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Journal of

Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH


ISSN 2201-5655 © 2013, Australian Institute of Fitness
About this publication CONTENTS
The Journal of Fitness Research
is a publication from the research 4 EFFECTS OF KETTLEBELL TRAINING ON AEROBIC
partnership between Australian CAPACITY, MUSCULAR STRENGTH, BALANCE,
Institute of Fitness, Australian
Fitness Network, and University
FLEXIBILITY, AND BODY COMPOSITION
of the Sunshine Coast focusing Nick Beltz, Dustin Erbes, John P. Porcari, Ray Martinez, Scott
on the fitness industry and related Doberstein, Carl Foster
populations. The journal articles can
be accessed online as Open access
14 IN-SEASON PLYOMETRIC TRAINING TRANSFERS TO
at www.fitnessresearch.edu.au
SPORT SPECIFIC MOVEMENTS
We are dedicated to promoting the Jennifer J. Didier, Page Glave and Jeremy Montz
benefits of fitness and protecting
against unsafe or ineffective
exercise methods. Fitness 23 EFFECTS OF TRX VERSUS TRADITIONAL
Research explores the frontiers RESISTANCE TRAINING PROGRAMS ON MEASURES
of fitness, provides evidence for OF MUSCULAR PERFORMANCE IN ADULTS
best practice and improves the
Jeffrey Janot, Taylor Heltne, Chelsea Welles, Jaime Riedl, Heidi
way people exercise to maximise
participation, adherence and Anderson, Ashley Howard, and Sue Lynn Myhre
enjoyment.
39 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF BIOMECHANICAL
Journal of Fitness Research
makes every effort to ensure the PRINCIPLES IN RESISTANCE TRAINING: MOMENTS
accuracy of all the information AND MOMENT ARMS
(the “Content”) contained in this Justin W.L. Keogh, Jason P. Lake, Paul A. Swinton
publication. However, Journal
of Fitness Research and its
agents and licensors make no 49 INFLUENCE OF LOAD ON EXPRESSIONS OF UPPER
representations or warranties BODY POWER DURING MEDICINE BALL THROWS
whatsoever as to the accuracy, Ava Kerr and Mark Sayers
completeness or suitability for
any purpose of the Content and
disclaim all such representations
57 CAN A SINGLE 6RM SQUAT SCORE PREDICT
and warranties whether express STRENGTH RATIOS IN FEMALE FOOTBALLERS?
or implied to the maximum extent Daniel P Marshall, Brendan J Burkett, Anthony G Boutagy
permitted by law. Any views and Mark R McKean
expressed in this publication are
the views of the authors and are
not the views of Journal of Fitness
Research and its associated staff
and organisations.

Editor in Chief – Mark McKean

Publisher – Australian Institute of


Fitness

Design – Australian Fitness


Network

Copyright 2013 by Journal of Fitness


Research, all rights reserved.

Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH 2


EDITORIAL COMMENT

O ne of the key aims of the Journal of Fitness Research was to develop a


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'U0DUN0F.HDQ
Editor in Chief
Journal of Fitness Research

Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH 3


INDUSTRY EDUCATION

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF
BIOMECHANICAL PRINCIPLES IN
RESISTANCE TRAINING: MOMENTS
AND MOMENT ARMS
Justin W.L. Keogh 1,2,3, Jason P. Lake 4, Paul A. Swinton 5
1
Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Australia
2
Sports Performance Research Institute New Zealand, AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand
3
Faculty of Science, Health, Education and Engineering, University of the Sunshine Coast, Australia
4
Department of Sport and Exercise Science University of Chichester, Chichester, UK
5
School of Health Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK

Corresponding Author: Justin Keogh


Faculty of Health Sciences and Medicine, Bond University, Robina, QLD, Australia, 4229,
Tel: +61 7 5595 4487, Fax: +61 7 5595 4480, Email: jkeogh@bond.edu.au

ABSTRACT

Exercise professionals routinely prescribe resistance training to clients with varied goals. Therefore, they need
to be able to modify the difficulty of a variety of exercises and to understand how such modifications can alter
the relative joint loading on their clients so to maximise the potential for positive adaptation and to minimise
injury risk. This paper is the first in a three part series that will examine how a variety of biomechanical
principles and concepts have direct relevance to the prescription of resistance training for the general and
athletic populations as well as for musculoskeletal injury rehabilitation. In this paper, we start by defining the
terms moment (torque), moment arms, compressive, tensile and shear forces as well as joint stress (pressure).
We then demonstrate how an understanding of moments and moment arms is integral to the exercise
professionals’ ability to develop a systematic progression of variations of common exercises. In particular, we
examine how a variety of factors including joint range of motion, body orientation, type of external loading,
the lifter’s anthropometric proportions and the position of the external load will influence the difficulty of each
exercise variation. We then highlight the primary results of several selected studies which have compared the
resistance moment arms and joint moments, forces or stresses that are encountered during selected variations
of common lower body resistance training exercises. We hope that exercise professionals will benefit from this
knowledge of applied resistance training biomechanics and be better able to systematically progress exercise
difficulty and to modify joint loading as a result. The two remaining articles in this series will focus on the
neuromechanical properties of the human musculoskeletal system and better understanding the biomechanical
implications of a variety of alternative resistance training techniques, respectively.

Keywords: biomechanics; forces; joint loading; moments; resistance training progressions.

Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH 39


ISSN 2201-5655 © 2013, Australian Institute of Fitness
INTRODUCTION
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Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH 40


Equation 1 OLIWHGGXULQJUHVLVWDQFHWUDLQLQJ$Q\LQFUHDVHLQORDG
M = F x MArm (Eq. 1) LQFUHDVHVWKHUHVLVWDQFHIRUFHZKLFKZLOOLQWXUQ
where M = moment; F = magnitude of the force and LQFUHDVHWKHMRLQWPRPHQWDQGUHTXLUHPRUH
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The moment arm of the resistance force is
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SDUDOOHOOLQHVWKHVHEHLQJWKURXJKWKHMRLQWFHQWUH MJ = MR (Eq. 2)
DQGWKHSRLQWRI IRUFHDSSOLFDWLRQZLWKERWKOLQHV FM x MArmM = FR x MArmR
RULHQWHGLQWKHGLUHFWLRQRI WKHIRUFH:KHQ where MJ = joint moment; MR = resistance moment;
SHUIRUPLQJDQ\IUHHZHLJKWRUERG\ZHLJKWH[HUFLVH FM = magnitude of the muscle force; MArmM = length of the
the line of the resistance force is vertically downward muscle moment arm; FR = magnitude of the resistance force;
GXHWRJUDYLW\+HQFHLQRUGHUIRUWKHUHVLVWDQFH MArmR = length of the resistance moment arm.
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Table 1: Definitions, examples and implications of tensile, compressive and shear forces and stress within the
body.

Type of Force Definition Examples and Implications

Hanging from a chin up bar whereby the weight (downward force caused by
A force that tends gravity) of the body tends to decompress (separate) the vertebrae.
Tensile force to pull two tissues Forces that tend to pull apart (rupture) the posterior and anterior cruciate
apart. ligaments during common leg exercises such as leg extensions, leg curls and
lunges.

Performing a squat whereby the barbell load and the upper body’s weight
A force that tends tends to compress the lumbar vertebrae.
Compressive force to push two tissues Performing a forward lunge whereby the weight of the barbell load and the
together. lifters body weight as well as their forward momentum tends to compress the
femur and tibia and internal knee joint structures.

Performing a bent over row whereby the barbell load and upper body tends
A force that tends to
to cause the back to round and the lumbar vertebrae to slide past each other,
cause two tissues
Shear force stressing structures such as the lumbar ligaments and vertebral discs.
to slide past each
Performing a knee extension whereby the femur and tibia tend to slide past
other.
each other and increasing the load on the anterior cruciate ligaments.

The magnitude of an
internal force over
The compressive force of bodyweight and any other external load acting on an
a given anatomical
anatomical structure of a given area e.g. the lumbar vertebrae during the squat.
Stress area. This is calcu-
Changes in the loading (stress) acting on the patellofemoral (knee) joint
lated in the same
throughout the range of motion of a squat.
way as the pressure
in a fluid.

Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH 41


Figure 1: Changes in the
resistance moment arms
at three points of the
range of motion of the
bicep curl.

1a 1b 1c

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Figure 2: Differences in the direction of the lumbar spine resistance moment arms in the seated cable row (Figure
2a) and bent over row (Figure 2b).

2a 2b

Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH 42


VARIATIONS IN RESISTANCE AND
JOINT MOMENTS AS A FUNCTION
OF BODY ORIENTATION OR TYPE
OF EXTERNAL LOADING
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Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH 43


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perpendicular distance from the line of the resistance
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moment arm and hence resistance moment is much
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VARIATIONS IN JOINT LOADING


AS A FUNCTION OF LIFTER
ANTHROPOMETRY
:KHQUHVLVWDQFHH[HUFLVHIRUPVWKHEDVLVRI D
VSRUWDWKOHWHVZKRDUHWDOOHURUKDYHORQJHUOLPEVDUH Figure 4: Position where the maximum resistance
RIWHQDWDPHFKDQLFDOGLVDGYDQWDJH7KLVKDVEHHQ moment arm occurs for the cable deltoid lateral raise.
VXSSRUWHGE\VWXGLHVLQYROYLQJ3RZHUOLIWHUV and
2O\PSLF:HLJKWOLIWHUVDQGLVLPSRUWDQWEHFDXVH ,QFRQWUDVWLQVRPHH[HUFLVHVORQJHUOLPEVDUHDQ
rather than manipulate resistance moment arms to DGYDQWDJH)RUH[DPSOHLQWKHGHDGOLIWORQJDUPV
PDNHDVSRUWLQJHYHQWOLNHWKHFRPSHWLWLRQEHQFK PD\EHXVHIXODVWKH\ZRXOGDOORZWKHOLIWHUWR
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VHJPHQWVDUHDXWRPDWLFDOO\SUHVHQWHGZLWKLQFUHDVHG
UHVLVWDQFHPRPHQWDUPVGXULQJPRVWFRPSHWLWLYH VARIATIONS IN JOINT LOADING
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means that to complete the same competitive lift EDFNH[WHQVLRQVDQGGHOWRLGUDLVHVZKHUHE\WKH
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Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH 44


Figure 5: Differences in the resistance moment arms of the upper limb as a function of the position of the upper
limbs with respect to the lumbar spine in a crunch. Figure 5a (hands near hips), Figure 5b (hands around ears) and
Figure 5c (hands outstretched above the head) show increasing resistance moment arms and hence an increase in
exercise difficulty. Note: These differences in resistance moment arms are not completely accurate as they do not
take into account the resistance moment arm of the trunk and head. Hence, the real difference in exercise
difficulty will not be quite as large as demonstrated in the figures. However such a principle applies to doing
weighted crunches, whereby the position of the weight is often more important than the amount of weight

5a 5b 5c

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Figure 6: Differences in the


resistance moment arms around
the lumbar spine as a function of
the position of the barbell in the
conventional (Figure 6a) and
hexagonal (hex) bar (Figure 6b)
deadlift versions.

6a 6b

Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH 45


Table 2. Selected studies examining variations in joint loading and moment arm lengths at key points of the ascent
phase of different variations of common multi-joint lower body exercises.

Versions
Exercise Study Primary findings
Compared

Exercise variation influenced both moment arm length and joint moments.
Moment arm length tended to decrease from Trad to PL to Box squats,
but was not influenced by load. Lower back moments were maximised
Squat Trad, PL and Box Swinton et al. 
during Trad squats, hip moments, both extension and abduction, during
PL squats, knee moments during Box squats, and ankle moments during
Trad squats.

Ankle moment arm length and joint moments typically maximised during
Wide stance squats, decreasing from Wide to Medium to Narrow. Similar
Narrow, medium Escamilla et patterns observed for both hip and knee joints too, but differences were
Squat
and wide stance al. 6 less consistent. For example, differences in hip and knee joint moments
only occurred when the knee joint was flexed 45o. A similar pattern was
noted for moment arm length.

Moment arms and joint moments at the hip were not influenced by exer-
cise variation. In contrast, barbell mass and combined system mass were
Escamilla et
Deadlift CDL and SDL located more posterior to the knee during the SDL, resulting in significant-
al. 
ly greater extension moments at the knee (peak moment approx 3-fold
greater) in comparison to the CDL.

The use of a hexagonal barbell resulted in shorter moment arms at lower


back, hip and ankle. At the knee the load position was reversed to create
Deadlift CDL and HBDL Swinton et al.  a resistive flexor moment. These changes resulted in significantly lower
extension moments at lower back and hip, with significantly greater ex-
tension moments at the knee during the HBDL compared to the CDL.

PTF compressive force and stress was greater with increased knee flex-
SSFL and LSFL; ion. Between 70-90o of knee flexion, PTF force and stress was greater for
Forward Escamilla et
Stationary vs a STFL than LSFL. Between 10-40o of knee flexion, PTF force and stress
Lunge al. 
striding was greater for a stepping forward lunge than a stationary lunge (split
squat) with no step forward.

All lunge variations examined produced very low mean ACL TF, suggest-
ing all are applicable for ACL rehabilitation clients. Alternatively, all lunge
variations produced quite high PCL loading, meaning that these exercises
Forward Escamilla et
SSFL and LSFL should be cautious in using them with PCL rehabilitation clients. Mean
Lunge al. 
PCL TF was greater in LSFL than SSFL between 0-80 o of knee flexion; as
well as in stationary than stepping forward lunge between 0-20o of knee
flexion.

* Trad = traditional squat; PL = powerlifting squat; Box = box squat Narrow; CDL = conventional deadlift; SDL = sumo deadlift; HBDL =
hexagonal bar deadlift; SSFL = short step forward lunge; LSFL = long step forward lunge; PTF = Patello-femoral compressive force; ACL =
anterior cruciate ligament; TF = tensile force; PCL = posterior cruciate ligament.

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Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH 46


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Volume 2, Issue 2, December 2013 | JOURNAL OF FITNESS RESEARCH 48

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