DAVAO ORIENTAL STATE

UNIVERSITY
BANAYBANAY EXTENSION CAMPUS

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL
in
UNDERSTANDING THE SELF

Prepared by:

REYRE P. DONGUILA, LPT

Business Administration Department
MODULE 1.
Lesson 1
The Philosophical view of the Self

Introduction:
Philosophy is often called the mother of all disciplines simply because all fields of study
began as philosophical discourse. Ancient philosophers attempted to explain natural and social
phenomena, coming up with their own definitions of how the world works and what factors
contribute to such phenomena. Thus, it was inevitable to come up with various conceptions of what
it means to be human, and in doing so, the different definitions of the self. In this module highlights
how classical and modern philosophical models defined the self, the evolution of these philosophical
frameworks from ancient to contemporary times, and the relevance of the philosophy of the self to
how the youth define their own sense of the self

Learning outcomes
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
• Discuss the different philosophical standpoints about the self
• Explain how philosophical models have transformed from classical to contemporary
times
Activity:
Look at yourself in the mirror and answer the following questions.

1. How can you describe yourself based on your perspective or point of view?
“I am________________________________________.”
2. What aspect of yourself do you feel good about? Why?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
3. What aspect of yourself do you believe you have to improve? Why?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
Analysis:
Write an essay about anything that you wish to share about yourself.
You may use these suggested topics
➢ Me as I see me
➢ How other people see me
➢ How I would like other people to see me
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
Abstraction:

Socrates: The Unexamined life is Not Worth Living

• For Socrates the self is synonymous with the soul. He believes that every human
possesses an immortal soul that survives the physical body.
• Socrates was the first to focus on the full power of reason on human self: who we are,
who we should be, and who we will become.
• Socrates suggests that reality consists of two dichotomous realms: Physical and Ideal
realms. The physical realm is unchangeable, transient, and imperfect. The ideal realm
is unchanging, eternal, and immortal. The physical world in which man lives belongs
to the physical realm.
• For Socrates, the body belongs to the physical realm. On the other hand, the
unchanging, eternal, perfect realms includes the intellectual essences of the universe,
concepts such as truth, goodness, and beauty. The soul belongs to the ideal realm.
• Socrates explains that the essence of the self-the soul- is the immortal entity. The soul
strives for wisdom and perfection, and reason is the soul’s tool to achieve this exalted
state. But then as long as the soul is tied to the body, the quest for wisdom is inhibited
by the imperfections of the physical realm, where it wanders and is confused.
• Socrates suggest that man must live an examined life and a life of purpose and value.
• For him, an examined life is not worth living. The individual person can have a
meaningful and happy life only if he becomes virtuous and knows the value of himself
that can be achieved through incessant soul searching. He must begin at the source of
all knowledge and significance-the self. The Socratic Method, the so-called
introspection, is a method of carefully examining one’s thoughts and emotion-to gain
self-knowledge.

PLATO: THE SELF IS AN IMMORTAL SOUL

• Like Socrates, Plato believes that the self is anonymous with the soul. His philosophy
can be explained as a process of self-knowledge and purification of the soul.
Specifically, he introduces the idea of a three-part soul/self: Reason, Physical
Appetite, and spirit or passion.
• Reason is the divine essence that enables us to think deeply, make wise choices, and
achieve a true understanding of eternal truths.
• The physical appetite includes our basic biological needs such as hunger, thirst, and
sexual desire.
• The spirit or passion includes basic emotions such as love, anger, ambition,
aggressiveness, and empathy.
• These three elements of ourselves are in a dynamic relationship with one another,
sometimes in conflict. When conflict occurs, Plato believes it is the responsibility of
reason to sort things out and exert control, restoring a harmonious relationship among
the three elements of our selves.
• Plato believes it is the responsibility of reason to sort things out and exert control,
restoring a harmonious relationship among the three elements of our selves
• Plato believes that genuine happiness can only be achieved by people who
consistently make sure that their reason is in control of their spirits and appetites.
• This harmonious integration under the control of reason is the essence of Plato’s
concept of justice.
 • As such, if man live in accordance to his nature, then he is giving justice to his
existence.
• Having described his vision of the soul/self, Plato goes on to elaborate his ideas about
the soul.
• In his theory of forms, he introduces the concepts of the two worlds: the worlds of
forms (nonphysical) and the world of sense (reality). While the world of form is real
and permanent, the world of sense is temporary and only replica of the ideal world.
• Plato claims that the sensible world is dependent on the ideal world where the concept
of the soul belongs
• Since the soul is regarded as something permanent, man should give more importance
to it than physical body which resides in the world of sense

ARISTOTLE: THE SOUL IS THE ESSENCE OF THE SELF

• Aristotle believes that the soul I merely a set of defining features and does not consider
the body and soul as separate entities.
• He suggests that anything with life has a soul.
• Aristotle holds that the soul is the essence of all living things. Thus, the soul is the
essence of the self. However, human differ from other living things because of their
capacity for rational thinking.
• His discussion about the self, centers on the kinds of soul possessed by man. Thus, he
introduces the three kind of soul: vegetative, sentient, and rational.
• The vegetative soul includes physical body that can grow
• Sentient soul includes sensual desire, feelings, and emotions.
• Rational soul is what makes man human. It includes the intellect that allows man to
know and understand things.
• Aristotle suggests that the rational nature of the self is to lead a good, flourishing, and
fulfilling life (self-actualization). The pursuit of happiness is a search for a good life
that includes doing virtuous actions. In saying this, he posits that part of the rational
is characterized by moral virtues such as justice and courage.

ST. AUGUSTINE: THE SELF HAS AN IMMORTAL SOUL

• He integrates the ideal of Plato and teachings of Christianity.
• Augustine believes that the physical body is radically different from inferior to its
inhabitants, the immortal soul.
• As his thinking matured, he developed a more unified perspective on the body and
soul.
• He ultimately came to view body as “spouse” of the soul, both attached to one another
by a “natural appetitive.”
• He believes that the body is united with the soul, so that man may be entire and
complete.
• Nevertheless, as a religious philosopher, he contemplates on the nature of man with
emphasis on the soul as an important element of man.
• He believes that the soul is what governs and defines man.
• In his works, confessions, St. Augustine describes that humankind is created in the
image and likeness of God. Everything created by God who is all good is good.
• Therefore, the human person, being a creation of God is always geared towards the
good.
• St. Augustine is convinced that the self is known only through knowing God.
 • Accordingly, self-knowledge is a consequence of knowledge of God.
• St. Augustine espouses the significance of reflection, as well as the importance of
prayer and confessions to arrive at a justification for the existence of God.
• For him, “knowledge can only come by seeing the truth that dwells within us.” The
truth of which St. Augustine speaks refers to the truth of knowing God. God is
Transcendent and the self seeks to be united with God through faith and reason.

RENE DESCARTES: I THINK THEREFORE I AM (COGITO ERGO SUM)

• He is the Father of modern Philosophy
• He has brought an entirely new perspective to philosophy and the self.
• He wants to penetrate the nature of reasoning process and understand its relationship
to the human self.
• The Latin phrase Cogito ergo sum – “I think therefore I am” is the keystone of
Descartes’s concept of self.
• For him, the act of thinking about the self-of being self-conscious- is in itself proof
that there is a self. He is confident that no rational person will doubt his or her own
existence as a conscious, thinking entity- while we are aware of thinking about
ourselves.
• For Descartes, this is the essence of the human self-a thinking entity that doubts,
understand, analyzes, and reasons.
• He contends further that if man reflects thoughtfully, he will realize that there are two
dimensions of the human self: the self as a thinking entity and the self as a physical
body.
• In particular, he introduces the idea of the thinking self (or soul) as non-material,
immortal, conscious being, and independent of the physical laws of the universe.
• In contrast, the physical body is a material, mortal, non thinking entity, fully governed
by the physical laws of nature. In other words, the soul and the body are independent
of one another, and each can exist and function without the other.
• The essential self- the self as thinking entity-is distinct from the self as physical body.
Simply put, the thinking self can exist independently of the physical body

JHON LOCKE: THE SELF IS CONSCIOUSNESSS

• For English philosopher John Locke, the human mind at birth is tabula rasa or a blank
slate. He feels that the self, or personal identity, is constructed primarily from sense
experiences-or more specifically, what people see, hear, smell, taste and feel. These
experiences shape and mold the self throughout a person’s life.
• For Locke, conscious awareness and memory or previous experiences are keys to
understand the self.
• Lock believes that the essence of the self is its conscious awareness of itself as a
thinking, reasoning, and reflecting identity.
• He contends that consciousness accompanies thinking and makes possible the concept
people have of a self.
• Self-consciousness is necessary to have a coherent personal identity or knowledge of
the self as a person. Consciousness is what makes identity of a person similar in
different situations.
• At this point, Locke is proposing that people could use the power of reason to gain
knowledge and consequently use this knowledge to understand experiences.
 • Knowledge is based on careful observation of experiences. Reason plays an important
role in helping to figure out the significance of sense experience and to reach
intelligent conclusions. Thus, using the power of reason and introspection enables one
to understand and achieve accurate conclusions about the self.

DAVID HUME: THERE IS NO SELF

• Scottish philosopher suggest that if people carefully examine their sense experience
through the process of introspection, they will discover that there is no self.
• According to Hume, what people experience is just a bundle or collection of different
perceptions.
• Hume maintains that if people carefully examine the contents of their experience, they
will find that there are only distinct entities: impressions and ideas.
• Impressions are the basic sensations of people’s experience such as hate, love, joy,
grief, pain, cold and heat.
• Impressions are vivid perceptions and are strong and lively.
• Ideas, however, are thoughts and images from impressions so they are less lively and
vivid.
• Hume further posits that different sensations are in a constant continuum that is
invariable and not constant.
• Hume argues that it cannot be from any of these impressions that the idea of self is
derived and consequently, there is no self.
• Hume skeptical claim on this issue is that people have no experience of a simple and
individual impression that they can call the self is totality of a person’s conscious life.
• Subsequently, the idea of personal identity is a result of imagination.

IMMANUEL KANT: WE CONSTRUCT THE SELF

• For German philosopher Immanuel Kant, is the self that makes experiencing an
intelligible world possible because it is the self that is actively organizing and
synthesizing all for our thoughts and perceptions.
• The self, in the form of consciousness, utilizes conceptual categories which he calls
transcendental deduction of categories, to construct an orderly and objective world
that is stable and can be investigated scientifically.
• Kant believes that the self is an organizing principles that makes a unified and
intelligible experience possible.
• It is metaphorically above or behind sense experience, and it uses the categories of
our mind to filter, order, relate, organize and synthesize sensations into a unified
whole.
• In other words, the self construct its own reality, actively creating a world that is
familiar predictable, and most significantly, mine.
• The self is product of reason, a regulative principle, because the self regulates
experience by making unified experience possible.
• The self transcends experience because the mind can grasp aspect of reality which are
not limited to the senses, through rationality, people are able to understand certain
abstract ideas that have no corresponding physical object or sensory experience.

SIGMUND FREUD: THE SELF IS MULTILAYERED

 • Sigmund Freud is not a philosopher but his views on the nature of the self have far-
reaching impact on philosophical thinking, as well as other disciplines such as
psychology and sociology.
• Freud holds that the self consist of three layers: conscious, unconscious and
preconscious.
• The conscious self is governed by the reality principle. The conscious part of the self
is organized in ways that are rational, practical, and appropriate to the environment.
The conscious self usually takes into account the realistic demands of the situation,
the consequences of various actions, and the overriding need to preserve the
equilibrium of the entire psychodynamic system of the self.
• In contrast, the unconscious part of the self contains the basic individual drives
including sexuality, aggressiveness, and self-destruction: traumatic memories:
unfulfilled wishes and childhood fantasies; and thoughts and feelings that would be
considered socially taboo.
• The unconscious level is characterized by the most primitive level of human
motivation and human functioning which is governed by the pleasure principle.
• Freud argues that much of the self is determined by the unconscious. On the other
hand, the preconscious self contains material that is not threatening and is easily
brought to mind.
• According to Freud, the preconscious part is located between the conscious and the
unconscious part of the self.

GILBERT TYLE: THE SELF IS THE WAY PEOPLE BEHAVE

• He believes that the self is best understood as a pattern of behavior, the tendency or
disposition of a person to behave in a certain way in certain circumstances.
• Ryle’s concept of the human self thus provides the philosophical principle, “I act
therefore I am”.
• Ryle considers the mind and body to be intrinsically linked in complex and intimate
ways.
• In short, the self is the same as bodily behavior. He concludes that the mind is the
totality of human dispositions that is known through the way people behave.
• Nevertheless, Ryle is convinced that the mind expresses the entire system of thoughts,
emotions, and actions that make up the human self.

PAUL CHURCH LAND: THE SELF IS THE BRAIN

• He advocates the idea of eliminative materialism of the idea from the brain and
physiology of body.
• All person has is the brain, and so if the brain is gone, there is no self.
• For Churchland, the physical brain and not the imaginary mind, gives people the sense
of self.
• The mind does not really exist because it cannot be experienced by the senses.

MAURICE MERLEAU-PONTY: THE SELF IS EMBODIED SUBJECTIVITY

• He argues that all knowledge about the self is based on the phenomena of experience.
The “I” is a single integrated core identity, a combination of the mental, physical and
emotional structures around a core identity of the self.
 • He further articulates that when people examine the self at the fundamental level of
direct human experience, people will discover that the mind and body are unified, not
separate.
• He notes in his book, Phenomenology of Perceptions, that everything that people are
aware of is contained within the consciousness.
• Consciousness is a dynamic form responsible for actively structuring conscious ideas
and physical behavior.
• He is convinced that consciousness, the world, and the human body are intricately
intertwined in perceiving the world.
• For him, perception is not merely a consequence of sensory experience; rather it is a
conscious experience. Thus the self is embodied subjectivity

APPLICATION:
Write an essay on the philosophical perspective of the self. Consider the following questions
in writing your essay.
1. Explain how each philosophy of the self-impacts your self-understanding.
2. Which philosophy relates to your own belief?
3. What is your own philosophy of self?
4. What is the importance of having a philosophy of the self?
5. Describe who you are, the meaning of your life, the purpose of your existence, and
how to achieve a happy and successful life.
6. What are your characteristics that can contribute to your happiness and success?

Closure
Well done! Congratulate yourself. You have just finished Lesson 1 of this module.
 The Self from Various Perspective
Lesson 2. Sociological Perspective of Self
Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students will be able to:

• Explain the basic concepts of social relationships;

• Discuss how relationship with others could be improved by applying the ideas on
social relationships;
• Differentiate behaviors that are acceptable for social relationships from those
behaviors that are not acceptable;
• Analyze and evaluate one’s social behaviors and identify ways to manage them
effectively.

Activity: Sing the song “No Man is an Island” by Joan Whitney and Alexander
Kramer. You can search from the You tube. Reflect on the meaning of the song.
1

No man is an island
No man stands
alone

Each man’s joy is joy to me

Each man’s grief is my own
We need one another,

So I will defend
Each man as my brother
Each one as my friend.

I saw the people

gather I heard the
music start

The song that they were

singing Is ringing in my heart

(repeat 1)

Analysis:
The following are insights extracted from this exercise. Add your own insights to
this list.
1. The family is the basic social unit.
2. We need people in our lives.
3. We feel happy if we relate well with other people.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Abstraction: The self and Its Social Agencies
Human development happened when we participate in social gatherings or groups that mold our
different aspects of our self, from our beliefs, values direction, and practices/behaviors. We born
into a family and up to the end of our lives, we are evaluated based on our contribution to the
society, the quality of our social relationships, and how we touched lives of people whom we
directly encountered.
Studying social relationship or interactions is called social psychology. Lahey (2007) defined
social psychology as a branch of psychology that studies individual as they interact with others.
Social agencies that influence the development of oneself
Family
Since we were born, we already belong to a social group, our family. Family is the most
influential social group that impacts the self for the entire development. We view the world based
on the context of our family and home environment.
Parents are one’s first teacher; from a very early age, it is from them that one creates iitial
impressions of the world beyond his home, and the first barometer in determining which acts are
good and rewarded and those that are unacceptable, for which one is reprimanded and punished.
As one’s family grows, his siblings become his first friends and playmates. Relationships with
siblings harness one’s socialization skills, particularly in play moments and quarrels which help
shape one’s conflict resolution skills that he can carry throughout his life. These consistent family
experiences are crucial in shaping of one’s social self.
Schools and the general academic environment.
Viewpoints widened as one gets presented to more individuals in various social learning condition.
Information and social aptitudes acquired from instructors, family members, and companions add
to how the social self is improved. The lessons taken from books, talks of guides, and experiences
from schoolmates are absorbed and guzzled therefore in the inner recesses of the self. One's
information on the world is molded by synergistic learning conditions, as one is presented to the
experiences of his learning peers. Values of social harmony, emotional sensitivity to the needs of
other people, and behavior with regard to the personal spaces of others in the environment are just
some learning insights that are inculcated in one’s social self. Around 1/3 of individuals' live are
spent in educational institutions. The encounters an individual additions in a scholastic domain
shape his public activity as he sets out on the following phases of improvement.
Communities
Communities also shape one’s social self to a large extent. From an anthropological and
sociological perspective, one’s cultural beliefs and practices are influenced by what communities
and societies dictate. Values such as respect for the elderly, persistence and dedication for tasks,
and love for one’s country are often the products of communal settings one belongs to and societal
expectations imposed on him. Specific practices such as attending worship, avoiding conflict and
strife with others, taking part in rituals and ceremonies such as weddings, baptisms, and other
religious activities, are embedded in one’s social self as communities and the society have
developed shared meanings with regard to these milestones. Religion, politics, media, education,
and the government are all social institutions that directly impact one’s social self. The social self
is inevitably change as one accommodates and eventually assimilates beliefs promoted by the
society as he thinks, appreciates, and behaves according to standards set by micro and
macrosystems.
Culture
According to Edward Tylor (1871), “Culture is the complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, law, art, moral, custom, and other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a
member of society.” This concludes that culture has a great impact on human being, and this
manifested in his thoughts, behaviors, and expression. But culture is highly relative in terms of
geographical, traditional, and individual contexts. A dominant characteristic of culture is that it is
socially transmitted and learned by groups of people, bound by ethnicity, geography, and
personal orientations.
The following models illustrate how culture functions in relation to one’s social self.
Bioecological Systems Theory
Urie Bronfenbrenner’s (1935) Bioecological Systems of Development explains an
individual’s social development, using biological, environmental, and ecological lenses. The
theory explains the bidirectional influence of individual systems to each other and posits five
specific systems that shape an individual’s sense of self.
These systems are as follows:
1. Microsystem. This system are the institutions and social groups that an individual has
direct contact and interaction with, including families, peers, schools, religious institutions,
and the immediate community.
2. Mesosystem. This system is the interconnections among aspect of the microsystems
affecting the individual. This include parent-teacher association (PTA), parent and peer
connections, and community relations, among others.
3. Exosystem. This system is the social setting that an individual has no direct interaction
with but affects his development. Example is the work setting of one’s parents where a
major company decision that results in the loss of job of either parent will have a significant
impact to the child.
4. Macrosystem. This system encompasses the larger cultural context in which the individual
resides in. A cultural context may include the socioeconomic status of his country, issues
of ethnicity, societal values embraced by social institutions, cultural beliefs and practices
handed down from generation to generation, and how all these affect an individual behavior
and opportunities in the society.an example of macrosystem would be the Philippines as
third-world country where there is a notion that life can be better when one works abroad.
 Acceptable values which are defined by the society that are handed down from generation
to generation is imbibed by the individual.
5. Chronosystems. This system focuses on patterns of environmental events, including
sociohistorical events from a specific to a general context. Example, one’s graduation from
college would entail changes in his social self as he is expected to work to help his family
and contribute to the society. Social events which push forth active citizenship also
influences the social self is a very vital way.
Social Role and Social Norms
People love to be in the company of others that is why we are labelled as social animals.
Being in a group can be both advantageous and disadvantageous. For instance, support groups can
provide emotional help and comfort; effects of stress can be reduced by strong social support.
Being in a group has negative and positive effects, one should not avoid groups, but rather make
the best out of being in them. As a member of a society, each has their role to play that complement
or support the roles of other people one interacts with.
Social roles specify the part or position of a person in society. It also specifies expected
behavior to be exhibited by an individual in practicing his role. Whether one is aware or not, that
person may play several roles, each of which influences the behavior of another individual.
Example, a father may play the role of a parent, a spouse, a middle-aged man, a brother a teacher,
etc. An individual’s behavior undergoes changes so as to meet the expected behavior of every role
he plays in particular situations. So, if a mother is at home, she plays the role of a parent; if she is
in the school as a teacher, then she plays the role of a teacher.
It is important to note that social role play an important and positive role in society.
Understanding the roles of others, as well as your own, facilitate people’s ability to work together
towards the common good.
Social norms is a feeling of social legitimacy and adjusting to cultural standards of conduct.
Social norms changes through the span of time. Decades back, moms remain at home to think
about their youngsters; ladies wear just dresses and skirts in going to religious services. Today,
these are no longer the norms because of many factors such as the financial, moral, social or
psychological aspects of society.
Social norm is the spoken and unspoken rules for behaving in a certain situation. Example
is covering the mouth when coughing or sneezing. Most people adhere to the social norms of the
culture in which they exist.
Norms in social behavior regulates the manner of individual’s conduct. Behaviors should
be regulated because of social consequences and it is the responsibility of an individual to see to
it that his/her behavior does not hurt, offend, or disturb other people.
Practicing norms in social behavior is expected of a group and the larger society as a whole
to ensure and maintain harmonious relationships within the group.
A sociogram explains the social structure of a group and the relationship of people within
the group. It shows who are the popular, isolates, islands and mutual friends.
Mead and the Social Self
George Herbert Mead, a sociologist believed that people develop self-images through
interactions with other people. He posited that the self which is the part of a person’s personality
consisting of self-awareness and self-image is a result of social experience.
I vs Me
Individual’s behavior when he is alone is different when he is with others. Different
situations dictate particular behavior because of different social expectations. In being alone, you
do not need to keep up appearance, which is different when there are others observing you. This is
what Herbert Mead (1934) posited in his theory of social self. He argued that self has two parts: the
“I” which is known as the unsocialized self, and the “Me” the socialized self.
Mead said that the “I” is who an individual really is. It is one’s opinion of himself as a
whole. The “I” is revealed when one acts naturally for his own motivations and not because of
others. Meanwhile, the “Me” is the awareness of how others expect one to behave. This is also
known as the social self. According to Mead, this part of the self is the careful and the conscious.
When you know that other person is looking at you, you are likely to adjust your behavior
according to what is acceptable to others. Based on Mead’s model, the state of the actual self is
achieved when the “I” and “Me” is in harmony.
According to Mead, three activities develop the self: language, play, and games.
Language develops self by allowing individuals to respond to each other through symbols,
gestures, words, and sounds. Language conveys others' attitudes and opinions toward a subject or
the person. Emotions, such as anger, happiness, and confusion, are conveyed through language.
Play develops self by allowing individuals to take on different roles, pretend, and express
expectation of others. Play develops one's self-consciousness through role-playing. During role-
play, a person is able to internalize the perspective of others and develop an understanding of how
others feel about themselves and others in a variety of social situations.
Games develop self by allowing individuals to understand and adhere to the rules of the
activity. Self is developed by understanding that there are rules in which one must abide by in
order to win the game or be successful at an activity.
Together as a Group
Seldom, people work in groups. Students group themselves when reviewing for their
exams. Teachers meet with each other to discuss methods to improve teaching and learning
strategies. Farmers work together to do their job during planting, harvesting and other works
related to farming. in an office, employees work as a team. in these scenarios, it is said that people
work together for a purpose. Usually, the task becomes easier to accomplish because more people
contribute to solve the problem as compared to only one person doing the task.
 In social situations where people work and do things together for a purpose, two things
may happen. First, the performance of each individual member of the group is improved. This is
referred to as social facilitation (Levine, Resnick, & Higgins,1993).
Second, is the phenomenon known as social loafing. This is working or being with a group
may also reduce individual effort. Example, if a group of students is asked to solve a problem,
some members of the group may no longer try their best to contribute to the solution because they
feel that there are others who can do it better. Another example, individual members may not
contribute as much in doing the task because they think it should be left to the more able members
of the group. The lessened individual effort in a group activity can be attributed to many reasons.
Example, if the size of the group is very large, individual members may think slackening will not
be noticed or felt at all.
Always remember that in a group work, it is important that each member exerts his best
effort to facilitate the attainment of the objectives of the group as a whole regardless of the number
of participants in the group.
Nature and Depth of Relationships
Relationship is one of the most important aspects of our lives. It can be positive or
conflicted, but having no relationships could be worst of all because it leads to loneliness.
Familiarity is being comfortable with another person and is a necessary factor for a close
relationship to develop. Friends and lovers are those who have been around together for so long;
who have grown up together; gone to school together. People like to be together with others who
are similar to them like: attitude, behavior patterns, personal characteristics, taste in fashion or
clothes, intelligence, personality, and the like.
Attraction may lead to a deeper relationship said Santrock (2003). Someone may attract
to another person because of similarities or differences in interests, personality characteristics, life
goals, and lifestyles, to name a few. Attraction leads the way for enjoying the company and being
comfortable with other person, and for feeling of ease and confidence.
Love is a special attachment one has for himself/herself for someone else. It is an intense
feeling of deep or constant affection and emotion in which a person always sees to the good,
happiness and welfare of the other. A person is willing to sacrifice or to give up something for the
good of the object of his/her love. It can manifest as love for God, spouse, children, or country
among others.
The most common kinds of love:
1. Romantic love or passionate love. It includes an intermingling of different emotions:
fear, anger, sexual desire, joy, and jealousy, among others. It is one of the major reasons
of getting married.
2. Affectionate love or companionate love. It is the type of love that occurs when
someone has deep and caring affection for a person and desires to have him/her near
constantly.
3. Consummate love. It is the strongest and fullest type of love(Stenberg, 1985) this ideal
form of love involves passion, intimacy, and commitment.
The triangular Theory of Love
According to Robert Sternberg (1985), love is made up of three components namely:
passion, intimacy, and commitment. Passion has something to do with physical and sexual
attraction to another. Intimacy is characterized by the emotional feelings of warmth, closeness,
and sharing of the relationship. Commitment is the cognitive appraisal of the relationship and the
intent to maintain it even in the face of problems.
One or a combination of these ingredients forms a kind of love or love-like feeling.

Passion + Commitment

Sternberg’s Triangular Theory of Love

Application

Exercise 1. Answer the following questions:

1. What beliefs, values, and behaviors do you consider to be helpful to your social self?
Why?

2. What beliefs, values, and behaviors do you consider as detrimental to your social self?
Why?
 3. What new insights about your social self do you have at this point?

Exercise 2. Determining Appropriate Behavior

A. Describe how you are expected to behave and interact with other people in each of
these situations. You may consider the following factors: volume of your voice, dress
code, general behavior.
1. Attending a formal party

2. Studying in the library

3. Eating lunch in a restaurant

4. Attending a picnic outdoor

5. Attending a class

6. Meeting a new friend

7. Watching a basketball game

8. Participating in a game

9. Attending church services

10. Cheering for a team in a game

B. Determine if the behavior is appropriate (A) or (I) inappropriate in the given
social situation considering societal, cultural, or institutional guidelines.
1. Sharing stories with friends in the library.
2. Laughing during a religious service.
3. Joking with friends in a picnic.
4. Keeping quiet inside the church.
5. Listening quietly during a piano recital
6. Speaking a modulated voice while attending a conference
7. Speaking in a soft tone during a party
8. Laughing loudly while waiting at the doctor’s clinic
9. Wearing short pants for an interview with an employer
10. Wearing the required uniform in the office
11. Talking softly with family members at the dinner table
12. Arguing loudly with an officemate
13. While queuing, complaining that service is taking too long

C. Answer the following questions to process your understanding of the previous

exercises:
1. In a social situation where students are attending a seminar, are there behavior or
interactions which are pleasing or irritating to others? Explain your answer.

2. What do you think the other students in the library would feel or think if you talk at
the top of you voice? How about if you speak in low tones?

3. When cheering for your volleyball team, is it alright to talk in loud tones? Why or
why not?

4. When is a social behavior appropriate? When is it inappropriate?

Exercise 3. Poetry Reading
Recite the poem “How Do I Love Thee?” (Sonnet 43) by Elizabeth Barrett Browning as if you
were expressing your feelings to the object of your love. Then, accomplish the given tasks.
How do I love thee? Let me count the ways.

I love thee to the depth and breadth and

height My soul can reach, when feeling out of
sight For the ends of being and ideal grace.

I love thee to the level of every day’s

Most quiet need, by sun and candle light.
I love thee freely, as men strive for right.

I love thee purely, as they turn from praise.

I love thee with the passion put to use

In my old griefs, and with my childhood’s faith.

I love thee with a love I seemed to lose

With my lost saints. I love thee with the breath,
Smile, tears, of all my life; and if God choose

I shall but love thee better after death.

What does the poem mean? Describe the feeling expressed in the poem.

Create your own poem with love as the theme.

Closure: Congratulations for the good job! In order for you to be ready for the next lesson,
please have an advance reading on the Psychology of Self. You can browse the following links:
Self Concept https://www.simplypsychology.org/self-concept.html
What Is Self-Concept in Psychology? https://www.thoughtco.com/self-concept-psychology-
4176368 Who Am I Really? True Self vs False Self
https://growththruchange.com/2018/03/06/really-true- self-vs-false-self/
References:
Garcia, L. (2008). Philosophy of Religion: A cure to prejudice? . Quezon City: C&E, Publishing,
Inc.
Ho, D. (n.d.). Selfhood and identity in Confucianism, Taoism,Buddhism,and Hinduism: Contrasts
with the West. Journal for the Theory of Social Behavior, 25 (2),, 115-139.
Macayan, J., Pinugu, J., & Castillo, J. (2018). Understanding the Self: Outcome-Based
Module. Quezon City: C&E Publishing, Inc.
Monilla, M., & Ramirez, N. C. (2018). Understanding The Self. Quezon City: C & E Publishing,
Inc. Brawner, D., & Arcega, A. (2018). Understanding the Self. Quezon City: C&E Publishing,
Inc
Lesson 3: An Anthropological Conceptualization of Self: The Self as Embedded in culture

Introduction
Practices among different societies reveal ways how societies conceptualize what the self is
and how it relates to culture. Anthropology considered as one of the most complex areas of
discipline, has explored various meanings of culture, self and identity in the desire to come up with
a better understanding of the self. In this module you will learn the anthropological perspective of
the self. Enjoy and earn knowledge.

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lesson, you are expected to:
1. Discuss the cultural construction of the self and social identity;
2. Explain the concept of identity struggles and develop insights on how to achieve a sense
of self.
Activity:

My characteristics or My characteristics or My characteristics or

traits most similar to traits most similar to traits not similar to
those of my father those of my mother those of my father or
mother

Positive

Negative

Analysis:
1. Are there more positive traits than negative traits written on your chart
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

2. What type of traits have you written on the chart? Which traits are observable and
which are not?
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
3. Compare the traits written on the first two columns with those on the third column.
Are there more physical traits than non-physical traits that have been recorded?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
 4. Are you happy for having those traits? Have you ever expressed your gratitude to
your parents for passing those traits to you?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

Abstraction:

THE CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF SELF AND IDENTITY

British anthropologist Edward Tylor defines culture as “…that complex whole which
knowledge belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as
a member of society.” Anthropologist have emphasized that culture is not behavior itself but shared
understandings that guide behavior and are expressed in behavior (peacock, 1986). Therefore, it is
how people make sense of their experiences and behave according to socially shared ideas, values,
and perceptions. As such, culture has acquired a range of different meanings that require reflection
and analysis because the significance of cultures has enormous implications for everyone’s
conception of self (van Meijl, 2008). Thus, one may say that culture provides patterns of “ways of
life.”
Yet, only a small number of anthropologist tackle the concept of self (van Meijl, 2008). In
effect, self is one of the most taken for granted products of culture (Robbins, 2012). German
anthropologist Martin Sokefeld (1999) believes that the concept of self is a necessary supplement to
the concept of culture in anthropology and should be regarded as a human universal. Culture and self
thus become complementary concepts that have to be understood in relation to one another.
In social anthropology, the concept of identity was used mostly in the context of “ethnic
identity,” pointing out sameness of the self with others, that is, to a consciousness of sharing certain
characteristics (e.g., language, culture, etc.) within a group. Identity is understood as a disposition of
basic personality features acquired mostly during childhood and, once integrated, more or less fixed
(sokefeld, 1999). This identity therefore makes a human being a person and an acting individual.
Peacock (1986) believes that the individual is neither a robot nor an entirely independent self-willed
little god but a cultural individual-existing in freedom but also embodying that cultural mold in which
he is cast in his particular society and historical approach.
There are two ways in which the concept of self is viewed in different societies: Egocentric
and sociocentric. In the egocentric view, the self is seen as an autonomous and distinct individual.
Each person is defined as a replica of all humanity but capable of acting independently from others.
While in the sociocentric view, the self is contingent on a situation or social setting. This is a view of
the self that is context-dependent which emphasizes that there is no intrinsic self that can possess
enduring qualities (Robbins, 2012).
For anthropologist Christie Kiefer (Robbins, 2012), the Japanese possess a sociocentric view
of the self in which the membership of a person in a particular social group defines the boundaries of
the self. Interdependence between the person and the group is more values than independence. For
the Japanese, social interaction should be characterized be restraint. Likewise, whinese American
anthropologist Francis Hsu attributes a sociocentric view of the self to the Chinese. He explains that
the Chinese prioritize kin ties and cooperation. For them, the very essence of interpersonal relations
is mutual dependence. Hence, they do not value self-reliance but put importance to compliance and
subordination of one’s will to the authority figures in the family. In contrast with the Japanese and
the Chinese, the Americans are egocentric. They believe that the should be assertive and independent
(robbins, 2012).
From similarities and differences in characteristics among individuals, people construct their
social identity. The identity tool box refers to the features of a person’s identity that he or she chooses
to emphasize in constructing a social self. Some characteristics such as kinship, gender, and age are
almost universally used to differentiate people. Other characteristics, such as ethnicity, personal
appearance, and socioeconomic status are not always used in every society. Family membership could
be the most significant feature to determine a person’s social identity. Another important identity
determinant that is often viewed as essential for the maintenance of a group identity is language. In
other societies, religious affiliations is an important marker of group identity. In Mindanao, being a
Christian or Muslim is possibly the most important defining feature of one’s identity.
Personal naming, a universal practice with numerous cross-cultural variations, establishes a
child’s birthright and social identity. A name is an important device to individualize a person and
legitimize him or her as a member of a social group such as family. Personal names in al societies are
intimate markers of a person which differentiates him or her from others. A person’s name may be
symbolically represents his or her cultural self. Hence, many cultures mark the naming of a child with
a special ceremony.
One’s identity is not inborn. It is something people continuously develop in life. For instance,
rites of passage usually involve ritual activities to prepare individuals for new roles from one stage
of life to another such as birth, puberty, marriage, having children, and death. Arnold Van Gennep
believes that changes in one’s status and identity are marked by a three-phase rite of passage:
separation, liminality, and incorporation.
In separation phase, people detach from their former identity to another. For example. In a
wedding, the bride walking down the aisle to be “given away” by the parents to the groom implies
the separation from one’s family to become part of a new one.
In liminality phase, a person transitions from one identity to another. For example, the
wedding ceremony itself is the process of transition of the bride and groom from singlehood to
married life.
For incorporation phase, the change in one’s status is officially incorporated. For example the
wedding reception and parties that celebrate the wedding serve as the markers that officially recognize
the bride and groom’s change towards being husband and wife.
Rites of passage help a person adjust from one social dimension of his or her life to the others.
However, sometimes individuals disagree on their respective identities. Anthony Wallace and
Raymong Fogelson coined the term “identity struggles” to characterize interaction in which there is
discrepancy between the identity a person claims to possess and the identity attributed to that person
by others. Moreover, individuals may also be confused in defining their personal identity when there
is a clash between self-identification and inherited collective identification emerging from the cultural
changes and conflicting norms and values in the postmodern society.
When universal values and moral principles of an individual or group become relatively
determined by politics and ideology, among other external factors, an identity crisis may occur.
Golubovic (2011) suggests that in order to attain self- identification, individual have to overcome
many obstacles such as traditionally established habits and externally imposed self images. On the
other hand, the works of cognitive anthropologist suggest that in order to maintain a relatively stable
and coherent self, members of the multicultural society have no choice but to internalize divergent
cultural models and should reject or suppress identifications that may conflict with other self-
presentations (van Meijl, 2008).
Katherine Ewing’s “Illusion of Wholeness” exhibits how individual selves throughout the
world continuously reconstitute themselves into new selves in response to internal and external
extimuli. Therefore, the cohesiveness and continuity of self are only illusory. For the reason that the
postmodern man has lost his right and stopped striving to become an autonomous and active part of
the process of self determination and a particular identification with one’s own community, the most
important philosophical task of the postmodern man today is to “work on yourself” just like in the
Socratic message “know thyself”
 THE SELF AS EMBEDDED IN CULTURE

Clifford Geertz (1973), an American anthropologist, offers a reformulation of the concept of

culture which favors a symbolic interpretative model of culture. He defines culture as a system of
inherited conceptions expressed in symbolic forms by means of which people communicate,
perpetuate, and develop their knowledge about and attitudes towards life. Further, he proposes that it
is necessary that human give meanings to their experiences so that order in the world can be
established. He agrees with Max Weber, that “man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he
himself has spun,” in which those webs are perceived to be symbolic of culture. This semiotic
approach to culture is helpful in getting inside a conceptual world where human being live. Thus, the
concept of culture has its impact on the concept of man. In his attempt to illustrate an accurate image
of man, Geertz suggest two important ideas:
1. Culture should not be perceived only as “complexes of concrete behavior patterns-
customs, usages, traditions, habit clusters- as has, by and large, been the case up
to now, but as a set of control mechanism-plans, recipes, rules, instructions-for
governing behavior,
2. Man is precisely the animal most desperately dependent upon such extragenetic
outside-the-skin control mechanisms, such cultural programs, for ordering his
behavior”
Therefore, man is defined by his genetic potentials shaped into actual accomplishments which
is made possible by culture. Geertz also emphasizes that human nature is interdependent with culture:
“without men, no culture, no men”.
Likewise, Robbins(2012) considered human beings as cultural animals as they create the
meanings of objects, person, behavior, emotions, and events, and behave in accordance with
meanings they assume to be true. Every aspect of their lives is filled with meaning, and if they share
the meanings they impose on their experiences, they are operating within the same culture. Cultural
differences exist when groups of people assign different meanings to different life events and things.
Hence, the self is embedded in culture.

Application:
In a bond paper (A4 Size) write an essay on the different anthropological perspective of how
the self is constructed in societies. Consider the following questions in writing your essay.
1. Which of the anthropological views of the self relates to your own belief? Explain how each
view impact your self-understanding.
2. How are yourself and identity constructed and influenced by your culture? Include three
things you discovered about cultural identity.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

Closure: Good job. Your next lesson is about The Physical Self.
 Unpacking the Self

Lesson 4. The Physical Self

Objectives: At the end of this lesson, students are enabled to:

• Identify the stages of life and explain the physical changes that occur during each stage;
• Discuss the concept of heredity and maturation
• Examine the impact of culture on body image and self
• Develop positive body image
Timeframe: 1
week
Introduction:
This lesson identifies and explains the biological and environmental factors that shape the
physical self. It also examines into socio-cultural issues associated with physical well-being.

Abstraction:
The Beginning of Life
Life begins at fertilization. Fertilization is the meeting of the female sex cell and the male sex
cell. These sex cells are developed in the reproductive organs called gonads. The male sex cell is
called spermatozoa (singular: spermatozoon) are produced in the male gonads called testes. On
the other hand, female sex cells are called ova produced in the female gonads known as ovaries.
The fertilized egg cell known as zygote contains all the hereditary potentials from the parents. This
zygote goes to the uterus and continues to grow during gestation period of about 280 days or 36
weeks or 9 months.

Each parent contributes one sex chromosome to the offspring. A male parent may pass either an X
or a Y chromosome while a female always gives the X chromosome. When an X chromosome
comes from the father meets the X chromosome from the mother, the result is a combination of
XX which indicates a female offspring. However, when a father produces a Y chromosome which
pairs with the X chromosome from the mother, the result is a combination of XY indicating a male
offspring.

Both male and female chromosomes contain several thousands of genes. Genes are small particles
in a string-like formation. It is the basic unit of heredity. They are the true carriers of hereditary
characteristics of the parents. Within the gene is a substance called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
which is the code of heredity. It contains information and instructions about the newly created
organism, and programs the traits that should be inherited. Maturation is the unfolding of the
inherent traits.
Heredity involves the transmission of characteristics from biological parents to their offspring
via genes at the time of conception. It is well established that genes inherited from our parents
influence many aspects of our physical development. Genotype is the specific information
embedded within one’s genes; not all genotypes translate to an observed physical characteristic.
It can be determined through blood testing. Phenotype is the physical expression of a particular
trait. It can be directly observed.

Maturation is the orderly and sequential developmental changes which occur when the nervous
system and other bodily structures controlled by our genes. The principle of readiness states that
unless the necessary bodily structures are sufficiently mature, then no amount of practice will
produce the particular behavior.
Stages in the Life Span

An individual undergoes definite stages of development. Each stage, the child experiences
certain developmental characteristics to prepare him for the next.

Table 1. Stages of Human Development

Development Stage Age
Pre-natal period Conception to birth
Infancy Birth to end of the second week
Babyhood End of the second week to end of the second year
Early childhood or pre-school age Two to six years
Late childhood or elementary age Six to ten or twelve years
Puberty or preadolescence Twelve to thirteen or fourteen years
Adolescence Thirteen or fourteen to eighteen years
Early adulthood Eighteen to forty years
Middle age Forty to sixty years
Old age or senescence Sixty years to death

Body Image
Body image is how individual perceives, think, and feel about his/her body and physical
appearance. Appearance refers to everything about a person that others can observe such as height,
weight, skin color, clothes, and hairstyle. Through appearances, an individual is able to show
others the kind of person he or she is (DeLamater & Myers,2012). Feldman (2010) stated that the
age at which puberty begins has implications for the way adolescents feel about themselves as well
as the way others treat them. Body image is related to self-esteem which is a person’s overall
evaluation of his or her own worth,
The way adolescents react to their physical appearance depends in part on sociocultural
factors. The emphasis that peers, parents, or the media put on ideal body types which is slim or
thin leads girls to experience body dissatisfaction (Grabe,Ward, & Hyde, 2008; Dumkley,
Wertheim, & Paxton, 2001). For both boys and girls, bullying and peer pressure are associated
with greater body dissatisfaction (Webb & Zimmer-Gembeck,2014). Televesion, advertising,
music, and movies are full of women who are thin, thus constructing the notion that the ideal body
shape is slim. Girls who have higher dissatisfaction are likely to experience depression, low self-
esteem, and eating disorders (Demello, 2014). These are eating disorders usually experience by
adolescents; anorexia nervosa- the person refuses to eat for fear of gaining weight which results to
starvation and even death; and bulimia nervosa- the person induces purging after binging on large
quantities of food (Feldman,2010).

The importance of beauty

People tend to judge others based on physical appearance. However, physical appearance alone is
not enough to know a person’s true character. It is important to see into a person’s inner thoughts
and feeling- one’s inner self. Above all things physical, it is more important to be beautiful in the
inside.
Some ways to improve your body image and inner self:
1. Smile a lot
 2. Take good care of your health
3. Live a well-balanced life
4. Dress well and be neat
5. Spend some time alone to reflect
6. Be creative and do something new all the time
7. Develop a wholesome attitude toward sex
8. Avoid temptations
9. Respect individuality
10. Make friends
11. Face your fears
12. Be independent
13. Accept things as they are
14. Ask and listen
15. Think positive pray
16. Count your blessings
17. Bethankul

Application:

Exercise 1. Rubrics:
Content – 30
Grammar/spelling – 20
Total = 50 points
Watch the documentary film Life Inside the Womb by Body Atlas. Identify the factors that
may affect the development of the baby inside the womb. What are your insights from the
film? How are you going to apply your insights in understanding your physical self?

Closure: Well done! Congratulate yourself. You have just finished module 1.

References

Macayan, J., Pinugu, J., & Castillo, J. D. (2018). Understanding the Self: Outcome-
Based Module. Quezon City: C&E Publishing, Inc.

Monilla, M., & Ramirez, N. (2018). Understanding the Self. Quezon City: C & E Publishing,
Inc.