Introduction to Philosophy and Ethics

TOPIC

Weeks 2 & 3

Objectives
At the end of the session the students should be able to:
1. acquire knowledge of the basic concepts of Philosophy and Ethics;
2. explain why ethics / moral philosophy is made part of the College
program; and
3. exhibit interest in the relevance of Philosophy and Ethics in daily life;

❖ What is Philosophy?

Philosophy [from the Greek philos (love) and sophos (wisdom), "love of wisdom"]
is the study of fundamental issues and problems concerning matters such as existence,
knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language among others.

The earliest beginnings of philosophy are traced back to the sixth century B.C.E.,
when the first scientists of Western history, the Pre-Socratics – among them Thales,
Heraclitus and Parmenides – advanced revolutionary theories concerning the natural
world, human knowledge and humans' relationship with the gods.
The pillars of philosophy include: theoretical philosophy (metaphysics and
epistemology), practical philosophy (ethics, social and political philosophy, aesthetics),
logic, and history of philosophy.

❖ What do we study in Philosophy?

Popularly, Philosophy is associated with stargazing and asking questions that are
as vague as they are irrelevant, and to which there are no answers. However, Philosophy
deals in a clear and precise manner with the real world, its complex social and material
nature, and our place in it. Because of this, philosophical fields of studies are diverse.
Philosophy – the love of wisdom – is an activity of attempting to understand the
world, in all its aspects. There are four pillars of philosophy: theoretical philosophy
(metaphysics and epistemology), practical philosophy (ethics, social and political
philosophy, aesthetics), logic, and history of philosophy. Theoretical philosophy asks
questions about knowledge such as “Is anything absolutely certain?” and “What grounds
our belief that the past is a good indicator of the future?” and questions about the world
such as “What is the world like independently of human perception?” and “Does God
exist?” Studying Practical Philosophy exposes us to such questions as: How ought we to
live our lives? Which social and political arrangements are just or legitimate? The study of
Logic teaches us what distinguishes good from bad reasoning and thereby enables us to
think critically. In History of Philosophy we learn how the greatest thinkers in the history of
humankind answered these and similar questions. All of these areas of interest are
grounded in facts and responsive to the theories put forth by experts in a myriad of
disciplines, such as physics and psychology.
To study Philosophy is to see the connection between ideas, and to explicate that
connection in a reasoned and logical way. In Ethics, an ethicist, for example, might draw
upon behavioral psychology to argue that humans should lead a certain kind of life. This
argument could have further implications about how government should legislate in order
to ensure people can lead the lives they want to lead. A metaphysician or philosopher of
science might help provide conceptual clarity and reason through the implications of
competing quantum mechanical theories. All fields of inquiry are open to the philosopher’s
refinement.

❖ What is Ethics?

Ethics is the branch of philosophy that examines right and wrong moral behavior,
moral concepts (such as justice, virtue, duty) and moral language. Ethics or moral
philosophy is a branch of philosophy that "involves systematizing, defending, and
recommending concepts of right and wrong behavior". Ethics is the study of questions of
morality, the search to understand what is right, wrong, good, and bad. It is the branch of
philosophy that systematically studies moral ideals and goals, motives of choice, and
patterns of good and bad conduct.
Ethics refers to well-founded standards of right and wrong that prescribe what
humans ought to do, usually in terms of rights, obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or
specific virtues.
Ethics is traditionally subdivided into descriptive ethics, normative ethics,
metaethics, and applied ethics.
❖ Branches of Ethics

1. Descriptive Ethics

Descriptive Ethics is the study of people’s beliefs about morality. It involves

empirical investigation. It gives us a general pattern or a way of life of people in different
types of communities. Descriptive Ethics studies the history and evolution of Ethics. It
gives a record of certain taboos, customs or conventions. For example, it states the
history of various institutions like family or marriage. Lawrence Kohlberg’s theory of
moral consciousness is an example of Descriptive Ethics.
Descriptive Ethics investigates people’s ethical ideals or what actions are
condemned in a society. It aims to find out people’s beliefs about values, which actions
are right and wrong and which characteristics of a moral agent are virtuous. Descriptive
Ethics seeks the explanation of actual choices made by moral agents in practice. It
tries to examine the ethical codes applied by various groups. Descriptive Ethics is a
value-free approach to ethics. It is empirical investigation of people’s moral beliefs.

2. Normative Ethics

Normative Ethics is also called as prescriptive ethics. It is the study of ethical

theories that prescribe how people ought to act. It examines standards for the rightness
and wrongness of actions. Normative Ethics suggests punishment when a person
deviates from the path of ideals. It provides justification for punishing a person who
disturbs social and moral order. It tries to establish certain theories on the guidelines
of some norms. Normative Ethics offer the moral principles to use to resolve difficult
moral decisions.
Aristotle’s virtue ethics, Kant’s deontological ethics, Mill’s Consequentialism
(Utilitarianism) and the Bhagwad Gita’s Nishkam Karmayoga are the theories in
Normative Ethics.

3. Meta Ethics
Meta Ethics is the study of what ethical terms and theories actually refer to. It
determines the validity of theories advanced in Normative Ethics. We use certain moral
concepts such as right, wrong, good or bad to evaluate human actions. These moral
concepts are used as tools in passing moral judgments. Meta – Ethics analyzes ethical
 concepts. It studies the meaning of moral language and the metaphysics of moral facts.
Meta-Ethics seeks to understand the nature of ethical properties and evaluations.
Meta Ethics deals with the questions such as ‘What is the meaning of moral terms
or judgments?’, ‘What is the nature of moral judgments?’, ‘How may moral judgments
be supported or defended?’

4. Applied Ethics

In recent years the branch of Applied Ethics is developed. It deals with the problems
confronted in our life. It attempts to apply ethical theory to real life situations. It helps
to use knowledge of moral principles to present dilemmas. There are certain issues
which arise due to newly adopted life style. Applied Ethics deals with the questions
such as, “Is getting an abortion immoral?” “Is euthanasia immoral?” “Is affirmative
action right or wrong?” “What are human rights, and how do we determine them?” “Do
animals have rights as well?” and “Do individuals have the right of self- determination?”

Applied Ethics guides the individuals facing conflicting situation. Some critical moral
issues arise due to the insensible and irresponsible attitude of human beings without
any concern to other children of Mother Nature. Applied Ethics provides guidance in
determining public policy and laws. Applied Ethics develops into Environmental Ethics,
Media Ethics, Business Ethics, Ethics of Legal Profession and Ethics of Care. The
ethical questions never have answer in ‘yes’/ ‘no’ or ‘right’/’wrong’ format. Ethical issues
are multifaceted. Their satisfactory solutions are possible through consideration of
different areas of life.

❖ Ethics and Morality

➢ Similarities of the terms

▪ Ethics is from the Greek word “ethos”, meaning character or custom and
morality/morals from the Greek word “mores”, meaning custom or manner; both
words deal with the customs or manner in which people do things; meanings
related to the way people act – either good or bad. So, the two have very similar,
if not synonymous, meanings originally.
▪ Both the terms are used to indicate a fine line between what activities should be
considered good and what should be considered bad. Both ethics and morality
 work side by side to make the learning of good activities faster. Both concepts
help any individual to be a better person.
▪ Both morality and ethics loosely have to do with distinguishing the difference
between “good and bad” or “right and wrong.”

➢ Difference/s of the terms

▪ Many people think of morality as something that's personal and normative

(individual system) whereas ethics is the standards of “good and bad”
distinguished by a certain community or social setting (social system); one
therefore may say that Ethics is objective and morals subjective.
▪ Ethics refers to rules provided by an external source, e.g., codes of conduct in
workplaces or principles in religions. Morals refer to an individual’s own
principles regarding right and wrong (internal source).

Ethics are external standards that are provided by institutions, groups,

or culture to which an individual belongs. For example, lawyers, policemen,
and doctors all have to follow an ethical code laid down by their profession,
regardless of their own feelings or preferences. Ethics can also be
considered a social system or a framework for acceptable behavior. Morals
are also influenced by culture or society, but they are
personal principles created and upheld by individuals themselves.

▪ Ethics is based on the dictates of the society (culture) on what is the right thing
to do whereas morals is based on the belief (faith) of the individual in something
is right or wrong.

Ethics is dependent on others for definition. It tends to be consistent within a

certain context, but can vary between contexts. Morals usually is consistent,
although can change if an individual’s beliefs change.

Ethics are governed by professional and legal guidelines within a particular time
and place. Morality transcends cultural norms.

❖ Conflicts between Ethics and Morality

One professional example of ethics conflicting with morals is the work of a defense
attorney. A lawyer’s morals may tell her that murder is reprehensible and that murderers
should be punished, but her ethics as a professional lawyer, requires her to defend her
client to the best of her abilities, even if she knows that the client is guilty.

Another example can be found in the medical field. In most parts of the world, a doctor
may not euthanize a patient, even at the patient's request, as per ethical standards for
health professionals. However, the same doctor may personally believes in a patient's
right to die, as per the doctor's own morality.

❖ Importance of Ethics (with Morality) in One’s Daily Life

Ethics (with Morality) asks us to consider whether our actions are right or wrong. It also
asks us how those character traits that help humans flourish (such as integrity, honesty,
faithfulness, and compassion) play out in everyday living.

❖ Importance of Ethics (with Morality) for Students taking Education