be developed in the students.
Medium of Instruction:
Mother-tongue should be the medium of instruction. The foreign
medium has made our children practically foreigners in our own land.
Discipline:
The highest form of freedom comes through humility and self-

control. According to Gandhiji, discipline should not be imposed from
outside. In this view, discipline grows in human mind out of self-control.
So he sought for a favourable classroom condition for the development
of such discipline from within.
Women Education:
For the progress of the nation women education is essential. So
the girls should be given enough educational scope. He advocated an
experimental co-education system. Side by side, home science will be
introduced.
Ideal Teacher:
A teacher has an immense influence on his learners. In

education a learner s success depends on his teachers. So the teacher
should present himself before his learners as an example. He said, “We
must procure the best teachers for our children, whatever it may cost
parents, so that they can undertake adequately the moulding of their
children.”
The Curriculum Prescribed by Gandhiji:
Gandhiji regarded education as a preparation of future life. He

wanted education for all, for every Indian around the corners of India. He
sought that education, would enable them to attain financial self-
reliance. He wanted to apply his basic education following these steps:
1) He propounded activity oriented learning. Weaving,
agricultural works, paper designing, metal works etc. should be
48
introduced in the syllabus. Handicraft is an important part of his
educational system. It will serve as a bridge between rural and urban life
and interest will grow in the learners.
2) Around these activities other subject will be taught in a simple
way like another language, history, geography, mathematics, physical
education, social sciences and civics. All these subjects should be
introduced in the light of the social situation of the learners and he will be
imparted education in connection with his life.
3) For the spiritual development of the learner Gandhiji puts

stress on the practice of music, dance, art and culture and many other
co-curricular activities.
4) For the moral development of a child he should be inspired to

respect his elders. He will learn the lesson of honesty, simplicity, prayer,
meditation etc.
5) There will be enough scope for the physical health
development of the child. Through physical exercise he will learn the
lesson of self-defence.
6) For the girls Gandhiji planned for the learning of home

science.
Gandhiji‟s Teaching System:
Gandhiji s teaching system is obviously based on social science,

psychology and physiology and the principle of activity. Principle of
correction is also used well by him in forming his edu-theory. There is an
obvious similarity of his ideas of basic education and the thoughts of
John Dewey. Gandhiji‟s teaching system is full of the following
characteristics:
1) Compulsory universal free education for the boys and girls of
the 7-14 yrs age group.
2) Mother tongue will be the medium of education. On this level

English learning will be totally rejected and Hindi should be
learned as a national language.
3) Learning will be arranged catering on handicraft, in

accordance with the learner s ability.
4) Basic education is totally activity oriented.
5) Individual and group effort is developed through this practice.
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6) An important feature of basic education is learning with
earning.
Philosophy of Basic Education

According to Gandhiji, true education means an all-round
development drawing out of the best in child and man, his body, mind
and spirit. Basic education indicates such education which may help an
individual to fulfil his basic needs. The scheme of basic education is
based on the national culture and civilization of India and its main
objective is to make a child self-reliant and self sufficient. According to
the innate nature of child this education may guide him to choose right
profession in future.
As an educational philosopher and an experimentalist Gandhiji
wanted to make a new social order, based on truth and non-violence.
According to him, truth and education helps one to reach at the peak of
self-realization. He wanted a silent social revolution through basic
education which does not stand for mere technique rather it stands for
anew crafts- catered approach full of spirit and self-realization which
always seeks truth.
Proposals of Basic Education:
The scheme of basic education formulates the following

proposals
1) Free, universal and compulsory education should be provided

for all boys and girls between the ages 7-14 years.
2) Mother tongue of the child should be the medium of
instruction.
3) According to the capacity of the children and the needs of the
locality education should be craft oriented.
4) Spinning and weaving, card-board and wood-work, leather-

work, kitchen with gardening, agriculture and fishery were
suggested as suitable crafts in basic education.
5) Crafts oriented education have an economic view also

because the selected craft should be taught and practiced so
that children are able to produce articles which can be used
in the school or may be sold to mitigate the expenditure of
the school partly (Gandhi, 1951).
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6) The social and scientific implications of the selected craft must
be taught.
7) All the subjects to be taught were to be integrally associated

with the selected craft.
Curriculum of Basic Education:
Wardha education conference in 1937 suggested the basic

education for children between 7-14 years of age and curriculum has
also been suggested accordingly. A large emphasis was given on
general science for boys and on home science for girls. The following
are the major subjects suggested in conference;
1) Basic craft
(i) Spinning and weaving
(ii) Carpentry
(iii) Agriculture
(iv) Fruit and flower cultivation
(v) Leather work
(vi) Fish Culture

(vii) Poultry
(viii) Handloom
(ix) Any handicraft according to the local need
2) Mother tongue
3) Mathematics
4) Geography, History and Civics to be combined as social science

5) Painting and music
6) P.T., drill and sports.
7) General science comprising of Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology,

Hygiene and Nature Study etc.
8) Home science
9) Hindi for that area in which it is not the mother tongue

( Gandhi, 1951).
51
Merits of Basic Education:
Merits of basic education are as follows;
1) The concept of basic education is helpful for rapid expansion of

elementary throughout the country with minimum dependence
on public fund.
2) Basic education helps the developing status of our country

because it has a surprising financial aspect.
3) Basic education is activity-oriented education based on learning
by doing principle which helps an individual to acquire the
practical knowledge on livelihood as well as guide him to
choose the profession in future according to his interest.
4) As the basic education is child-centric, it considers the creative
and constructive sense of children as well as dignity of labour.
5) This educational approach is based on the principle of
correlation. It emphasizes on the basic craft chosen by an
individual and correlates the entire education with the practical
knowledge about the craft. Correlation also takes place
between physical environment, social environment and craft
work.
6) Basic education is based upon the cultural and social heritage
of our country.
7) One of major objectives of basic education is harmonious
development of body, mind and spirit.
8) This educational system inculcates social, moral as well as

democratic values like cooperation, responsibility, fellow-filling
in the minds of the students (Soni, 1999).
The Utility of Basic Education Plan
• Introduction of free compulsory universal education.
• This education plan will be in connection with reformation of the

economy of the country.
• Formation of a society free from classes and torture.
• Development of national integrity.

• Building up ideal citizens through the combination of the
individual and the society.
52
Causes of the Failure of Basic Education Plan
• Basic education failed due to the lack of responsibility of the
leaders and the government and their unchanged attitude.
• Handicraft was not selected well in connection with the learners
demand and the social situation.
• Lack of sufficient money for the implementation of the plan

• Lack of enough trained teachers
Relevance of Gandhiji‟s Views on Education in Modern Times
1. The most important point in Gandhi‟s scheme of education is

its emphasis on relating school education to the needs of the society. He
wanted to achieve this objective through a system of „Learning while
earning‟. He gave an important place to the learning of craft. It will be
seen from the curriculum of the present day schools, that work
experience and socially useful productive work find an important place.
2. His emphasis on education through the mother-tongue is the

accepted as the principle, by all thinkers.
3. Gandhiji stressed on the fact that inculcating dignity of labour
is the need of the hour. There is the dire need to develop elements of
spirituality in our life which is dominated by materialism.
5.3 CONTRIBUTION OF RABINDRANATH TAGORE TO

EDUCATION:
Among the contemporary Indian Philosophers of Education

Rabindranath Tagore, holds eminent position. He may be called as a
Humanist in the strict sense of the term. His humanist approach is not
materialistic but integral in nature. His philosophy is Cosmopolitan
Humanism. His theory of education is directly deduced from this
philosophy. Tagore was born on May 6, 1861 at Calcutta. The family of
Tagore was known for its enlightened and progressive views. After
private education, in India, he was sent to England in 1877 to study law
for becoming a barrister, but he soon returned to India.
Tagore became a world figure when his book “Gitanjali” won him
the Nobel Prize in 1913. On December 22, 1921, Tagore founded the
Visvabharati an international University to create an understanding
between eastern and western cultures. Tagore has left his deep
impression on several facets of life i.e. artistic, cultural, educational,
intellectual, political and social. There is no field of literature which he
53
has not enriched with his contribution. He was a great artist,
educationist, a poet, a patriot, a philosopher and social reformer.
Tagore‟s Philosophy of Life

1. Tagore‟s Humanism: Tagore observed, “He (God) is there where
the tiller is tilling the hard ground and where the pathmaker is
breaking a stone.”
2. Tagore‟s Naturalism: He said, “He lives in a prison house whose
walls are alien to him.” Tagore loved nature immensely.
3. Tagore‟s Spiritualism: Tagore said, I believe in the spiritual unity
of man and therefore I ask you to accept this task from me.”
4. Tagore‟s Individualism: Tagore believed that every being has the
right to shape his life in his own way.
5. Tagore‟s Universalism: He wanted to break down barriers
between cultures. He said, “Before we are in a position to stand
a comparison with the other cultures of the world, or truly
cooperate with them, we must base our own culture on a
synthesis of all the different cultures we have.”
6. Tagore‟s Internationalism: Tagore advocated synthesis between
the East and the West. The Visvabharati at Shantiniketan is an
embodiment of his international outlook.
Educational Philosophy of Tagore:
Sources of Information: Apart from his several publications on

different aspects, we get valuable information about Tagore‟s views on
education from the following sources relating to education. Essays were
written mostly in Bengali.
1. „Shiksar Herpher’ (Our Education and Its Incongruities)
2. „Shiksha Samasya‟ (The Problem of Education)
3. „Abaran‟ (Culture or Covering)

4. „Tapovan‟ (Forest Colony)
5. „Dharmashiksha‟ (Religious Education)
6. „Hindu Visvavidyalya‟(Hindu University)

7. „Strishiksha‟ (Women Education)
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8. „Shiksar Bahan’ (The Vehicle of Education)
9. „My School’
10. „Shiksar Milan‟ (The Meeting of Cultures)

11. „A Poet’s School’
12. „Shiksar Vikiran‟ (Diffusion of Education)
13. „Ashramer Shiksha‟ (Education in Ashram)

14. „Bodher Sadhana‟ (Education of the Feeling)
I5. ‘Several Convocation Addresses‟
Factors Influencing Tagore‟s Philosophy of Education:
Tagore‟s philosophy of education was influenced by the following

factors:
1. Influence of the Home Environment.
2. Influence of the School Environment.
3. Love for Nature.

4. His Extensive Visits.
Tagore‟s Views on Education:
On account of the above influences, Tagore may be described as

an idealist, a naturalist, a modernist, a pragmatic, a traditionalist and
above all a humanist and an internationalist. Following were the aims of
education according to Tagore:
1. Self Realization: Spiritualism is the essence of humanism.
Manifestation of personality depends upon the self realization &
Spiritual knowledge of individual.
2. Intellectual Development: By intellectual development he means
development of imagination, creative, free thinking constant
curiosity and alertness of the mind. Child should be free to
adopt his own way of learning which will leads to all round
development.
3. Physical Development: Tagore‟s educational philosophy also
aims at the physical development of the child. He gave much
importance to sound and healthy physique. Yoga, games &
55
sports are prescribed in Santiniketan as an integral part of the
educational system.
4. Love for Humanities: Tagore held that education can teach

people to realize oneness of the globe .Education for
international understanding and universal brotherhood is
another important aim of his educational philosophy.
5. Freedom: Freedom is considered as integral aspect of human
development. Education is a man making process. It explores
the innate power that exists within the man. It is not an
imposition rather a liberal process that provides utmost freedom
to the individual for his all round development.
6. Co-relation of Objects: Co-relation exists with God, man and

nature. A peaceful work is only possible when co-relation
between man and nature will be established.
7. Mother tongue as medium of instruction: Language is the vehicle
of the self expression. Man can freely express his thought in his
mother tongue. Tagore has emphasized mother tongue as the
medium of instruction for the Childs education.
8. Moral and spiritual Development: Tagore emphasized moral and
spiritual training in his educational thought. Moral and spiritual
education is more important than bookish knowledge for an
integral development of human personality. There must be an
adequate provision for the development of selfless activities,
co-operation, and love fellow feeling and sharing among the
students in educational institution.
9. Social Development: According to Tagore, „Brahma‟ the supreme
soul manifests himself through men and other creatures.
Science is the source of all human beings and creatures, so all
are equal .Tagore therefore said, “service to man is service to
God”. All should develop social relationships and fellow felling
from the beginnings of one‟s life. Education aim at developing
the individual personality as well as social characters which
enables him to live as a worthy being.
Curriculum: Tagore recommended a curriculum for the full man

satisfying the spiritual, the creative, the aesthetic and the vocational
aims of education. Besides providing for the teaching of ordinary
schools, Tagore developed many educational ideas, years ahead of
56
others. Now-a-days educationists talk so much about the educational
value of crafts, projects, music, dancing, fine arts, etc. But, it is indeed
very significant to note that, the poet provided for the teaching of most of
these subjects from the very beginning at his school, Shantiniketan.
Methods of Teaching: Tagore strongly criticized the bookish and

examination oriented teaching. He stressed movement of the whole
body in various learning activities. He followed the activity principle and
advocated constructive and creative activities.
Children as Children: It is a mistake to judge children by the standards

of grown-ups. Adults ignore the natural gifts of children and insist that
children must learn through the same process as themselves. This is
man‟s most cruel and most wasteful mistake. Children‟s have their
subconscious mind which is more active than, their conscious
intelligence.
Discipline and Freedom: Living ideals cannot be set into clock-work

arrangement. Tagore wrote, “I never said to them. Don‟t do this, or don‟t
do that, I never punished them”.
An Ideal School: An ideal school is an Ashram where men gather for

the highest end of life. Tagore observed. “To give spiritual culture to our
boys, was my principal object in starting my school at Bolpur.”
Role of the Teacher: In teaching, the guiding spirit should be personal
love based on human relations. In education the teacher is more
important than the method. Tagore pointed out, “A teacher can never
truly teach, unless he is learning himself. A lamp can never light another
lamp unless it continues to burn its own flame.”
Religious Education: Tagore stressed religious education through

practice. He wrote, „Teaching of religion can never be imparted in the
form of lessons, it is where there is religion in living, where life is simple.”
According to Tagore, “Real training consists, not in fostering
moral teachings but in making religion and morality an integral part of
life.”
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An Ideal School
Tagore attempted to make his school at Bolpur as an ideal
institution. According to him an ideal school should have the following
characteristics:
1. The school should be situated in natural surroundings. There
should prevail the atmosphere of nature‟s own beauty with her
varied gifts of colour and dance, flowers and fruits, with the joy of
her mornings and the peace of her starry nights.
2. It should cultivate love of nature among the students.

3. It should provide spiritual training to students.
4. It should educate children by providing an environment of freedom.
5. It should impart education in the mother-tongue of the students.
6. It should provide an environment after the fashion of ancient
„tapovans‟-forest schools about which he had read so much in
the Upanishads.
7. It should be a community school, where there is no distinction of
caste and creed.
8. It should teach crafts like sewing, book-binding, weaving, carpentry

etc.
9. It should include drawing, art and music as an integral part of the
curriculum.
10. It should provide students adequate opportunities for choosing
their hobbies and occupations.
11. It should be a self-governing institution. It should have a dairy

farm, post office, hospital and workshop. Students would hold
their own courts.
12. It should provide for close personal contact with the teacher. The
number of students in the classes should be very small.
13. It should have a well-equipped library.
14. It should provide for manual labour.
Educational Institutes Started by Tagore
Following institutions were started by Tagore to carry out his

experiments in education:
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1. Sisu Bhawan (Nursery School)
2.Path Bhawan (School Section - Matriculation Examination)
3. Siksha Bhawan (Higher Secondary)

4. Vidya Bhawan (College of Undergraduate and Post-Graduate
Studies and Research)
5. Vinya Bhawan (Teachers‟ Training College)

6. Kala Bhawan (College of Fine Arts and Crafts)
7. Sangit Bhawan (College of Dance)
8. Sriniketan (Department of Rural Reconstruction)

9. Siksha Satra (Rural High School)
10. Silpa Sadan (College of Industrial Training)
11. Cheena Bhawan (School of Languages, e.g., Chinese, Tibetan
etc.) By and large, all formed part of Visvabharati University.
Visvabharati (World University)

The word Visvabharati consists of two Sanskrit words. „Visva‟
means world and „Bhararti‟ means cultures. Thus Visvabharati would
mean world culture. The motto of this university is „Yarta Visvam bhavari
ekamidam‟ i.e. where the world meets at one place.
Main Features of Visvabharati: Tagore describes these as:
1. It wants to hold before the world the ideal of the universality of
man.
2. The greatest distinction is the direct and immediate emotional
contact of pupils with their teachers and with external nature.
3. A speciality of our institution is that it wants to bring up our pupils in
inseparable association with nature.
4. It is intended not only to be the intellectual centre of the intellectual

life of India, but also the centre of her economic life.
5. It is envisaged to be the nucleus of an international university and
as one of the means of promoting mutual understanding between
the East and the West.
Growth of Visvabharati: In 1863, Rabindranath‟s Tagore‟s father
founded the Ashram at Bolpur. It was called Shantiniketan (Abode of
59
Peace). It was meant for the seekers of truth. In 1901, Tagore started
the experimental school. In 1921, it became the Vis vabharati.
Contributions of Tagore to Education:

1. Tagore established a number of educational institutions at
Shantiniketan.
2. Tagore founded the Visvabharati.
3. Tagore was a great practitioner. He worked out his ideas and
ideals in a constructive way.
4. Tagore drew attention to the listless environment of the traditional
school.
5. Tagore tried to synthesise the ancient Indian ideals of education
and the western arts and sciences.
6. Tagore pointed out the significance of providing an environment of
freedom in the school.
5.4 CONTRIBUTION OF J.KRISHNAMOORTHY TO EDUCATION

J.Krishnamoorthy‟s Eduactional Philosophy:
System of Education:
He opposed any established „System‟ and also the system of

education which was narrow. For him, knowledge or education are
conditioning factors in habiting human thinking potential, for knowledge
makes one either to confirm or to differ from it. In either case, his further
thinking is arrested. Through he respected traditionalism, he did not
accept it.
Education, according to J.Krishnamoorthy, should bring about total
development of the individual and towards this end should strive for
inner peace and bliss. His ideas on education are revealed in many of
his speeches, and especially, in his little profound book titled “Letters to
School”
School:
According to him the school is a place of learning. Under

emphasis on book learning, to the neglect of other sources of learning
including nature, has led to disorder in the world coupled with violence,
terror and cruelty to cultivate a good mind, certain amount of discipline
60
must exist. The learner has not only to hear through his ear, but try to
secure an inward grasp of what is being said. Attention is necessary to
comprehend but this attention has to be voluntary and not to be forced
on promise of reward or under threat or punishment. This is discipline
learning demands application and order. Freedom is the essence of
thinking together and so we have to learn to think accordingly.
Concentration and Attention:
Concentration and attention are two distractive factors according

to Krishnamoorthy. In the former, all over energy is brought to focus on a
particular point whereas in the latter there is no point of focus. When
there is attention, there is no construction and no conflict.
Process of Learning:
Process of Learning is infinite and unending. A constant thirst for

intelligence should be kept up whatever school, home or government a
person is placed in. The trend of our education is to encourage
competition and thereby sustain conflict. Any form of pressure has a
distorting effect.
There should be complete freedom to do whatever one likes. Intelligence
is not the product of discipline but a by product of thought which itself is
the result of knowledge and ignorance. The teacher‟s duty transcends
mere teaching of subjects, to matching the learners to have a
communication with other human beings. Particularly the oppressed
section where, one can learn from the observation of environment
around him better than were book learning. Real learning brings equality
among men where it liberates the mind from thought of prestige, position
and status consciousness.
A Philosopher of Mind
It is essentially as a philosopher of mind that Krishnamurti looks
at education. „Mind‟, „thought‟, „intelligence‟, „attention‟, „perception‟,
„freedom‟, „love‟ and „self‟ accordingly dominate his teachings.
Understanding them for what they really are, says he, holds the key to
the transformation of the individual and society.
Truth, says Krishnamurti, is not a matter of logic. It is direct

perception. It is seeing without conceptualization, without motive, choice
61
or self-interest. It is „pure observation‟ and „choiceless awareness‟ where
„the observer becomes the observed‟. The conscious mind is totally
conditioned. It is determined by thought, constant movement and desire.
Only when the mind is freed fromthought can the light of truth be seen.
Krishnamurti‟s „choiceless awareness‟ and„observer is the observed‟
seem to echo Buddha‟s nairatmya - vada (doctrine of no-self). To
Buddha there exists no „soul‟ (pure self). Krishnamurti‟s insistence that
the „word or image‟ is not the „thing‟ also echoes Kant’s das Ding an sich
(thing-in-itself): Kant held that we can perceive objects only as they
appear to us (phenomena) and never the thing-in-itself (noumena).
Psychologically, the individual human being, is inseparable from
the whole of mankind says Krishnamurthi. His central concepts of
„goodness‟, „responsibility‟, „relationship‟ and „love‟ are associated with
life and humanity as a whole. “Being a representative of all mankind, you
are responsible for the whole of mankind”. This total responsibility,
absolute care and concern for the good of all, is love. And education is
the cultivation of such responsibility in the student. Goodness, in
essence, is the absence of self, the „me‟.
Goodness and love in all our relationships can transform life. The
flowering of goodness is possible only in freedom and in the choiceless
awareness of our daily existence and activity. It is the total unfolding and
cultivation of our minds, hearts and our physical well-being. It is living in
complete harmony in which there is clear, objective, non-personal
perception unburdened by any kind of conditioning. It is the release of
our total energy and its total freedom.
What comes in the way of such absolute perception and limits
the release of total energy is „thought‟. (in a wider sense that
Krishnamurti uses this term). “Where thought is, love is not”. Thought is
the root of all our sorrow, ugliness, anxiety, grief, pain, power and
violence. It is a destructive factor to the wholeness of mind, its infinite
capacity and its total emptiness in which there is immeasurable energy.
Education should help one to free oneself from the limiting influence of
thought and experience life in its wholeness.
The Centrality of Education
Krishnamurti is truly an educational philosopher in and his

thinking is centred on education, on understanding its fundamentals as
well as praxis. There is no need for one to „draw educational
implications‟ from his general thinking or search for strands. How could
62
one even entertain such a distinction given K‟s severe opposition to
fragmentation of all kinds? His educational teachings do not hang loose
but are integrally woven into his thinking on life, world and humanity.
Krishnamurti addressed educational problems, the nitty-gritties of
day-to-day classroom teaching, squarely and directly. He dealt with them
by probing into their very roots with his penetrating insights. His
educational concerns are strikingly contemporaneous and global. They
include: freedom and discipline, comparison and competition, learning
through the senses, scientific temper, joy and creativity. A primary
audience of his has been the educational community which includes
schools, teachers, students and parents. Krishnamurti‟s educational
teachings also encompass such broad, general concerns of mankind as
freedom, fear, god, living and dying, love and loneliness, peace and the
future of humanity. It is against this awesome sweep of ideas and his
deep love of humanity that one has to understand his educational
philosophy.
The Purpose of Education

Education is usually taken to be an organized, purposive activity,
with pre-established goals. What sense can one make of Krishnamurti‟s
“truth is a pathless land…it cannot be organized” and his ardent
espousal of education and his setting up of a number of schools? The
reconciliation of the apparent contradiction lies in K‟s situating education
in the active, existential, living present and consideration of education as
a cooperative exploration by the teacher and student.
Krishnamurti sees education not with the eyes of a reformer, as a
means to serve this or that end, but as an intrinsic, self-fulfilling
experience requiring no further justification. The function of education,
he said, is “to bring about a mind that will not only act in the immediate
but go beyond a mind that is extraordinarily alive, not with knowledge,
not with experience, but alive”.“More important than making the child
technologically proficient is the creation of the right climate in the school
for the child to develop fully as a complete human being”. This means
giving him “the opportunity to flower in goodness, so that he is rightly
related to people, things and ideas, to the whole of life” (On Education).
Concept of knowledge and freedom in learning

It is not possible to do justice to the richness of the body of K‟s
63
insights on teaching, learning and other aspects of education in a brief
write-up. His principles, have a significance all of their own and leave a
lasting impact.
The Point of Education: Education is essentially the art of

learning, not only from books, but from the whole movement of life
learning about the nature of the intellect, its dominance, its activities, its
vast capacities and its destructive power learning it not from a book but
from the observation of the world about you without theories, prejudices
and values (Letters to the Schools) was very essential.
Principle of Method: If one really has something to say, the very

saying of it creates its own style. But, learning a style without inward
experiencing can only lead to superficiality. Likewise, people who are
experiencing, and therefore teaching, are the only real teachers and they
too will create their own technique.
Schooling without Competition and Comparison: When A is
compared to B, who is clever, bright or assertive, that very comparison
destroys A. This destruction takes the form of competition, of imitation
and conformity to the patterns set by B. This breeds antagonism,
jealousy, anxiety and even fear and this becomes the condition in which
A lives for the rest of his life, always measuring, always comparing
psychologically and physically. Goodness cannot flower where there is
any kind of competitiveness.
Learning through Observation: Learning is pure observation.

Observation which is not continuous and which then becomes memory.
But observation from moment to moment not only of the things outside
you but also of that which is happening inwardly to observe without the
observer is very difficult. Look not with your mind but with your eyes.
Then you find out that the outside is the inside that the observer is the
observed.
Freedom and Order if you want to be free you have to find out for
yourself what it is to be orderly, what it is to be punctual, kind, generous,
unafraid. The discovery of all that is discipline. Freedom is not from
something or avoidance of constraint. It has no opposite, it is of itself of
per se. Clarity of perception is freedom from the self. Flowering of
goodness in all our relationship is possible only in freedom (that is based
64
on Education).
Krishnamurti as a Communicator
It is rarely that a great philosopher is an engaging teacher too.

Krishnamurti is one such person. He employs talk and dialogue with
great effect as didactic devices to communicate the most abstruse and
complex ideas. His method is to unlock commonly held, pet beliefs
through a form of Socratic dialogue, raising a question, assuming the
role of a skeptic, testing received wisdom with reference to instances,
counter instances, analogies and illustrations, ultimately leading the
inquirer to light. It is tempting to see it as a kind of linguistic analysis (a la
Wittgenstein) but it is anything that aim is not mechanical, positivist
search for conceptual clarity. It is a deeper search for inner meaning.
Krishnamurti constantly cautioned against giving primacy to verbal
clarity. “The word is never the thing that it prevents the actual perception
of the thing”
Through his talks, speeches and writings Krishnamurti
establishes a kind of communication that is at once intimate and
personal. When you read Krishnamurti, you feel like you are being talked
to personally. So close and direct is his mode of talking to the reader. He
takes the reader along with his thinking, step by step, all over the
territory covering the issue, negotiating twists and turns, all the while
increasing the subject‟s anticipation of arriving at the „destination‟. The
unraveling, the denouement, however, does not come in the form of a
crisp definition or a cut and dried answer to the question but in the form
of a thorough mapping of the contours of the issue, laying bare its
complexities. At the end, the reader is left alone to put together and
make sense of all that the exploration has brought out.
Krishnamurti‟s teachings are also characterized by cryptic
aphorisms and maxims. The first step in freedom is the last step. The
ending of the continuity, which is time is the flowering of the timeless. To
discover anything…your look must be silent. We learn to earn a living
but we never live. Moreover, he packs so much into certain commonly
used concepts that they need unpacking before their hidden meaning is
understood. „Thought‟, to Krishnamurti, for example, does not just mean
logical, abstract, ideational thinking but refers to the entire content of
consciousness, memories, emotions, impulses, fears, hopes and
desires. When he says that thought is responsible „for all the cruelty and
the wars as well as the beautiful things created by man, cathedrals and
poems‟, he is using thought in the above sense. „Mind‟ implies the
65
senses, the capacity to think and the brain that stores all memories and
experiences as knowledge, the total movement (Letters to the Schools).
Similarly, „insight‟ is not just instantaneous perception of truth but also
associated with love, intelligence, action and a host of other attributes
like believe it or not, it‟s being absolute, accurate, final and true.
Krishnamurti as an Educational Philosopher

As a philosopher, Krishnamurti, has not engaged the attention of
academia, in India or in the West. Possible reasons for the apathy of
universities towards Krishnamurti‟s teachings could be their basically
theoretical and intellectual orientation, or the uncritical celebration of
thought that is characteristic of our times (Javier Gomez Rodriguez in his
review of „On Krishnamurti‟ by Raymond Martin, The Link, No 25, 2005-
06, p.64). It may also be due, as some say, to the „limited‟ nature of his
message. But it can hardly be denied that Krishnamurti is essentially a
philosopher of education. It needs no deconstruction to say this. His
teachings with their core concern of education make him that. As a
philosopher of education, Krishnamurti has been a favourite „subject‟ for
scholarly study leading to a few doctoral dissertations. This is significant,
considering that philosophy of education (like philosophy and, generally,
most humanistic studies) is far from being a vibrant field of academic
activity in our country. Krishnamurti also finds a place as an important
educational thinker in courses on educational theory and philosophy. But
these are just commonplaces. If one were to appreciate the true
significance of K‟s teachings to the body of knowledge and insights that
we call philosophy of education, one needs to look far beyond and far
deeper.
First, the educational issues raised by Krishnamurti place of
knowledge in education, freedom and discipline, learning from nature,
role of sensory experience and observation, comparison and competition
are of such abiding concern that they have been discussed by several
educational thinkers in the past. The greatness of Krishnamurti lies in
the fact that he dealt with them not as educational problems, but in
relation to their deeper philosophical ramifications. Also, he did not
consider them as so many disparate issues, but as comprising an
integrated whole connected with the attainment of the summum
bonum: absolute, pure perception of truth and goodness. This gives his
educational teachings a firm philosophical anchor.
66
Secondly, the educational concerns of Krsihnamurti being at
once topical and contemporaneous are capable of supplying the needed
grist to the philosopher‟s mill. This intellectual activity, it appears, is
presently confined to a rather limited circle. But the issues raised are
anything but sectarian. They are the general concerns of each and every
person with a stake in the education of their children and the well-being
of society. For example, the distortion of „knowledge aim‟ in schools,
the danger of virtual reality replacing learning from nature under the
euphoria of IT, the neglect of childhood as an intrinsically desirable
stage, to mention a few, are plain, universal concerns. It is to the credit
of those engaged with Krishmamurti‟s educational work that attention
has been drawn to these concerns and the initial momentum has been
imparted for their wider discussion.
Apart from Krishnamurti‟s own writings, his teachings have

begun to spawn publication of a variety of educational writings of a
philosophical kind. These are in the form of reflections based on field
experience and scholarly analyses of issues on various aspects of
education, schooling, teaching and learning, emerging thus, far mostly
from the educational centres established by Krishnamurti himself.
In the final analysis, Krishnamurti stands out as an educational

philosopher not so much for his „pure‟ metaphysical beliefs, as for the
veritable mine of precious insights he has left behind on schooling,
teaching and learning. At a time when genuine educational values are
being overrun by concerns of the market place, Krishnamurti‟s teachings
today acquire an added relevance and urgency.
The pursuit of knowledge of Vedanta must he propelled by the desire to

constantly improve and better oneself as a human being. In the Vedic
era, education had a very prominent place in society. Education was
regarded as „Third eye‟ of human beings. Terms such as knowledge,
awakening, humility, modesty etc are often used to characterize
education in vedic period. Buddhist education aimed at purity of
character. Buddhist education was training for moral and psychological
development of the student. It was imparted in wellorganized centres,
monasteries and Viharas. Education system during Budhdhist period
was cosmopolitan i.e. free from communal narrowness. Buddhist
Education helped to gain international importance and developed
cultural exchange between India and other countries of the world. In the
Neo-Vedanta humanistic tradition of contemporary Indian thought,
67
Rabindranath Tagore‟s philosophy aims at developing a system of
education for human regeneration. Rabindranath Tagore bases his
educational system on essential human virtues such as freedom, purity,
sympathy, perfection & world brotherhood. This education system was a
system of East and West, Ancient and modern, Science and Vedanta.
Gandhiji‟s education system was suitable for all sections of the society.
This scheme of education was not only aimed at character building but
also social, political and economical uplift of all the sections of the
society.
Shri Aurobindo presented a national system of education which may be
adopted for the educational reconstruction in India and at the same time
develop the Indians as the world citizens. According to him, the national
scheme of education should not only be from the point of view of the
needs of the country but also from the standpoint of the needs of
humanity. Shri Aurobindo, Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore
had a wide and deep knowledge of western science, art, literature and
culture and a firsthand contact with the west. It is hence, they could
compare Eastern thoughts and western thoughts. Thus, one finds a
meeting of ancient Indian ideals and modern western principles,
nationalism and internationalism, individualism and socialism in their
writings. Thus, they depict an integral approach of philosophy. Thus,
Shri Aurobindo, Rabindranath, Gandhi and Dayananda have advocated
a multi-sided scheme of education, including education for physical,
mental, social, moral and religious development of the individual.
Check Your Progress

8.Who is not advocated a multi-sided scheme of education
a) Shri Aurobindo
b) Krishnamoorthy
c) Rabindranath
d) Gandhi
9. Write down the four types of rooms are required to carry on various activities
in integral school?
…………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………
68
LET US SUM UP
In this Block, you have learnt the definitions of education. The

different periods of education have been dealt elaborately. Various
educational philosophies like Realism, Idealism, Naturalism and
Pragmatism their curriculum, method of teaching, discipline, aims and
the role of the teacher in these methods are explained. The educational
philosophies of Indian and Western philosophers‟ views and their
contributions are discussed in detail. Indian and Western philosophies of
education are compared.
GLOSSARIES
 Acquaintance - knowledge or experience of something.

 Conducive - making a certain situation or outcome likely or
possible.
 Contemplation - the action of looking thoughtfully at something
for a long time
 Explosion
 Indigenous - originating or occurring naturally in a particular
place; native
 Manifestation - an event, action, or object that clearly shows or
embodies something abstract or theoretical.
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. Latin
2. Tagore
3. libraries
4. False
5. idealists
6. Pragmatic philosophers of education consider the aim, nature;
organization and order of education should be such that it may
do maximum good of man.
7. Non-violence
8. Krishnamoorthy
9.
 Rooms of silence,
 Rooms of collaboration,
69
 Rooms of consultation,
 Lecture room.
SUGGESTED READINGS
 Aggarwal, J. C, "Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives

on Education", Shipra publications, New Delhi, (2003).
 Bhatia, K. K and Narang, C. L., "Philosophical and
Sociological Bases of Education", Tandon Publications,
Ludhiana, (2002).
 Chandra, S. S. and Sharma, Rajendra, K., "Principles of
Education", Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi,
(2002).
 Sharma, R., "Text Book of Educational Philosophy", Kanishka
publishers, New Delhi, (2000).
 Bhatirt, B. (1-983).The philosophical and Sociological

Foundation of Education, New Delhi, Doaba House.
 Bhattacharya, S.(2006). Sociological Foundation of
Education: Atlantic Publishers. New Delhi Dhankar. N.
(2010).
 Murthy, S. K. (2009). Philosophical and Sociological
Foundation of Education. Ludhiyana: Tondan Publication.
 Pathak, R. P. (2009). Philosophical and Sociological
Foundations of Education. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers.
 Press Ltd. Siddiqui, M. H. (2009). Philosophical and

Sociological foundation of Education. New Delhi.
 Singh Y. K. (2007). Philosophical. Foundation of Education.
New Delhi: APH Publication Corporation.
70
BLOCK 2 UNDERSTANDING OF DIVERSITY
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Unit 6 Concepts of Diversity
6.1 Diversity: Meaning

6.2 Diversity: Definition
Unit 7 Types of Diversity
7.1 Individual Diversity

7.2 Regional Diversity
7.3 Linguistic Diversity
7.4 Religious Diversity
7.5 Caste Diversity
7.6 Tribal Diversity
Unit 8 Education for Understanding Diversity

8.1 Diversity in Learning and Play
Unit 9 Addressing Diverse Learning Needs
9.1 Identifying Individual Differences

9.2 For Students with Special Needs
9.3 Shaping Attitudes about Students with Special Needs
Activity Students with Special Needs
Unit 10 Diversity: Global Perspective
Let us Sum Up
Glossaries
Answers to check your progress
Suggested Readings
71
INTRODUCTION
In this Block you will study the Concept of Diversity, Types of

Diversity and roll of education in various types of diversity have been
described. Importance of the Diversity in learning and play were also
dealt, at the end of the Block Addressing diverse learning needs, has
been explained elaborately.
OBJECTIVES
After going through this Block, you will be able to understand:

 Concept of Concept of Diversity
 Types of Diversity
 Diversity in learning and play
 Addressing diverse learning needs
 Diversity: Global perspective
UNIT 6 CONCEPTS OF DIVERSITY
India is a large country with different geo-political conditions in

different parts of the country. This has brought differences in social
evolution of the groups living in different parts of the country. Apart from
the geo-political diversity, interactions with foreigners due to invasions,
trade and missionary activities have also led to foreign influences and
social groups coming to India. All these have impacted the Indian
society in one way or the other. The social diversity is one among them.

 Describe the concept of Diversity
India is a country of social diversity. To maintain harmony

among all sections of the society, the Constitution of India has adopted
federal political structure. The democracy of the country also helps in
maintaining social unity. Three kinds of social differences need special
attention namely: Gender, Religion and Castes. Some of the
Fundamental Rights are enshrined in the Constitution with this purpose
only. The Directive Principles of State Policies also help in maintaining
the social fabric of India. Sometimes the political manifestations of
these identities do create problems, but the constitution meets these
72
challenges successfully.
Concept of Diversity
Diversity is a subjective phenomenon, created by group

members themselves who on the basis of their different social identities
categorize others as similar or dissimilar: “A group is diverse if it is
composed of individuals who differ on a characteristic on which they
base their own social identity”. Loden & Rosener [1991] define diversity
as that which differentiates one group of people from another along
primary and secondary dimensions. Primary dimensions of diversity,
those exerting primary influences on our identities, are gender, ethnicity,
race, sexual orientation, age and mental or physical abilities and
characteristics. The primary dimensions shape our basic self-image as
well as our fundamental world views. Additionally, they have the most
impact on groups in the workplace and society. Secondary dimensions
of diversity are less visible, exert a more variable influence on personal
identity and add a more subtle richness to the primary dimensions of
diversity. They include: educational background, geographic location,
religion, first language, family status, work style, work experience,
military experience, organizational role and level, income and
communication style. The secondary dimensions impact our self esteem
and self definition.
6.1 Diversity: Meaning
Social diversity is the diverse factors surrounding our society

such as race, culture, religion, age and disabilities. Diversity is
differences in racial and ethnic, socio-economic, geographic, and
academic/professional backgrounds. These can be along the
dimensions of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, socio-
economic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs,
or other ideologies. Social diversity centers on three universal human
realities. Firstly, that each individual is unique. Secondly, that individuals
and their societies are inter-related and inter-dependent. Thirdly, that
societies and cultures are dynamic and that change may be rapid or
gradual. But, it will always affect different members of society in ways
that reflect differences in power and status.
6.2 Diversity: Definition
Diversification is a principle that maintains how individual develop

into quite different people so that they can peacefully occupy different
positions within the environment. A broad definition of diversity ranges
73
from personality and work style to all of the visible dimensions of
diversity such as race, age, ethnicity or gender, to secondary influences
such as religion, socio economics and education, to work diversities
such as management and union, functional level and classification or
proximity/distance to headquarters.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Diversity primary dimensions shape our …………………………as well as
our …………………………….
2. Diversity secondary dimensions impact our ……………… and

…………………..
3. Definition of Diversity?
…………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………….
UNIT 7 TYPES OF DIVERSITY
We understood the concept and the definition of Diversity. India

is maintaining the Unity in Diversity. In this Unit, we will learn about
various types of Diversity
 List out the types of diversity
 Describe the individual, regional, linguistic and religious
diversities
The Types of diversity are:

1. Individual diversity,
2. Regional diversity,
3. Linguistic diversity,
74
4. Religious diversity and,
5. Caste and tribes diversity.
7.1 Individual Diversity
Becoming culturally competent, diverse and inclusive involves

knowledge, attitudes and skills that may seem overwhelming for any
individual to achieve. It is important to remain aware that cultural
groups are not homogeneous in beliefs and practices.
7.2 Regional Diversity
The word „regional‟ means any element belongs to a particular

region, and the feeling related to the people belonging to the particular
region is known as „Regionalism‟. The term regionalism has two
connotations. In the positive sense, it is a political attribute associated
with people‟s love for their region, culture, language, etc. with a view to
maintain their independent identity. In the negative sense, it implies
excessive attachment to one‟s region in preference to the country, or
the state. While positive regionalism is a welcome thing in maintaining
as it encourages the people to develop a sense of brotherhood and
commonness on the basis of common language, religion or historical
background. The negative sense of regionalism is a great threat to the
unity and integrity of the country.
Causes of Regional Diversity
 Geographical Causes: There is a vast difference between

food habits, language, culture, customs, dress, life style of
people belonging to different states. This diversity is reflected
in the state-wise division and within the states.
 Historical Causes: The well-feeling was shattered due to some
historical causes. Many states in India had serious conflicts in
the past with each other. These conflicts had created bitterness
among them, therefore they cannot meet with each other with
open heart and open mind.
 Political Causes: In different regions some people have
demanded for the formation of regional government and this
trend of thinking has been inspired by regional interest and the
aim of gaining power.
75
 Psychological Causes: It is wish of the most of the people that
the progress and the achievement of their region should be the
maximum. The idea in itself is neither bad nor deniable, but
when they disregard the nation‟s interest and those of the
region for the attainment of this objective then these feelings
can be classified under regionalism.
 Social Causes: In a country like India, marriages are preferred
with the person of the same regional background. Due to this,
people belonging to one region avoid marriages with other
regions.
 Economic Causes: Due to economic problems such as lack of
resources, unemployment etc. of a particular region people from
those regions often migrates to comparatively stable economic
region.
Role of Education in Eliminating Regionalism

The following educational programmes may be of useful to reduce the
feeling of regionalism among people.
1. Encouragement of travel and communication
2. Propagating National History
3. Prevention of influence of regional political parties in education

4. Purposive teaching of History of Literature, not only English,
Hindi and the regional language must be included but other
languages must also be made familiar.
7.3 Linguistic Diversity
Linguism is a division among members of a society on the basis

of when India got the independence, it was decided that English should
continue as official language along with Hindi for a period of 15 years.
But, English has continued to remain till today an associated official
language mainly because of the revolt by the South Indian states
against the compulsory learning of Hindi as official and national
language.
Causes of Linguism
There are many causes at the root of linguism in our country. The
major causes are the following.
76
Psychological Causes: People of a particular region are attached to
the regional language which is their mother tongue. Hence they are not
coming forward to learn another Indian language
Historical Causes: India had been invaded by numerous foreign
countries. For example, French people invaded our country and
established their supremacy in Pondicherry, simultaneously the
Portuguese in Goa. Mughals brought Persian language to India. British
spread English language all over India. As a result, Indian languages
became subordinated to these languages. This gave birth to linguism
as people from different regions promoted their own regional language
in their states.
Geographical Causes: Every language has its own literature. This
literature is influenced everywhere by local geographical conditions such
as plains, mountains, local vegetation and local culture. It reflects the life
of the people who speak the language. Hence an individual does not
willingly accept it if the language of another region is forced on her him.
Economic Causes: There are some economic causes that also inspire
linguism. Some languages are financially assisted by the government
for their progress but people speaking other languages are deprived of
this benefit.
Political Causes: Linguism is also inspired by the political interest and
aspiration of different politicians and political groups. During elections in
order to win votes many communal political parties raise the language
issue to instigate their people and win their votes.
Social Causes: Linguism is encouraged by some social factors. The
language that is adopted by the society is respected. On the contrary,
the languages that caters to contradictory presumptions are objected,
this leads to linguism.
Role of Education
Education plays an important role in the elimination of linguism.
1. Education for national integration
2. Inculcation of democratic principle for language options in

education
3. Creating interest for language study
4. Co-curricular activities:
77
(a) Competitions, games, dramas promoting respect for
Indian Languages
(b) Appreciation of contributions of great poets and

authors to the development of Indian languages.
5.The three language formula is given by Kothari Commission
which is modified and revised form of earlier policy, equalizes the
language burden and also develops the Indian identity in every in
every citizens through the learning of a common language and it
has been adopted by all the states
a. Mother tongue/ Regional language
b. Official Indian language or associate official Indian
languages
c. Modern Indian language or western language not
included in (a) or (b)
7.4 Religious Diversity
India has no state religion, it is a secular state. India is the land

where almost all the major religions of the world are practiced.
Nevertheless the religious diversity has been a major source of disunity
and disharmony in the country. This is because, in India religious
affiliation appears to be overemphasized and many a time people
seem to forget the national unity and express their loyalty more towards
their own religion.
The glaring example of such feeling is the partition of our

country due to the development of the two nation theory. But the matter
has not ended there. The communal feeling among different religious
groups still persists in our country. Among the major religions in India
are: Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism and Jainism.
Role of Education
1. The government should not yield to communal pressures and their

negative influence on educational aims and policies. A Secular policy
must pervade nationwide in all educational institutions.
2. Educational system must be reconstructed to emphasize nature of our
culture and inculcate secularism and scientific temper among young
students
78
3. Curriculum and textbooks should be free from religious bias.
4. Co-curricular Activities should promote Secularism
(i ) General Assembly: Secular Atmosphere where prayers of all

religious should be administered.
(ii) Celebration of Festivals of all religions with equal fervour.
(iii) Emphasis on Essential contribution of different Religions.

(iv) Tribute to various Religious headers on important days.
(v) Emphasis on the importance of Democracy/Equality and
Brotherhood
7.5 Caste Diversity
India is a country of castes. Caste refers to a hereditary,

endogamous status group practicing a specific traditional occupation. It
is surprising to know that there are more than 3,000 castes in India.
These are hierarchically graded in different ways in different regions. It
may also be noted that the practice of caste system is not confined to
Hindus alone. It is also found among the Muslims, Christians, Sikhs as
well as other communities. We have heard of the hierarchy of Shaikh,
Saiyed, Mughal, Pathan among the Muslims, Furthermore, there are
castes like Teli (oil pressure), Dhobi (washerman), Darjee (tailor), etc
among the Muslims. Similarly, caste consciousness among the
Christians in India is not unknown. Since a vast majority of Christians in
India were converted from Hindu fold, the converts have carried the
caste system into Christianity. Among the Sikhs there are many castes
including Jat Sikh and Majahabi Sikh (lower castes). In view of this we
can well imagine the extent of caste diversity in India. In addition to the
above described major forms of diversity, we have diversity in India,
there are many other based on settlement pattern like tribal, rural,
urban and marriage pattern along religious and regional lines and so
on.
7.6 Tribal Diversity
Indian tribal culture speaks volumes about the diversity of the

country. 'Unity in diversity' is one of the most spectacular features
amongst the population of India. Among the diversified population, a
significant portion comprises the tribal people, the aboriginal inhabitants
of the primeval land. Tribal culture of India, their traditions and practices
79
interpenetrate almost all the aspects of Indian culture and civilization.
The different tribes in India, if ever counted can move up to a

mind boggling number, with all their ethnicities and impressions. In
India, almost a new dialect can be witnessed each new day. Culture
and diversification amongst the tribal s can also be admired from any
land direction. The tribal population is also pretty much varied and
diversified. Each of the tribes are distinctive community, either migrated
from a different place or the original inhabitants of the land. These
various tribes still inhabit the different parts, especially the seven states
of the North- eastern region and almost each and every nook and
corner of the country.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Block.
4. There is a vast difference between food habits, language,

culture, customs, dress, life style of people belonging to different
states.
a) Historical Causes
b) Geographical Causes
c) Political Causes
d) Psychological Causes
5. India is a secular state

True / False
6. ……………………………………is one of the most spectacular

features amongst the population of India.
80
UNIT 8 EDUCATION FOR UNDERSTANDING DIVERSITY
Teachers today, must not only be well prepared to impart a

quality education but also be sensitive to meet the needs of their
students regardless of their race, color, creed, or national origin. It is
important for the teacher to understand, believe, and practice the ideas
of teacher efficacy, intentionality, educational psychology and
pedagogy. An effective teacher should take into account the
intellectual, social and cultural characteristics of each student being
taught.
 Explain the diversity in learning and play
Remaining cognizant of the fact that each child is different and

has different learning styles a teacher in a diverse world is enthusiastic
about their responsibility to teach all students in the most effective way.
Whatever the learning style visual, kinesthetic, auditory, etc, the
teachers who practice intentionality and believe in teacher efficacy plan
the outcomes they want to achieve while having the power or belief in
producing the desired result.
Because of different styles and beliefs there are many facets of
diversity in our world today. Each facet is worthy of our respect and
understanding. In order to be successful teachers we need to step
back and look inside ourselves. Once teachers understand the
differences in students‟ styles, beliefs, and abilities they must create
curriculum that is responsive to the needs of each student. By
incorporating examples of multicultural materials, visual aids, and
topics that encourage students to explore different racial and cultural
perspectives teachers show sensitivity to the cultural value of each
student therefore connecting with the students. Educators must
understand that the cultural backgrounds and experiences of their
students must be respected and reflected in all aspects of the
education process.
It is not only enough to understand and work toward the

success of all diverse students, an effective teacher must prevent
harassment and racism in the classroom. Inappropriate or offensive
remarks must be dealt with quickly and decisively. Since all students
are diverse racist, sexist or other abusive comments are bound to
occur. Teachers need to create an environment which radiates warmth
and friendliness. It is important to help diverse students merge into the
81
mainstream without jeopardizing the quality of education to all students.
Connecting with your students and letting them share their cultural
identity not only assists students to understand other cultures, it helps
embed the individuals‟ culture into their daily life.
Diversity, that is, a mix of human backgrounds, races or
genders, is an important means of promoting mutual understanding
and tolerance. The nature of its importance partly depends on the
setting. Diversity, as a wide component is a tricky thing to use and
understand because it has both negative and positive effects on society
such as education, violence and employment. People have to dig deep
to figure out what exactly the effect will be in the end and be patient to
wait and see. In an educational context, diversity within schools or
universities can enrich the learning process. This will enable students
to draw on their peers' much wider and more varied experiences. It is
also necessary to prepare students for the diverse society they
participate in, beyond the campus.
8.1 Diversity in Learning and Play

Diversity is a key issue in education not only because of
ongoing inequalities in student learning outcomes but also because of
the importance of supporting each individual to reach his/her potential
to contribute to national economic prosperity, individual well-being and
social cohesion.
Play and learning Diversity is one of the most common elements of
childhood across learning is play. Early childhood educators must
recognize the importance of play in the lives of young children and
make use of play as a means of promoting learning awareness. First, a
rapidly growing population of young children from culturally diverse
backgrounds is entering schools. Second, play is a way for children to
learn about the world around them and to learn values. They not only
learn about themselves but also about differences in other people. And
finally, early education programs must work to enhance a positive
awareness of individual differences and learning diversity as a whole.
Play experiences may serve as an excellent way to help teach children
about the differences in other people and that these differences are not
bad. This discussion will focus on each of these three concerns and will
include discussions of the role of play in socialization, awareness of
individual differences, reported deficits in imaginative play, and
strategies to enhance cultural awareness in early education classrooms
through play-based activities.
82
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
4. Play experiences may serve as an excellent way to help teach children
about the differences in other people and that these differences are not bad
 True or False
UNIT 9 ADRESSING DIVERSE LEARNING NEEDS

 Describe the addressing the diverse needs of the
children with special needs
 Explain the activities to address the special educational
needs of the students
Understanding and addressing the needs of students in the classroom:
Student Diversity:
 Height, size and eye color.
 Goals, interest, culture, home background, age, academic
ability levels, mental health issues, behavior problems, eating
disorders, inappropriate or unhealthy sexual practices, drugs, addiction
problems and life circumstances.
9.1 Identifying Individual Differences:
 Classroom observations
 Work samples
 School records
 Standardized testing
 Reports from other teachers
9.2 For students with special needs:
 Discussions with special teachers
83
 Review of official records
 Review special behavior plans
 Review special requirements regarding classroom management
9.3 Shaping Attitudes about Students with Special Needs
1. Do not focus on the special needs. Focus instead on issues that

affect quality of life.
2. Do not portray successful students with special needs as
superhuman. This practice could impose false expectations to
all students with special needs.
3. Do not sensationalize a special need by saying “affected with”,
or “disabled with”. More appropriate designation is “a person
who has multiple sclerosis”.
4. Avoid generic labels such as “the retarded” and use “people
with intellectual disabilities” or a “person with developmental
disabilities.”
5. Put students first not their special needs.
6. Emphasize abilities and not disabilities.

7. Avoid euphemisms to describe special needs.
8. Do not imply disease connected with special needs.
9. Show people with special needs as active participants in society
9.4 Activity Students with Special Needs:
1. Brainstorm student differences that teachers might see in the

classroom. Examples: Cultural, socioeconomic, special needs,
learning styles, ability, size, interests, experiences, age, sex.
2. Divide students into groups based on the brainstorm list of

differences and provide books, articles, and other resources.
Have student groups research different student groups and
identify at least six ideas for successfully addressing the student
differences in the classroom.
3. Look for activities that transcend the differences and address
two or more groups.
4. Copy lists and research sources for all class members.
84
5. List five classroom benefits of identifying student differences
and listing specific techniques that improve behavior and
learning.
6. Develop a resource packet for the classroom management
notebook.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

8. Find the odd one out: Identifying Individual Differences

a) Classroom observations
b) Work samples
c) School records
d) Review of official records
UNIT 10 DIVERSITY-GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE
Increasing globalization requires more interaction among

people from diverse cultures, beliefs, and backgrounds than ever
before. People no longer live and work in an insular marketplace.
They are now part of a worldwide economy with competition
coming from nearly every continent. For this reason, organizations
need diversity to become more creative and open to change.
Therefore maximizing and capitalizing on workplace diversity has
become an important issue for management today. Since
managing diversity remains a significant organizational challenge,
managers must learn the managerial skills needed in a
multicultural work environment. Supervisors and managers must
be prepared to teach themselves and others within their
organizations to value multicultural differences in both associates
and customers so that everyone is treated with dignity.
 Describe the diversity at global level

 Explain the cultural diversity
85
Diversity:
Diversity issues are now considered important and are projected to
become even more important in the future due to increasing
differences in the population of many countries. Companies need to
focus on diversity and look for ways to become totally inclusive
organizations because diversity has the potential of yielding greater
productivity and competitive advantages. Managing and valuing
diversity is a key component of effective people management, which can
improve workplace productivity. Unmanaged diversity in the workplace
might become an obstacle for achieving organizational goals.
Therefore diversity can be perceived as a “double-edged sword”.
1. Concepts of Diversity
Diversity is a subjective phenomenon, created by group members

themselves who on the basis of their different social identities
categorize others as similar or dissimilar: “A group is diverse if it is
composed of individuals who differ on a characteristic on which they
base their own social identity” Loden and Rosener define diversity as
that which differentiates one group of people from another, along
primary and secondary dimensions. Primary dimensions of diversity
are those exerting primary influences on our identities including
gender, ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, age, mental or physical
abilities and characteristics. The primary dimensions shape our basic
self-image as well as our fundamental world views. Additionally, they
have the most impact on groups in the workplace and society.
Secondary dimensions of diversity are less visible, exert a more
variable influence on personal identity and add a more subtle richness
to the primary dimensions of diversity. They include, educational
background, geographic location, religion, first language, family
status, work style, work experience, military experience, organizational
role and level, income and communication style. The secondary
dimensions impacts our self-esteem and self-definition.
There is a definite trends towards definitions of a multiplicity of

diversity dimensions. Arredondo adds culture, social class and
language to the primary dimensions and healthcare beliefs and
recreational interests to the secondary dimensions. She further
adds a tertiary dimension, which encompasses historical moments
experienced. Maier lists 38 possible diversity dimensions, and
further suggests that his item “character traits” is “infinitely
expandable”. He illustrates this multi-dimensionality by reference
86
to the individual as a kaleidoscope.
The analogy of an iceberg comes to mind in the face of these

potentially endless dimensions. The obvious characteristics of race,
ethnicity, gender, age and disability relate to the small, visible portion
of the iceberg, and are the basis of much anti-discrimination
legislation around the world. Other dimensions such as religion,
culture and political orientation are less obvious, and could be said to
constitute the secondary dimensions lying just below the surface,
which may be revealed with time. The tertiary dimensions are often
the core of individual identity and lie deeper below the surface. It is the
vast array of qualities that lie beneath the surface that provides the
real essence of diversity to be tapped into, and these have not until
recently been acknowledged. It should be noted that only some of the
possible dimensions are shown in as follows:
Dimensions of Diversity
Primary Secondary Tertiary

dimensions dimensions dimensions
• Race • Religion • Beliefs
• Ethnicity • Culture • Assumptions
• Gender • Sexual orientation • Perceptions
• Age • Thinking style • Attitudes
• Disability • Geographic origin • Feelings
• Family status • Values
• Lifestyle • Group norms
• Economic status
• Political orientation
• Work experience
• Education
• Language
• Nationality
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The above Table indicates that diversity has many dimensions. These
may inter twine to produce unique syntheses of human profiles, made up
of both differences and similarities. The dimensions interact with and
influence one another and emerge or are displayed differently in different
contexts, environments and circumstances, making analysis and
management complex.
Race, for example, may be more dominant than age in a certain social
situation. But, it may be less dominant than education in a work context.
Thus, the position and dominance of each dimension are not static, but
dynamic, making the concept of diversity more complex. In addition to
this, the secondary dimensions are more malleable and many of them
will change over time. Diversity is not simple, not easy to grasp and not
easy to manage. By using socio-demographic traits as independent
variables to operationalise diversity, most diversity studies has
understood diversity as a given, fixed individual or group essence.
Thomas sums the situation up by observing that diversity in business
has for too long been associated with multicultural, multiethnic and
multiracial aspects of the workforce. He defines diversity as “any mixture
of items characterized by differences and similarities”.
Cultural diversity
Cultural diversity has been defined as “the representation, in one

social system, of people with distinctly different group affiliations of
cultural significance”. It has been studied in both laboratory and field
settings. Laboratory studies, grounded in the value-in-diversity
perspective, have shown that diversity within work groups increases
their effectiveness. On the other hand, field studies, guided by social
identity and related self-categorization theories, have suggested that
diversity is associated with negative performance outcomes.
Within culturally homogeneous groups, members will have a

tendency to communicate with each another more often and in a
greater variety of ways, perhaps because they share worldviews and
a unified culture resulting from in-group attachments and shared
perceptions. According to social identity theory, cultural
homogeneity in management groups may thus increase the level of
satisfaction and cooperation and decrease emotional conflict. Since
homogeneous groups do not have significant cultural barriers to social
88
intercourse, positive social associations and in-group social contacts
are fostered. This formulation suggests that deleterious social identity
and self-categorization processes will not inhibit an organization with a
culturally homogeneous management group. As cultural diversity
increases, however, social comparison and categorization processes
occur, and in-groups/out-groups and cognitive biases may occur,
creating barriers to social intercourse. Therefore, as heterogeneity in
management groups reaches moderate levels, the psychological
processes associated with social identity theory and self-
categorization processes may be more likely to emerge. These
processes generate individual behaviours such as solidarity with
others in a race or gender-based group, conformity to the norms of
one‟s group, and discrimination towards out-groups. To the extent
that multiple subcultures exist in moderately heterogeneous groups,
conflict is potentially maximized and intergroup interaction and
communication may be blocked. For example, Earley and Mosakowski
[2000] found that moderately heterogeneous groups exhibited
relationship conflict, communication problems, and low identification
of members with an overall work group. Within management groups,
the difficulties associated with moderate levels of heterogeneity may
lead to negative performance outcomes for an organization. Although
moderate levels of cultural heterogeneity may create barriers to
effective social intercourse, high levels of heterogeneity could actually
weaken these barriers, since group members will be more evenly
diffused over the categories of cultural diversity, and in-group/out-
group identities will be reduced.
In groups with high levels of cultural heterogeneity, every- day social

contacts and communication are more likely to involve members of
different racial/gender groups. Further, the in-group pressures that
inhibit social interaction with out-group members should be
weakened. In management groups with high heterogeneity, out-
group discrimination is thus, less likely to exist. In fact, few common
bases for subgroup formation and social identity are likely to exist in
management groups with relatively high levels of diversity. In
addition, the processes associated with the value-in- diversity
paradigm are fully realized within highly diverse management groups,
which further enhance performance. An organization with high levels
of cultural heterogeneity in management may not be inhibited by
social identity processes because organization members have many
out- group contacts and may, instead, distinctly benefit from a diverse
89
pool of resources.
2. Double Effects of Diversity
In sum, in keeping with presented above research diversity might have

positive and negative contributions to organizational functioning
depending on its level. There are some advantages and
disadvantages for organizations which deserve to be discussed in
detail.
There is substantial literature which argues that diversity has

performance advantages over homogenous work structures. First,
multicultural organizations have an advantage in attracting and
retaining the best talent. The capabilities of women and minorities
offer a wider labour pool. Organizations that are able to attract and
retain qualified minority group members and keep faith with them
through fair and equitable career advancement treatments, gain
competitive advantage and derive high quality human resources
dividends. Second, a multicultural organization is better suited to
serve a diverse external clientele in a more increasingly global
market. Such organizations have a better understanding of the
requirements of the legal, political, social, economic and cultural
environments of foreign nations. Third, in research-oriented and hi-
tech industries, the broad base of talents generated by a gender-and
ethnic-diverse organization becomes a priceless advantage.
“Creativity thrives on diversity”. Fourth, multicultural organizations
are found to be better at problem solving, possess better ability to
extract expanded meanings and are more likely to display multiple
perspectives and interpretations in dealing with complex issues.
Such organizations are less susceptible to “groupthink.” Fifth,
multicultural organizations tend to possess more organizational
flexibility and are better able to adapt to changes. Women, for
instance, are said to have higher tolerance for ambiguity than men.
Diversity has some drawbacks which moderate its significant

advantages. In problem-solving situations, extraordinary costs in time
and financial resources can negate the benefits of synergy and can
even degenerate into dysfunctional conflicts. Diversity does not fare
as well under conditions of uncertainty and complexity which may
lead to confusion and frustration. Diversity can make it harder to
arrive at an agreement on a particular course of action, and can result
90
in negative dynamics and cultural clashes that can create work
disadvantages for women and minorities. Traditionally, cultural
conflicts between majority and minority group members are usually
resolved in favour of the majority groups. This, in turn, creates
significant barriers to full participation by minority members in
potentially conflict situations.
Higher turnover and absenteeism are special problems identified

with multi-cultural organizations. Several research studies since the
1960‟s have found women and other minorities to be consistently
higher on absenteeism and turnover than their majority-member
counterparts. In a study of twenty work units, O‟Reilly, Caldwell and
Barnett [1989] concluded that heterogeneity in groups was associated
with lower levels of group social integration which resulted in higher
individual turnover. They concluded that, out-group members were
more likely to leave the organization. Using a hypothetical company of
10,000 employees, Cox estimated that absentee differences
attributable to multiculturalism would cost a company an average of
three million dollars per year.
Milliken and Martins [1996] argued that diversity can affect an

organization‟s functioning through four types of mediating variables.
First, diversity can have “affective consequences”, such as lower
organizational commitment or lower satisfaction, because people
prefer interactions with similar others. Second, “cognitive outcomes”
refer to an increase in creativity and innovation. Diversity can enhance
a group‟s ability to gather and process information and therefore it
could result in a greater creativity. Third, a diverse organizational
workforce is a symbol of equality. These “symbolic effects” are
important for an organization‟s reputation. And last, diversity also has
clear implications on the communication process within a group or
organization, i.e. “communication effects”. Milliken and Martins‟
typology takes into account the fact that the diversity can have both
positive and negative effects on the functioning of organizations.
91
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Block.
9. What are the primary dimensions of diversity ?
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LET US SUM UP
In this Block, you have learnt the definitions and meaning of diversity.
The different types of diversity have been dealt elaborately. Various
educational philosophies like Realism, Idealism, Naturalism and
Pragmatism their curriculum, method of teaching, discipline, aims and
the role of the teacher in these methods are explained. The educational
philosophies of Indian and Western philosophers‟ views and their
contributions are discussed in detail. Indian and Western philosophies of
education are compared.
GLOSSARIES
 Diversity - the state of being diverse; variety.

 Ethnicity - the fact or state of belonging to a social group that has
a common national or cultural tradition.
 Heterogeneity - the quality or state of being diverse in character
or content.
 Linguism – discrimination based on a person‟s language
 Prevention – the act of stopping something from happening or of
stopping someone from doing something
 Synergy - the interaction or cooperation of two or more
organizations, substances, or other agents to produce a
combined effect greater than the sum of their separate effects.
1. Basic self-image, fundamental world views

2. Self-esteem , Self definition.
92
3. Diversification is a principle that maintains how individual develop
into quite different people so that they can peacefully occupy
different positions within the environment. A broad definition of
diversity ranges from personality and work style to all of the visible
dimensions of diversity such as race, age, ethnicity or gender, to
secondary influences such as religion, socio economics and
education, to work diversities such as management and union,
functional level and classification or proximity/distance to
headquarters.
4. Geographical Causes
5. True
6. Unity in diversity
7. True
8. Review of official records
9.
 Race
 Ethnicity
 Gender
 Age
 Disability
SUGGESTED READINGS
 Aggarwal, J. C, "Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives on

Education", Shipra publications, New Delhi, (2003).
 Bhatia, K. K and Narang, C. L., "Philosophical and Sociological
Bases of Education", Tandon Publications, Ludhiana, (2002).

(2002).

 Bhatirt, B. (1-983).The philosophical and Sociological Foundation
of Education, New Delhi, Doaba House.
93
 Bhattacharya, S.(2006). Sociological Foundation of Education:
Atlantic Publishers. New Delhi Dhankar. N. (2010).
 Murthy, S. K. (2009). Philosophical and Sociological Foundation

of Education. Ludhiyana: Tondan Publication.
 Pathak, R. P. (2009). Philosophical and Sociological Foundations
of Education. New Delhi: Kanishka Publishers.
 Press Ltd. Siddiqui, M. H. (2009). Philosophical and Sociological
foundation of Education. New Delhi.
 Singh Y. K. (2007). Philosophical. Foundation of Education. New

Delhi: APH Publication Corporation.
94
BLOCK 3 CONTEMPORARY ISSUSES AND CONCERNS
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Unit 11 Universalization of School Education in India
Unit 12 Issues of Universalization Retention and Universal

Enrollment
12.1 Universalization of Provision
12.2 Universalization of Enrolment

12.2.1 Identification of Out of School
Children:
12.3 Universalization of Retention
12.4 Retention
12.5 Universalization of Participation
12.6 Universalization of Achievement

Unit 13 Issues of Equality and Equity
13.1 Meaning of Equality and Equity in Education
13.2 Equality and Equity in Education and The

Constitution of India
13.3 Need and Importance of Equality and Equity
in Education
13.4 Below are Given Constitutional Provisions on
Education
Unit 14 Equality of Educational Opportunity

14.1 Educational Opportunities for SC/St and OBC‟s
14.2 Recommendations for Scheduled Castes and
Scheduled Tribes
14.3 Recommendations for OBC‟s, Minorities and
Other Disadvantaged Groups
Unit 15 Inequality in Schooling

15.1 Educational Inequality
15.2 Public- Private Schools
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15.3 Rural- Urban Schools
15.4 Regular And Distance Modes Of Education:
Difference
Let us Sum Up
Glossaries

Suggested Readings
INTRODUCTION
In this Block we will study about the issues of Education in the

Indian society. The purpose of this Block is to bring into focus,
Universalization of School Education, equalization of Educational
Opportunities - SC/ST, OBC, Women, Handicapped and Religious
Minorities. It also clarifies the issues of equality and equity of Education,
Equal Educational opportunity and inequality of education in present
scenario is briefly discussed.
Education is the basic requirement for success of democracy and
progress of a country. Universalization of primary education is a
provision to provide free educational opportunities to all children of the
society irrespective of caste, creed and sex.
OBJECTIVES
 Universalisation of School Education, Right to Education and

Universal Access
 Issues of : Universal enrollment, Universal retention, and
universal learning
 Issues of quality and Equity: Physical, Economic, Social, Cultural
and Linguistic and weaker Sections and disabled
 Equal Educational opportunities: Meaning of Equality and

Constitutional Provisions
 Inequality in schooling: Public-Private School, Rural- Urban
School and in equalities of regular and Distance Education
96
UNIT 11 UNIVERSALIZATION OF SCHOOL EDUCATION IN
INDIA

 Narrate the Constitutional provisions on Universalisation
of school education.
Article 45 of the Indian Constitution directed that "The State shall

endeavor to provide within a period of ten years from the
commencement of this constitution for free and compulsory education
for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years."
Universalization of School Education implies the following five

aspects:
(i) Universalization of provision,
(ii) Universalization of enrolment ,
(iii) Universalization of retention,
(iv) Universalization of participation, and
(v) Universalization of achievement.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Block.
1. Article 45 of the Indian Constitution directed that

"...................................................................................................................
.........................................................."
97
UNIT 12 ISSUSES OF UNIVERSALIZATION RETENTION AND
UNIVERSAL ENROLLMENT

 Describe the issues related to universalization enrollment
and retention
12.1 Universalization of Provision

This implies that adequate school facilities should be provided to
all children between age group 6 to 14 in the country. It means that
primary schools should be set up within 1 km from the habitation of a
child. It needs to open a large number of schools throughout the country.
12.2. Universalization of Enrolment

A major objective of SSA is the enrolment of all children in
schools or AIE interventions. It has been observed that despite all efforts
made over the past years, there are children who are still „out-of-school‟.
The out-of-school children comprise of drop out children and also
children who have never been enrolled in the school for various reasons.
The main reasons for these children being out-of-school can be
attributed to engagement of children in agriculture or other labour work,
sibling care, cattle grazing, weak economic condition of family, migration
etc. Hence, the major challenge is to enrol all these remaining 'still out of
school children' during the next academic session.
Enrolment of these children will have to be ensured by

enrolling them in various interventions like primary schools, upper
primary schools, AIE interventions or by mainstreaming such out-of-
school children through Bridge Courses. Detailed identification of
category of „hard to reach‟ children has been done, strategies to address
their educational needs have been developed.
After making provision for children, next thing is to see how to

enroll all the students in primary schools who attain educable age. The
Government has decided to enroll all children of the age group 6-14 in
primary schools. All adequate and fruitful steps are being launched to
bring all children from every nook and corner of the country to the arena
of school. The New Education Policy (1986) assured to enroll all children
up to age level 14 and the achievement of Universalization of
Elementary Education (UEE) by 2015 through “Education for All”.
98
12.2.1 Identification of out of School Children:
In order to enrol all children in school it is imperative, that all out
of school children be brought into the school first. This calls for an
intensive identification of all children who are in the school and who are
out of school followed by enrolment and back to school drive.
This also calls for a three pronged strategy given as follows:

1. Data collection and identification of School Going Children /
Out of School Children
2. Enrolment of all children in Schools/AIE Interventions

3. Regular child wise tracking of out of school/back to school
children throughout the academic session.
12.3 Universalization of Retention
Simply enrolling of children in school is not enough for

universalization. The success of it lies in the retention. In the School
organization, children must remain in school stage till the completion of
school study. But if the child leaves education before completion, the
idea of universalization of primary education cannot be successful.
12.4 Retention
Retention is a major priority in the State now.

The strategies adopted for retention in the State are four in
number
• Children Targeted Strategies
• Teacher Targeted Strategies
• School Targeted Strategies

• Community Targeted Strategies
Children Targeted Strategies
The retention rates will improve only if the dropout rate is

reduced and regular attendance of students is ensured. Therefore,
the target for the State is to bring down the drop out rate and
ensure regular attendance.
99
This will be done through the following: Developing
mechanism for monitoring and increasing attendance. This will
include:
• Efforts for increasing attendance
• Monitoring attendance
• Children motivation
• Checking dropout: reducing dropout rate by 5% from the
previous year level
• Remedial Teaching for weak students

• Flexible school timings
• Hostel for migratory children/ Children belonging to
Primitive tribes/CWSN/Girls.
• Seat increase in Ashram Shalas/KGBV/Girls Hostels
• Health Check up
School Targeted Strategies

Improving School Environment A school with clean and
good environment attracts the children and facilitates in their
retention in school. To improve the school environment and ensure
basic facilities in school annual grants are given to schools. These
are school grants & maintenance grants.
Community targeted strategies
• Mobilisation of community to develop ownership for

school
• Mobilisation campaign for retention of children in schools.
• A committee of women members of the village called

“Jagja Samities” will be done towards retention and quality
12.5 Universalization of Participation
For Universalization of School Education participation of

community is quite inevitable. The community is to be mobilized to
take the responsibility for identifying its own needs and to take
decisive role in ensuring the implementation of the UEE
100
programme.
12.6 Universalization of Achievement
For success of UEE, achievement of learners is to be

ascertained. The strategy is to lay down learning outcomes from
learners at the elementary level. The outcome of the education is
to be based of minimum level of learning (MLL) common to both
formal and non-formal programme. For assessing achievement of
MLL, continuous comprehensive evaluation of students‟ learning is
to be emphasized. This aimed to achieve UEE through “Education
for All” (EFA) by 2015.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS


Block.
3. How to find out the identification of out of school children?
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UNIT 13 ISSUES OF EQUALITY AND EQUITY
Equity in education cannot be divorced from equality. In other

words equality cannot be meaningful without equity. They are
intimately related to each other. We cannot talk of equity isolating it
from equality. Therefore, it is essential to talk equity with equality.
Here, it must be emphasized that when we talk of equality and
equity we talk in consonance with constitutional framework.
 Define the concepts Equity and Equality

 Describe the Constitutional provisions for equity and
equality in India
101
13.1 Meaning of Equality and Equity in Education
Equality implies that before the law, every citizen is equal to
another. Hence, the value of equality implies that every individual
must be given equal opportunity to develop his innate abilities and
talents. No one should be stopped from "going up the ladder"
except if he himself lacks ability to go up. There should be no
discrimination between one individuals and another on any ground
whatsoever in a democratic country where every citizen enjoys
equal rights. It implies that:
 The state must not discriminate between citizens on

the basis of religion race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of
them.
 Everyone must be equal before the law.
 There must be no discrimination on the basis of

religion, caste or creed in the use of public places.
 Untouchability must be completely eradicated.
 Everyone must have equality in respect of

fundamental rights, right to contest elections etc.
 Every religion must be treated as equal.
 From the religious point of view every citizen must
have the right to practise and profess his own religion.
Those who have remained backward till now must be raised to the
same level as others so that the unequal gap should be reduced
and they should be brought at par with those who are developed in
comparison to under developed. Those who must be given special
facilities for this purpose include: scheduled tribes, scheduled
castes, backward castes and classes and women and children.
Thus, similar treatment to all individuals from the point of view of

rights and opportunities is called equality. It also means not to
deprive any individual from his right is called equality. The right of
equality has been provided to all in our Indian Constitution but
special concessions (facilities) have been provided to scheduled
102
tribes, scheduled castes, backward castes and classes, women
and children.
Equity means freedom form bias or impartial treatment. Impartiality

is implied in equality because equality is not possible without
equity. Equity is supplementary to equality. It means providing due
share to all those who has been deprived off by whatever reason
or were not in a position to avail the facility which may have
brought them up at par with developed people.
13.2 Equality and Equity in Education and the Constitution

of India
The Constitution of India declares the right to equality as a

'fundamental right'.
Equality before law: Under Article 14, equality before the law or
equal protection of the laws is guaranteed to all. It declares that
"The state shall not deny to any person equality before the law or
equal protection of the laws."
No discrimination: Article 15, prohibits discrimination on certain

grounds. Discrimination against any citizen on grounds of religion,
race, caste, sex or place of birth is forbidden. This Article also
provides equal right to make use of public places.
Equality of opportunity: Article 16 guarantees equality of

opportunity in matters of public employment. It declares that "No
citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution
maintained by the state or receiving aid out of state funds on
grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them."
Article 15 and 29: Article 15 states, "Nothing in this Article

or in clause (2) of Article 29 shall prevent the state from making
any special provision for the advancement of any socially and
educationally backward class of citizens or for the scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes."
103
Article 15 (3) reads, "Nothing in this Article shall prevent the
State from making any special provision for women and children"
Provision has been made for separate institutions for girls.
No untouchability: According to Article 17 untouchability is

abolished and its practice in any form is prohibited.
Right to open Institution: Article 30 of the Constitution gives the

right to all the classes to open institutions of their own will. The
Article states:
 "All minorities whether based on religion or language shall have
the right to establish and administer educational institutions of
their choice."
 "The States shall not discriminate against any educational

institution in respect of grant-in-aid, on the ground that it is
under the management of a minority, whether based on religion
or language."
Special facilities to weaker sections: Special facilities are

provided to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and other
backward classes and women. Facility of reservation has been
provided to scheduled tribes, scheduled castes and other
backward classes.
Article 46 lays down, "The State shall promote with special
care the educational and economic interests of the weaker
sections of the people. In particular, the scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes and shall be protected them from social injustice
and all forms of exploitation."
The handicapped children are a weaker section of the
people. Their education and economic improvement thus become
a responsibility of the government under Article 46 of the
Constitution.
In this way all steps are being taken to provide equality and
equity in education, so that no person remains deprived of the right
of education. Various provisions of Indian Constitution clarified
above are sufficient to prove, that, in the present day Indian social
104
structure, no individual is discriminated against, on the basis of
religion, caste class, sex etc. Instead, the democratic system,
makes an attempt at establishing equality from every point of view
and shows the highest possible respect for the democratic principle
of individual equality. In brief it can be said that in the present
Indian social structure.
 All individuals are equal before law.
 No discrimination between citizens on grounds of religion,

class, caste, sex or place of birth is practiced.
 There is equality of opportunities in matter of public
employment.
 Equality has been established by making an attempt to
apply a common code of conduct
 Equality has been established by eradicating

untouchability, titles etc.
 Special facilities have been provided to scheduled castes,
scheduled tribes and other backward classes and women.
 By making provisions for free and compulsory education for
all children between the ages of 6 and 14, the children
within this age groups have been treated as equal.
 Religions, political and social equality is available.
 All persons are being given equal opportunities of getting
education. The doors of education are open to everyone.
13.3 Need and Importance Equality and Equity in Education:
The following points highlight the need of equality and

equity in education:
Human right: Education has been considered as a Universal

Human Right. The idea of equality and adequate opportunity to all
was highlighted in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,
adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations on
December 10, 1948. As a sequel to this, the principles of "non-
discrimination" and "right to education" were strongly advocated.
These two principles inherited the concept of "equality of
105
opportunity in education." Therefore, depriving any person of
education on the bases of religion, race or class will be deprivation
of Human Right.
Essential for democracy: India is a democratic country.

Democracy is based on the principle of equal freedom and equal
rights for all its members, regardless of race, religion, sex,
occupation or economic status. Democracy can be achieved
through liberty, equality, fraternity and justice. In a democratic
society equal rights and equality of opportunities are provided.
Hence equality and equity in education are needed, because it is
through the education to all the people in a democracy that the
success of democratic institutions is assured.
Egalitarian society: Equality and equity in education are needed

for the establishment of an egalitarian society which is a society in
which equality and social justice should be the norms.
Economic development: Equality and equity in education are

needed for the economic development of the nation. The desired
success in economic development cannot be achieved without
providing equality and equity in education.
Nations Advancement: Equality and equity in education will

ensure a rapid advancement of a nation. Education is now an
investment. If the people have equal opportunities to get education,
they will have a chance to develop their natural talent and thus
enrich the society.
Search of Talent: Equality and equity in education will extend the

search of talent among all the people of the nation. There will thus
be available people with specialized talents for specialized jobs in
a large number and the society will be benefitted.
Closer Link: Equality and equity in education will develop a closer

link between the moreover needs of a society and the availability of
the skilled personnel.
106
Socializing Pattern of Society: Equality and equity in education
can help in bringing about silent revolution in the process of
establishment of the socializing pattern of society.
Modernization: Equality and equity in education are needed for

accelerating the process of modernization in social, economic,
political and education field.
Achieving equality and equity in education: The following are

the ways and means for achieving equality and equity in education
To stop wastage and stagnation: There is huge wastage and

stagnation at the primary stage. The constitutional directive of
compulsory and universal education cannot be realized till the
problem of wastage and stagnation is effectively solved. The
causes of wastage and stagnation have to be found and removed.
The following suggestions are given for reducing wastage and
stagnation:
 Financial assistance has to be given.
 Parents will have to be educated.

 Part-time education will have to be provided.
 Social orthodoxies like indifference towards girls' education and
narrow outlook towards co-education have to be removed.
 The school distance should be reduced.
 Maximum number of schools will have to be opened.
 School environment should be improved

 Curriculum should be improved. It should be child-cantered,
activity-cantered, experience-cantered, life-cantered and
community-cantered.
 Play-way techniques of teaching should be introduced.
 Facilities for educating the children of underprivileged and
backward sections of the society have to be increased.
 Entry will have to be regularized. Multiple entries should be
allowed.
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 Non-formal education has to be provided.
Provision of compensatory education:
The concept of 'compensatory education' for the culturally

deprived and socially disadvantaged is now universally recognized
as a necessary condition of equality and equity in education. By
compensatory education is a provision of such special training and
incentives would compensate for the initial disadvantage
experienced by the children of the socially and economically
weaker sections and the culturally deprived groups. A person may
not receive education or his education may remain incomplete due
to poverty, child labour, low culture, poor hygiene, malnutrition,
over-crowded homes, social environment and backwardness.
Children from the lower socio-economic classes experience great
difficulty in positively responding to school education unless their
initial disadvantages are compensated and they are brought on
level with others.
In India compensation has taken the form of special facilities and

incentives. Article 15 (4) and Article 46 of the Constitution have
made provision for special advantages for the socially and
economically backward classes, particularly for the scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes. Several concrete measures that have
been taken in this direction.
Some of them are as follows:-
 Institution of scholarships.
 Reservation of seats in institutions of higher learning

and quota system for jobs.
 Relaxation of requirements for admission to higher
education.
 Remedial education and special coaching classes.
 Health care and mid-day meals.
 Provision of free school uniform, text-books and

stationery.
 Lump sum grants.
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 Expansion and school facilities like building and
equipment, appointment of more teachers and special
trained teachers.
Common School System:
A very vital component of the overall strategy for securing

equality and equity in education is the Common School System.
These schools will be open to all children irrespective of caste,
creed, community, religion, economic conditions or social status. In
these schools access to good education, in terms of enriched
curriculum, will depend not on wealth or class but on talent. No
tuition fee will be charged in these schools. These schools would
meet the needs and aspirations of the middle and lower classes,
without unduly taxing them. Concrete steps for translating the
concept of Common School System into action have to be taken.
In order to achieve this objective, the existing Government, Local
Body and Government-aided schools have to be transformed
through quality improvement into genuine neighbourhood schools.
Private schools also should be similarly transformed in course of
time by making them freely accessible.
Selection on merit:
Higher education by its nature is something which has to be
earned. There is nothing like a 'right' to higher education in the
absence of possession of the abilities required to profit from such
education, nor can there be any compulsion for it. Higher education
should be equally accessible to all on the bases of merit, ability or
talent irrespective level of higher education can be taken to mean
provision of opportunities for everyone who possesses the 'merit'
required for it.
Equality and equity in education as suggested by Kothari

Commission:
Kothari Commission suggested that, for equality and equity

in education the following measures may be adopted
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No tuition fee: The country should work towards a stage when
education should be tuition free. Tuition fees at the primary and
lower secondary stage should be abolished. At the higher
secondary and university stage tuition free education should be
extended to all needy and deserving students.
Reducing private costs: Free text-books and writing materials

should be provided at the primary stage. Book banks should be
established in secondary schools and institutions of higher
education. The libraries of secondary schools and institutions of
higher education should contain an adequate number of sets of
text-books so that the students can have an easy access to them.
Grants for purchase of books should be given to talented students
in educational institutions i.e., the universities, affiliated colleges
and secondary schools.
Scholarships: There should be liberal schemes for scholarships at

the primary, secondary and university stages. At the level of higher
education the Government of India should assume the bulk of such
responsibility. At the school stage this responsibility should vest in
the State Government. The scheme of National Scholarships,
University Scholarships, Scholarships in Vocational Education,
Scholarships for Study Abroad and Loan Scholarships should be
expanded.
Other forms of student aid: Transport facilities should be

provided imaginatively to reduce the cost on hostels and
scholarships. Day study centers and lodging houses should be
provided on a liberal scale. Facilities for students to earn and pay a
part of their educational expenses should be developed. In all
programmes of scholarships, preferential consideration should be
given to the needs of girls.
Handicapped children: There should be at least one institution for

the education of the handicapped children in each district. There
must be adequate Teachers Training programmes for the
education of handicapped children.
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Regional imbalances: Regional imbalances should be reduced to
the minimum. Wider programmes for reducing the imbalances in
the socio-economic development of the different states and
districts in the country should go side by side.
Education of women: The education of women should be

regarded as a major programme in education for some years to
come. Bold and determined efforts should be made to face these
difficulties involved and to bridge the existing gap between the
education of men and women in as short a time as possible.
Education of backward classes: The existing programme for the

education of the scheduled caste should continue and be
expanded. Greater efforts are needed to provide educational
facilities for the nomadic and semi-nomadic groups. Hostels should
be provided for the children of denotified communities.
Education of the tribal people: The education of the tribal people

deserves great emphasis and attention. At the primary stage,
provision of facilities will have to be improved and Asharam
Schools will have to be established in sparsely populated areas.
The medium of instruction for the first two years should be tribal
language and then the regional language. At the secondary stage,
provision of schools, hostel facilities and scholarships have to be
greatly expanded. In higher education, the administration of the
scholarships programme will have to be decentralised and made
more efficient provision for special tuition will have to be made both
at the secondary and university stages. It is essential to develop
cadres of persons who will wrote themselves to the service of the
tribal people.
Equality and equity in national policy of education (1986)
National Policy on Education (1986) lays special emphasis

on the removal of disparities and to equalize educational
opportunities by attending to the specific needs of those who have
been denied equality so far. In the National Policy on Education the
following provisions have been made in order to achieve the target
of equality and equity in education:
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Women education: Education will be used as an agent of basic
change in the status of women. The National Education System
will pay a positive rile in the empowerment of women. Under the
New Education Policy, the expansion of women education has
been emphasized. Eradication of women's illiteracy will receive
top-priority. Major emphasis will be placed on women's
participation in technical, vocational and professional courses at
different levels. Thus, the age old gap between technical and
vocational curriculum of boys and girls will be removed. They will
be provided opportunities for technical, vocational and professional
education on the basis of equality and equity.
Education of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes: The

central focus in the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes
educational development is their equalization with the non-
scheduled castes and non-scheduled tribes population at all stages
and levels of education, in all areas and dimensions. The
measures contemplated for this purpose include provision of free
equation, free food, free clothes, scholarships and hostel facilities.
Non-formal and adult educating programmes may also be
arranged for such cases.
Other educationally backward sections and areas: Suitable

incentives will be provided to all educationally backward sections of
society, particularly in the rural areas. Hilly and desert district
districts, remote and inaccessible areas and islands will be
provided institutional infra-structure.
Education of minorities: Some minority groups are educationally

deprived. Greater attention will be paid to the education of these
groups in the interests of equality and social justice. This will
include the constitutional guarantees given to them to establish
and administer their own educational institutions and protection to
their languages and culture.
Education of the handicapped: Mentally and physically

handicapped children will be encouraged to get education so that
112
they may effectively participate in the activities of the community.
Children with motor handicaps and other mild handicaps will be
imparted education with that of others. They will also be given
vocational education. Provision of special schools and hostels will
be made for the severely handicapped children. There will be
reorientation of teacher-training programmes to deal with the
special difficulties of the handicapped children.
Promotion of adult and continuing education: The whole nation

must pledge itself to the eradication of illiteracy, particularly in the
15-35 age-group. A vast programme of adult and continuing
education will be implemented through various ways and channels
like the following:
 Strengthening the existing programmes of adult and

continuing education.
 Setting up continuing education centres especially in
rural areas.
 Education of workers through their employers, trade
unions and concerned agencies of government.
 Using radio, television and films, as mass and group

learning media.
 Creation of learners' groups organizations.
 Providing post secondary educational institutions on a

large scale.
 Providing books, libraries and reading rooms on a large
scale.
 Publishing useful books and distributing them property.
 Organizing vocational training programmes based on
need and interest.
Thus, Education has been considered as a universal human right.
Equality and equity in education is directly related to democratic
development, establishment of egalitarian society, socialistic
pattern of society, economic development, nation's development
and to accelerate the process of modernization. Free, Compulsory
and Universal Education, Operation Black board, Diversification
Curriculum and Vocationalistion of Education, access to higher
113
education on the basis of merit, DIETS, Navodaya Vidyalayas,
Distance Education, and Continuing and Adult Education, Open
Universities, National Literacy Mission, Education through Radio
and Television are efforts to bring equality and equity in education.
Moreover, provisions and programmes for education for equality
namely education for women's equality, education of scheduled
castes, scheduled tribes, and other educationally backward
sections and areas, education of minorities, education of the
handicapped, and adult and continuing education will be helpful in
achieving the target of equality and equity in education.
Major constitutional provisions on education in India are as

follows:
There are some changes regarding the 42nd Amendment to the

Constitution. During 1976 our constitution was amended in many of
its fundamental provisions. Under the Constitution of India, the
Central Government has been specifically vested with several
educational responsibilities.
13.4 Below are given constitutional provisions on Education:

1. Free and Compulsory Education:
The Constitution makes the following provisions under

Article 45 of the Directive Principles of State Policy which states
that, “The state shall endeavour to provide within a period of ten
years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and
compulsory Education for all children until they complete the age of
fourteen years.”
The expression „State‟ which occurs in this Article is defined in
Article 12 to include “The Government and Parliament of India and
the Government and the Legislature of each of the States and all
local or other authorities within the territory of India or under the
control of the Government of India.” It is clearly directed in Article
45 of the Constitution that the provision of Universal, Free and
Compulsory Education becomes the joint responsibility of the
Centre and the States.
In the Constitution it was laid down that within 10 years, i.e., by

1960 universal compulsory education must be provided for all
114
children up to the age of 14, But unfortunately, this directive could
not be fulfilled. Vigorous efforts are needed to achieve the target of
100 percent primary education. The Central Government needs to
make adequate financial provisions for the purpose. At the present
rate of progress it may, however, be expected that this directive
may be fulfilled by the end of this century.
2. Education of Minorities:
Article 30 of the Indian Constitution relates to certain

cultural and educational rights to be established and administered
in educational institutions.
It lays down:
(i) All minorities whether based on religion or language, shall

have the right to establish and administer educational
institutions of their choice.
(ii) The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions,
discriminate against any educational institution on the
ground, that it is, under the management of a minority,
whether based on religion or language.
3. Language Safeguards:
Article 29(1) states “Any section of the citizen, residing in

the territory of India or any part there of having a distinct language,
script or culture of its own, hall have the right to conserve the
same.” Article 350 B provides for the appointment of special officer
for linguistic minorities to investigate into all matters relating to
safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under the Constitution.
4. Education for Weaker Sections:
Article 15, 17 and 46 safeguards the educational interests

of the weaker sections of the Indian Community, that is, socially
and educationally backward classes of citizens and scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes. Article 15 states that “Nothing in this
article or in clause (2) of Article 29 shall prevent the state from
making any special provision for the advancement of any socially
and educationally backward classes of citizens or for the
scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.”
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Under Article 46 of the Constitution, the federal government
is responsible for the economic and educational development of
the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
It states, “The state shall promote with special care the educational
and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in
particular, of the Scheduled castes and Scheduled Tribes and shall
protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation.” It is
one of the Directive Principles of State Policy.
5. Secular Education:
India is a secular country. It is a nation where spirituality is

based on religion. This had always been given a high esteem.
Under the Constitution, minorities, whether based on religion or
language, are given full rights to establish educational institutions
of their choice. Referring to the constitutional provisions that
religious instructions given in institutions under any endowment or
Trust, should not be interfered with even if such institutions are
helped the State.
Article 25 (1) of the Constitution guarantees all the citizens
the right to have freedom of conscience and the right to profess,
practice and propagate religion.
Article 28 (1) states that “No religious instruction shall be
provided in any educational institution if wholly maintained out of
state fund.”
Article 28 (2) states that “Nothing in clause (1) shall apply to
an educational institution which is administered by the State but
has been established under any endowment or Trust which
requires that religious instruction shall be imparted to such
institution.”
Article 28 (3) states that “No person attending any

educational institution by the state or receiving aid out of state
funds, shall be required to take part in any religious instruction that
may be imported in such institutions or to attend any religious
worship that may be conducted in such institution or in any
premises attached thereto unless such person or, if such person a
minor, his guardian has given his consent thereto.”
Article 30 states that “The state shall not, in granting aid to
educational institution maintained by the State or receiving aid out
116
of State funds, on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or
any of them.”
6. Equality of Opportunity in Educational Institutions:

Article 29(1) states that “No citizen shall be denied
admission into any educational institution maintained by the State
or receiving aid out of State funds, on grounds only of religion,
race, caste, language or any of them.”
The Fundamental Rights of the Indian Constitution has also

adopted the fourfold ideal of justice, Liberty, Equality and
Fraternity. Our Constitution laid down that in the eyes of law,
everyone should have an equal status. To no one the justice can
be denied and everyone should have the liberty of thought and
expression.
The fundamental right of equality clearly signifies that in the

eyes of law no distinction can be made on the basis of any
position, caste, class or creed. Side by side the right of equality of
opportunities to all is also provided. The equality of opportunity is
meaningless, unless there are equal opportunities for one‟s
education.
The well-known Kothari Commission of 1964-66
recommended that Central Government should undertake the
responsibility in education for the equalization of educational
opportunities with special reference to the reduction of inter-state
differences and the advancement of the weaker section of the
community.
7. Instruction in Mother -Tongue:
There is diversity of languages in our country. After the

dawn of Independence, Mother- Tongues have received special
emphasis as medium of instruction and subjects of study. In the
Constitution of India, it has been laid down that the study of one‟s
own language is a fundamental right of the citizens.
Article 26 (1) states that “Any section of the citizens,

residing in the territory of India or any part thereof, having a distinct
117
language, script or culture of its own, shall have the right to
converse the same.”
Article 350 A directs, “It shall he endeavour of every state

and every local authority to provide adequate facilities for
instruction in the mother-tongue at the primary stage of education
to children belonging to linguistic minority groups.”
Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 recommended

that the mother tongue or the regional language should generally
be the medium of instruction throughout secondary school stage
subject to the provision that for linguistic minorities, special
facilities should be made available. Kothari Commission, 1964-66
has also said that at college and university stage, mother-tongue
should be the medium. The medium of instruction at school level is
already mother-tongue. This is not a new proposal.
8. Promotion of Hindi:
The Indian Constitution makes provision for the

development and promotion of Hindi as national language. Article
351 enjoins the Union, the duty to promote the spread of the Hindi
language.
Hindi accepted as the Official Language of India as laid down

by the Constitution in following words:
“It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of

the Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium
of expression of all the elements of the composite culture of India.”
In practice, Hindi is already largely in use as a link language for the
country. The educational system should contribute to the
acceleration of this process in order to facilitate the movement of
student and teacher and to strengthen national Unity.
9. Higher Education and Research:
Parliament has the exclusive rights to enact legislation in

respect of institutions and Union Agencies mentioned in entries 63,
64, 65, and 66 of List. The entries which give authority to the
Government of India in education are mentioned below:
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 Entry 63 of the Union List:
The institutions known at the commencement of this
provision of the Constitution as the Banaras Hindu
University, the Aligarh Muslim and the Delhi University and
any other institution declared by Parliament by law to be an
Institution of National importance.
 Entry 66 of the Union List:
Co-ordination and determination of standards in institution

for higher education or research and scientific and technical
institutions.
10. Women‟s Education:

One of the unique features of Modem Indian Education is
the tremendous advancement of Women‟s Education. Education of
the girls is considered to be more important than that of the boys.
The Constitution makes the following provisions under

different articles:
Article 15(1) provides that the State shall not discriminate

any citizen on groups only of sex.
Article 15 (3) reads: ”Nothing in this article shall prevent the
State from making any special provision for women and children.”
The well-known National Policy on Education was
concerned about the status and education of women in the
country. It envisages that education would be used as a strategy
for achieving a basic change in the status of women. It opined that
the national system of education must play a positive role in this
direction.
The Policy states, “Education will be used as an agent of
basic change in the status of women. In order to neutralize the
accumulated distortions of the past, there will be a well conceived
edge in favour of women.”
119
11. Education in the Union Territories:
Article 239 of the Constitution states, “Save as otherwise
provided by Parliament by Law, every Union Territory shall be
administrator by the president acting to such extent as he thinks fit
through an administrator to be appointed by him with such
designation as he may specify.”
12. Educational and cultural relations with foreign countries:
Entry 13 of the Union List reads. Participation in

international conferences, associations and other bodies and
implementing decisions made there at.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Block.
3. Discrimination against any citizen on

grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or place of birth is forbidden.
a) Article 14
b) Article 15
c) Article 16
d) Article 17
4. National Policy on Education

a) 1976
b) 1956
c) 1986
d) 1978
5. Write down Article 26 (1) states

“……………………………………………….……………
…………………………………………………………….”
120
UNIT 14 EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY
This Unit explains about the prevailing nature and forms of

inequality including dominant and minority groups related issues.
 Recognize the need for providing educational
opportunities for the minorities
 Explain the recommendations for the disadvantaged
groups
14.1 Educational Opportunities for SC/ST and OBC
The University Grants Commission (UGC) has all along given

emphasis in enhancing participation of Scheduled Castes (SCs),
Scheduled Tribes (STs), Minorities, Other Backward Classes (OBCs),
Persons with Disabilities (as defined in the PWD Act, 1995) and Women
in higher education.
Some of the notable schemes of the UGC for nurturing social

equity for various beneficiary categories in vogue are Indira Gandhi Post
Graduate Scholarships for Single Girl Child, Residential Coaching
Academies for Minorities, Rajiv Gandhi National Fellowships for SCs
and STs, and Maulana Azad National Fellowships for Minorities, Post-
Doctoral Fellowships for SCs, STs, and Women etc.
The UGC is committed not only to strengthen the ongoing programs but
also to continue to innovate meaningful programs with great vigour to
achieve increased participation of SCs, STs, Minorities, OBCs, PWDs
and Women in higher education.
14.2 Recommendations for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled

Tribes
Educational incentives like free uniforms, footwear may be supplied to

SC children especially girls to offset economic cost of education and
cash incentive may be provided to SC, ST children to offset other
hidden costs of education.
121
Funds may be earmarked for remedial teaching of SC/ST and other
disadvantaged children at district level.
Out-of-school children in urban areas should also be provided with better

facilities under SSA. Use of primers in tribal languages should be
extended to all the schools in tribal areas.
More Adult Literacy Centres may be opened in areas predominantly

inhabited by SC, ST.
Inclusive Education should become the idea of every school located in
villages taking care of SC/ST.
Institutions of higher learning may have their own autonomy but at the
same time provide protection under the law in relation to reservation etc.
Government should regulate the fee structure and pay the fees etc. of
disadvantaged groups including fees for Higher Education.
Government should cancel the accreditation of the
universities/institutions, which fail in implementing the reservation policy.
The teaching and other posts in the universities and other institutions
should be filled as per the reservation policy without any dilution.
Special coaching should be provided to reserved category candidates

for successfully clearing SET or NET examination.
UGC should make strict rules and regulations to fill in the post of
reserved category. Defaulting universities or affiliated colleges should
not be granted financial support or any grants.
UGC should prepare norms and guidelines to allocate students for Ph.D.
courses. The Professors guiding these Ph.D students should be
sensitive to their backgrounds. This should be mandatory to all
universities. A monitoring mechanism should be devised to ensure its
compliance. Defaulters should be heavily punished.
The fees payable for technical education are generally high. In view of
this freeships, scholarships, subsidized fees and loan facilities especially
to girls, should also be extended to all disadvantaged groups.
Coaching schemes for SCs/STs and Minorities should be transferred to

MHRD from other Ministries.
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The quota for Ph.D. in technology for reserved category candidates
should be increased. They should be provided with required technical
equipments, residential and financial support along with recognized
guide.
14.3 Recommendations for OBCs, Minorities and Other

Disadvantaged Groups
 The street children, children of convicts, sex workers should have

a special focus under Sarva Siksha Abhiyan (SSA).
 Funds may be earmarked for remedial teaching of SC/ST and
other disadvantaged children at district level.
 More Minority concentration districts should be identified so that
more children from minority groups get facilities under SSA one
being provided.
 Recognized Madarasas should be brought under SSA and
facilities extended to them.
 Dropout rates of disadvantaged groups are noticed to be going

up as the level of education goes up. To reduce the rate of
dropouts amongst disadvantaged, should become the focus of
the Eleventh Five Year Plan.
 Inclusive Education should become the idea of every school
located in villages taking care of OBC and other Disadvantaged
Groups.
 With increasing number of private institutions entering in the field
of higher education, the fees payable are observed to be too high
for the disadvantaged groups.
 There should be subsidized loan facilities for the fees/hostel
expenditure from the financial institutions like banks etc.
 An in-built system of upgrading the educational needs of the

disadvantaged groups should be provided in all institutions of
Higher Education, through coaching classes for them.
 Institutions of higher learning may have their own autonomy but

at the same time provide protection under the law in relation to
the reservation etc.
 Government should regulate the fee structure and pay the fees
123
etc. of disadvantaged groups.
 Government should cancel the accreditation of the
universities/institutions, which fail in implementing the reservation
policy.
 The teaching and other posts in the universities and other
institutions should be filled as per the reservation policy
without any dilution.
 UGC should prepare norms and guidelines to allocate
students for Ph.D. courses. The Professors guiding these
Ph.D. students should be sensitive to their backgrounds.
This should be mandatory to all universities. A monitoring
mechanism should be devised to ensure its compliance.
Defaulters should be heavily punished.
 The fees payable for technical education are generally
high.
 More Adult Literacy Centers may be opened in areas
predominantly inhabited by SC, ST and OBCs.
 Cash incentives may be given to adult illiterates especially the

female illiterates.
 Coaching schemes for SCs/STs and Minorities should be
transferred to MHRD from other Ministries.
The equalization of educational opportunities is essentially linked
with the notion of equality in the social system. In a social system if
all the individuals are treated as equal, they get equal
opportunities for advancement. Since education is one of the most
important means of upward mobility, it is through an exposure to
education one can aspire to achieve higher status, position and
emoluments. But for getting education he must have equal
opportunities like other members of the society. In case
educational opportunities are unequally distributed, the inequalities
in the social structure continue to be perpetuated, it is in this light
the quality of educational opportunity has been visualized.
The need for emphasizing the equality of opportunity in education

arises due to number of reasons. Some of these reasons are
enumerated below:
124
(a) It is needed because it is through the education to all the
people in a democracy is the success of democratic
institutions assured.
(b) The equality of educational opportunities will ensure rapid
development of the nation.
(c) closer link between the manpower needs of a society and

the availability of a skilled personnel will develop.
(d) People with specialized talents for specialized jobs in a
large number will be available and the society will be
benefited.
A society which holds high promises of “Equality of status and of
opportunity for all and assures the dignity of individual and the unity and
integrity of the Nations”, has to attend to the mass spreading of learning
much in the interest of creating the appropriate ground work for the
social advancement. Education is supposed to eliminate social and
economic inequality.
The relationship between education and inequality is a result of the
historical particulars of the educational system. There are two factors in
this (1) the available opportunities which structure individual choices and
(2) the social and economic process which structure individual choices
while the above factors point out that the educational system is a
product of the social structure it must be remembered that it is not a one-
way process because the educational system itself and the values it
stands for influences individual decisions.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS


Block.
6. Write down the some of the Educational Opportunities and
recommendations for SC/ST students?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Write-down some of the recommendations for OBCs, Minorities and

Other Disadvantaged Groups.
…………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
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UNIT 15 INEQUALITY IN SCHOOLING
 Describe the educational equality in India

15.1 Educational Inequality:
The major problem with respect to the equality of educational
opportunity is the perpetuation of inequalities through education. It is
through a system of education in which elite control is predominant that
the inequalities are perpetuated. In an elite controlled system, the
schools practice segregation. This segregation may be on the basis of
caste, color or class etc.
Equality of educational opportunity is more talked about, than
really believed. In all modern industrially advanced countries, there is
total inequality of educational opportunity. Educational opportunities for a
child are determined by his family, class and neighborhood
consideration.
The size of the family and the parental attitude makes a lot of
difference to the educational career of a child. The educated parents
give due attention to the education of the children. The family influence
determines the educational goal of the children.
Inequality of educational opportunity also occurs due to the

poverty of a large section of the population and the relative affluence of
small minority. The poor cannot pay the fees and their children do not
find chances of continuing in schools. Children from the families that
cannot provide the economic support and other perquisite, suffer badly.
From this group occurs the maximum number of dropouts.
Education and social status have close connection. Social class

position includes income, occupation and life style. These have impact
on the upbringing of the child.
The neighborhood environment has much to do with the

education of the children. Low income families concentrate in the inner
city, live in old and decaying houses. Families with similar level of
income, and similar vocation live in neighborhood. This sort of inequality
is found everywhere in the West. The residential segregation is a factor
that produces class structures. Neighborhood has its impact on the
school and on the peer group.
126
The attitude of the teacher has much to do with education of the
children. The very real measurable differences between middle class
and lower class children in tests, as well as the differences between
white and Negro children, are to be accounted for, not by innate
differences in ability, but by differences of cultural exposure and bearing
opportunities.
The children in rural areas studying in poorly equipped schools

have to compete with the children in urban areas where there are well-
equipped schools and more informative environment for getting
admission to the schools for higher bearing on professional colleges.
In Indian situation educational inequality due to sex is also very

much visible. Girls‟ education at all stages has not been given the same
encouragement as boys. The social customs and taboos hinder the
progress of girls‟ education. They are given inferior position in the family
and their education is neglected.
Educational inequality is due to the system itself and also on

account of conditions prevailing in society. It is multi-sided affair and is
continuing both in developed and developing societies. In many
societies, it finds expression in the form of public schools.
Some of the societies including our own, run public schools
which provide much better education than the type of education provided
by State run and controlled educational institutions. The education in the
former institutions being much costly as compared with the latter and
admission obviously open to only few privileged. This creates
educational inequality in its own way.
It is a paradox that education which should be the catalyst of
change, very often reflects the structured inequalities present „in the
social system. It is really strange that education aimed at social
transformation reflects the structured inequalities in our social system.
Education is supposed to eliminate social and economic

inequality. Educational institutions are in a sense closed systems since
opportunities that elite has for excellent educational system is not
available for the unfortunate masses. Obviously this system breeds
inequality of opportunities.
127
In many cities there is a definite status hierarchy in primary
education and to a large extend, the choice of a primary school
determines career opportunities. Top priority is given to English medium
schools sponsored by missionaries, since they offer the best education.
Next in the hierarchy are non-English medium schools run by religious
organizations and charitable trusts.
At the bottom of the hierarchy are the schools run by the

Government. Naturally the choice of English medium schools has been
the forerunner for lucrative and prestigious careers for a particular
segment of society. Various State Governments provide primary
education free of cost. But, since such education is in regional language
medium, the rates of drop-outs are high in such schools.
We have at present a stratified society and a stratified pattern of
schooling and they compete each other. Dual system of education has
to be done away with thorough legislation and thereby evolve a
common pattern of schooling to build a strong and unified democratic
system in India. Educational privileges must reach down to the poor and
particularly it should benefit members of the Scheduled Castes.
Rapid expansion of education among women is achieved.

Although, they are still at a disadvantage compared to men. To some
extent education has proved to be a source of social mobility for the
depressed groups. Education is a double-edged instrument which can
eliminate the effects of socio-economic inequalities but it can also
introduce a new kind of inequality.
Education can influence the process of social change among the

weaker sections of society. Persistent and planned efforts by the
Government and voluntary agencies will go a long way toward
elimination of educational inequalities.
15.2 Public- Private Schools
Privatization of school education has gained prominence in the

recent years and is often viewed (or romanticised) as a silent revolution
taking place in India. The magnitude and outreach of the private sector
in the field of school education has been remarkable. It started gaining
momentum in the 1990s, though private schools have existed right from
independence in a marginal scale. It is viewed by many as an answer to
128
the various shortcomings of government schools. Various literature that
dealt with the issue of privatization of education painted a bleak picture
of the state funded schools. The PROBE team report (1999), for
instance, shows that, there is a rising parental demand for education due
to decline in the quality of government school system. The reasons cited
were manifold and lack of accountability of teachers, poor physical
facilities, shortage of teachers, high teacher-pupil ratio and so on.
Privatization of education has invited mixed responses from

scholars and policy makers. Earlier studies that compared government
and private schools pointed out various issues in government schools
like decline in school quality, massive parental demand for schooling,
lack of teacher accountability, poor infrastructural facilities and so forth.
As a consequence, private schools emerged as an answer to the
problems in government schools and with certain promises like superior
teaching quality, innovative curriculum, better infrastructural facilities,
good performances of students, highly qualified teachers, and so on.
Thus, the expansion of private schools has been appreciated by many
who see it as a catalyst in achieving the long cherished dream of
Education For All (EFA). However, the issue of privatization of education
has been criticised by some whose studies revealed that access to
private schools is a social privilege, catering to the urban upper classes,
and more specifically to the boys. Moreover, increasing privatization has
also been criticised for undermining the role of government in providing
quality education. Nevertheless, it is an indisputable fact that private
schools have gained prominence in recent years and their presence is
conspicuous almost everywhere. At this juncture, several important
aspects are worth mentioning.
The main difference between Government School and Private Schools

stem from their funding and administration. As the names
imply, government schools are administered and funded by the local,
state or national government whereas private schools are funded wholly
or partly by student tuition and administered by a private body. Private
Schools are independent to a large extent from the interference of the
government. Based on these, two major differences, other significant
differences can be noticed between government schools and private
schools.
129
Government schools
Government schools are primary or secondary schools
mandated for or offered to all children without charge, funded and
controlled by the local, state or national government. Since they
are supported by the government, they are wholly or partly funded
by taxation.
Since government schools are controlled by the
government, the curriculum is decided at a state or national levels
all government schools follow the same curriculum.
Admissions and testing are also managed by the
government. Admission to government school is determined by the
address of the student. The schools are obliged to take in the
students who belong to their respective geographical zone.
Although technology and other facilities vary according to
schools, government schools generally have fewer facilities than
private schools. Government schools also have a greater number
of students than private students; the number of students in a class
may also be drastically high due to lack of facilities. However, it is
important to notice that, government schools always hire highly
qualified teachers. These teachers must meet all state-mandated
requirements and are proficient in their subject to work in a
government school.
Private School
A private school is not funded nor administered by the

government. They are controlled by a private body and funded partially
or wholly by student‟s tuition. The fees are usually higher in private
schools. At the same time, private schools usually have better
infrastructure facilities and up-to-date technology when compared with
government schools.
Private schools follow the same curriculum as decided by the
government. However, the method of delivery is decided by the school
board. The school administrators also decide the fees and admission.
The school has the authority decide whether a student meets the
requirements for admission or not. The school also decides the criteria
for the recruitment of teachers. In this case, a teacher in a private school
may not be qualified as a teacher in government school.
130
The class of a classroom is smaller than that of a government
school. This is mainly due to the non-availability of resources and
facilities.
Inequalities in educational attainment are well recognized, there

is a tendency to assume that these inequalities are caused by differential
poverty levels across social groups. Since dalits and adivasis and to a
lesser extent Muslims and OBCs, are poorer than the forward castes
and other minority groups, it is assumed that the need for children to
work in order to support the family income instead of going to school and
inability to bear ancillary school costs such as for transportation or
purchase of books may lead to lack of school attendance. Hence, the
policy focus, such as the emphasis in the RTE Act, has been on
increasing school attendance. Ensuring attendance is necessary but it is
equally important to recognize the inequalities in learning outcomes.
Even when children from disadvantaged backgrounds attend school,
their skill development seems to lag behind that of their peers.
15.3 Rural- Urban Schools

Education is the most important aspect in society development.
School has to play a major role in ensuring the successful of the
development. As for students, they need to have good skills and have to
be proactive with an appropriate futuristic set of mind. Besides that,
students are also need to be active in co curriculum activity along with
high academic achievement. The learning environments also has major
roles to play in learning. The area where the students' lives can
determine their performance in their studies. Reasons for the variations
in achievement are geographic location, resources, availability of
technology and also the quality of teachers. These studies want to
investigate the differences between students performance in rural and
urban areas. This purpose is to determine whether learning environment
or living area is one of the factors that contribute to their low
performance. Students' performance is their achievements in their
studies whether they have low or high performance. Urban area relates
to the area that are surrounding by cities and it is well populated areas
compared to rural area which is sparsely populated areas and it usually
farmland or country areas.
131
"The learning environments also have major roles to play in
learning not only of social studies but of other disciplines in the school
curriculum"
The general public believes that students from rural schools mostly
receive an education that is inferior compared to the students that live in
urban areas. Students background also impact on their performance
where we can see that many of the students that lives in rural areas has
low academic achievement when we compared it with the students that
lives in urban areas. There are many factors that cause to the gap
performance between students in rural and urban areas. Students in
urban schools get excess compared to students in rural schools.
The excellent performance of urban students is because of their

better quality in their education, availability of the information that they
get from various sources like mass media and electronic media, their
educated families and peers groups which help them to better perform
that they have many advantages and facilities in their education
compared to rural students. Students in rural areas less exposed to the
outside world and also lack of knowledge about the currents issues that
happen.
Education is proving to be effective instrument that can raise

students' self-belief, forethought, self-esteem and self-efficacy. Students
that lives in undeveloped village must try to attain the best education for
them and do not make their living environment as one of the factors that
be a barrier in their success. We also can see that students in rural
areas are much less likely to earn a college degree than students of
urban areas. The disparity is highest in rural areas where only 8 percent
of rural residents over age 25 have a college degree, compared with 16
percent of the residents in urban areas (U. S. Bureau of the Census,
1999). So from these, we can clarify that, there is a gap of performance
between students that live in rural and urban areas due to some factors.
Factors of Low Performance among Students in Rural Areas
There are many factors that contribute to the differences of performance

between students in rural and urban areas
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Family Factor
At the rural areas, family is one of the factors that determine their
child performance. In this study, students in rural areas have low
performance compared to students in urban areas because it is related
to their parents‟ education. Majority of parents in rural areas are less
educated than parents in urban areas. The family background is the
most important and weighty factor in determining the academic
performance of learners. The rural students felt no pressure to attain
good performance when their parents' expectations towards education
were low. Parental encouragement has a positive influence towards their
child performance and at rural areas most of parents did not care about
their child academic performance. Some experts believe that parent
expectations is the most influential factor affecting youth decisions to
pursue education.
Low Socio-economic Factor

The students' background relate to the low socioeconomic factor
of their family also one of the factor that effect their performance in
education. Most of the students that live in rural areas come from low
income family. Their parents cannot provide them enough educational
resources at home. Compared to students at urban areas, the majority
of them come from high income families and their parents are afford to
sent them to their tuition classes in order to get better performance.
Urban students also can buy additional books for their references while
for the rural students, they non-exposure to educational resources and it
will affect their performance compared to those who have access to
such resources. Students who have access to more resources are
advantage compared to those from poor families because they can know
more about the latest developments around them thus can assist them
to improve their performance at schools.
Lack of Facilities and Resources
Education promotes human capital as an asset that has greater

or lower rates of return depend on the quality of education that is
provided. Some of the factors that contributing to the poor performance
are lack or resources and poor facilities in most schools especially in
rural areas. Some of schools in rural areas are dilapidated compared to
those in urban areas. The problem regarding unequal distribution of
resources between provinces, rural and urban areas are still intact.
133
Several schools in rural areas do not have laboratories and this situation
means that students learn science by rote learning. Facilities are
important in order to make the teaching and learning process more
effective. Students that live in rural areas will be less exposed to the
using of technology because the facilities that are provided to them are
not sufficient. This will make their learning process less effective and
they will have less knowledge about current issues as well as how to use
technology. Students in urban areas have many advantages in their
learning process and with the advent of technology has made it easier
for their studies. They will understand better with facilities provided.
Less Qualified Teachers
Teacher is the important role in order to create good

performance students. Most of the teachers do not want posting in rural
areas because they think it will bring difficulty to them. So, the majority of
teachers that are sent to the rural areas are the new teachers that have
less experience in teaching. There is a direct relationship between the
quality of teaching personnel and the quality of education process. Most
of them have not mastered the teaching technique. They are still new to
the teaching area. When we compare to students in urban areas, they
usually have a teachers that have good communications skills in
English. Most of teachers compete for placement in urban schools. So,
rural school will have inadequate teacher and it will make their learning
progress disturbed and improper.
Ways to Address the Achievement Gap Differences between Rural

and Urban Students
In order to overcome the differences performance between

students in rural and urban areas, several ways should be taken.
The Role of Government
Government has to play a role in improving educational

outcomes for rural students. Government should provide enough
facilities to the schools that located in rural areas same as the urban
schools. Besides that, government also must provide a financial support
to the students that lives in rural areas, where we know that most of
them come from low income families and not affordable to gain a better
education and services. Facilities that were provided must be fair and
134
equal treatment should be given to rural schools same like urban
schools. In addition, best educators also should be placed in rural
schools because they can help students to improve their performance.
Good teachers will produce good students. Most important is that
government should ensure that teachers are adequately qualified to
teach the subject, that are allocated for them and they can do their work
properly. Education department also should visit all schools to establish
and verify their needs to ensure that resources are allocated in line with
their needs and status.
Role of Parents
While the teachers play their role at school, parents should play
their roles at home. Although parents in rural areas have no education,
they can help their children performance in terms of giving them moral
supports and motivation to learn. Even they cannot help in terms of
provision of resources to learn. They can give a support to their child to
study hard to change the fate of their family. Parents should realize how
important of education to their child and their future. Parents can always
ask their child about their learning progress and accompanied them
during doing their work. They also must always care about their child
performance and monitor their progress.
The Role of Teachers
The teacher is an important force in school learning. Teachers

are also one of the sources that can help in overcoming the problem of
low performance among rural students. Teachers can help in
encouraging the students to study hard and help them to complete most
of their work at school during study time, where students can ask
teachers if they do not understand about the lesson. If they are doing
work at home, nobody can help them since their parents might not be
able to assist because most of parents in rural areas have less
education. Teachers should encourage their students to participate in
many activities because it will give them the opportunity to build their
self-confident and positive self-esteem. Besides that, teacher also can
create a caring and supportive environment where students will feel
more comfortable during their learning. Good relationship between
students and teachers also good in order to improve students'
performance where when teachers are close with the students, students
will feel easy and not shy to ask anything that they do not understand.
135
The Role as a Student
The students itself should realize the importance of

education in their future lives. If they want a better life in the future
they must study hard to get a good performance. Usually students
at rural area does not care about their education and most of them
dropout from school. This is because, they do not have motivation
in their study and their parents also did not care about their
performance. So in order to overcome the gap performance
between students in rural and urban areas, rural students should
set their mind that education is important to change their lives.
When they have a mindset that education is important, they will
study hard in order to get a good achievement.
The differences of performances between students in rural and

urban areas. Rural and urban schools are characterized by its unique
strength and weaknesses. "Rural and urban schools are much the same
when it comes to resources and learning environments”. Yet there are
many variables that affect students' achievement and those variables
are directly related to whether a school is considered a rural or an urban
school. Some factors that contribute to the gap performances between
students in these two areas were determined and also recommendations
in order to overcome this problem were suggested. Although some
recommendations have been highlighted, solutions might not be easy for
them. The suggestions for improving the performance among rural
students is that they must understand their environment properly and
maintain their inner resources like self-efficacy and self-esteem. From
this study we can conclude that, there have differences between
students performance in rural and urban schools. Students that lives in
urban area will get high performance excel opportunities provided by
their location. Urban students have greater access to many resources
and therefore have opportunities that are not easily accessible to rural
students. Besides that urban parents were more professional and they
realize the advantage of education. Parents of rural students were less
likely to expect their children to advance their education.
15.4 Regular and Distance Modes of Education: Differences
The present education system can be broadly divided into two

categories. The most prevalent one is conventional / formal system of
136
education. The second one is nonformal system of education. The
regular schools, colleges and universities fall under conventional / formal
system of education, whereas the open universities and directorates of
correspondence courses fall under nonformal system of education. The
differences between the two are better explained by Prof.
KulandaiSwamy as, "conventional system caters to the needs of the
learners from a specific age group of the primary, secondary and tertiary
education system provided they could become full time students and
fulfil certain requirements on-campus preparations. For those in and
outside these age groups, unable to fulfil the on-campus requirements
and those that need education and training to gain competence in the
jobs and those who need to upgrade, update and broaden their skills,
the conventional system does not provide opportunities".
Prof. KulandaiSwamy further stated that, "it is in this context that

distance education emerged on the horizon. Distance education is
neither a supplement nor a complement to the conventional system. It is
not even an alternative. It is a new mode in its own right and meets new
demands and cater to new target groups. It has very high potential for
transcending all barriers-economic, social, cultural and geographical and
reach its clients".
All over the globe there are two correct ways in which Education. One
is Regular Education and also the second is Distance Education. As
these two terms indicate that in regular Education students have got to
attend all regular classes and have got to register a collection mark of
attending at their school or institution, whereas on alternative hand in
distance Education there‟s no necessity of attending regular classes.
Difference between Regular Education and Distance

Education is a major things in that day for working professionals.
In distance Education most of the universities and institutions
conduct classes on weekend it should be Saturday and Sunday each or
is also either Sunday or Saturday. In regular Education the internal
exams are obligatory whereas on the opposite hand except some
courses in distance Education. Still there are some courses that aren‟t
on the market in most institutes and Universities below distance
Education like Engineering and Health science courses. These courses
aren‟t available in distance Education in maximum universities or
institutes.
137
The following table very aptly indicates the differences between
the conventional system of education and distance system of education.
Conventional Education Distance Education

System System
Learning is a full time and Learning is a part time

major activity. secondary activity.
The learner remains in one The learner returns to a

role and continues the role he had some time
membership of a learning ago.
institution.
The learner 'belongs' to an The learner is a member

institution. of many institutions.
The learner is usually young. The learner is an adult.
The learner is in easy contact Contact with fellow

with fellow learners. learners may not be
easy.
The learner has easy access The learner's contact

to the institutional resources. with the institution is
infrequent and often
takes place across a
distance.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS


Block.
8. Education can influence the process of
a) Social change
b) Individual change
138
c) Economic change
d) All the above

9. EFA stands that
a) Education For All
b) Education For Female Alone
c) English For All
d) None of the above
LET US SUM UP
In this Block you have learnt about the Universalization of School

Education in India in detail. You came across the issues of
Universalization, Retention and Universal enrollment. The meaning of
Equality and Equity in Education. Its need and importance in Education
was explained broadly. Educational opportunities for SC/ST and OBC
are mentioned clearly. You might be well aware of the equal educational
opportunities and inequality in Schooling in India.
GLOSSARIES
 Equity - the quality of being fair and impartial.

 Integrity - the quality of being honest and having strong moral
principles.
 Retention - the continued possession, use, or control of
something.
 Secular - not connected with religious or spiritual matters.
 Universalisation – available or applicable to all
1. "The State shall endeavor to provide within a period of

ten years from the commencement of this constitution
for free and compulsory education for all children until
139
they complete the age of fourteen years."
2.
 Data collection and identification of School Going

Children / Out of School Children
 Enrolment of all children in Schools/AIE
Interventions
 Regular child wise tracking of out of school/back to
school children throughout the academic session.
3. Discrimination against any citizen on grounds of religion,
race, caste, sex or place of birth is forbidden.
Article 15
4. National Policy on Education
1986
5. “Any section of the citizens, residing in the territory of India
or any part thereof, having a distinct language, script or
culture of its own, shall have the right to converse the
same.”
6.
 Inclusive Education should become the idea of
every school located in villages taking care of
SC/ST.
 Institutions of higher learning may have their own
autonomy but at the same time provide protection
under the law in relation to reservation etc.
 Government should regulate the fee structure and pay the
fees etc. of disadvantaged groups including fees for
Higher Education.
 The teaching and other posts in the universities and
other institutions should be filled as per the
reservation policy without any dilution.
 Special coaching should be provided to reserved
category candidates for successfully clearing SET
or NET examination.
7.
 Recognized Madarasas should be brought under SSA
and facilities extended to them.
 Dropout rates of disadvantaged groups are noticed
to be going up as the level of education goes up. To
140
reduce the rate of dropouts amongst disadvantaged
should become the focus of the Eleventh Five Year
Plan.
 Inclusive Education should become the idea of
every school located in villages taking care of OBC
and other Disadvantaged Groups
8. Education can influence the process of
a) Social change
b) Individual change
c) Economic change
d) All the above
9. EFA stands that

a) Education For All
b) Education For Female Alone
c) English For All
SUGGESTED READINGS


Ludhiana, (2002).

(2002).

(2010).
141

142
BLOCK 4 EDUCATION COMMISSIONS AND POLICY
(SCHOOL EDUCATION)
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Unit 16 Constitutional Provisions on Education

16.1 Political Rights
16.2 Economic Rights
16.3 Social Justice

Unit 17 National Commission and Policies
17.1 Education Commission (D.S. Kothari) 1964-66:
17.2 National Policy on Education (NPE), (1986,1992)
17.3 National Policy for Persons With Disabilities (2006)
Unit 18 National Acts
18.1 Rehabilitation Council Act of India Act 1992

18.2 The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities,
Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995
18.3 The National Trust for Welfare of Persons with

Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and
Multiple Disabilities Act, 1999
18.4 Right to Education 2009

Unit 19 Programmes and Schemes
19.1 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) (2000-2011)
4.6.2 Integrated Education for the Disabled Children

(IEDC)
19.2 Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
(2009)
19.3 Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary
Stage (IEDSS. 2009)
Unit 20 International Conventions and Policies:

20.1 Salamanca Declaration and Framework-1994
20.2 UNCRPD, 2006:
143
20.3 MDG, 2015
20.4 INCHEON Strategy to “Make the Right Real” for
Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific
Let us Sum Up
Glossaries

Suggested Readings
INTRODUCTION
In this Block you will study the Constitutional provision on

education that reflect National ideals, National Commissions and
Polices, National Acts, programmes have been dealt elaborately. The
schemes related to education particularly in inclusive education,
International conventions and policies have been explained in detail.
OBJECTIVES
After completion of this Block you will be able to understand the

provision of
 National Commissions and Polices: Education

Commission(1964), NPE and POA(1986,1992), National Policy
for Persons with Disabilities(2006)
 National Acts: RCI Act(1992), PWD Act(1995), NT Acts(1999),

RTE Acts(2009 & 2012)
 Programmes and Schemes: IEDC(1974,1983), SSA(2000,2011),

RMSA(2009) and IEDSS(2009)
 International conventions and Policies: Salmancha Declaration

and feamework,1994, MDG,2015, UNCRPD,2006 and INCHEON
strategies
144
UNIT 16 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS ON
EDUCATION

 Explain on the constitutional provisions on Education
In spite of women contribution in all spheres of life and they enjoy
a unique position in every society and the various countries of the world.
But they suffer in silence and belong to a class which is in a
disadvantaged position on account of several barriers and impediments.
India, being a country of paradoxes, is no exception. Here too, women, a
personification of Shakti, once given a dignified status, are in need of
empowerment. Women‟s empowerment in legal, social, political and
economic requires to be enhanced. However, empowerment and
equality are based on the gender sensitivity of society towards their
problems. The intensification of women's issues and rights movement all
over the world has been reflected in the form of various Conventions
passed by the United Nations.
Gender equality is always escaped the constitutional provisions of
equality before the law or the equal protection of law. This is because
equality is always supposed to be between equals and since the judges
did not concede that men and women were equal. Gender equality did
not seem to them to be a legally forbidden inequality.
Basically, as pointed out by Dicey (Dicey, A.V. introduction to the

study of the law of the constitution4.1, MacMillan, London. 9th edition
1952), the Constitutional theories of Rule of Law and the fundamental
rights stemmed from the struggle for individual liberty and were intended
to curb the power of the State. For a long time gender issues were not in
the limelight.
In India, the Constitution makers while drafting the Constitution were

sensitive to the problems faced by women and made specific provisions
relating to them. In various articles, not only mandates equality of the
sexes but also authorizes benign discrimination in favour of women and
children to make up for the backwardness which has been their age-
old destiny. But categorical imperatives constitutionals by the Founding
Fathers are not self acting and can acquire socio-legal locomotion only
by appropriate State action.
145
Our Constitution is the basic document of a country having a special
legal holiness which sets the framework and the principal functions of
the organs of the Government of a State. It also declares the principles
governing the operation of these organs. The Constitution aims at
creating legal norms, social philosophy and economic values which are
to be affected by striking synthesis, harmony and fundamental
adjustment between individual rights and social interest to achieve the
desired community goals.
The Constitution of India contains various provisions, which provide

for equal rights and opportunities for both men and women. The silent
features are:-
PREAMBLE
The Preamble contains the essence of the Constitution and reflects

the ideals and aims of the people. The Preamble starts by saying that
we, the people of India, give to ourselves the Constitution. The source of
the Constitution is thus traced to the people, i.e. men and women of
India, irrespective of caste, community, religion or sex. The makers of
the Constitution were not satisfied with mere territorial unity and integrity.
If the unity is to be lasting, it should be based on social, economic and
political justice. Such justice should be equal for all. The Preamble
contains the goal of equality of status and opportunity to all citizens. This
particular goal has been incorporated to give equal rights to women and
men in terms of status as well as opportunity.
16.1 Political Rights
Even though the fact that women participated equally in the freedom
struggle and under the Constitution and law, have equal political rights
as men, enabling them to take part effectively in the administration of the
country has had little effect as they are negligibly represented in politics.
There were only seven women members in the Constituent Assembly
and the number later decreased further. Their representation in the Lok
Sabha is far below the expected numbers. This has led to the demand
for reservation of 33% seats for women in the Lok Sabha and Vidhan
Sabhas. Political empowerment of women has been brought by the 73rd
and 74th amendments which reserve seats for women in Gram
Panchayats and Municipal bodies. Illiteracy, lack of political awareness,
146
physical violence and economic dependence are a few reasons which
restrain women from taking part in the political processes of the country.
16.2 Economic Rights

At hand there has been series of legislation conferring equal rights
for women and men. These legislations have been guided by the
provisions of the fundamental rights and Directive Principles of State
Policy. Here again there is a total lack of awareness regarding economic
rights amongst women. Laws to improve their condition in matters
relating to wages, maternity benefits, equal remuneration and
property/succession have been enacted to provide the necessary
protection in these areas.
16.3 Social justice
For providing social justice to women, the most important step has
been codification of some of the personal laws in our country which pose
the biggest challenge in this context. In the area of criminal justice, the
gender neutrality of law worked to the disadvantage of a woman
accused because in some of the cases it imposed a heavy burden on
the prosecutor, for e.g. in cases of rape and dowry.
Certain areas like domestic violence and sexual harassment of women

at the workplace were untouched, unthought-of. These examples of
gender insensitivity were tackled by the judiciary and incorporated into
binding decisional laws to provide social justice in void spheres.
Although a Uniform Civil Code is still a dream in spite of various

directions of the Court, the enactment of certain legislations like the Pre-
Natal Diagnostic Techniques (Prevention of Misuse) Act and the Medical
Termination of Pregnancy Act prevent the violation of justice and
humanity right from the womb.
In spite of these laws, their non-implementation, gender insensitivity
and lack of legal literacy prevent the dream of the Constitution makers
from becoming a reality. They prevent the fulfilment of the objective of
securing to each individual dignity, irrespective of sex, community or
place of birth.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Block.
1. How does the Indian constitution starts?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.Political empowerment of women has been brought by the
....................and........................... Amendments which reserve seats
for women in Gram Panchayats and Municipal bodies.
UNIT 17 NATIONAL COMMISSION AND POLICIES

 Explain on the various National commissions and
policies
17.1 Education Commission (D.S. Kothari) 1964-66:
After the appointment of Mudaliar Commission, to deal with all

aspects and sectors of education and to advise Government on the
evolution of a National System of Education for the country, the
Education Commission was appointed under the chairmanship of D.S.
Kothari. Based on this Commission's report, the National Policy on
Education 1968 was formulated. The Basic Approach: This Commission
reviewed the development of education in India in the modern period
and particularly since Independence and came to the conclusion that
Indian education needs a drastic reconstruction, almost a revolution,
to realize the Constitutional goals and to meet the various problems
facing the country in different sectors. This comprehensive
reconstruction, said the Commission, has three main aspects
1. Internal transformation
2. Qualitative improvement
3. Expansion of educational facilities
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Internal Transformation:
In the opinion of the Commission, "no reform is more important or
more urgent than to transform education to endeavor to relate it to the
life, needs and aspiration of the people". This is extremely significant
because it is only such a transformation that can make education a
powerful instrument of social, economic and cultural transformation
necessary for the realization of our national goals. It is also urgent and
has to be accorded priority over expansion because the greater the
expansion of the traditional system of education, the more difficult and
costly it becomes, to change its character.
The Commission has emphasized the following ten programmes to
bring about this transformation :
1. Science Education: Science Education should be made an

integral part of all school education. Its teaching at the
University stages should be improved and special emphasis
should be laid on the development of scientific research.
2. Work Experience: Work experience should be made an
integral part of all general education. It should be oriented to
technology, industrialization and the application of science to the
production process including agriculture.
3. Vocational Education: Vocational education should be

emphasized, particularly at the secondary stage. At the lower
secondary stage (age group 11 - 16) vocational education
should ultimately be provided to about 20 percent of the
enrollment. At the higher secondary stage (age group I7 -18)
such enrollment should be increased to 50 percent. In higher
education, about one-third of the total enrollment may be in
vocation at courses. In particular, it is essential to emphasize
the development of education and research in agriculture.
4. The Common School: A common school system of Public

Education which would provide equality of access to children
from all social strata, which would be adequate in quantity and
quality proposed.
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5. Social and National Service: Some form of Social Service
should be obligatory on students of all ages.
6. Language Policy: In the development of all modern languages

as the medium of instruction and for the administration in the
respective states. Hindi as both official and link language and
English and Russian as library languages. It further said that the
three language formula should be modified. Only the mother
tongue should be compulsory at the lower primary stage, a
second language should be added at the higher primary stage
either Hindi or English, at the lower secondary stage, all the
three languages should be studied mother tongue, Hindi (or a
modern Indian Language in Hindi areas) and English. Any two
of these languages should be compulsory at the higher
secondary stage and no language should be compulsory at the
University stage.
7. Promotion of National Unity: Curricula should promote

National Unity and consciousness and international
understanding.
8. Elasticity and Dynamics: It observed rigidity and uniformity in

the existing system. It suggested change in curricula, teaching
methods and a large programme of in-service education for
teachers and educational administrators.
Apart from full time education, part-time and own time
educational programmes should be encouraged. The education
system should emphasize the development of fundamental,
social, moral and spiritual values. There should also be some
provision, in a multi-religious, democratic society like that of
India, for giving some instruction about the different religions.
17.2 National Policy on Education (NPE) - 1986, 1992, and 2020
National Educational Policy is a comprehensive framework to guide

the development of education in the country. The need for a policy was
first felt in 1964. An Education Commission headed by then UGC
Chairperson DS Kothari, was constituted to draft a national and
coordinated policy on education. Based on the suggestions of this
150
Commission, Parliament passed the first education policy in 1968. India
has had three to date. The first came in 1968 and second in 1986.
The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, as modified in 1992,

emphasises three aspects in relation to elementary education:
 universal access and enrolment,
 universal retention of children up to 14 years of age, and

 a substantial improvement in the quality of education to enable
all children to achieve essential levels of learning.
NPE emphasises that education must play a positive and interventionist

role in correcting social and regional imbalance, empowering women
and in securing a rightful place for the disadvantaged and the minorities.
Government is firmly committed to providing education for all, the priority
areas being free and compulsory elementary education, covering
children with special needs, eradication of illiteracy, education for
women‟s equality and special focus on the education of SCs/STs and
Minorities.
NPE 1986 had set a goal of expenditure on education of 6 per cent of

the GDP. As against this target, the combined total expenditure on
education by Central and State Governments was 3.49 per cent of GDP
in 2004-05(BE). Central Plan Allocation for education was increased
from Rs.8,225 Crore in 2004-05 (BE) to Rs. 15,244 Crore in 2005-06
(BE), with Rs.12,242 Crore for elementary education, Rs. 290 Crore for
adult education and Rs.2,712 Crore for secondary and higher education.
National Education Policy, 2020

The third National Educational Policy is in 2020. This new policy
replaces the previous National Policy on Education, 1986. This policy
proposes the revision and revamping of all aspects of the education
structure, including its regulation and governance, to create a new
system that is aligned with the aspiration goals of 21st century education,
including the 4th Sustainable Development Goal (SDGs4) i.e. Quality
Education, while building upon India‟s traditions and value systems.
It is a comprehensive framework for elementary education to higher
education as well as vocational training. This policy transforms India‟s
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education system by 2040. The NEP,2020 was approved by the Central
Cabinet on the 29th of July 2020.
Major features of the Policy:

 Focus on experiential learning and critical thinking
 Nutritious Breakfast Scheme along with mid-day meals
 The extant 10+2 structure in school education will be significant

shift to 5+3+3+4 (3-8 years Foundational Stage, 8-11 years
Preparatory stage, 11-14 years Middle State, and 14-18 years
Secondary Stage)
 Teaching the students up to Class V in their mother
tongue/regional language
 Reintroducing of the four year multi disciplinary Bachelor‟s
programme, with multiple exit options.
 Discontinuation of the M.Phil programme
 Setting up of a National Research Foundation

 The Curriculum and pedagogy in schools should be in a way that
learning should be holistic, integrated, enjoyable, and engaging.
 Quality higher education with an aim to develop good, thoughtful,

well-rounded, and creative individuals.
 Special teachers are requiring not only subject teaching, but also
the relevant skills for understanding of special requirements of
children with special needs. Therefore, such areas could be
developed as secondary specialisations for subject teachers or
generalist teachers, during or after pre-service teacher
preparation. Greater synergy will be enabled between the course
curriculum of NCTE and RCI to ensure adequate availability of
qualifies special educators who can handle subject teaching as
well.
 The 4-year integrated B.Ed. offered by multidisciplinary Higher
Education Institutions will, by 2030, become the minimal degree
qualification for school teachers. The same institutions will also
run a 2-year B.Ed., for students who have already received a
Bachelor‟s degree in a specialised subject.
 Vocational education will be integrated into all school and higher
education institutions in a phased manner.
 Promotion of Indian Languages, Arts, and Culture
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 Online and digital education with an ensuring equitable use of
Technology
17.3 National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (2006)

Prevention of Disabilities
Since disability, in a large number of cases, is preventable,

there will be strong emphasis on prevention of disabilities.
Programme for prevention of diseases, which result in disability and
the creation of awareness regarding measures to be taken for
prevention of disabilities during the period of pregnancy and
thereafter will be intensified and their coverage expanded.
Rehabilitation Measures
Rehabilitation measures can be classified into three distinct
groups:
i. physical rehabilitation, which includes early detection and
intervention, counseling and medical interventions and
provision of aids and appliances. It will also include the
development of rehabilitation professionals.
ii. educational rehabilitation including vocational education and
iii. economic rehabilitation for a dignified life in society.
Physical Rehabilitation Strategies
 Early Detection and Intervention

Early detection of disability and intervention through drug or non-
drug therapies helps in minimization of impact of disability. Therefore,
there will be emphasis on early detection and early intervention, and
necessary facilities will be created towards this end. Government will
take measures to disseminate information regarding availability of such
facilities to the people especially in rural areas.
 Counseling and Medical Rehabilitation
Physical rehabilitation measures including counseling,
strengthening capacities of persons with disabilities and their families,
physiotherapy, occupational therapy, psychotherapy, surgical correction
and intervention, vision assessment, vision stimulation, speech therapy,
audiological rehabilitation and special education shall be extended to
cover all the districts in the country by active involvement and
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participation of State Governments, local level institutions, NGOs
including associations of parents and persons with disabilities.
Currently, rehabilitation services are largely available in and around

urban areas. Since seventy five percent persons with disabilities live in
rural areas, the services run by professionals will be extended to cover
uncovered and un-served areas. Privately owned rehabilitation service
centres shall be regulated for maintenance of minimum standards which
shall be laid down.
To expand coverage in rural and unserved areas, new District

Disability Rehabilitation Centres (DDRCs) will be set up with support
from the State Government.
The National Rural Health Mission through Accredited Social

Health Activist (ASHA) addresses the health needs of rural population,
especially the vulnerable sections of society. The ASHA inter-alia will
take care of the comprehensive services to the persons with disabilities
at the grass root level.
(a) Assistive Devices
The Government of India has been assisting persons with

disabilities in procuring durable and scientifically manufactured, modern
aids and appliances of ISI standard that can promote their physical,
social and psychological independence by reducing the effect of
disabilities.
Every year through National Institutes, State Governments,

DDRCs and NGOs, persons with disabilities are provided with devices
such as prostheses and orthoses, tricycles, wheel chair, surgical
footwear and devices for activities of daily living, learning equipments
(Braille writing equipments, Dictaphone, CD player/ tape recorder), low
vision aids, special mobility aids like canes for blind, hearing aids,
educational kits, communication aids, assistive and alerting devices and
devices suitable for the persons with mental disabilities. The availability
of devices will be expanded to cover uncovered and under-serviced
areas.
154
Private, public and joint sector enterprises involved in the
manufacture of high tech assistive devices for persons with disabilities
will be provided financial support by the public sector banks.
Development of Rehabilitation Professionals. Human resource
requirements for rehabilitation of persons with disabilities will be
assessed and development plan will be prepared so that the
rehabilitation strategies do not suffer from lack of manpower.
Education for Persons with Disabilities
Education is the most effective vehicle of social and economic

empowerment. In keeping with the spirit of the Article 21A of the
Constitution guaranteeing education as a fundamental right and Section
26 of the Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995, free and compulsory
education has to be provided to all children with disabilities up to the
minimum age of 18 years. According to the Census, 2001, fifty-one
percent persons with disabilities are illiterate. This is a very large
percentage. There is a need for mainstreaming of the persons with
disabilities in the general education system through Inclusive education.
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) launched by the Government has

the goal of eight years of elementary schooling for all children including
children with disabilities in the age group of 6-14 years by 2010. Children
with disabilities in the age group of 15-18 years are provided free
education under Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC)
Scheme.
Under SSA, a continuum of educational options, learning aids

and tools, mobility assistance, support services etc. are being made
available to students with disabilities. This includes education through an
open learning system and open schools, alternative schooling, 7
distance education, special schools, wherever necessary home based
education, itinerant teacher model, remedial teaching, part time classes,
Community Based Rehabilitation (CBR) and vocational education.
IEDC Scheme implemented through the State Governments,

Autonomous Bodies and Voluntary Organizations provides hundred
percent financial assistance for various facilities like special teachers,
books and stationery, uniform, transport, readers allowance for the
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visually handicapped, hostel allowance, equipment cost, removal/
modification of architectural barriers, financial assistance for purchase/
production of instructional material, training of general teachers and
equipment for resource rooms.
There will be concerted effort on the part of the Government to

improve identification of children with disabilities through regular
surveys, their enrollment in appropriate schools and their continuation till
they successfully complete their education. The Government will
endeavour to provide right kind of learning material and books to the
children with disabilities, suitably trained and sensitized teachers and
schools which are accessible and disabled friendly.
Government of India is providing scholarships to students with

disabilities for pursuing studies at post school level. Government will
continue to support the scholarships and expand its coverage.
Facilities for technical and vocational education designed to

inculcate and bolster skill development suited to various types of
productive activities by adaptation of the existing institutes or
accelerated setting up of institutes in un-served / underserved areas will
be encouraged. NGOs will also be encouraged to provide vocational
training.
Persons with disabilities will be provided access to the

Universities, technical institutions and other institutions of higher learning
to pursue higher and professional courses.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end

of the Block.
3. What are the main aspects of D.S.Kothari Commission?

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156
4. How are Rehabilitation measures classified?
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UNIT 18 NATIONAL ACTS
 Explain various National Acts
18.1 Rehabilitation Council Act of India Act 1992
The Council under the Act has prescribed the minimum

standards of education required for granting recognized rehabilitation
qualification by universities or institutions in India
[www.disabilityindianetwork.org]. Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) is
the only institution, which takes care of manpower development of
different categories of professionals for comprehensive rehabilitation of
persons with disability to meet the needs of their entire life cycle, i.e.,
physical and medical rehabilitation. Educational rehabilitation, vocational
rehabilitation and social rehabilitation are also available. Its objectives
are to regulate the training policies and programs in the field of
rehabilitation of persons with disabilities, to bring about standardization
of education and training in the field of rehabilitation professionals
/personnel dealing with persons with disabilities, to prescribe minimum
standards of education and training in the field of rehabilitation uniformly
throughout the country and to regulate these standards in all training
institutes. The other objectivities were to recognize foreign degrees
/diplomas /certificates in the field of rehabilitation awarded by
Universities /Institution on reciprocal basis, to maintain Central
Rehabilitation Register of professional /personnel processing recognized
rehabilitation qualification, to collect information on regular basis, on
education and training in the field of rehabilitation of persons with
disabilities from institutions in India and abroad, to encourage continuing
rehabilitation education by way of collaboration with organizations
working in the field of rehabilitation of persons with disabilities and to
promote research in rehabilitation and special education.
157
The council intended to create professionals like Audiologists
and Speech Therapists, Clinical Psychologists, Hearing Aid and Ear
Mould Technicians, Rehabilitation Engineers and Technicians, Special
Teachers for education and training the handicapped, Vocational
Counsellors, Employment Officers and Placement Officers dealing with
the Handicapped, Multipurpose Rehabilitation Therapists and
Technicians, Speech Pathologists, Rehabilitation Psychologists,
Rehabilitation Social Workers, Rehabilitation Practitioners in Mental
Retardation, Orientation and Mobility Specialists, Community Based
Rehabilitation Professionals, Rehabilitation Counselors/ Administrators,
Prosthetists, Orthotists and Rehabilitation Workshop Managers. The
success of inclusive education lied with the professionals from above
specializations.
18.2 The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities,

Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995
The People with Disability Act (PWD), 1995 stipulates that the
government and appropriate local authorities shall “ensure that every
child with a disability has access to free education in an appropriate
environment till he/she attains age of 18”
[www.disabilityindianetwork.org]. Education is the most effective vehicle
of social and economic empowerment. In keeping with the spirit of the
Article 21A of the Constitution guaranteeing education as a fundamental
right and Section 26 of the Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995, free and
compulsory education has to be provided to all children with disabilities
up to the minimum age of 18 years. The PWD 1995 Act aims to ensure
every child with disability to have access to free education in an
appropriate environment till he/she attains the age of eighteen years, to
promote integration of students with disabilities in the normal schools, to
promote and setup special schools in government and private sector so
that children with disabilities will be a part of general schools, to
endeavor to equip the special schools for the children with disabilities
with vocational training facilities.
158
18.3 The National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities
Act, 1999
• Objectives of the Act
The Act provides for the constitution of a national body for the
welfare of persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and
Multiple Disabilities which will be a trust whose object shall be:
(i) To enable and empower persons with disability to live
independently and as fully as possible within and as close to
the community to which they belong
(ii) To strengthen facilities to provide support to persons with
disability to live within their own families
(iii) To extend support to registered organizations to provide need
based services during the period of crisis in the family of
persons with disability
(iv) To deal with problems of persons with disability who do not
have family support
(v) To promote measures for the care and protection of persons

with disability in the event of death of their parent or, guardian
(vi) To evolve procedure for the appointment of guardians and
trustees for persons with disability requiring such protection
(vii) To facilitate the realisation of equal opportunities, protection
of rights and full participation of persons with disability
(viii) To do any such act this is incidental to the aforesaid objects.
Creation of National Trust and Board of Trustees
The Central Government has constituted a National Trust for

Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and
Multiple Disabilities. The said trust will be body corporate having
perpetual succession and a common seal with power to hold and
dispose movable and immovable property and to contract and to sue or
be sued by its name.
The management, general superintendence and control of the

trust vest in a Board of trustees consisting of a Chairperson and nine
other persons from registered organisations, voluntary organisation or
159
associations of parents of persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental
Retardation and Multiple Disabilities. In addition, there will be eight
persons not below the rank of Joint Secretary to the Government of India
from various Ministries and three persons representing associations of
trade, commerce and industry. The Chief Executive Officer of the Trust
will be an Officer of the rank of Joint Secretary of Government of India
who shall also be member secretary. The Board of trustees may also
take in advisors and consultants not exceeding eight in number.
Rights of the disabled under the National Trust Act, 1999
(i)The National Trust created by the Central Government has to ensure

that the objects for which it has been set up as enshrined in Section
10 of this Act have to be fulfilled.
(ii) It is the obligation of the Board of Trustees of the National Trust to
make arrangements for adequate standard of living of any
beneficiary named in any bequest received by it, and to provide
financial assistance to registered organisations for carrying out any
approved programme for the benefit of the disabled.
(iii) Disabled persons have the right to be placed under guardian
appointed by the Local Level Committees in accordance with the
provisions of the Act. The guardians so appointed will have the
obligation to be responsible for the person and property of their
disabled wards and be accountable for the same.
(iv) A disabled person has the right to have his guardian removed where
the guardian is abusing or neglecting him or is misappropriating or
neglecting the property of the disabled person.
(v) Where the Board of Trustees is unable to perform or has persistently

made default in the performance of duties imposed on it, a
registered organization for the disabled can complain to the Central
Government to have the Board of Trustees superseded and /or
reconstituted.
Criticism of the Act and suggestions for change
(i) Act provides for a legal guardian for people over 18 with mental
disability, a term which covers mentally retarded and the
mentally ill. However, SC in many of its judgments clearly
stated that the mentally retarded do not require such guardians.
160
(ii) Moreover, the Act does not differentiate between mild or severe
retardation.
Radical amendments are proposed to the National Trust Act,

1999.The Act is all set to be amended to include all disabilities and to
become an Act on Legal Capacity. Draft of the proposed amendments
was discussed in a meeting of the Amendments Sub Committee, the
National Trust Board and a few invitees on April 11-2010. The proposed
amendments have changed the earlier definition of disability as
mentioned in the Act which only included four disabilities to a more
universal and inclusive definition in the line with the Convention. Thus,
all disabilities will now come under the purview of the National Trust. The
proposed amendments have moved away from legal guardianship to the
concept of legal capacity. If the amendments are adopted, all disabilities
and not just persons with developmental disabilities will have the right to
exercise their legal capacity. Persons with all fonts of disabilities will be
able to avail the supported decision making provisions.
18.4 Right To Education 2009

Right to Education (Arts. 21-A) of the Constitution 86-
Amendment Act, 2002 inserted Article 21-A in the Constitution of India to
provide free and compulsory education of all children in the age group of
6 to 14 years as a Fundamental Right in such a manner as the State
may, by law, determine that the Right of Children to Free and
Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, 2009, which represents the
consequential legislation envisaged under Article 21-A, means that
every child has a right to full time elementary education of satisfactory
and equitable quality in a formal school which satisfies certain essential
norms and standards.
Importance of fundamental rights: Rights mean those freedoms,

which are essential for personal good as well as the good of the
community. Fundamental rights are guaranteed by the Part III of the
Indian constitution as these basic rights are needed by every citizen for
the development of the citizens. Fundamental right guarantees, civil
liberties such that all Indians can lead their lives in peace and harmony
as citizens of India. The fundamental rights are defined as basic human
freedom which every Indian citizen has the right to enjoy for a proper
and harmonious development of personality. These rights universally
apply to all citizens, irrespective of race, place of birth, religion, caste,
161
creed, color or gender. Fundamental rights for Indians have also been
aimed at overturning the inequalities of pre-independence and social
practices. Specifically, they have also been used to abolish
untouchability and hence prohibit discrimination on the grounds of
religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth. They also forbid trafficking of
human beings and forced labor. Fundamental rights, also protect cultural
and educational rights of ethnic and religious minorities by allowing them
to preserve their languages and also establish and administer their own
education institutions. Fundamental rights are indeed very essential for
the well being of every citizen. We also know that people have always
struggled against injustice, exploitation and inequality for the creation
of better surroundings, better living conditions and preservation of the
human dignity. Efforts to avail such rights to all human beings have
been made at the international level also by recognizing various rights
which are popularly known as human rights.
Rights assure dignity to an individual. An individual can truly

achieve only when he is a free atmosphere. Rights accord this free
atmosphere to an individual. Education is related to emancipation.
Emancipation from traditional shackles imposed by the caste system or
by stratification due to gender, class and other such barriers. By
assuring every individual of the same rights the Constitution offers a
level ground for everyone irrespective of differences as sex, caste and
class. Any individual who feels that his/her rights are encroached upon
can always approach the court of law. The right to seek constitutional
remedies will ensure that justice is done in such a case. Cultural and
educational rights are significant because they help to propagate one‟s
culture even if one is in a minority. One of the important functions of
education are cultural functions. Thus Cultural rights help to preserve
and transmit one‟s culture which includes language, script and traditions.
The milestone in the history of rights was the Right to Education.
Flagship programmes like Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, RMSA have helped
to make this right a reality and one sees a sharp drop in the number of
out of school children”. This is clear proof that rights in India are not
made but they are translated to reality through our endeavors. India
prohibits the employment of children below 14 years. While we may not
have eliminated child labour completely, the right against exploitation
ensures that no individual be exploited.
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CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Block.
5. Article 21-A in the Constitution of India to provide free and compulsory

education of all children in the age group of.........................................
6. Choose the best answer: The National Trust Act,19999 created by the
a) Central Government
b) State Government
c) NGO
UNIT 19 PROGRAMMES AND SCHEMES

 Describe the Educational programmes and schemes
19.1 Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) (2000-2011)
The main vehicle for providing elementary education to all children is

the ongoing comprehensive programme called Sarva Siksha Abhiyan
(SSA) launched in 2001-02. The goals of SSA are:-
i. All children in School, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate
School, Back-to-School camp by 2005
ii. Bridge all gender and social category gaps at the primary stage
by 2007 and at elementary education level by 2010
 Universal retention by 2010 and

 Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with
emphasis on education for life.
SSA, implemented in partnership with the States, addresses the

needs of 209 million children in the age group of 6-14 years. It covers
9.72 lakh existing primary and upper primary schools and 36.95 lakh
teachers.
National Programme for Education of Girls at Elementary Level
(NPEGEL) is an important component of SSA. NPEGEL provides
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additional support by way of girl-child friendly schools, stationery,
uniforms, etc. for girls‟ education in Educationally Backward Blocks
(EBB), and in other areas for elementary education of under privileged
and disadvantaged sections. EBBs are blocks with Social Sectors
female literacy below, and gender gap above, the national average.
Apart from EBBs, NPEGEL is also implemented in blocks of districts
which are not covered under EBBs but have at least 5 per cent SC/ST
population and where SC/ST female literacy is below 10 per cent, and
also in select urban slums. In the Tenth Five Year Plan, an amount of
Rs.1064.80 crores has been earmarked for this programme.
Another important component of SSA is the Education Guarantee

Scheme and Alternative and Innovative Education (EGS and AIE). EGS
and AIE is specially designed to provide access to elementary education
to children in school-less habitations and out-of school children. It
supports flexible strategies for out-of-school children through bridge
courses, residential camps, drop-in centres, summer camps, remedial
coaching, etc., and helped to provide elementary education to 85.67 lakh
children in 2004-05.
19.2 Integrated Education for the Disabled Children (IEDC)
This Scheme of Integrated Education for the Disabled Children

(IEDC) was started with the objective of providing educational
opportunities to all children with disabilities under the general school
system. The ultimate objective is to integrate children with disabilities in
the general education system and to eliminate disparities and equalize
educational opportunities to enable them to become equally contributing
members of society.
IEDC scheme was launched in 1974 by the Department of Social

Welfare and was transferred to the then Department of Education in
1982. Under the scheme, financial assistance on 100 per cent basis is
provided to State Governments and NGOs towards facilities extended to
disabled children such as books and stationery, uniforms, transport
allowance, escort allowance, readers allowance for blind children,
equipments. In addition to the above, the grant is also provided for the
salary of teachers recruited for teaching the disabled children and for
officials manning the IEDC Cell in State Governments to implement and
monitor the Scheme. The Scheme also has a component for free school
164
training for disabled children and counseling for their parents. Assistance
is also provided for setting up of resource room, survey and assessment
of disabled children, purchase and production of instructional material,
training and orientation of general teachers to take care of the
educational need of the disabled children.
Recommendations for the Disabled

 Inclusive Education should become the objective of every school
taking care of SCs/STs/OBCs and Handicapped.
 There is need for expansion of the Integrated Education for
Disabled Children (IEDC) Scheme to cover higher and technical
also. The proposed revision of IEDC Scheme should have
practical applicability and concentrate on teacher training and
pedagogy.
 Allocation of Rs.3000/- per child per annum under the revised

IEDC Scheme appears too low and hence should be enhanced.
The Group recommends a recurring provision of about
Rs.10,000/- per student per annum, besides a non-recurring
provision of about Rs.8 crore per district assuming about 7200
disabled children per district. A pilot scheme may be run for
testing and confirming the norms.
 The kind of disabilities should be defined and graded.
 The Neighbourhood Schools should become disabled friendly
and a policy of Inclusive System of Education imbibed.
 A comprehensive scheme of establishing hostels at district level
for the mentally retarded children studying at secondary level
should be conceived and implemented.
 Financial commitment of the Government in any new
scheme/programme should at least be for two Five Year Plan
periods.
 Teachers and teacher trainers should be given special training
especially in managing the children with disabilities.
 Teachers and teacher trainers should develop a better

relationship with Community, NGO and Government.
 National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) should be
actively involved in finalization of a revised curriculum framework
for teacher training with Disabled children.
165
 There should be barrier free facilities provided for SCs, STs, Girls
and Disabled in all the institutions.
 With increasing number of private institutions entering in the field

of higher education, the fees payable are observed to be too high
for the disadvantaged groups. In view of this more scholarships,
free textbooks, free hostels, subsidized facilities in
institutions/hostels should be extended to this group.
 There should be subsidized loan facilities for the fees/hostel
expenditure from the financial institutions like banks etc.
 Every University should have a Disability Coordinator to look into
the facilities provided and complaints etc. so that the institutional
bias and discrimination are eliminated.
 Disabled friendly facilities should be provided in all educational
institutions within a time frame of 3-5 years. There should be
substantial increases in the funds allocation to make the
infrastructure in universities and other institutes disabled
friendly. UGC should start a
 Disability Cell should be extended to all the universities. There

should be an anti- discriminatory authority/Ombudsman and
institutionalized system for checks and balances and corrections
required in the system.
 A programme of gender sensitization and plan to tackle cultural
bias should be implemented with sufficient financial support.
19.3 Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) (2009)
This scheme was launched in March, 2009 with the objective to

enhance access to secondary education and to improve its quality. The
implementation of the scheme started from 2009-10. It is envisaged to
achieve an enrolment rate of 75% from 52.26% in 2005-06 at secondary
stage of implementation of the scheme by providing a secondary school
within a reasonable distance of any habitation. The other objectives
include improving quality of education imparted at secondary level
through making all secondary schools confirm to prescribed norms,
removing gender, socio- economic and disability barriers, providing
universal access to secondary level education by 2017, i.e., by the end
of 12th Five Year Plan and achieving universal retention by 2020.
Important Physical Facilities Provided Under The Scheme Are: (i)
Additional class rooms, (ii) Laboratories,(iii) Libraries, (iv) Art and crafts
166
room, (v) Toilet blocks, (vi) Drinking water provisions and (vii)
Residential Hostels for Teachers in remote areas. Important Quality
Interventions Provided Under the Scheme Are: (i) appointment of
additional teachers to reduce PTR to 30:1, (ii) focus on Science, Math
and English education, (iii) In-service training of teachers, (iv) science
laboratories, (v) ICT enabled education, (vi) curriculum reforms; and (vii)
teaching learning reforms. Important Equity Interventions Provided In
The Scheme Are: (i) special focus in micro planning (ii) preference to
Ashram schools for upgradation (iii) preference to areas with
concentration of SC/ST/Minority for opening of schools (iv) special
enrolment drive for the weaker section (v) more female teachers in
schools; and (vi) separate toilet blocks for girls.
19.4 Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS.

2009)
The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 and the
Programme of Action (1992) gives the basic policy framework for
education, emphasizing on correcting the existing inequalities. It
stresses on reducing dropout rates, improving learning achievements
and expanding access to students who have not had an easy
opportunity to be a part of the general system. The NPE, 1986
envisaged some measures for integrating of children with physical and
mental handicap with the general community as equal partners,
preparing them for their normal growth and development and enabling
them to face life with courage and confidence.
India has also been a signatory to international declarations like
the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs
Education (1994) and the Biwako Millenium Framework for Action (2002)
and the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, 2006
that emphasize the need for fundamental educational policy shifts to
enable general schools to include children with disabilities.
The Centrally Sponsored Scheme of Integrated Education for the

Disabled Children (revised 1992) is presently being implemented in
States and UTs in over 90,000 schools benefiting over 2,00,000 children
with disabilities. The scheme was introduced with a view to providing
educational opportunities for children with disabilities in general schools,
to facilitate their retention in the school system. It provides for facilities to
students with disabilities including expenses on books and stationery,
167
expenses on uniforms, transport allowance, reader allowance, escort
allowance, hostel accommodation and actual cost of equipment. The
scheme also supports the appointment of special teachers, provision for
resource rooms and removal of architectural barriers in schools.
The Scheme of Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary

Stage (IEDSS) has been launched from the year 2009-10. This Scheme
replaces the earlier scheme of Integrated Education for Disabled
Children (IEDC) and would provide assistance for the inclusive
education of the disabled children in classes IX-XII
Aims of the Programme
To enable all students with disabilities, after completing eight

years of elementary schooling, to pursue further four years of secondary
schooling in an inclusive and enabling environment.
Objectives of the Programme
The scheme covers all children studying at secondary stage in

Government, local body and Government-aided schools, with one or
more disabilities as defined under the Persons with Disabilities Act
(1995) and the National Trust Act (1999) in the class IX to XII, namely
blindness, low vision, leprosy cured, hearing impairment, locomotor
disabilities, mental retardation, mental illness, autism and cerebral palsy,
and may eventually cover speech impairment, learning disabilities, etc.
Girls with disabilities receive special focus to help them gain access to
secondary schools, as also to information and guidance for their
developing potential. Setting up of Model inclusive schools in every
State is envisaged.
Assistance is admissible for two major components:

(i) Student-oriented components, such as medical and educational
assessment, books and stationery, uniforms, transport
allowance, reader allowance, stipend for girls, support services,
assistive devices, boarding the lodging facility, therapeutic
Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) 4
devices, boarding the lodging facility, therapeutic services,
teaching learning materials, etc.
168
(ii) Other components include appointment of special education
teachers, allowances for general teachers for teaching such
children, teacher training, orientation of school administrators,
establishment of resource room, providing barrier free
environment, etc.
Issues
 Scheme is under-utilised, in spite of being 100% centrally

assisted
 States have not furnished progress reports and UCs of funds
released earlier under IEDSS and even IEDC Delays in release
of funds, even after approval by PMEG, is largely due to pending
issues of UCs and progress reports
 The scheme continues to be NGO driven in most 5 progress
reports
 The scheme continues to be NGO driven in most States,
hampering State wide planning, implementation and impact
 Cryptic proposals are often received, showing little understanding
of the scheme and the needs of the disabled children
 Students teacher ratio should be 5:1. States have not achieved
this standard.
 Guidance of RCI should be taken in arranging trainings,
workshops and orientation programmes for special and general
teachers
 Progress about barrier free schools at block and district level has
not received from States. Progress about barrier free schools at
block and district level has not received from States. Time bound
guidelines had been sent to the States
 An evaluation is to be conducted by NCERT shortly
169
Check your progress

Block.
7. Write down the goal of SSA programme.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. IEDC scheme was launched in 1974 by the
…………………………………….
Department of Education
Department of Public Work
Department of Social Welfare

Department of Health
UNIT 20 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS AND POLICIES
 Narrate the international conventions and policies on

Education
20.1 Salamanca Declaration and framework-1994
In June 1994 representatives of 92 governments and 25

international organisations formed the World Conference on Special
Needs Education, held in Salamanca, Spain. They agreed a dynamic
new Statement on the education of all disabled children, which called
for inclusion to be the norm. In addition, the Conference adopted a
new Framework for Action, the guiding principle of which is that
ordinary schools should accommodate all children, regardless of their
physical, intellectual, social, emotional, linguistic or other conditions. All
educational policies, says the Framework, should stipulate that disabled
children attend the neighbourhood school 'that would be attended if the
child did not have a disability.'
170
Education for All
The Statement begins with a commitment to Education for All,
recognising the necessity and urgency of providing education for all
children, young people and adults 'within the regular education system.'
It says those children with special educational needs 'must have access
to regular schools' and adds that,
Regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most
effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating
welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and achieving
education for all. Moreover, they provide an effective education to the
majority of children and improve the efficiency and ultimately the cost-
effectiveness of the entire education system.
Call to governments
The World Conference went on to call upon all governments to:

 give the 'highest policy and budgetary priority' to improve
education services so that all children could be included,
regardless of differences or difficulties.
 'adopt as a matter of law or policy of principle of inclusive
education' and enrol all children in ordinary schools unless there
were compelling reasons for doing otherwise.
 develop demonstration projects and encourage exchanges with
countries with inclusive schools.
 ensure that organisations of disabled people, along with parents

and community bodies, are involved in planning decision-making.
 put greater effort into pre-school strategies as well as vocational
aspects of inclusive education.
 ensure that both initial and in-service teacher training address
the provision of inclusive education.
Inclusive schooling
The Statement also calls on the international community to

endorse the approach of inclusive schooling and to support the
development of special needs education as an integral part of all
education programmes. In particular it calls on UNESCO, UNICEF,
UNDP and the World Bank for this endorsement.
171
It asks for the United Nations and its specialised agencies to
'strengthen their inputs for technical co-operation' and improve their
networking for more efficient support to integrated special needs
provision. Non-governmental organizations are asked to strengthen their
collaboration with official national bodies and become more involved in
all aspects of inclusive education.
As the UN agency for education, UNESCO is asked to:
 Ensure that special needs education forms part of every
discussion dealing with education for all.
 Enhance teacher education in this field by getting support from
teacher unions and associations.
 Stimulate the academic community to do more research into
inclusive education and disseminate the findings and the reports.
 Use its funds over the five-year period of 1996-2001. To create
an expanded programme for inclusive schools and community
support projects, thus enabling the launch of pilot projects.
Equalization of opportunity
The Framework for Action says 'inclusion and participation are
essential to human dignity and to the enjoyment and exercise of human
rights.' In the field of education this is reflected in bringing about a
'genuine equalization of opportunity.' Special needs education
incorporates proven methods of teaching from which all children can
benefit. It assumes human differences are normal and that learning must
be adapted to the needs of the child, rather than the child fitted to the
process. The fundamental principle of the inclusive school, it adds, is
that all children should learn together, where possible, and that ordinary
schools must recognize and respond to the diverse needs of their
students, while also having a continuum of support and services to
match these needs. Inclusive schools are the 'most effective' at building
solidarity between children with special needs and their peers. Countries
with few or no special schools should establish inclusive – not special –
schools.
The Salamanca Statement says that:
 Every child has a basic right to education
172
 Every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and
learning needs
 education services should take into account these diverse

characteristics and needs
 Those with special educational needs must have access to
regular schools
 Regular schools with an inclusive ethos are the most effective
way to combat discriminatory attitudes, create welcoming and
inclusive communities and achieve education for all
 Such schools provide effective education to the majority of
children, improve efficiency and cost- effectiveness.
The Salamanca Statement asks governments to:

 Give the highest priority to making education systems inclusive
 Adopt the principle of inclusive education as a matter of law or

policy
 Develop demonstration projects
 Encourage exchanges with countries which have experience of

inclusion
 set up ways to plan, monitor and evaluate educational provision
for children and adults
 Encourage and make easy the participation of parents and
organizations of disabled people
 Invest in early identification and intervention strategies

 Invest in the vocational aspects of inclusive education
 Make sure there are adequate teacher education programs
The Framework for Action outlines new thinking on special needs

education and guidelines for action at national, regional and international
levels. Among the guidelines for national action are:
 Policy and organization

 School factors
 Recruitment and training of educational personnel
 External support services

 Priority areas
173
 Community perspectives
 Resource requirements
20.2 UNCRPD, 2006:

The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is
an international human rights treaty of the United Nations, intended to
protect the rights and dignity of persons with disabilities. Parties to the
Convention are required to promote, protect and ensure the full
enjoyment of human rights by persons with disabilities and ensure that
they enjoy full equality under the law. The Convention has served as the
major catalyst in the global movement from viewing persons with
disabilities as objects of charity, medical treatment and social protection
towards viewing them as full and equal members of society, with human
rights. It is also the only UN human rights instrument with an
explicit sustainable development dimension. The Convention was the
first human rights treaty of the twenty-first century.
The text was adopted by the United Nations General

Assembly on 13 December 2006 and opened for signature on 30 March
2007. Following ratification by the 20th party, it came into force on 3 May
2008. As of October 2017, it has 160 signatories and 175 parties, which
includes 172 states and the European Union (which ratified it on 23
December 2010 to the extent responsibilities of the member states were
transferred to the European Union). In December 2012, a vote in the
United States Senate fell six votes short of the two-thirds majority
required for ratification. The Convention is monitored by the Committee
on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.
Right to Education
The Convention states that persons with disabilities should be

guaranteed the right to inclusive education at all levels, regardless of
age, without discrimination and on the basis of equal opportunity.
States Parties should ensure that:

1. children with disabilities are not excluded from free and
compulsory primary education, or from secondary education
174
2. adults with disabilities have access to general tertiary
education, vocational training, adult education and lifelong
learning
3. persons with disabilities receive the necessary support, within
the general education system, to facilitate their effective
education and
4. effective individualized support measures are put in place to
maximize academic and social development.
States Parties should take appropriate measures, such as:

1. endorsing the learning of Braille, alternative script, augmentative
and alternative modes, means and formats of
communication and orientation and mobility skills, and
facilitating peer support and mentoring
2. supporting the learning of sign language and promoting the

linguistic identity of the deaf community
3. advocating that education of persons, particularly children, who
are blind and/or deaf, is delivered in the most appropriate
languages and means of communication for the individual and
4. Employing teachers, including teachers with disabilities, who are
qualified in sign language and/or Braille, and to train education
professionals and staff about disability awareness, use of
augmentative and alternative modes and formats of
communication, and educational techniques and materials to
support persons with disabilities.
20.3 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), 2015

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were the
eight international development goals for the year 2015 that had been
established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in
2000, following the adoption of the United Nations Millennium
Declaration. All 191 United Nations member states at that time and at
least 22 international organizations, committed to help achieve the
following Millennium Development Goals by 2015 agreed:
1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
2. To achieve universal primary education
175
3. To promote gender equality and empower women
4. To reduce child mortality
5. To improve maternal health

6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. To ensure environmental sustainability
8. To develop a global partnership for development
The Millennium Development Goals are a UN initiative.
Each goal had specific targets, and dates for achieving those
targets. To accelerate progress, the G8 finance ministers agreed in June
2005 to provide enough funds to the World Bank, the International
Monetary Fund (IMF) and the African Development Bank (AfDB) to
cancel $40 to $55 billion in debt owed by members of the heavily
indebted poor countries (HIPC) to allow them to redirect resources to
programs for improving health and education and for alleviating poverty.
Critics of the MDGs complained of a lack of analysis and
justification behind the chosen objectives and the difficulty or lack of
measurements for some goals and uneven progress, among others.
Although developed countries' aid for achieving the MDGs rose during
the challenge period, more than half went for debt relief and much of the
remainder going towards natural disaster relief and military aid, rather
than further development.
As of 2013, progress towards the goals was uneven. Some
countries achieved many goals, while others were not on track to realize
any. A UN conference in September 2010 reviewed progress to date
and adopted a global plan to achieve the eight goals by their target date.
New commitments targeted womens' and children's health, and new
initiatives in the worldwide battle against poverty, hunger and disease.
Among the non-governmental organizations assisting were the
United Nations Millennium Campaign, the Millennium Promise Alliance,
Inc., the Global Poverty Project, the Micah Challenge, The Youth in
Action EU Programme, "Cartoons in Action" video project and the 8
Visions of Hope global art project.
176
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) replaced the MDGs in
2016.
Education
Accessing Development Education is a web portal. It provides

relevant information about development and global education and helps
educators share resources and materials that are most suitable for their
work.
The Teach MDGs European project aims to increase MDG
awareness and public support by engaging teacher training institutes,
teachers and pupils in developing local teaching resources that promote
the MDGs with a focus on sub-Saharan Africa.
Global Education Magazine is an initiative launched by the
teaching team that formulated the proposal most voted in the group
"Sustainable Development for the Eradication of Poverty in Rio+20".It is
supported by UNESCO and UNHCR and aims to create a common
place to disseminate transcultural, transpolitical, transnational and
transhumanist knowledge.
20.4 INCHEON Strategy to “Make the Right Real” for Persons

with Disabilities in Asia and the Pacific
1. The development of the INCHEON Strategy to “Make the Right

Real” for persons with disabilities in Asia and the Pacific was
derived from the experiences in the implementation of two
consecutive Asian and Pacific Decades of Disabled Persons,
1993–2002 and 2003–2012, as well as the historic adoption by the
General Assembly, in 2006, of the Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities.
2 The development of the INCHEON Strategy benefited from the

contributions of governments, organizations of and for persons
with disabilities, and other key stakeholders. It drew from the
observations, feedback and insights obtained through the following
regional consultations: the Expert Group Meeting-cum-Stakeholder
Consultation to Review the Implementation of the Asian and
Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, 2003–2012. The Biwako
Millennium Framework for Action (Bangkok, 23–25 June 2010), the
Committee on Social Development, second session (Bangkok, 19–
21 October 2010), the Regional Stakeholder Consultation for the
177
High-level Intergovernmental Meeting on the Final Review of the
Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, 2003–2012
(Bangkok, 14–16 December 2011) and the Regional Preparatory
Meeting for the High-level Intergovernmental Meeting on the Final
Review of the Implementation of the Asian and as well as the
Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, 2003–2012 (Bangkok, 14–16
March 2012) were held in correlation to this.
3 The responses of governments and organizations of and for
persons with disabilities to the ESCAP Disability Survey 2011–
2012 on the final review of the Asian and Pacific Decade of
Disabled Persons, 2003–2012, provided a rich evidence base for
developing the INCHEON Strategy
4. The INCHEON Strategy is not intended to replicate the
comprehensive coverage of the Biwako Millennium Framework for
Action and Biwako Plus Five towards an Inclusive, Barrier-free and
Rights-based Society for Persons with Disabilities in Asia and the
Pacific and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities, which will all continue to serve as overarching policy
frameworks for regional work in the field of disability.
Similar to the Millennium Development Goals, 2 the INCHEON
goals and targets are time-bound for accelerating implementation by
focusing particular attention on the achievement of a set of priority goals
and targets during the course of the new Decade, 2013–2022, as well as
facilitating the measurement of progress to be attained by countries and
territories in the Asia-Pacific region.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

9. What does Salamanca Statement says about the equalization of
opportunity?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10. Abbreviation of IMF

a) International Monetary Fund
b) Indian Monetary Fund
c) Indonesia monetary Fund
178
LET US SUM UP
In this lesson you learned about the Education Commission and

Policy in School education. Constitutional provisions like Political,
Economical and Social justice are explained well. You will be aware of
National Commissions and policies, National Acts of the Education
Commissions and policy. Schemes and International Conventions
pertaining to Education commissions and policies are clearly explained.
GLOSSARIES
 Diagnostic techniques – techniques used to figure out the

disease, dysfunction, condition, or ailment is affecting the
individual.
 Emancipation – process of being set free from legal, social, or
political restrictions
 Rehabilitation – process of helping a person who has suffered an
illness or injury restore lost skills and regain maximum self-
sufficiency
 Social justice – providing equal economic, political and social
rights and opportunities
 Vocational education – training for a specific occupation in
agriculture, trade or industry through combination of theoretical
teaching and practical experience
1. The Preamble starts by saying that, We, the people of India, give to
ourselves the Constitution. The source of the Constitution is thus traced
to the people, i.e. men and women of India, irrespective of caste,
community, religion or sex.
2. Political empowerment of women has been brought by the 73rd and

74th Amendments which reserve seats for women in Gram Panchayats
and Municipal bodies.
3.
 Internal transformation
 Qualitative improvement
 Expansion of educational facilities
179
4.
Rehabilitation measures can be classified into three distinct
groups:
 Physical rehabilitation, which includes early detection and
intervention, counseling and medical interventions and provision
of aids and appliances. It will also include the development of
rehabilitation professionals.
 Educational rehabilitation including vocational education and
 Economic rehabilitation for a dignified life in society.
5. 6 to 14 years.
6. Central Government
7. The goals of SSA are:-
1 All children in School, Education Guarantee Centre, Alternate
School, Back-to-School camp by 2005
2 Bridge all gender and social category gaps at the primary stage
by 2007 and at elementary education level by 2010
 Universal retention by 2010 and

 Focus on elementary education of satisfactory quality with
emphasis on education for life.
8. Department of Social Welfare

9.
 Every child has a basic right to education
 Every child has unique characteristics, interests, abilities and

learning needs
 Education services should take into account these diverse
characteristics and needs
 Those with special educational needs must have access to
regular schools
 Regular schools with an inclusive ethos are the most effective
way to combat discriminatory attitudes, create welcoming and
inclusive communities and achieve education for all
 Such schools provide effective education to the majority of
children, improve efficiency and cost- effectiveness.
10. International Monetary Fund
180
SUGGESTED READINGS

(2002).

(2010).
 National Education Policy 2020, Ministry of Human Resource
Development, Government of India

 Uday India, Empowering the Nation. Vol.XI, No.39-40, Delhi,
15-21 November, 2020
 Draft_NEP_2019_EN_Revised.pdf
 https://www.mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/NEP_Fi
nal_English_0.pdf
 India National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Everything you

need to know
 5294663_Salient-Featuresofnep-Eng-merged.pdf
181
BLOCK 5 ISSUSE AND TRENDS IN EDUCATION
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Unit 21 Challenges of education from preschool to senior secondary
Unit 22 Inclusive Education as Rights Based Model

22.1 Legislation and Policy
Unit 23 Complementarity of Inclusive and Special Schools
23.1 Special Education

23.2 Special Needs Education
23.3. Adverse Impact to Students with Disabilities
Academic Education
23.4 Concept of Inclusive Education
23.5 Alternatives to Inclusion
23.6 Principles of Inclusive Education

23.7 Practice of Inclusive Education
Unit 24 Language Issues in Education
24.1. Multilingual Mother Tongue Education:

24.2 Language Role in Education:
24.3. Arguments in favour of English
24.4. Arguments against English

Unit 25 Community Participation in Education
25.1 Community Participation
25.2 Community Participation for Quality Education

25.3 Activities that Involve Participation
25.4 Community-Based Education
Let us Sum Up
Glossaries
Suggested Readings
182
INTRODUCTION
In this Block Challenges of Education from preschool to senior

secondary, Inclusive education as a rights based model,
Complementarities of inclusive and special needs, Language issues in
Education and Community participation and community based education
has been explained.
OBJECTIVES

 Challenges of Education from preschool to senior secondary
 Inclusive education as a rights based model
 Complementarities of inclusive and special needs
 Language issues in Education
 Community participation and community based education
UNIT 21 CHALLENGES OF EDUCATION FROM PRESCHOOL

TO SENIOR SECONDARY

 Analyse the challenges of education from preschool to
senior secondary level
21.1 Problems in the Development of Secondary Education in

India
1. Determination of Aims:
Secondary schools in India where established by the Britishers to

prepare and train educated officials and clerks for conducting
administrative work. Unfortunately the aim continued to remain more or
less the same for a long time. Except preparing the students for
entrance into the university, the secondary education had no definite
aim.
183
After the recommendations of S.E.C. secondary education is
being treated as self-sufficient and independent unit in itself and not
merely complementary to university education. For the first time this
commission prescribed certain aims for secondary education keeping in
view the needs of the independent and democratic India.
It is expected that the secondary education should therefore,

seek to fulfil all these many sided aims of education by inculcating in
students the qualities of democratic citizenship and leadership, and
developing their faculties as complete units so that they might make their
own contribution to the prosperity and enrichment of national life in all
possible respects.
It is most depressing that most of the present secondary schools

are not fully conscious of their essential duties and fall short of the
expectation in fulfilling these aims. Neither the students nor the teachers
are very much serious in fulfilling these aims. Hence it is of primary
importance that the teachers must realize the supreme and magnitude of
those aims at the time of imparting instruction to the students, lest
everything will be fruitless.
2. Deterioration of the Standards of Education:

Since the introduction of the compulsory education the enrolment
at the elementary level of education has increased to a considerable
extent. As a result of this, the number of students reading in high
schools has been enormously increasing. Thus the increase in the
number of students is bound to affect the quality of education in general
and secondary education in particular.
Teachers, educational administrators, parents and politicians

have been complaining that the standard of education at different stages
of education has been going down in recent years and secondary
education is no exception to it.
The other factors responsible for the low standard of education

are: low salary of teachers, growing discontentment among the teachers
towards their profession, the lack of necessary requirements and
184
equipment‟s in the school, inefficiency of the managing bodies and their
interference in the internal affairs of the institutions, negligence of the
education department, the wretched financial condition of the
institutions, growing lack of the sense of responsibility among the
teachers and their attitude of negligence towards their duties,
indifference of the guardians and the general public towards the
numerous educational problems.
To improve the present backward condition of education in the

country the expansion of education is no doubt desirable but it should
not be at the cost of „quality‟ education. Each secondary school should
be well-equipped with regard to teachers and instructional materials in
order to maintain the standard and quality.
The basis of admission should be on merit. Therefore, in the expansion

of secondary education proper correlation between enrolment and
standard should be maintained. Adequate scholarship facilities should
exist for poor but meritorious students. The problem requires proper
solution and immediate measures should be taken to produce such
young person‟s as might prove ideal future citizens of the country in all
respects.
3. Inappropriate Curriculum:
In order to meet the various problems of the secondary

education, it is the responsibility of the educational planners to attack the
problems from all the sides. They will have to modify the school
curriculum in order to copy with the urgent educational needs of future
development. The scientific knowledge is advancing so rapidly that the
present curriculum may not be relevant to the present needs of the
students.
Many political, economic and technical changes are taking place

in the country at different intervals, but the education in general and
secondary education, in particular and is unable to keep pace with the
changing limes. Though steps have been taken at the later stage to
introduce diversified curriculum at the secondary stage yet the difficulty
lies in relating it to the real and practical life of the child and his
environments.
185
As much emphasis is given on the external examination, the
students follow the curriculum mechanically without curiosity,
understanding or appreciation, as the immediate aim is to get through
the examination and be admitted to higher class. Various commissions
pointed out the defects of the curriculum at different times but, the
problem has not been tackled radically.
The recent trend is to give the curriculum vocational and

scientific bias by introducing certain vocational and technical subjects,
so that the students should be encouraged and trained to choose
subjects according to their ability, interest and aptitude. Nearly 82% of
the population of India lives in rural areas.
Hence the curriculum should be so formulated as to be related to

the main rural occupation, i.e. agriculture, dairy, animal husbandry and
other rural industries. Whatever is added or deleted in the curriculum, it
must be individually meaningful and socially relevant. It must create a
thirst for knowledge among the students.
Involvement of a new curriculum will not be so helpful in

eliminating the shortcoming that exists in the present system. Its
success depends upon the personnel who are involved with the
responsibility of implementing it. They must have the ability to change
the teaching technique in such a way that the students acquire
intellectual curiosity, inventiveness and decision making ability.
The present day education needs a band of teachers who will be

vigilant students of current trends in progressive society, understand and
interpreted new movements of thought and vitalize their instruction by
adopting the latest technique, and initiative to play an important part in
the regeneration of education. No educational reform will succeed
without improving the quality of our teachers.
4. The Lacuna of Private Management and Administration:
At present secondary schools are controlled and managed by

different types of bodies, i.e. Government, local board (District Council‟s
186
Municipal Board) as well as private managing committees at places.
There is no uniformity in management of the schools and it varies from
state to state. So far, as the private management is concerned this state
of affairs is far from being satisfactory. Majority of the schools under
private management suffer from financial crisis.
They have neither good building nor other physical facilities.

Keeping aside the low standards of education there are certain
conspicuous defects prevalent in these institutions which are detrimental
and pernicious for the growth of secondary education in the country. To
some extent the weaknesses in the management of institutions are
owing to the laxity and inefficiency of the officials of the education
department and specially those belonging to the inspecting group.
Their slackness amounts to inefficiency. At present, school

inspection has become a routine work and mainly confined to show
paper work with no impact, what so ever. But it is expected that the
supervision of schools should be regular and effective and must result in
improving the quality and standard of education.
5. Meager Finance:
Meagre Finance is the greatest hurdle for the expansion of

secondary education in the country. Though education at this level is bit
expensive even then it should not be confined within a selected few.
Interest is evinced for secondary education and the establishment of
new schools is essential for meeting the educational needs of the
increasing student population. In every part of the country there is a
tremendous hunger for education.
For meeting, the demand a large amount of money is required.

But our economic condition is not likely to be in a position to provide the
needed educational opportunity at this level. So it is a challenge to the
educational planners, because they will have to work under the
constraint of growing numbers and limited resources made available for
education.
187
To overcome the financial limitations partly and to solve the
problems of mounting numbers the shift system may be tried out in the
existing schools instead of spending large amount on new buildings. The
society should bear a substantial part of additional burden for educating
the increasing number of students.
Besides, the problems of discipline; defective system of

examination, problem of wastage and stagnation, lack of community
participation, indifferent attitude of the teachers, students and parents,
no opportunity for the inculcation of moral and spiritual values in
students; problem of reorganization of secondary education, problem of
technical teaching personnel, problem of physical facilities of the
schools; problems of teachers, relating secondary education with
productivity etc. are the main shortcomings of the education.
So the urgent need of the hour is to realize the importance of

secondary education for accomplishing the objective of developing the
country with a view to keep pace with the other progressive country of
the world.
The improvement of university education will end in a fiasco

without the improvement of secondary education. So the shortcomings
of secondary education should be purged and the evils rampant in the
field should be eradicated. According to the remark of the distinguished
educationist Mr. Jeen Thomas “the education to be offered to young
people is not that of yesterday, it is that of to-day and, as far as possible
that of tomorrow. This is the watch word of those, who all over the world
are awaiting a reform of education.” The problem of reconstruction of the
secondary education is a stupendous one and unless the factors which
impede the progress are not removed the desired result cannot be
achieved.
21.2 Challenges of Secondary Education with its Possible

Solution
1) Different committees and commissions before and after

independence have mentioned various aims of secondary education.
But secondary educational institutions in practice do not try to
materialize those aims. The so-called aims are practically paper-aims.
188
During pre- independence days the only aim of secondary education
was to secure white-collar jobs, this is no doubt a very narrow aim.
Even secondary education is not complete by itself. It is a

stepping-stone for admissions in colleges and universities. Secondary
education is thus regarded as a passport for higher education. Hence
the main defect of secondary education is its aimlessness. Secondary
education must have definite aims related to practical life and the
secondary schools should try to realize those aims in every possible
manner.
2) Secondary education is theoretical, bookish, narrowly conceived and

unpractical. It creates social misfits and does not fulfill the needs of life.
It is not life-centered. It should not increase unemployment and should
help to produce able, self-dependent and patriotic citizens.
The current secondary education has aggravated the un-

employment problem. Therefore we have to make our secondary ed-
ucation so useful that the students having passed this stage do not run
only for admission to universities and unemployment does not increase
and they become economically independent by having acquired some
vocational skills of productive nature, acquired some vocational skills of
productive nature.
3). The present secondary education is not related to productivity. In

most of the western countries secondary education is highly related to
productivity. But, this is not so in our country. Secondary education in
India does not help to augment national production both in agricultural
as well as in industrial. Both the Mudaliar Commission (1952-53) and the
Kothari Commission (1964-66) strongly recommended for making
secondary education productive. But, this has not been achieved at the
desired level. The schemes of core periphery and work experience have
failed miserably and the plus- two stage has not yet been vocationalised
as propose.
4) The secondary education in our country is not helpful for economic

development of the nation and rapid social transformation. No man-
power training is possible in the present set-up of secondary education
189
in India. Secondary education must prepare an adolescent for India‟s
technical and industrial growth though proper utilization of the natural
resources.
5) In the present system of secondary education there is little scope for

total development of personality or individuality which is the main aim of
education in all ages and in all countries. Adolescent stage which covers
secondary education is the proper stage for such development. India
now requires men of glorified and sublime personalities and not men of
timid characters. Secondary education has a role to play in this regard.
6) There is little scope for character training in the present system of

secondary education. Character is the crown of life. Value education is
essential for character training but our secondary education does not
attach much importance to education for values such as toleration,
cooperation, fellow-feeling, truthfulness, modesty, respect to teachers or
elders, spirit of self-respect, faith in national cultural tradition, secularism
etc. Since independence our society is confronted with crisis of
character and rapid erosion of eternal values.
The secondary school stage is the suitable stage for the cultiva-
tion of those values. Our main purpose is to produce youths of char-
acter. Our education has not only to impart bookish knowledge but to
give such a knowledge which may contribute to personal, social and
national prosperity. We want all-round development of our children-
physical, mental, moral, spiritual etc.
7) Secondary education also does not provide opportunities for leader-

ship training. Students are the future leaders in different walks of our
national life and as such their traits of leadership should be cultivated
when they are young and sensitive enough. Secondary stage can be
regarded as the breeding ground for leadership training. Organisation
and participation in co-curricular activities can help in this regard to a
great extent.
8) The present secondary education in our country is not congenial to
effective, democratic and productive citizenship which is the need of the
hour. We need able, dutiful and self-dedicated citizens for making our
infant democracy a success, who are imbued with the spirit of intelligent
190
patriotism contributing to the rapid prosperity of the country. Our
secondary education does not help to develop civic sense in children
and to shoulder gallantly multifarious civic duties and responsibilities.
Independent India requires citizens trained in democratic values of life
and citizenship.
9) Development of social efficiency is not possible in the present setup

of secondary education in our country. Every individual has a social self.
For an integrated personality development of this social self is essential
which is neglected by our secondary education. There is also close
relationship between education and society. If social aspect of education
is neglected no society can prosper and attain the desired growth.
10) Man cannot live by bread alone. He wants something more which is
nothing, but culture. But education and culture are not synonymous.
Culture is more than education. Still education forms the basis of culture
and develops the cultural potentiality of an individual. National cultural
regeneration is not possible without cultural regeneration of the
individual. Secondary education should enrich our traditional culture-
pattern and imbibe new cultural ingredients from other countries.
11) Secondary education today neglects co-curricular activities. Mere

curricular activities cannot help to develop the all round personality of an
individual. Here lies the need of organization of co- curricular activities.
12) Physical education is not emphasized by the present system of sec-

ondary education in our country. Today we need Spartan outlook.
Human beings are essentially psycho-physical in nature. National
security depends to a large extent on its able bodied citizens. Sound
mind is not possible without sound body. Swami Vivekananda greatly
emphasized physical education. “We can reach God even through
football”, Swamiji remarked. Most of the secondary schools of our
country possess minimum facilities for physical education. Many of them
have no play-grounds. This is particularly true in cities where the
students play in the streets. 60% of secondary students suffer from
malnutrition. However, new Education Policy (1986) has emphasized
physical education.
191
13) Many secondary schools still suffer from the inadequate number of
able and trained teachers. Training is a pre-requisite condition for
successful teaching and professional growth. Able and suitable teachers
are also not available everywhere particularly in rural Areas.
Our secondary teachers‟ training programme is also faulty and

has made the problem crucial. Teachers should be trained in basic and
vocational curriculum also. Teachers are like the spinal chord of the
school. The school cannot function well if the teachers are inefficient and
inadequate in number. Today the schools have few able teachers. Now
we need urgently, vocationally trained teachers to make the scheme of
vocationalization of secondary education, a success.
Still many secondary teachers are untrained. Dearth of efficient

and properly trained teachers is a peculiar feature of present-day
secondary schools. The teaching professions do not attract talented
students. Conditions of work and service of teachers should be
improved. Private tuition by teachers should also be discouraged.
14) The curriculum poses a great problem in the field of secondary

education. It is difficult to have an universally accepted curriculum
because the needs of one state differ from the others. Our country is a
multi-lingual and multi-religious country. The NCERT and the All India
Council for Secondary Education are trying to forge out a universally
accepted curriculum.
In recent years the Secondary School Curriculum is almost

uniform with some variations according to local needs. Inspite of this,
there are some inherent defects in the curriculum. Both the Mudaliar and
Kothari Commissions made some fruitful suggestions to make the
secondary- school curriculum up-to-date and useful.
But these have not produced the desired results. Many defects still
persist in the curriculum and new defects have appeared. It does not
properly reflect the needs of the individual as well as the society. It is
narrowly conceived and is largely of unilateral character. There is not
sufficient variety and elasticity.
192
It is theoretical, bookish, unpractical and not life-centered. “The
education imparted in most secondary schools is, generally speaking, of
the academic type leading at the end of the school course to university
admission rather than entry into a vocation”. The curriculum is heavy
and overloaded particularly at the plus-two stage.
The curriculum still lays great emphasis on the acquisition of the

knowledge and comparatively little on the building up of those skills,
aptitudes, values and interests which are essential for the full
development of the student personality. There is little scope for
vocational training which is essential for rapid economic development,
proper utilization of natural and human resources of the country.
15) The curriculum has intimate connection with the method of teaching.
The method followed by most of the secondary teachers is stereotyped,
obsolete and un-psychological. Modern activity-centred methods are not
applied by the teachers. Many of them are not familiar with these
methods and as such they fail to attract the attention tension of the
students.
As a result the lessons become unproductive and the effects are far from
satisfactory. There are practical difficulties also in way of applying
modem methods of teaching in our school situations. Many schools are
not properly equipped with laboratory and library facilities, necessary
teaching aids and appliances.
Most of the secondary schools are over-crowded, ill-staffed and

suffer from inadequate number of teachers and accommodation. The
average teacher-pupil ratio is 1: 50. But for effective arid creative
teaching it should be 1: 30. There is little scope for tutorial work. No
fruitful teaching is possible without personal contact between the teacher
and the taught.
16) Next comes the problem of text-books which is also intimately

connected with the problem of curriculum and methodology of teaching.
Many students suffer from want of text-books which are very costly.
193
Text-books are often changed. This has added fuel to the fire. 45% of
the population in our country lives below the subsistence level. It is not
possible for them to purchase text-books for their children and to supply
necessary stationery needed for educational purposes.
They cannot bear other educational expenses of their wards. It

might have been better if text-books could be supplied free of cost. In
many socialistic as well as capitalistic countries text books are supplied
free of cost up to secondary level. But our educational system has not
yet been nationalized and the budgetary provision for education is very
scanty. It is only 2½ %. Under the circumstances, the Govt. should give
financial assistance to the private publishers so that the prices of text-
books may be kept at reasonable level. Due to competition the private
publishers, also will be forced to maintain the reasonable quality or
standard.
17) The entire system of education is vitiated by examination. The

educational achievements of students are measured by the single
measuring rod known as examination. The prevailing essay-type
examination dominates the educational arena. But it has developed a
large number of defects and as such it is no longer regarded as the only
measuring rod for determining the academic achievements of students.
The main charge against the essay-type examination is that, it is

vitiated by subjectivity. For this reason, along with essay-type
examination which has its own intrinsic merits objective type tests and
short-answer type tests have been introduced. But the latter two are not
entirely free from defects.
It is true that these have improved the examination process and

made the system more scientific and reliable. We cannot reject the
essay type examination altogether. But, it should be reformed in the
desired channels. Some reforms are needed after careful thinking and a
good deal of research.
The Radhakrishna Commission, the Hartog Committee, the

Mudaliar Commission and the Kothari Commission all have made
important recommendations and observations in respect to examination
194
reform. Many of these have been put into operation and still many are
under consideration. External examination alone should not be accepted
as a tool for measuring the academic achievements of students.
Internal evaluation throughout the year by the internal teachers should

also be used for examining the students. Bi-weekly or monthly tests of
the students should also be considered for assessing their academic
achievements. Instead of percentile marks abilities of students should be
measured in grades. For this purpose a five point scale (A, B, C, D, E)
may be used. Along with essay type questions at least 30 percent of the
total marks should be assigned to objective tests.
18) Many secondary schools suffer from inadequate finance. Our educa-
tional system has not yet been nationalised. But public and private
sectors run side by side. Most of the secondary schools are under pri-
vate sector. Government schools are very few. The schools run by
private sector have always to face the problem of inadequate funds.
For running of the schools they have to look for the Government
grants, which are very meagre and paid irregularly. As a result, private
aided schools cannot maintain proper standard. Teachers are not paid
regularly and disgruntled teachers cannot act properly. Neither have
they had good school buildings nor good teachers and suitable teaching
materials. Both the Government and the public should co-operate with
each other for organizing the necessary funds for the schools.
19) The teacher-training programmes in our country are inadequate and

far from satisfactory. Teaching is a difficult task. It is an art. Only
academic degrees cannot make one an able and ideal teacher.
Teaching is not only a profession, but, it is also a mission. Dedicated
teachers are now-a-days very few. Training is essential for every
teacher. Still many secondary teachers are untrained.
Number of training institutions is limited. It is very difficult to get

admission in training colleges. Existing institutions are overloaded. The
period of training is also too short. It is ten to eleven months. At the sec-
ondary level it should be at least two years. The most objectionable part
of the training programme is the conduct of the teaching practice.
195
Above all, what the teachers learn during training period, they
can not apply it, after going back to their respective schools. So training
remains as paper-training. For professional growth and efficiency there
should be adequate arrangements for in service training programmes
during puja or summer vacations through the organisation of refresher
course, short intensive course, workshop, seminar, conference etc.
20) The administration of the secondary schools does not appear to be

efficient. Education administration in India is a three-tier process that
including Central, Slate and district. Secondary education is for all
practical purposes under the control of the State Governments. Though
the Central Government formulates general policy and guidelines
applicable all over the country uniformly. But, there is a dual
administration over secondary schools in each state which is the
Department of Education and the State Board of Secondary Education.
The Board determines the nature of the curriculum, text books

and conducts examinations. The Department formulates general
policies, allocates funds and takes measures for professional efficiency
and training of teachers. Due to its dual control the secondary schools
are not achieving their purposes, because of lack of harmony and co-
ordination between the officers of these two controlling units.
In fact, there should be a mutual cooperation between the two for

achieving the objectives of secondary education. Unusual delay takes
place in taking important decisions and in disposing files. Red-tapism is
the order of the day. Due to ill decisions or delay in decisions schools
and their teachers had to suffer tremendous financial hardships.
At least 25,000 litigations are pending in West Bengal. These

cases should be disposed of at an early date in the interest of education
irrespective of political affiliation of teachers. Supervision is a part of
administration. Secondary schools are not properly supervised by school
inspectors. Inspection is almost a far cry in the field of secondary
education. There are different graded Government Inspectors, but the
number of inspectors is not sufficient.
196
The inspectors are so busy with their files in their offices, that
they get little time for supervision and inspection of schools under their
charge. Moreover, the attitude of the inspectors in respect of teachers is
below the normal. Their attitude appears to be that of a master. But, they
should know that they are co-partners of teachers. Their attitude should
be democratic and they should try to solve the difficulties of the teachers
and problems of the schools.
21) Many schools suffer from an atmosphere of indiscipline and non-

academic activities. This is mainly due to the influence of political
parties. Almost every political party has a student wing and it very often
interferes with the day to day administration of schools. This is not
desirable in the interest of smooth running of school administration and
maintaining academic atmosphere in schools.
It is true that sometimes school management takes wrong

decisions and makes delay in taking decisions which aggravate the
situation. All litigations and problems should be solved through
discussions round the table. Probably for maintaining proper academic
tone in educational institutions the National Education Policy, 1986 has
proposed depoliticisation of education. The proposal is welcomed from
academic point of view.
22) The education imparted in secondary schools is not psychologically

sound as it does not provide ample opportunities to the students to
receive education according to their abilities, interests and aptitudes It is
not based on the pedagogical concept of individual differences. It does
not fulfill the needs and aspirations of adolescent children. The only
remedy to this situation is the introduction of varied and diversified
curriculum in secondary schools.
23) Since independence the growth of secondary education is tremen-

dous. The demand for secondary education has increased to a large
extent because it is now regarded as the minimum level of education for
an individual. Still all the students between the age group 14 to 18 are
not provided with opportunities for having secondary education.
197
All who have completed elementary education are not getting
admissions because of dearth of accommodation. The only solution to
this pressing problem is “open door policy” in respect of admission in
secondary schools. Admission should not be selective up to Class X.
More schools should be set up. More expansion is needed but surely not
at the cost of qualitative improvement.
24) Secondary education has not yet been nationalized. It is still a

privilege in the hands of a certain sections of population. This is
extremely regrettable. Secondary schools differ in their standards. There
are thousands of sub-standard schools in the country. Due to financial
difficulties many students are deprived of secondary education.
Secondary education is not even free throughout India. Boys

enjoy more educational privileges than girls. Educational privileges are
far better in cities than in villages. This situation should be ameliorated
by providing equal opportunities of education to all children reading in
secondary schools irrespective of caste, creed, sex, social and
economic status. This is possible only through nationalisation of
education.
25) Since independence quality of secondary education has suffered a

set-back. This is caused by various reasons such as paucity of funds,
want of suitable equipment‟s, ever increasing pressure on enrolment,
dearth of able and dedicated teachers and faulty planning. There is large
number of sub-standard secondary schools in the country.
A good number of superfluous schools also exist. Many schools

are devoid of minimum infrastructural provision. Secondary education is
still the weakest link in our educational chain. Wastage is mounting in
secondary level also due to failures. Only qualitative improvement of
secondary education can reduce this huge wastage. Quantity and quality
should go hand in hand.
198
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Block.
1. What are the problems in the development of Secondary Education in

India?
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2. Write any two Challenges of Secondary Education in India?
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UNIT 22 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION AS RIGHTS BASED MODEL
22.1 Legislation and Policy:

The Constitution of India (26 November, 1949), clearly states in
the Preamble that everyone has the right to equality of status and of
opportunity. The Article 41 of the Directive Principles of the Indian
Constitution supports the right to work, education and public assistance
in certain cases including disablement. Further, Article 45 commits to the
provision of free and compulsory education for all children up to the age
of 14 years. Based on this, the Constitution (86th Amendment) Act 2002
has been enacted by the parliament making education a fundamental
right of all children in the age group of 6-14 years. Moreover the 93rd
Amendment to the Constitution of India (now renumbered as the 86th),
passed by the Lok Sabha on November 28, 2001, makes it mandatory
for the government to provide free and compulsory education to “all
children of the age of 6-14 years”, with its preamble clarifying that “all”
includes children with disabilities as well. Yet inevitably again, vital loose
ends of such enabling legislation and policies are not tied up.
The National Policy on Education, 1986 (NPE, 1986), and the

Programme of Action (1992) stresses the need for integrating children
with special needs with other groups. The objective to be achieved as
199
stated in the NPE, 1986 is "to integrate the physically and mentally
handicapped with general community as equal partners, to prepare them
for normal growth and to enable them to face life with courage and
confidence"
The National Policy on Education, 1986 “Future emphasis

shall be on distance and open learning systems to provide opportunities
and access to all the major target groups, especially the disadvantaged,
viz., women, scheduled castes and scheduled tribes, the adult working
class, and people serving in the far - flung remote areas.” There after
Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992 was passed by the Parliament
in 1992, this act makes it mandatory for every special teacher to be
registered by the council and lays down that every child with disability
had the right to be taught by a qualified teacher. In fact it provided
punishment for those teachers who engaged in teaching children with
special needs without a license.
The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protections of

Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 stresses the need to provide
free of cost education to all children in an appropriate environment till
they are 18 years old and further emphasize their right to measures like:
a) Transport facilities to the students with disabilities or
alternative financial incentives to parents or guardians to enable their
students with disabilities to attend schools
b) The removal of architectural barriers from schools, colleges or
other institutions imparting vocational and professional training
c) The supply of books, uniforms and other materials to students

with disabilities attending school
d) The grant of scholarship to students with disabilities
e) Setting up of appropriate fora for the redressal of grievances

of parents regarding the placement of their students with disabilities
f) Suitable modification in the examination system to eliminate
purely mathematical questions for the benefit of blind students and
students with low vision
g) Restructuring of curriculum for the benefit of students with
disabilities
200
h) Restructuring the curriculum for benefit of students with
hearing impairment to facilitate them to take only one language as part
of their curriculum.
The National Trust Act (National Trust for the Welfare of Persons
with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple
Disability), 1999 also came in to existence. This landmark legislation
seeks to protect and promote the rights of persons who within the
disability sector, have been even more marginalized than others. It was
first of its kind in the category of persons addressed. It recognized the
range of independence in skills, daily living and financial management. It
is prime decision making body for persons with disabilities and aims to
provide total care to persons with mental retardation and cerebral palsy
and also manage the properties bequeathed to the trust.
The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special

Needs Education (1994) emerged as a result of deliberations held by
more than 300 participants representing 92 governments and 25
international organizations in June1994. For furthering the objectives of
Education for all, it considered the fundamental policy-shifts required to
promote inclusive education. It emphasizes that schools should
accommodate all children regardless of their physical, intellectual, social,
emotional, linguistic or other conditions. The Statement affirms: “those
with special educational needs must have access to regular schools
which should accommodate them within child centered pedagogy
capable of meeting these needs”. India was a signatory to the
Salamanca Statement. In this perspective the Human Resource
Development minister of India Sri Arjun Singh on the 21st March 2005
assured in the Rajya Sabha that MHRD has formulated a
comprehensive action plan for the Inclusive Education of Children and
Youth with Disabilities. The government is committed to provide
education through mainstream schools for children with disabilities in
accordance with PWD ACT, 1995 and all the schools in the country will
be made disabled friendly by 2020. Rupees 10 billion have been outlaid
to fulfill the needs of disabled persons between the ages of 14 and 18
years through a revised plan for Inclusive Education of Children and
Youth with Disabilities (IECYD).In 2005-06, the Project Approval Board
has allocated an amount of Rs.187.79 crores under this component for a
total 20.14 lakh Children With Special Needs (CWSN) identified. The
commitment of the Government of India to Universalisation of
201
Elementary Education (UEE) cannot be fully achieved without taking
care of special educational needs of the physically and mentally
challenged children.
22.2 Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) Action

Plan:
An outline of MHRD action plan is presented below: National

Policy for Persons with
• To complement and supplement IEDC and Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan

programmes in the movement from integration to inclusion.
• Enrolment and retention of all children with disabilities in the

mainstream education system. (Free and compulsory education
from 0 to 14 under draft Bill/free education 0 to 18 yrs under PWD
Act).
• Providing need based educational and other support in mainstream

schools to children in order to develop their learning and abilities,
through appropriate curricula, organizational arrangements,
teaching strategies, resource and partnership with their
communities.
• Support higher and vocational education through proper
implementation of the existing reservation quota in all educational
institutions and creation of barrier free learning environments.
• Disability focused research and interventions in universities and

educational institutions.
• Review implementation of existing programmes, provisions to

identify factors leading to success or failure of the drive towards
enrollment and retention of children with disabilities in mainstream
educational settings. Address administrative issues arising out of
review.
• Generating awareness in the general community, activists and

persons working in the field of education and more specifically
202
among parents and children that the disabled have full rights to
appropriate education in mainstream schools and that it is the duty
of those involved in administration at every level including schools
to ensure that they have access to education.
• Ensure enrollment and intervention for all children with special

needs in the age group 0-6 years in Early Childhood Care and
Education Programs.
• Facilitate free and compulsory elementary education for children

with special needs in the age group 6-14 (extendable to 18 yrs.) in
mainstream education settings currently under the Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan (SSA) ( SSA is a governmental program shared by both
union and state governments for achieving universal elementary
education in India by 2010) .
• Facilities for transition of young persons with disability wishing to

pursue secondary education. Ensuring physical access of children
and youth with disabilities in schools and educational institutions
by enforcing the requirement for provisions of universal design in
buildings and provide support in transportation.
• Development of national norms for Inclusive Education, to set

standards of implementation, training, monitoring and evaluation
for the program.
• Provide inputs in all pre-service and in-service training for
mainstream and special education teachers to enable them to
work with children with disability in an inclusive education system.
• Appropriate Resource Services support through appointment of

special educators, rehab professionals, provision of resource
rooms, etc to support mainstream schoolteachers in the
classrooms.
• Put in place an effective communication and delivery system for

specific delivery of TLM, aids and appliances, hardware/software.
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• Participation in sports, co-curricular activities, to promote all round
ability development.
• Ensuring physical access for young persons with disabilities (18

plus age group) in all colleges and educational institutions by
enforcing the requirement for provisions of universal design in
buildings and provide support in transportation.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of
the Block.
3. Write down any five points of MHRD action plan?
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UNIT 23 COMPLEMENTARITY OF INCLUSIVE AND SPECIAL

SCHOOLS

 Distinguish inclusive and special schools
 Describe the inclusive schools
23.1 Special Education
The term Special Education is most widely used in the last few
decades and has come to signify education of the children who are
disabled and who have specific educational needs. According to the New
World Encyclopaedia “Special education is the term most commonly used
to describe the methodology and practice of education for students with
special needs, such as learning difficulties, mental health issues, specific
disabilities (physical or developmental). Ideologies and application of
special education can differ from region to region, nation to nation, but,
most developed countries recognize the importance of the field.
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Special education exists so that students with special needs can
achieve the same educational goals as all students. Since such students
have different needs, learn in different ways, and interact socially in
different fashions than other students the techniques used may be very
different from the general population, and differ greatly within the special
student population itself.
Special education exists primarily because certain students are

not capable of receiving the same level of education if taught in the same
manner and with the same techniques as the larger school population.
Special education students often have different needs, learn in different
ways, and interact socially in different fashions than other students.”
According to Jennifer E. Sisk the goals of special education are

similar to those for all children although the techniques used may be very
different. Also persons with physical disabilities like blindness or deafness
can adopt alternative forms of reading and writing while physically
disabled would require speech therapy or a physical environment that
allows wheelchairs or other physical aids. For those with emotional or
disabilities, therapy to bring about behavioral adjustments and the ability
to function in a social environment are needed. Thus, she says that
special education exists so as to ensure that students with special needs
receive an education comparable to the rest of the student body, by
employing.
23.2 Special Needs Education
According to Britannica Concise Encyclopaedia “Children with

motor disabilities, once considered subjects for special education, are
usually integrated into the standard classroom, often by means of
wheelchairs and modified desks. Children with learning disabilities and
speech problems usually require specialized techniques, often on an
individual basis. For children with behavioural and emotional disorders,
special therapeutic and clinical services may be provided.” Thus, there
are children who need special treatment because they have special
needs.
According to Glyn Sheridan the label of "special needs" applies to mental

or physical disabilities or circumstances that create an exceptional
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situation requiring individualized educational programs, physical
accessibility or primary care requirements. She says that “Within different
segments of society, individuals who face physical, mental or emotional
challenges may qualify for special treatment or benefits. In most
instances, the label of "special needs" applies to mental or physical
disabilities or circumstances that create an exceptional situation requiring
individualized educational programs, physical accessibility or primary
care requirements.” Thus, children who suffer from a physical disability or
mental disabilities are considered as having "special needs". The
Education Act 1996 of UK says that 'a child has special educational
needs if he or she has a learning difficulty which calls for special
educational provision to be made for him or her.' It further states that 'a
disability, which prevents or hinders them from making use of education
facilities', tantamount to a learning difficulty in case it calls for special
educational provision to be made. Special educational provision means
providing additional or different facilities and assistance than that
provided normally to children of the same age.
The concept of Special Needs Education or Special Educational

Needs is now almost universally acceptd and followed. The UK Special
Educational Needs and Disability Act 2001 also acknowledges the
Special Needs Education or Special Educational Needs as essential and
attempts to facilitate it.
The term 'special educational needs' has been used in the UK to

refer to children who have learning difficulties or disabilities that make it
harder for them to learn or access education than most children of their
age. It is a fact that many students have 'special educational needs‟ and
these could be of any kind and could be faced at some time during the
period of education. The students with 'special educational needs'
because they face learning difficulties or disabilities it makes it harder for
them to learn than most other students of their own age. Most often these
students have a need for either extra help or different kind of help.
Students with special needs may need extra assistance due to different
needs, such as:
 physical or sensory difficulties

 difficulties with thinking and understanding
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 emotional and behavioural difficulties
 difficulties with speech and language
 Difficulty relating to and behaving with other people.

A large number of students do have learning difficulties at some
point in time during their education period. Most of these students do get
sufficient help to overcome their learning difficulties but a few students
may require extra help either for a short while or throughout their entire
education period. Students with special educational needs‟ could and do
have difficulties with:
 School work
 reading, writing, number work or understanding
information
 expressing themselves or understanding what others are
saying, making friends or relating to adults
 behaving properly in school, organising themselves

 some kind of sensory or physical needs which may affect
them in school
23.3. Adverse Impact to students with disabilities' academic

education:
Many fear that general education teachers in the mainstreamed

setup do not have the training and skills to teach and manage the special
needs of the disabled students present in a general education classroom.
But, such concerns can be easily addressed by providing professional
training and supportive services in the classroom. According to scholars
and researchers like Joyce and Weil lack of awareness among the
teachers in the mainstream schools about the needs of the disabled
students leads to ignoring or even resisting the disabled students in a
general classroom and this can be very detrimental to the disabled
students.
Social issues: Compared to fully included students with

disabilities, those who are mainstreamed for only certain classes or
certain times may feel conspicuous or socially rejected by their
classmates. They may become targets for bullying. Mainstreamed
students may feel embarrassed by the additional services they receive in
a regular classroom, such as an aide to help with written work or to help
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the student manage behaviors. Some students with disabilities may feel
more comfortable in an environment where most students are working at
the same level or with the same supports.
Cost Factor: Another major disadvantage is that the schools adopting

the approach of mainstreaming the disabled students are required to
provide special education services to the disabled and may not be given
or able to garner additional financial resources. The cost of providing
special education is quite high since the student:teacher ratio has to be
low. The cost of education of the disabled is much higher almost double
than that of educating a non-disabled student.
Management Factor: It requires a lot of attention for getting correct

combinations of students with disabilities in a mainstreamed classroom.
For instance, a student with autism may not combine well with a student
with behavioural problems or conduct disorder, but placing many children
with dyslexia in the same class could be a good idea.
Thus, in conclusion it can be asserted with Powell (2007) that

mainstreaming is really an older term that refers to a process (usually a
gradual or a part-time process) involving the placement of the disabled
student in a regular classroom alongside the non-disabled students. For
instance, disabled students who are mainstreamed in a general school
could attend separate classes within the regular school but they will also
attend one or two regular classes such as gym or art or play together with
the other non-disabled students. However, according to Powell it is
necessary to qualify mainstreaming since one of the key assumptions of
mainstreaming is that certain special education students can be placed in
regular classrooms because their disabilities are few and it can be
expected that they will perform at or near grade level with few or no
accommodations or modifications. In short Mainstreaming occurs when a
disabled student spends part of his day in a self-contained setting such
as a Resource Room and the other part of his day in a regular education
classroom along with the other students. Mainstreaming usually occurs
for extra-curricular and non-academic activities such as art, music,
drama, gymn and recesses. The most important benefit of mainstreaming
is that the disabled students receives special education services and
other support he or she needs while in the self-contained classroom
setting to the Resource Room and yet gets the opportunity to be with and
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participate with the non-disabled peers. In Mainstreaming setup therefore
both groups of students learn from each other while taking part in the
extra-curricular activities. This form of education of the disabled has been
practiced for quite some time now and has been well received and well
developed in the advanced countries.
Students with special educational needs‟ can and are sometimes

given special education in the ordinary, mainstream, early education
setting or school, sometimes with the help of special educators, outside
specialists or NGOs researched and verified methods that help individual
students learn in the style most beneficial to them.
The need to balance the special needs of each student against

the general needs of the students at large has been the subject of
ongoing debate. The ultimate aim of all educational is to ensure that all
students get education and students with special needs should also get
educated. But, the issue that arises is whether the educational needs of
all (general) students be sacrificed for the specific needs of the disabled
students. Thus, the field of special education has been seized of the
issue as to how while educating students with special needs the same
could be included in the overall educational system so as to serve the
society as a whole and to the most effective level possible.
Hence Special Education is “specially” designed instruction or

education to meet the unique needs and abilities of exceptional or
challenged students. Such education is carried out in Special Schools
which have special settings, special facilities and special teachers.
Special Education is quite new and of recent origin. Historically, persons
with disabilities were very often confined to hospitals, asylums, or other
institutions and these places provided hardly any education. However, for
last few decades the persons with disabilities were given education in
special school. At the same time the students without such disabilities
were educated in the regular schools. This gave rise to a dual system of
education whenone for persons with disabilities and another one for the
students without such disabilities was organised.
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23.4 Concept of Inclusive Education
Inclusion
It is reported that “Regular education classes combined with

special education services is a model often referred to as inclusion. In
this model, students with special needs are educated with their typically
developing peers for at least half of the day. In a full inclusion model,
specialized services are provided within a regular classroom by sending
the service provider in to work with one or more students in their regular
classroom setting.” According to the New World Encyclopedia, “In a
partial inclusion model, specialized services are provided outside a
regular classroom. In this case, the student occasionally leaves the
regular classroom to attend smaller, more intensive instructional
sessions, or to receive other related service such as speech and
language therapy, occupational and/or physical therapy, and social work.
Inclusion is geared towards students who do not require intensive
support.”
It is now a fact that inclusive schools do no distinguish between

"general education" and "special education" programs. Instead, the
school is adapted in such a manner that all students learn together. In an
inclusive education school, the disabled are taught along with the non-
disabled ones but with the due regard to their special educational needs.
Hence, Inclusive Education considers the disabled children as `children
with special needs' who require special attention Inclusive approach
refuses to perceive disabled children as `impaired' or `handicapped'.
Inclusive is said to be `Making the programme for disabled children as an
integral part of the general educational system rather than a system
within general education'.
The supporters of Inclusion want to maximize the participation of

all learners in the community schools of their choice, thereby make
learning more meaningful and relevant for all, especially for the learners
who are most vulnerable to exclusionary pressures. The main idea
behind inclusion, is to rethink and restructure policies, curricula, cultures
and practices in schools and educational institution, so that, diverse
learning needs can be met of students with diverse abilities and needs.
The important considerations of Inclusive Educational are that:
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 All students whatever their abilities can learn and benefit from
education.
 Schools can and should adapt to the needs of students, rather

than students adapting to the needs of the school.
 Differences between students are not obstacles but are a source
of richness and diversity.
 The different needs and pace of development of students with
differing abilities can be met through a wide and flexible range of
responses which are to the benefit of all the students including
those with disabilities.
Inclusive education is therefore a process of removing barriers to the

education of the disabled and enabling all students with all kinds of
abilities and needs to get education within general school systems.
Inclusive education, therefore tries to satisfy the learning needs of all

children, youth and adults and especially those who suffer from
disabilities and who are often excluded. It tries to accommodate in the
mainstream of education all those whoa are vulnerable, marginalized and
exclusion. Inclusive education means educating all students with or
without disabilities together through easy and ono-discriminatory access
to common pre-school provisions, schools and community educational
setting but with proper support services and facilities and infrastructure.
Inclusive education thus calls for a flexible education system which
accepts, accommodates and assimilates the needs of a wide range of
learners and adapts itself to meet the differing needs. Inclusive education
tries to help all the stakeholders in the system made up of learners,
parents, community, teachers, administrators, policy makers) to accept
diversity of students abilities at learning and see it as a challenge to
impart education to all including the students with disabilities and not to
see education of all students carried out together in a same setting as a
problem.
According to the then Minister of Human Resources Development

of Government of India “In its broadest and all encompassing meaning,
Inclusive Education, as an approach, seeks to address the learning
needs of all children, youth and adults with a specific focus on those who
are vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion. It implies all learners,
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young people - with or without disabilities being able to learn together
through access to common pre-school provisions, schools and
community educational setting with an appropriate network of support
services. This is possible only in a flexible education system that
assimilates the needs of a diverse range of learners and adapts itself to
meet these needs. It aims at all stakeholders in the system (learners,
parents, community, teachers, administrators, policy makers) to be
comfortable with diversity and see it as a challenge rather than a
problem. Research has shown that Inclusive education results in
improved social development and academic outcomes for all learners. It
leads to the development of social skills and better social interactions
because learners are exposed to real environment in which they have to
interact with other learners each one having unique characteristics,
interests and abilities. The non-disabled peers adopt positive attitudes
and actions towards learners with disabilities as a result of studying
together in an inclusive classroom. Thus, inclusive education lays the
foundation to an inclusive society accepting, respecting and celebrating
diversity”
23.5. Alternatives to Inclusion
Inclusion is not the only way of providing education to the

students with disabilities. Students with disabilities when not included, are
either mainstreamed (placed in general schools with Resource Rooms) or
segregated (placed in special schools). The Students with physical
disabilities who are mainstreamed, attend some general education
classes usually for less than half the day, and far less academic work or
rigorous classes. But, students with intellectual disabilities who are
mainstreamed, attend physical education classes, art classes, storytelling
classes and usually are assigned to resource room for specialized
training. Students with disabilities, who are segregated do not attend any
classes with non-disabled students. They are generally confined to the
special schools. Severely disabled and ill students are also confined to a
hospital for treatment and specilaided training or tutoring services are
provided in such institutions as the hospitals. Sometimes the other
alternative which is also often used especially by very rich is that of home
schooling of students with disabilities.
Thus, the alternatives to Inclusion in education are mainstreaming

of special needs students in general schools, or segregation in special
schools or excluding the student from school any kind of school
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altogether.
23.6 Principles of Inclusive Education
Inclusive education is based on the philosophy of Inclusion which

holds that society as one. Every individual, is an equal member of the
society and hence a right not be excluded from general educational setup
and not to be excluded from it. The Inclusion philosophy is based on the
basic premise that all in the society have equal rights and have therefore
to be treated without discrimination and with respect and dignity whatever
may be the individuals personal or subjective conditions, abilities, views,
etc. thus Inclusive Education which is based on the Inclusion philosophy
follows certain fundamental principles which are:
 That every student has an inherent right to education on basis of
equality of opportunity.
 That no student is excluded from, or discriminated within

education on grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion,
political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, disability,
birth, poverty or other status.
 That all students can learn and benefit from education.
 That school adapt to the needs of students, rather than students
adapting to the needs of the school.
 That the student‟s views are listened to and taken seriously.
 That the individual differences between students are a source of

richness and diversity and not a problem.
 That the diversity of needs and pace of development of students
are addressed through a wide and flexible range of responses.
23.7 Practice of Inclusive Education
According to the supporter of Inclusion “The practice of

developing inclusive education and inclusive educational institutions
involves the following:
 Understanding inclusion as a continuing process and not a one-

time event or happening.
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 Strengthening and sustaining the participation of all students,
teachers, parents and community members in the work of the
inclusive education institution.
 Restructuring the societal values, cultures, policies and practices

both within inclusive education institution as well as outside to
respond to the diversity of students in a given locality. Inclusive
approach focuses on identifying and reducing the barriers to
learning and participation and avoids focussing on the "special"
about the individual student or group of students and targeting
services to address their needs or problem.
 Providing an appropriate and accessible curriculum, appropriate

training programs for teachers, and also for all students, the
provision of fully accessible information, environments and
support.
 Identifying and providing support for staff as well as students with

the view to make inclusion in education a success.
There are several important factors which determine the success of
inclusive education:
• Family-school partnerships
• Collaboration between general and special educators
• Well-constructed Individualized Education Program
plans
• Team planning and communication
• Integrated service delivery
• Ongoing training and staff development
This is and can be achieved through various techniques like:
• Games designed to build relationships and team work

• Involving students in solving problems and helping
each other
• Songs, stories and books that encourage a feeling of

togetherness
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• Openly and directly dealing with individual differences
• Assigning various jobs in the classroom to encourage
community spirit Utilizing various infrastructure of the

school including the physical therapy equipment such as standing
frames, so that the students who use wheelchairs can stand and
actively participate in activities with other students.”
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS


Block.
4. What are the extra assistance due to different needs to the
students with special needs?
……………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………
5. Write down the any five of the fundamental principles of inclusion

philosophy.
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
UNIT 24 LANGUAGE ISSUSES IN EDUCATION
 Describe the language issues in education system
Language, is a means of gaining knowledge. Language is also an

important medium of imparting education. There is not much difference
between knowledge and education. They are co-related. Education leads
to knowledge. Knowledge can be self driven. But, education needs
proper planning and policy which predefines set of rules, regulations and
curriculum. For this, institutions are involved for imparting education.
Education helps in the process of socialization. Education plays an
important role in modelling the character and personality of a person.
Education is a process of learning which can be done via language. The
main problem is of deciding which language will be used as the medium
of instruction. It is education, which can bring national integration in a
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multilingual nation. Also education is a good means of maintaining
multilingualism and maintaining national integration.
Language is not only a medium of imparting education but it is also a

subject matter of education. In earlier days due importance was given to
language instruction. Earlier, the literary language was considered fit for
imparting education. There was no place for vernaculars. The language
of the common man was considered impure. So today‟s classical
languages were used as a medium of instruction.
Education in India can be traced back to 3rd century B.C. At that time
education was mostly imparted via Sanskrit language. Also the education
mostly depended on caste hierarchy. Education was only confined to the
upper caste people. There were two competing system of education the
pathashala and gurukul (homes of teachers) system. It was when
Buddhism spread in India that education became available to everyone.
This led to the establishment of some world famous educational
institutions like Nalanda, Vikramshila and Takshashila. There were two
stages of education: the primary and the secondary. The language of the
common people was given due importance at that time. “The medium of
Buddhist education was the common language of the people.”
During the medieval period, the Muslims had Maktabs (primary schools)
and Madrassas (for higher education) system. The medium was basically
Persian and Arabic and even the Hindus adopted Persian in order to get
jobs in the Mughal courts.
In every era vernaculars were considered not fit for imparting education.
The world recognized the value of mother tongue only after the
publication of the UNESCO Monograph on the use of the vernaculars in
education in 1953.
According to the findings of UNESCO:
It is through his mother tongue that every human being first learns
to formulate and express his ideas about himself and about the world in
which he lives.
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May be the world recognized the value of mother tongue
education after the publication of the UNESCO. But, in India the struggle
for giving due importance to mother tongue education can be traced back
to the early 19th century.
“The Bombay education society expressed itself in favour of the

native language as the medium of instruction as far back as 1821.”
24.1. Multilingual Mother Tongue Education:
In the educational system, the most privileged ones are those

whose mother tongue is the medium of education in the schools. Mostly
the medium of education is either English or the dominant language of
that region. So, it becomes difficult for the linguistic minorities to have
education in others‟ mother tongue. It is a known fact that children learn
better if they understand and speak the language of the classroom. But
only education in their mother tongue will not be fruitful to the children, as
they will find difficulty in relating themselves with the outer world. So the
dominant language of the region or the national language of the country
and language of wider communication is also an important need. So,
there is a need to have education system where the along with the
mother tongue education, other language should be introduced gradually
over time. Many of the multilingual countries have recognized the
importance of multilingualism in their education system. According to
Thomas Claire “the world‟s education ministers recommended that states
should view linguistic and cultural diversity in the classroom as a valuable
resource and promote the use of mother tongue in the early years of
instruction. The UN forum, also made strong recommendations on
MTME. For promoting multilingual mother tongue education, an advocacy
kit has been prepared for policy makers, educationists, etc which will aim
at “including the excluded”.
Advantages of Mother Tongue based Multilingual Education (MTME) can

be as follows:
a) The drop-out rates of the students will lower.
b) It will help students having higher self esteem.
c) It will help in preventing inter-ethnic conflict.

d) It will help in the revival of endangered languages.
217
e) Various social and personal benefits.
f) Last but not the least it will help in promoting multilingualism.
One more direction towards handling multilingualism in a society

is Multilingual Mother Tongue Education (MMTE), which is different in its
perspective than MTME. In India multilingualism is a grass root
phenomenon. Every child grows with at least two languages. The
definition given by Skutnabb is more a reality in Indian situation, i.e. a
person having many mother tongues. So education policy should be
groomed keeping these things in mind. Some problems that might come
in the process of executing MTME or Multilingual Mother Tongue
Education can be, shortage of teachers in the respective mother tongues;
investment cost for MTME/MMTE is high. Problem regarding the
development of teaching materials and also included.
UNESCO is developing a number of initiatives for the promotion of

mother tongue instruction and multilingual education to enhance the
quality of education. It gave three-part rationale for supporting multilingual
education.
1. UNESCO supports mother-tongue instruction as a means of

improving educational quality by building upon the knowledge and
experience of the learners and teachers.
2. UNESCO supports bilingual and/or multilingual education at all

levels of education as a means of promoting both social and
gender equality and as a key element of linguistically diverse
societies.
3. UNESCO supports language as an essential component of

intercultural education in order to encourage understanding
between different population groups and ensure respect for
fundamental rights. The best policies are those that establish
multilingual education as an integral part of formal and informal
education and gives clear directives for its implementations. Thus,
MTME or MMTE can be a good solution for maintaining
multilingualism in all the countries across the world.
218
24.2 Language Role in Education:
Medium of Instruction at the School Stage
The importance of mother-tongue as the medium of instruction at

the primary stage can hardly be exaggerated. The mother-tongue is an
integral part of a man's life. The personality of the child is built up through
the mother-tongue. It is, therefore, the most natural medium of reception
and expression of knowledge.
As far as early education is concerned, our major attention is fixed

on the common man. His requirements can be satisfied by an elementary
knowledge of the three R's and other such utility subjects such as Civics,
Economics, Logic, History and the like, in order to make him an
enlightened citizen. All these subjects can easily be imparted through the
mother-tongue.
So educationists and politicians are unanimous on this point that,

up to the Lower Secondary Stage, the medium of instruction should be
the mother-tongue to enable pupils to acquire knowledge with facility, to
express themselves with clarity and to think with precision and vigor.
Medium of Instruction at the Secondary and College Level
The controversy regarding the medium at the secondary and

university stages does not comprise of two problems but one. This is
because, even after the recommendations of the Secondary Education
Commission that "Secondary stage should be a complete unit by itself
and not merely as a preparatory stage," secondary stage continues to be
the stepping-stone to college. The universities continue to dominate the
theory and practice of secondary education. Hence, the medium of
instruction at the secondary level is mainly to be decided by the medium
adopted at the University stage.
Below we shall discuss the comparative advantages and

disadvantages of three different languages English, Hindi and Regional
Languages as medium of instruction at the Secondary and the University
level.
219
Before we take up a comparative study of the claims of different
languages to become the medium of instruction, let us examine the
qualities a language must possess to become the medium of instruction:
(i) It should be a well-developed flexible language having a rich
literature and vocabulary suitable to express general and
technical ideas in easily comprehensive form.
(ii) It should have original text-books and reference books.
(iii) It should be able to translate articles, books etc, published in
foreign countries to keep students in touch with the latest
development in their own subject all over the world.
(iv) It should be a language generally understood, spoken and
written throughout the country to enable the students and
professors to have a free exchange of ideas.
(v) It should be a language providing an entrance not only in the
field of knowledge in the country but a window to the entire world.
24.3. Arguments in Favour of English
1. English—A well-developed language
English is a well-developed language having vast and rich

literature in almost all subjects, hence any subject upto the highest stage
can easily be taught and studied in English. It is a world language, highly
developed in every branch of modern knowledge and holding the key to
the best that has been achieved under the sun. One can attain the
highest degree of proficiency in science and technology through that
language.
2. English has served as the medium of instruction in our country

with excellent results
Three centuries of British rule have left English very much with us
and there is nothing unnatural in cashing in on this accident of history and
integrating English into our culture. English provides an All-India link. It is
the link language in education today. Over a period of 200 years, English
has permeated the education pattern evenly. It gives no advantage as
Hindi would to any particular region or regional language. To give it up
now would mean a thoughtless sacrifice. Even Pandit Nehru while
inaugurating the All-India Panjabi Conference at Sapru House, New
220
Delhi, on 23 July 1961 is reported to have said, "All regional languages
must be developed and promoted. But, that did not mean that English
should be discarded. To do that, will amount closing a window to the
world of technology. Foreign language served as a windows and to
suppose that translations could take their place was a mistake. It was no
use getting into an intellectual prison after achieving political
independence." He has reiterated it time and again, "English is ours by
historic necessity".
3. English—A popular language
We have been using it and listening to it for several generations. It

has entered into our home and way of life. In the case of educated people
students, employees in government and voluntary organisations,
business men and several categories of people at large learnt English as
generally as the medium of communication. In the routine parlance of
even the illiterate, there is a marked bias for English vocabulary. English
is no longer foreign, but a native language and can easily line up with the
other accredited languages of India. Despite constitutional provisions and
emotional favour, English shall never be ousted.
4. English—A dynamic language
If Indian mind and imagination has to remain dynamic, the flow of

new ideas from progressive countries is bound to be an influencing factor
in shaping our thought process and charting our course of action. There
cannot be two opinions regarding the prolific availability of the latest
scientific and technological thought in English.
5. National solidarity
Switching over to regional languages or Hindi will not only put

education in the reverse gear but also hamper the development and
national solidarity of the country. English has forged a collective
consciousness called as national integration which is so necessary for an
unbroken continuity of common inspiration. With the debasing of English
the myth that this Bharat is one will explode. So we can ill-afford to
disturb the status quo.
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6. Present utility and future needs
At a time when English is to be studied for increasing dictates of
life. How can we usurp its importance and relapse into regional caves?
English is the best medium of instruction for its present utility and future
needs. A language does not become foreign because of its birth and
origin in a foreign land. It becomes foreign when it is foreign to mind and
to our way of thinking. That way every one of the 14 languages
recognised in our Constitution, can be treated as foreign. For a Panjabi,
Tamil or Kanarese is as foreign as Panjabi or Hindi to a South Indian. In
the case of English such a situation does not obtain in India.
7. Mobility of students and professors
English, must be the language of the Universities, if we want India

should not be cut into as isolated island. It is argued that it would indeed,
be a very bad bargain for the nation this fifteen language plan in
exchange for English is impossible. All mobility of students and
professors mobility in occupation and public services would be lost for our
young men and the coming generations.
8. English is an international language
It can help us to communicate with the rest of the world with the
intensification of International relations, the retention of English as link
language may become even more necessary and useful than at present.
English, as D.C. Sharma said, is an unwritten testimonial to go all over
the world. There will be nothing unnatural if we retain it as medium of
instruction. In evaluating the contribution of English, the wise counsel of
Pandit Nehru must be borne in mind. He says, "If you push out English,
does Hindi fully take its place? I hope it will. I am sure it will. But, I wish to
avoid the danger of one unifying factor being pushed out without another
unifying factor fully taking its place. In that event there will be a gap and a
hiatus. The creation of any such hiatus or gap must be avoided at all
costs. It is very vital to do so in the interest of the unity of the country. It is
this that leads one to the couclusion that English is likely to have an
important place in the foreseeable future. The devaluation of English will
prove injurious." So, it is argued that the inevitable result of the Central
Government's proposal to destroy English as a medium will be to create a
vacuum which can be filled only by chaos and disintegration. It will be a
blunder of the same type as the formation of linguistic states ten years
ago. It will be nothing short of incurable lunacy to disturb the status quo.
222
24.4 Arguments against English
1. English is a foreign language and a relic of the British
domination of India, All the politically conscious sections of the country
are totally against the continuation of English as medium of instruction.
2. Foreign medium of instruction is unsound and uneconomical.

Much of our learning is wasted on its way to the mind, simply because it
has to go through the medium of a foreign language. Students are
compelled to concentrate on cramming. Independent thinking and free
expression are not possible. Extraordinary fluency in English language in
personalities like Dr Radhakrishnan and Pt. Nehru is an exception. They
were geniuses who could have performed miracles with any weapon.
Quality education for the millions cannot be imparted through a foreign
language.
3. English has never been a cementing factor in our political or

cultural life. It is spoken and understood by 2 per cent of Indians. So, if at
all it has caused integration which might have been confined to 2 per cent
elite and intelligentsia 98 per cent of Indians remained totally unaffected,
4. Our languages are equally great. Their past history and

achievement are in no way mean. Continuance of English is advocated
on the plea that our languages are not yet ripe and ready to replace
English. But the question which arises is, should we go on waiting till that
golden day when the languages become rich enough to help solve the
tangle or should we carry on the process of change and language will
grow and bloom according to the need? We cannot go on waiting for the
first event to happen. Japan's case should be enough guide for us. At the
outset, she had to take recourse to textbooks written in foreign
languages, but from the very beginning her objective had been to arrive
at the stage of ranging freely over the subjects of study in the language of
the country. It was because Japan had recognised the need of such
studies not as an arrangement for a select section of the citizens, but for
giving power and culture to all of them that she deemed it to be of prime
importance to make them universally available to the people. If Japan
could produce enough literature for its needs, there is no reason why we
should not be able to produce it. Languages will develop according to
needs. Terminologies must be framed. Our own Indian languages must
be enriched, polished and refined to suit the requirements.
223
5. English has checked the progress of our languages. Its
continuance will mean a death blow to them. It will be just accepting
defeat of the worst kind.
6. The use of regional languages as media will satisfy all groups.

It will promote the development of each and every major language in the
country and enable it to become the vehicle of all branches of knowledge
and thought.
7. Different groups will take pride in their linguistic inheritance.

This will be a more positive and forceful factor in preserving and
strengthening national unity than compelling unwilling people to use
either English or Hindi.
8. The foreign medium is the cause of the large percentage of

failures in the university examinations. Students generally cannot follow
lectures in English.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS


Block.
6. At the time of 3rd century B.C education in India was mostly thought
in………………………….language
7.What were systems of education in the period of 3rd BC?

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8. Name some of the world famous educational institutions during the

period of Buddhism
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
224
UNIT 25 COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN EDUCATION
 Describe the role of community in the Education system

 Recognize the inter-relationship of community and
education
25.1 Community participation

“An emphasis on participation has links with the interest in democracy in
community organization and in self-help and political incorporation in the
community developmental aspects.”
Though most states in India have held elections for the local bodies, the
involvement of the panchayat in the functioning of the school system
seems to be limited. “In most cases, panchayats have been responsible
for constructing, repairing, and the maintenance of school building only
and the lowest tier of panchayats hardly has any say in educational
matters of children and in the functioning of the local school.”
Such as initiative in Andhra Pradesh, to involve community members on

a large scale through programmes such as „Chaduvula Panduga‟
(festival of education) have been intended. Another example is „Alokar
Jatra,‟ from Assam, a programme whereby local communities are
involved in conducting a household survey, resulting in „a local-level
database on the educational status of children with positive impact on
access and enrolment.‟
25.2 Community Participation for Quality Education

Since the declared policy of the government in the field of education has
been to provide equal access to quality education and to improve the
management and planning of education, participation has included.
Nevertheless, improving the quality of education has remained
undoubtedly a challenging task. As an example Nepal does not have long
history of development of education, after the political change in 1950.
People had a new spirit and zeal for all round development of the
country. Thus, people started opening new schools in their own
initiations. A growing trend in expanding of education facilities was
225
observed. The government had not given funds from the government
treasury to the school. The community people did not wait for the
government to take initiative to establish new schools and hire teachers
in their areas. Most schools at the initial stage were community initiated
schools which received different kinds of contributions from the
community e.g. land, funds, volunteer teachers, labours, construction
materials etc. From the point of expansion of education, it was a very
good time to achieve reasonable level of progress with the direct
involvement of the community.
As the community people initiated to schools, they were responsible for
their management as well. The community managed schools were
introduced successfully at that time. The modality of the community
managed school was simple in the sense that community did things such
as establishing the school in a location as agreed by the people, building
a house for classroom purpose as per their financial situation, hiring and
firing teacher and getting their salaries and other benefits. Most of the
educationist all over the world seems to argue that the community
participation plays vital role in promoting education in terms of quality and
quantity. It is assumed that community participation and empowerment
has the potential to make major contribution in educating people and
enriching their quality of life.
Political, social and cultural life is becoming an issue of critical

importance because there are various aspects which are directly and
indirectly related to education. Day to day the world is becoming complex.
The transformation of the macro-political landscape, the promise of
expanded democratization, the threat of narrow nationalism and
fundamentalism, the increasing risk of environmental degradation and
endemic disease all of these challenges call for the more effective
development of human resources and thus for a greater demand for and
supply of, education of better quality.
A final and perhaps most important doubt, concerns the narrowness of

the traditional vision of what „good‟ education is and what it is meant to
achieve. It can be argued today that good education, must be defined not
only in relation to the extent to which school is well-housed and well
supplied, teacher literacy, job skills, and facts for life and facilities an
effective teaching-learning process. Education of good quality must also
by definition:
226
• Encourage a more integrated view of how the world operates
and how development does (or does not) occur,
• Make students more critically aware of how their actions,

individually and collectively, will hinder or help the world to meet
future challenges and
• Help to mobilize and empower people with the knowledge and

skills to participate more actively, more democratically, and more
collectively in the development process.
Policy makers, educators and others involved in education are seeking

ways to utilize limited resources effectively in order to identify and solve
problems in the education sector and to provide quality education for
children. Their efforts have contributed to realizing the significance and
benefits of community participation in education and have recognized
community participation as one of the strategies to improve educational
access and quality. In preparing and implanting any efforts to promote
community involvement in education, it is important to understand the
whole picture of community participation how it works, what forms are
used, what benefits it can yield, and what we should expect in the
process of carrying out the efforts.
A deeper understanding of this issue is important since we line between

community involvements in quality education. In the educational history of
education community participation in education is not new. Before,
discussing the ways of community participation in education, it is
important to discuss what community is in terms of educational points of
view.
 Communities can be defined by characteristics that

members share, such as culture, language, tradition, law,
geography, class and race.
 Some communities are homogeneous while others are

heterogeneous and some united while others conflictive. Some
communities are governed and managed by leaders chosen
democratically who act relatively autonomously from other levels
of government, and some are governed by leaders imposed form
above and represent central authorities.
 Community participation in education viewed as an

effective means of promoting education both in qualitative and
qualitative terms.
227
 Community is a group structure, whether formally or
informally organized, in which member‟s plays roles which are
integrated around goals associated with the problems from
collective occupation and utilization of habitudinal space, second,
members of the community have some degree of collective
identification with the occupied space. Lastly, the community has
a degree of local autonomy and responsibility.
 The third one is communities based on shared family or
educational concerns, which include parents association and
similar bodies that are based on families shared concern for the
welfare of students.
The term participation can be interpreted in various ways depending on

the context that clarifies different degrees or level of participation, and
provides possible definition of the term, including:
• Involvement through the mere use of a service (such as enrolling

children in school or using a primary health care facility
• Involvement through contribution (or extraction) of money,

materials and labors
• Involvement through „attendance‟ (e. g. At parent meeting at
schools), implying passive acceptance of decisions made by
others
• Participation in the delivery of a service, often as a partner with
other actors
• Participation as implementers of delegated powers and
• Participation in „real decision making at every stage‟, is including
identification of problems, study of feasibility, planning,
implementation, and evaluation.
25.3 Activities that Involve Participation
Further provides some specific activities that involve a high

degree of participation in a wider development context, which can also be
applied in the education sector, inducing:
(1) Collecting and analyzing information,
(2) Defining priorities and setting goals,
(3) Assessing available resources,
228
(4) Deciding on and planning programs
(5) Designing strategies to implement these programmes and
dividing responsibilities among participants,
(6) Managing programs,
(7) Monitoring progress of the programs; and
(8) Evaluating results and impacts.
Community participation in education:
Education takes place not only in schools but also within families,
communities, and society. Despite the various degrees of responsibilities
taken by each group, none can be the sole agent to take 100 percent
responsibility for educating children. Parents and families cannot be the
only group of people for children‟s education as long as their children
interact with and learn from the world outside, their families, communities
and society must support parents and families in the upbringing,
socializing, and education of their children.
Schools are institutions that can prepare children to contribute to the
betterment of the society in which they operate by equipping them with
skills important in society. Schools cannot and should not operate as
separate entities society.
Community participation in Teaching Learning Process

Setting of teaching standards, recruitment, teacher training, teacher‟s
salary, condition of service, promotion and discipline are important factors
that always comes under debate. Involvement of community in selection
of teacher can play vital role in the selection of excellent teacher as per
their need. The teacher selected by the community shows the
responsibility towards the children of the community. Teacher salary is
one of the factors that affect the performance of teachers and teacher‟s
performance directly related to the quality of the education. Thus, the
salary and condition of services could be shared by the community. Role
of Community in Pedagogical Supervision and Support. Quality education
system is one that succeeds in meeting its own goals, one that is relevant
to the needs of children, communities and society; and that fosters the
ability of children to acquire knowledge and critical learning skills.
 Global campaign for education stated that high dropout rate in

school is not only the result of poor quality, but if effective learning
229
is not taking place in school, parents are more likely to withdraw
children school early or not sent them at all. Improving quality of
education is therefore essential to achieving goal of Universal
access to education. Without active involvement of the community
in school management quality improvement is not possible.
Project work in community could be one of the good pedagogical
approaches in teaching learning process in school. Community is
the foundation of this approach. Providing the facts, feeling and
experiences of the community people to the students could be the
best help in the teaching learning process for to increase the
deeper understanding of students while at project work.
 Community people can play, as an actor of promoting quality

education in this sense. Successful schools build connections to
parents and communities as a way to strengthen relationship in
support of the students and as a way to better understand
students so that teaching can be tailored to them as individuals
communities offer a wide range of resources, that are valuable to
school and the families they serve.
Power to Community Members
• While increased community participation has been advocated as

a way to improve the quality of public projects and services, evidence
from randomized evaluations provides very mixed results about its
effectiveness. While it is clear that the details and context matter for this
type of program, some common themes about what works are beginning
to emerge. Programs where the community had more direct control over
service providers tended to work better.
• Community involvement is more effective when people are given
specific tasks and training: Training of school committees, improved how
these committees handled teachers accountable to them. In India, a
program that trained local volunteers to directly intervene in child learning
was very successful.
• The program that compared community participation to

centralized monitoring through audits found centralized audits were more
effective in reducing corruption.
• Government programs have long incorporated mechanisms for

local oversight, but there is little evidence on the effectiveness of these
programs. Found that 92% of villagers in rural Uttar Pradesh India were
230
not even aware of the existing Village Education Committee (VEC), which
supposedly monitored teachers and administrators.
• Working with the community on monitoring tools that revealed

just how little children were learning at school and informing the
community of their rights to push for change prompted no increase
activity by the community, no increased teacher effort and no
improvement in education outcomes.
Beneficial Program Features
Taking into account both the opportunities and challenges posed

by conditions of rural life, educators can work to involve parents by
setting up programs that include features with well-documented, positive
results. Among the features most often recommended are:
• parent enrollment in adult education and parenting education
programs
• cooperative strategies for extending the school curriculum
beyond the school walls
• efforts to help parents provide learning experiences at home

• home visits by personnel trained to facilitate home-school
communication
• in-classroom involvement of parents, business leaders, and

citizens
• summer enrichment programs for both parents and children
• community-based learning
• use of school facilities for community activities and
• university participation in an advisory and supportive role.
Programs that combine these features are indeed extensive, recognizing

both strengths and weaknesses that parents may bring to partnerships
with their children's schools. Such programs recognize that parenting
improves when parents feel effective in a variety of adult roles. But they
also take into account the fact that schooling improves when a variety of
adults share their talents and model successful strategies of life
management. Moreover, when community and business organizations
have a visible presence in classroom life, students are more likely to see
231
a meaningful connection between their studies and their eventual
success in the workplace.
25.4. Community-Based Education

Community-based education goes beyond cognitive capacities
and encompasses the social and emotional aspects of learning. The
relationships that children create with caring adults are the overarching
premise of community-based education. The emotional and social
development of students comes from the collaborative efforts of parents,
schools, and communities.
The learning process of community-based education goes beyond the

cognitive capacity of instruction in the “three R‟s.” It expands the
definition of “intelligence” to include the learner‟s ability to gain
understanding, use knowledge and solve problems, while developing a
sense of self. Success is not based solely on learning core academic
subjects, but couples academics with creativity and personal willpower
through an emphasis on interpersonal relationships and intrapersonal
development.
Community-based education is centered on the student‟s ability to
recognize and support the needs of the surrounding community. In this
way, students become accountable for providing values which stem from
their freedom to express, develop and solve the inherent problems or
concerns they have for their community. Over the long-term use of this
ideal model, the entire community will become involved in the process,
thereby making the educational process cyclical and continuously
propelled. Reciprocal relationships based on these ideals will be
promoted and fostered by all. Students and teachers are the fuel that
generates community-based education. Parents, community leaders,
administrators, school board members, and citizens are an integral part in
the development, production, implementation, and assessment of
community-based education. This cohesive interplay is designed to foster
trust and belief in fellow human beings. It also creates collaborative
efforts between school and community to solve various problems.
According to the Garner‟s belief the emergence of community

involvement, our view of community-based education focuses on the
student‟s pursuit toward the betterment of his or her surrounding
232
community. Gardner contends, “if we wish to have education of higher
quality and more rigorous standard then, as a nation, we must decide that
we desire to have high quality education and that we are willing to work
for it”. However, it is the authors‟ belief that through students‟ efforts,
community-based problem solving can emerge and promotelearning
modalities beyond Gardner‟s definition. Students will seek, sort through,
discuss, dialogue, prioritize, and solve community problems as an
educational pursuit. They will simultaneously experience personal growth
in academic areas. Furthermore, continued involvement within the
student‟s locus of control will provide elevated levels of educational
synthesis beyond pre-packaged curricula.
A student‟s learning should not be contingent upon a set of stagnant

standards. In community-based education, assessment is the result of
emphasis placed on creative and innovative measures as indicated by
the learner. Learning modalities and the student‟s needs for intrinsic
motivation are taken into account as a further result by basing the venue
of learning upon the student‟s desires. Community-based education is
grounded within the essence of equality as witnessed in democratic
society. The emphasis is taken off assessment and instructional
strategies that are standardized it is placed instead on high quality
performance and the creation of life-long learners. For example, imagine
an eighth grade class working with teachers from various subject areas to
solve the problem of homelessness in their surrounding community. After
research and discussion, the students go into the community to enlist the
involvement and support of community members who can affect real
changes regarding this serious issue. The teachers become responsible
for developing integrated lessons within their subject areas. These
lessons, originally conceived from the knowledge base provided by the
students, will become necessary and beneficial learning tools required by
the student to fully understand everyaspect of the homelessness issue
as well as reasonable solutions.
The key to achieving these goals, is the student‟s ability to accomplish a

high level of quality in their work. If everyone is focused on establishing
this, the educational process occurs effectively. However, establishing
the necessary cognitive level is often contingent upon self-esteem. A
student who is given the opportunity to establish and maintain self-
esteem may become more attentive to his or her learning environment.
Fostering students‟ growth by implementing tasks requiring critical
233
thinking skills, long-term planning, and group efforts enhances students‟
self-esteem. Students‟ self-esteem is of paramount importance if
teachers are to provide quality education. Additionally, a teacher‟s self-
esteem needs to be bolstered by the school community. In promoting the
teachers‟ self-esteem, the teacher brings his or her own sense of self into
the classroom. This creates a circular process from teacher to student
and student to teacher so that healthy self-esteem is continually
promoted. Improved self-esteem occurs when worthwhile opportunities
are provided for and internalized by all.
An appreciation for community stems from a person‟s desire to seek out

and to value the company of others. Children need to have meaningful
relationships with adults who are important to them; they must connect
with the community in which they live. According to Apple and Bean
(1985) the establishment of parental involvement, an emphasis on
community, a child-centered curriculum, and parent-centered decision-
making will be a necessary construct for the schools of tomorrow.
Unequivocally, the global sense of community has been tattered and
broken for the past several decades. Furthermore, this breakdown affects
students and student learning. The way to restore the relationship that
needs to exist between learners and their community is to provide
bonding opportunities through the educational process. Giving students
the ability to solve actual problems within their community is a
fundamental approach for establishing vital bonds. Problem solving,
coupled with traditional instruction, will lead to high levels of student
achievement and self-esteem. The development of the whole child will be
facilitated through the restoration of communities and community-based
education.
A concrete example of community-based education is provided by the

authors‟ use of this construct in an eighth grade speech class. The unit
was designed with the end in mind. This particular community-based
project promoted the study of group dynamics. Eighth grade students
were told they would eventually give a culminating presentation to
discuss their honest and candid feelings about a group experience. The
basis for creating groups stemmed from a purposefully ambiguous
directive was given by the teacher. Students were told they must create a
group among their classmates and carry out an event or project designed
solely for the purpose of helping others. To the students, the design of
the group was carefully predetermined by the teacher. Students were
234
given three colors. Each color represented either race, gender, or
predetermined high and low achievement levels. After considering equal
distribution of all factors, the teacher created a set color code pattern that
equalized these three factors. The entire class was told that they must
choose their groups based on acquiring the exact combination. As a
result, cliques, friendships, racial polarization, and gender allegiance
were eliminated.
Setting the groups, took a total of four to six class periods. Many
arguments ensued about the predetermined color codes. Animosity and
frustration were directed to the teacher as the students struggled to their
groups. The teacher never suggested appointing leaders or creating a
process for selecting individuals. As a result, students were forced to deal
with varying personalities and characteristics. When the groups were c
parameters forfinally in place, they were given a calendar and specific
parameters carrying out their mission for helping others. Considerations
for telephone logs, field trips, financial needs,permission slips, parent
involvement, logs, social needs, and the like were discussed in a letter
that was signed by each student and their parent(s).
The results were astounding. The community service projects resulted in

city landscaping, visiting children at a nearby hospital, visiting nursing
homes, arranging dinner dates with nursing home residents, raising funds
for charitable organizations, and cleaning up the community. Some
groups were not as successful in gaining widespread attention for the
charitable deeds. However, each group did complete the mission. Areas
of learning covered during the project included math, social science,
physical education ne arts and speechand health, science, history,
literature, language arts, communications.
The student speeches covered a very wide range of feelings and learning
experiences. One parameter set for the speeches was that no student
could name another student, and if the anonymity of a student was
jeopardized, the speaker‟s assessment score would be lowered. Typical
with any group dynamic, students told of extreme frustrations with
members who did not live up to the expectations set by the group. At the
other extreme, some students were moved to tears when discussing the
joy they felt when helping others, especially those visiting nursing homes
and terminally ill children.
235
Creating a community-based education may seem difficult, but it
can be accomplished with outstanding results. We have not lost the
capacity to envision and meet the needs of children. We have only
suppressed it, through misunderstanding the learner of today. We can no
longer look at children just as our future. They must become our present.
In the words of Albert Einstein, “no problem can be solved from the same
consciousness that created it”
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS


Block.
9. What are “three R‟s” of Education?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10. Abbreviation of VEC
a) Village Education Center
b) Village Education committee
c) Village Employment Center
d) Village Employment Committee
LET US SUM UP
In this Block you learned about the Issues and Trends in Education.
The need of Education, alternatives, principles and practice of Inclusive
education are easy to understand. The importance of Language issue
are elaborately explained. The community participation in Education and
community based education are explained to create awareness in
education.
GLOSSARIES
 Curriculum – outline of concepts to be taught to students to help

tthem meet the content standards.
 Inclusive education – learning opportunities for groups who have
traditionally been excluded
236
 Multilingual – in or using several languages
 National solidarity – outcome of an approach which centred on
security mechanisms, compensation, promotion of socially
vulnerable populations for their empowerment
 Self-esteem – beliefs about oneself
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR QUESTIONS
1.
Determination of Aims
Deterioration of the Standards of Education
Inappropriate Curriculum
The Lacuna of Private Management and Administration
Meager Finance
2.
 Secondary education today neglects co-curricular activities.

Mere curricular activities cannot help to develop all round
personality of an individual. Here lies the need of organization
of co- curricular activities.
 Secondary education is theoretical, bookish, narrowly
conceived and unpractical. It creates social misfits and does
not fulfill the needs of life. It is not life-centered. It should not
increase unemployment and should help to produce able,
self-dependent and patriotic citizens.
3.
 To complement and supplement IEDC and Sarva Shiksha
Abhiyan programmes in the movement from integration to
inclusion.
 Disability focused research and interventions in universities and
educational institutions.
 Ensure enrollment and intervention for all children with special
needs in the age group 0-6 years in Early Childhood Care and
Education Programs.
 Development of national norms for Inclusive Education, to set
standards of implementation, training, monitoring and evaluation
for the program.
237
 Participation in sports, co-curricular activities, to promote all
round ability development.
4.
 Physical or sensory difficulties,
 Difficulties with thinking and understanding,
 Emotional and behavioral difficulties,
 Difficulties with speech and language,
 Difficulty relating to and behaving with other people.
5.
o That every student has an inherent right to education on
basis of equality of opportunity.
o That no student is excluded from, or discriminated within
education on grounds of race, color, sex, language,
religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social
origin, disability, birth, poverty or other status.
o That all students can learn and benefit from education.
o That school adapt to the needs of students, rather than
students adapting to the needs of the school.
o That the student‟s views are listened to and taken
seriously.
o That the individual differences between students are a

source of richness and diversity, and not a problem.
o That the diversity of needs and pace of development of
students are addressed through a wide and flexible range
of responses.
6. Sanskrit
7.
 Pathashala
 Gurukul
8
 Nalanda,
 Vikramshila and
 Takshashila
9.
 Reading
238
 Writing
 Arithematic
10. Village Education committee
SUGGESTED READINGS

Ludhiana, (2002).
(2002).

(2010).

*****
239
URKUND Palagiarism Report
240

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TAMIL NADU OPEN UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF SPECIAL EDUCATION AND

CONTEMPORARY INDIA & EDUCATION

No. 577, Anna Salai, Saidapet,

© Tamil Nadu Open University

Unit 1 Meaning of Education

1.3 Aim of Education in India

2.1 Media: Importance of Mass Media

3.5 Existentialist View in Education

4.2 Jainism and Budhism (Medieval Period of Education)

5.1 Contribution of Sri Aurobindo to Education

Answers to Check your Progress

In this Block the Concept of Education, Agencies of Education,

After completion of this Block you will be able to understand:

 Indian Philosophers Contribution of Education

UNIT 1 MEANING OF EDUCATION

A few others interpret, the word "Education" has originated from

He/she develops some understanding about the deeper

As an individual in the society, he/she has to think critically

After completion of this Unit, you will be able to

 Explain the aims of Education

1.1 Definitions of Education

The Concepts of Education as given by prominent Indian

"Education is for liberation"

"Nothing is more purifying on earth than wisdom”

“Education is the manifestation of the divine perfection, already existing

"Education of man commences at his birth, before he can speak, before

The different meanings and definitions of education as

1.3 Aim of Education in India

Educational aims in India should be judged in relation to the lives

1.4 Aims of Education in Ancient India

The aim of education in ancient India was the ultimate outcome

1.5 Aims of Education in Medieval India

1.6. Aims of Education in British India

The British uprooted the indigenous system of education in India

1.7 Aims of Education in Independent India

After independence the Indian leaders realized the inherent

UNIT 2 AGENCIES OF EDUCATION

Indian society is a developing society. It consists of diverse castes,

To know the impact of societal forces on the development of child, one

2.1 Types of Agencies in Education

Informal Agencies: Family, community, religion, free play, market

Family: Home and family is the first institution of a child. A family

Community: The community is another informal agency of education for

State: The modern welfare state is responsible for overall development

Religion: We derive our values from religion. It plays a vital role in

Museum: Museums are very useful in imparting education of different

Cinema: Cinema is one of the most important informal agencies of

Television: Television is the most powerful means of communication. It

Schools: The school is considered to be the most important agency of

On the other hand, with the explosion of knowledge there is also

So the two general factors “information explosion” and ” Population

Education of tomorrow will be able to play its role more effectively by

There are good numbers of media available for mass communication

The media of communication is the medium by which a piece of

Because, it massages the sensory organs and stimulates them to

2.3 Importance of Mass Media: