Lesson Note on Physics SS1 First

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Notes on Physics SS1 – Edudelight.com

FIRST TERM

SUBJECT: PHYSICS  

   CLASS: SS 1

SCHEME OF WORK PHYSICS 

WEEKS  TOPICS

1          Introduction to Physics; Familiarization of Physics Laboratory

2          Measurement of Mass, Weight, Length and Time;

3.         Motion in Nature, Force, Circular Motion, Centripetal and

Centrifugal Forces

4.         Frictions

5.         Vector and Scalar Quantity, Distance/Displacement, Speed/Velocity,

Acceleration, Distance/Displacement-Time Graph, Speed/Velocity-Time
Graph, equations of uniformly acceleration

6.         Calculations on velocity-time graph.

7.         Density and Relative Density

8.         Upthrust, Archimedes Principle, Law of floatation, Pressure

9.         Work, Energy and power. Work Done in a Force Field, Types of
Energy and Energy Conversion.    

10.       Viscosity

11.       Revision

REFERENCE BOOKS

New School Physics. By Prof. M.W Anyakoha

New System Physics. By Dr. Charles Chow et.al

WEEK ONE

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICS

CONTENT

MEANING OF PHYSICS
FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS
DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

MEANING OF PHYSICS
Physics is the scientific study of matter and energy and how they interact
with each other. This energy can take the form of motion, light, electricity,
radiation, gravity etc. Physics deals with matter on scales ranging from
sub-atomic particles (i.e. the particles that make up the atom and the
particles that make up those particles) to stars and even the entire
galaxies. It can also be defined as a natural science that involves the study
of matter and its motion through space-time, as well as all applicable
concepts, such as energy and force. More broadly, it is the general analysis
of nature, conducted in order to understand how the universe behaves.

Physics is one of the oldest academic disciplines, perhaps the oldest

through its inclusion of astronomy. Over the last two millennia, Physics
had been considered synonymous with Philosophy, Chemistry, and certain
branches of Mathematics and Biology, but during the scientific revolution
in the 16th century, it emerged to become a unique modern science in its
own right. However, in some subject areas such as in mathematical
physics and quantum chemistry, the boundaries of physics remain difficult
to distinguish.

Physics is both significant and influential, in part because advances in its

understanding have often translated into new technologies, but also
because new ideas in Physics often resonate with other sciences,
Mathematics, and Philosophy. For example, advances in the
understanding of electromagnetism or Nuclear physics led directly to the
development of new products which have dramatically transformed
modern-day society, such as television, computers, domestic appliances,
and nuclear weapons; advances in thermodynamics led to the
development of motorized transport; and advances in mechanics inspired
the development of calculus.

In order to understand clearly the fundamental concepts, Physics is

divided into two main branches:

Classical Physics – This consists of the following: mechanics, heat,

optics, wave and sound, electricity and magnetism.
Modern Physics – This covers the aspects of matter energy and their
relations at atomic and sub-atomic levels.

Other fields of Physics are: Geophysics, Astrophysics, Bio-physics, Nuclear

physics, Engineering physics etc.

EVALUATION

1. What do you understand by the term “Physics’’?

2. State the step involved in scientific method?

FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES AND UNIT

Measurements play an important role in Physics. A unit has to be defined
before any kind of measurement can be made.  Different systems of units
have been used in the past. These include the foot – pound – second (FPS)
system, the centimetre – gramme – second (CGS) system, and the metre –
kilogramme – second (MKS) system. The new system which has now
gained universal acceptance is the systeme international d’units, usually
called S.I. units.

Physical quantities are often divided into fundamental quantities and

derived quantities.

FUNDAMENTAL QUANTITIES:
These are the basic quantities that are independent of others and cannot
be defined in terms of other quantities.

They are the basic quantities upon which most (though not all) quantities
depend.

FUNDAMENTAL UNITS
These are the basic unit upon which other units depend. They are the units
of the fundamental quantities.

The three most important basic quantities in Physics are length, mass and
time.

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RESPONSIBLE PARENTHOOD

Length may be defined as the extent of space or distance extended.

Mass is commonly defined as the quantity of matter or material in the

body.
Time is defined as that in which events are distinguishable with reference
to before or after. Examples of fundamental quantities and their units are
shown below:

Table 2.0 Fundamental Quantities and Units

Quantity Unit Unit – abbreviation

Length Metre M

Time Second S

Mass Kilogram Kg

Electric current Ampere A

Temperature Kelvin K

Amount of substance Mole mol

Luminous intensity Candela Cd

DERIVED QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Derived quantities and units are those obtained by some simple
combination of the fundamental quantities and units. They are dependent
on the fundamental quantities and units. Some examples of derived
quantities and units are shown below:

Table 2.1 derived quantities and units

Derived Quantity Derivation Derived unit

Area (A) Length × breadth m2

Volume (V) Length × breath × height m3

Density Kg.m-3

Velocity (V) m.s-1

 Acceleration (a) m.s-2

Force (F) Mass × acceleration Newton (N)

The unit of volume is obtained by multiplying three lengths m x m x m =

m3 pronounced ‘CUBE METRE” or “METRE CUBED”. Density is the ratio of
mass and volume therefore the unit of density is kg/m3 or kgm-3
pronounced “KILOGRAMME PER METRE CUBED.”

Difference between Fundamental and

Derived Units
Fundamental Units Derived Units

They are standard units of They are not standard units of

1.
measurement measurement

They are generally accepted Not all are generally accepted all
2.
all over the world over the world

They form the basis of They are not the basis of

3.
measurement measurement

They are accepted by Though accepted internationally,

4.
international organisations they are formulated by individuals

They are known as S.I. units,

5. They are known as units
i.e. international system

Difference between Fundamental and

Derived Quantities
Fundamental Quantities Derived Quantities

1. They are generally accepted They are just accepted

They are based on They are formulated from

2.
international system international system
 3. They can stand alone They cannot stand alone

4. They have direct calculations Their calculations are derived

They are basic units of They are not basic units of

5.
measurement measurement

DIMENSIONS OF PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

The dimension of a physical quantity is the way it is related to the
quantities of mass, length and time. The dimension of unit mass is M, for
unit length, L and for unit time T. see the table below:

Table 2.2

Quantity Unit Dimension

Mass Kilogramme, kg M

Length Metre, m L

Time T

DIMENSION ANALYSIS OF SOME PHYSICAL

QUANTITIES
1. Density: This is mass  per unit volume

The dimensional equation of density =

                                                      =

Velocity: This is the rate of change of displacement with time.

Velocity =
  =

Acceleration: This is the rate of change of velocity with time.

Acceleration =

   =

Force: This is the product of mass and acceleration.

= Dimension of mass x Dimension of acceleration

= kg × ms-2

= m × LT-2

= MLT-2

Below is a table of a few important physical quantities and their

dimensions:

Table 2.3

Physical Quantity Units Dimensions

Velocity ms-1 LT-1

Acceleration ms-2 LT-2

Force N(ma) MLT-2

Momentum kgms-1 MLT-1

Density kgm-3 ML-3

Pressure Nm-2 ML-1 T-2

EVALUATION

1.         State the dimension of the following quantities;

            (a) Acceleration (b) pressure (c) density

2  From the following quantities given below, list out the derived and
fundamental quantities in a   tabular form: Velocity, mass, weight, length,
volume, density, torque, speed, acceleration, power, energy, temperature,
heat capacity, electric current, relative density

Reading Assignment

New school physics by M.W.Anyakoha, Prof. Pg1-2

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1.         Which of the units of the following physical quantities is not derived
unit?

            (a) Area            (b) Thrust         (c) Pressure      (d) Mass

2.         Which of the following is a fundamental unit?   (a) Kgm−3         (b) m3 
(c) Nm−2           (d)  Kg

3           Which of the following quantities has the same unit as energy?

            (a) Power         (b) Work          (c) Force           (d) Momentum            

4          Which of the following is a derived unit?

            (a) Ampere       (b) Kilogramme (c) Second        (d) Ohm

5          Which of the following is a derived unit?

            (a) Tension       (b) Impulse      (c) Upthrust      (d) Distance

6.         The international agreed system of unit (S.I.) for physical
measurement are

            (a) lb, ft, sec     (b) g, m, sec     (c) kg, m, sec    (d) cm, g, sec

7.         Which of the units of the following physical quantities are derived?

            I. Area; II. Thrust;        III. Pressure;    IV. Mass

            (a) I, II, III and IV        (b) I, II and III only      (c) I, II and IV only       (d) I
and IV only

THEORY

1.         State the dimension of the following;

            (a) stress(Force/Area) (b) Energy(force x perpendicular distance)

            (c) Momentum (mass x velocity)

2           Determine the dimension of the following physical quantities.

(a) Impulse       (b) potential energy      (c) pressure      (d) young’s modulus

3      At what respective value of a, b, and c would the unit of impulse be

dimensionally equivalent to    MaLbTc?

4.         The dimension of pressure is given as MxLyTz, deduce the values of

x, y, and z. (Hint: Pressure= Force/Area, the unit is Nm-2)

Notes on Physics SS1 – Edudelight.com

WEEK TWO

TOPIC: MEASUREMENT OF MASS,

WEIGHT, LENGTH & TIME
CONTENT
 Measurement of Length
Measurement of Time
Measurement of Mass
Measurement of Volume

TECHNIQUES AND MEASUREMENT

Measurement is an important aspect of physics or other sciences. No fact
in science is accepted, no law is established, unless it can be exactly
measured and quantified. As physics is based on exact measurements,
every such measurement requires two things; first a number or quantity,
secondly a unit, e.g. 20 metres as the length of a table tennis’s board.

MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
THE METRE RULE: The metre rule is often used to measure distances of a
few centimetres to some metres, for example, the dimensions of a table or
room. When longer distances are involved, tape rule can be used. 0.1 cm
or 1mm is the smallest graduation on a metre rule.

CALLIPERS:
Callipers are used to measure distances on solid objects where an
ordinary metre rule cannot be applied directly. They are made of hinged
steel jaws which are closed (in the case of external callipers) until they
touch the desired part of the object being measured. The distance
between the jaws is then measured on a graduated scale such as the
metre rule.

THE VERNIER CALLIPERS

These can measure length more accurately than the metre rule. To
measure small lengths, to the nearest 0.1mm, e.g the thickness of a metre
rule, the internal and external diameters of a tube, or the diameter of a
rod, we use the vernier callipers. The instrument has two sets of jaws and
two scales, the main and the vernier scales

THE MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE

This instrument measures even smaller lengths (e.g diameter of a wire)
than the vernier callipers. It has a higher reading accuracy and can read up
to 0.01mm or 0.001cm. It can be used to measure the thickness of a piece
of paper, the diameter of a small ball (e.g. pendulum bob).

MEASUREMENT OF TIME
The time internal between two events is the difference between the times
when the event occurred when the time internal is of the order of minutes
or hours, clocks and watches can be used. These are the instruments
which indicate the time of the day. For shorter time intervals of the order
of seconds, stop clocks or stop watches are used.

EVALUATION

1. Define (a) length (b) time.

2. List five instrument for measuring length.

MEASUREMENT OF MASS
The mass of a body is a measure of the quantity of matter it contains.
Mass is usually measured by comparing it with standard masses, using a
balance.

There are various types e.g. beam or chemical balance, lever balance, a
dial spring, direct reading balance etc

WEIGHT: of a body is the force acting on the body due to the earth’s
gravitational pull. One instrument used for measuring weight is the spring
balance. Weight is measured in Newtons.

Differences between Mass and Weight

Mass Weight

Mass is the quantity of matter Weight occurs due to the force of

1.
present in a body. gravity acting upon an object.

2. Mass is constant. Weight varies.

 3. Mass is a scalar quantity. Weight is a vector quantity.

The unit of weight is the Newton

4. The unit of mass is the kg.
(N).

Mass is measured by chemical Weight is measured by spring

5.
or beam balance. balance.

The principles of moment is The instruments for measuring

6.
applied to obtain the mass. weight obeys Hook’s law.

Relationship Between mass & weight         

W=mg                 

Where,  W = weight(N) m=mass(kg)                g= acceleration due to

gravity(m/s2)

MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME
GRADUATED CYLINDER: A graduated cylinder can be used for
measurement of volumes of liquids. It is accurate to the nearest 1cm3. It
can also be used in measuring the volume of irregular shaped objects e.g
stone, with the aid of the displacement or eureka can.

HOW TO READ A VERNIER CALLIPER

In reading a vernier calliper, the whole number (digit before the decimal
point) and the first digit after the decimal point are read from the main
scale while the second digit after the decimal point is read from the vernier
scale (sliding scale). This is the point or mark that coincides with that of the
main scale.

See example below:

Example 3.1
Fig. 3.3

Solution

What is the reading on the main scale = 4.30

Reading on the vernier scale = 0.07 i.e. point of coincidence = 0.07

\ Total reading on the scale = 4.30

 = 0.07

    4.37cm

Note: The last digit before the end “A” of vernier inscribed on the main
scale is 4.3 and the point of coincidence is 7 which is taken as 0.07. The
rough end of the main scale indicates continuity, i.e the main scale is still
extended.

Example 3.2 (How to read the micrometer scale)

What is the reading on the micrometer screw gauge shown below?

Fig. 3.4

Solution
Reading on the sleeve = 17.00

Reading on the thimble = 11 x 0.01

                                                  = 0.11

Reading on the scale = 17.1mm   or 1.711cm

EVALUATION

1. Differentiate between mass & weight

2. The weight of an object of mass 5000g is ……. (take g = 10m/s2)

Reading Assignment

New school physics by M.W.Anyakoha, Prof. Pg3-11

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1.         Which of the following instrument is suitable for taking the most
accurate measurement of the internal diameter of a test-tube?   (a) Metre
rule   (b) A pair of callipers (c) A micrometer screw gauge  (d) A tape rule

2.         Which of the following statements about mass and weight of a body
is not correct? Its (a) mass is a scalar quantity  (b) weight is a function of
the gravitational pull on it (c) mass on earth and on the moon is the same
(d) weight at the equator and at the poles is the same

3.         The diagram below represents a portion of a micrometer screw

guage. What is the reading? (a) 3.72mm (b) 3.50mm (c) 3.30mm (d) 3.25mm

4.         The weight of a body is measured with

            (a) spring balance\ (b) beam balance  (c) chemical balance      (d)
lever balance

5.         Which instrument is best for measuring small quantity of liquid?

            (a) Burette        (b) Pipette        (c) Cylinder       (d) Beaker

6.         What is the dimension of force?            (a) MLT−2 (b) ML2T (c) ML2T−2
(d) MLT−3

7.         The diagram below represents a portion of a vernier calliper. What

is its reading?

            (a) 4.36cm (b) 4.43cm (c) 5.53cm (d) 5.44cm

8.         Which of the following instruments is the best for measuring the
diameter of the constantan wire? (a) Callipers   (b) Mere rule    (c)
Micrometer screw guage      (d) watt meter

9.         Hydrometer is an instrument used for measuring

            (a) relative humidity     (b) dew point   (c) relative density        (d)
attitude

10.       What is the reading on the instrument? (a) 5.25mm (b) 10.16mm (C)
10.15mm

(d) 5.10mm

THEORY

1.         Mention the instrument that is suitable to measure the following
quantities;

            (a) The weight of a body                         (b) The internal diametre of a
test tube

            (c) The mass of a body                         (d) The dimension of a

compound

            (e) The length of a table                       (f) The diameter of a wire

2.         The diagrams below represents the  portion of a micro meter screw
gauge. What are the readings?

            (a)

            (b)

3.         The length of a piece of glass block was measured by means of a
vernier calliper as shown below. The length of the glass block is?

4.         The diagram below represents a portion of a vernier calliper. What
is the reading?
5.         The internationally agreed system of units  (SI) for physical
measurements are­­______________,  ­            __________________, and  ­-
_____________________.

6.         Mention three differences between mass and weight

Notes on Physics SS1 – Edudelight.com

WEEK THREE

TOPIC: MOTION IN NATURE

CONTENT

Definition of Motion
Causes of Motion
Circular Motion
Centripetal Acceleration & Force

FUNDAMENTALS OF MOTION

Many scientists have studied motion and its properties because of its
importance to life. The Italian, Galileo Galilei, who lived from 1564 to 1642,
did the first systematic study of motion. The science of the study of motion
done by Galileo is known as kinematics. Isaac Newton was another
scientist who did detailed work on the study of motion.

Motion involves a change of position of a body with time. It also involves

how things move and what makes them to move. Kinematics is the
description of how objects move without regard to forces causing their
motion, and dynamics deals with why objects move as they do.

TYPES OF MOTION

There are four basic – types of motion. There are as follows.

 1. TRANSLATIONAL MOTION:- When a body moves from a point A, along
the line AB to another point B (see Fig. 4.1), we say that the body is
translated from A to B, and the motion performed is known as
translational motion. For example when an aeroplane flies from
Abuja to Lagos or a car travels from Lagos to Enugu

A                                                                                              B

Fig. 4.1 A horizontal line

Fig 4.2 Random Motion

ROTATIONAL MOTION: This is the motion of a body which travels in a

circle or ellipse and rotates about an axis. Examples are (i) the
rotation of the earth about its axis (ii) the rotation of blades of an
electric fan about its axis    (iii) the rotation of a tap about a central
axis.

Fig. 4.3 The earth rotating on its axis

RELATIVE MOTION

If two bodies, A and B are moving on a straight line, the velocity of A

relative to B is found by adding the Velocity of B revered to the velocity of
A. For instance, if a car traveling on a straight road at 100km/hr passes a
bus going in the same direction at 60km/hr, the velocity of the car relative
to the bus is (-60+100) = 40km/hr. If the car and the bus are traveling in
opposite direction with the same velocities of 100km/r and 60km/hr
respectively, the velocity of the car relative to the bus is ( -(-60) + 100) = (60
+100) = 160 km/hr.

NB: When the velocities are not in the same straight line, the
parallelograms law should be used to add this since velocities are vectors,
and their magnitudes and direction must be taken into consideration.

CAUSES OF MOTION

We have been describing the motion of a body without regard to what

causes the motion. A block of wood resting on a table will remain at rest
until it is pushed or pulled by an agent. Such an agent that change or tends
to change the state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line of a body is
called force.

TYPES OF FORCE

There are two main types of forces, contact force and force field.

1. CONTACT FORCE: This may be regarded as a force which exists

between surfaces in contact. It includes pushing and pulling forces,
frictional forces, reaction and tension forces in strings and wires.
2. FORCE FIELDS: These are forces whose sources do not require
contact with the body to which they are applied. Examples are
gravitational force, electrostatic and magnetic forces

EVALUATION

1.         Explain the types of motion.

2.         Differentiate between contact & field force.

SIMPLE IDEA OF CIRCULAR MOTION

An object moving with a constant speed along a circular path is said to

have a uniform circular motion. Examples are the moon circling the earth,
the planets moving round the sun, earth moving round the sun, stone tied
to a string which is whirled in a horizontal vertical circle.
Circular motion has three characteristics:

constant speed  (2)  changing or variable velocity (3) centripetal

acceleration.

The acceleration that is directed towards the centre of the circular path is
known as centripetal acceleration. Its magnitude a is given by

Where V is the uniform speed and r is the radius of the circular path.

Centripetal force FT is defined as that inward force required to keep an

object moving with a constant speed in a circular path

The centripetal force is given by

 where m is the mass of the object moving with a uniform velocity v in a

circular path or radius r.

Centrifugal force: The centrifugal force is the reaction force that tends to
move a body away from the centre. In other words, it acts in opposite
direction to the centripetal force

Centrifuge: A centrifuge is a device used to separate particles in

suspension from the liquid in which they are contained.

EVALUATION

1. Differentiate between centripetal & centrifugal force.

2. A stone tied to a string is made to revolve in a horizontal circle of
radius 4m with an angular speed of 2 rad/s. With what is tangential
velocity will the stone move off  the circle if the string cuts?

READING ASSIGNMENT
www.google.com(click on google search, type “circular motion”,click on
search)  &  – New school physics by M.W.Anyakoha,Phd. Pg 12-27

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1.         Which of the following types of motion does a body undergo when
moving in a haphazard manner?  (a) Random motion           (b) Translatory
motion (c) Rotational motion (d) Vibratory motion      

2.         What type of motion does the skin of a talking drum perform when
it is struck with a drum stick?        (a) Rotational        (b) Translational          
(c) Random      (d) Vibratory

3.         The motion of the prongs of sounding turning fork is

            (a) rotational    (b) vibratory     (c) vibratory and rotational       (d)
random      

4.         A body moves with a constant speed but has an acceleration. This is
possible if it

            (a) moves in a straight line       (b) moves in a circle      (c) is oscillating

            (d) is in equilibrium       (e) has a varying

5.         A body moves along a circular path with uniform angular speed of
0.6rads−1 and at a constant speed of 3.0ms−1. Calculate the acceleration of
the body towards the centre of the circle.

            (a) 25.0ms−2    (b) 5.4ms−2      (c) 5.0ms−2       (d) 1.8ms−2

6.         The angular speed of an object describing a circle of radius 4m with

a linear constant speed of 10ms−1 is (a) 40rads−1                       (b)
14rads−1     (c) 2.5rads−1     (d) 0.40rad−1

7.         A body moving at a constant speed accelerates when it is in (a)

rectilinear motion
(b) translational motion (c) circular motion       (d) vibrational motion

8.         The study of motion without involving the force which causes the
motion is called

            (a) kinematics   (b) inertia         (c) electromagnetic       (d) dynamics   

9.         The magnitude of the force required to make an object of mass M

move with speed V in a circular path of radius R is given by the expression

            (a)

   (b)

         (c)

             (d)

10.        The following are types of motion except (A) random motion (b)
rotational motion (c) nuclear motion (d)   oscillatory
motion.                                                                                                   

 11.       The motion of the prongs of a sounding turning fork is (a) random 
(b) translational (c) rotational     (d)
vibratory                                                                     

12.       A body moving in a  circle at constant speed has

1. a velocity tangential to the circle

2. a constant kinetic energy
3. an acceleration directed towards the circumference of the circle.
Which of the statement above are correct

(a) i & ii only (b) ii & iii only (c) I & iii only (d) i, ii & iii                              
 13.       A loaded test – tube which floats upright in water is carefully and
slightly depressed and then      released. which of the following best
describes the subsequent motion of the test tube (a) circular (b) rotational
(c) random (d) oscillatory.                                                                  

   14.    Which of the following correctly gives the relationship between

linear speed v & angular velocity w of a body moving uniformly (a) v=w r (b)
v=w2r (c) v=wr2 (d) v=w/r

THEORY

1.         Mention and describe two practical situations where centripetal

force must be taken into  account.

2.         A body weighing 100N with a speed of 5ms-1 in a horizontal circular

path of radius 5m. Calculate the magnitude of the centripetal force acting
on the body (g= 10ms-2). (WAEC, 1999)

3.         A piece of stone attached to one end of spring is whirled round in a

horizontal circle of radius 7m. When the constant speed of the stone is
40ms-1, calculate the centripetal acceleration.

4.         A keke (tricycle) moves around Mary Slessor roundabout of radius

50m, at a constant speed of 20ms-1, find (a) Centripetal acceleration (b)
Centripetal force           

5.         A particle of mass 100kg is fixed to the tip of a fan blade which
rotates with angular velocity of 100rads-1. If the radius of the blade is 0.2m,
find the centripetal force.

6.      A body of mass 5kg moving in a circular path with a velocity of 5m/s
for 10 complete revolution within 4s. If the radius of the circular path is
30m. Find (a) the centripetal force (b) the centripetal acceleration (c) angle
subtended in radian (d) angular velocity

Notes on Physics SS1 – Edudelight.com

WEEK FOUR
TOPIC: FRICTION

CONTENT

Definition of Friction
Laws Governing Solid Friction
Advantages & Disadvantages of Friction
Reducing Friction

DEFINITION OF FRICTION

Friction (Fr) is defined as a force which acts at the surface of separation

between two objects or two bodies in contact and tend to oppose the
motion of one over the other. It is simply force of opposition. We have two
types of friction:

(a) Static friction, Fs

(b) Dynamic friction, Fd. Fs is greater than Fd

LAWS OF SOLID FRICTION

1. Friction opposes the relative motion of two surfaces in contact.

2. It is independent of the area of the surface of contact.
3. It depends on the nature of the surface.
4. It is proportional to normal reaction (R).
5. It is independent of relative velocity between the surfaces

Fr α R

Fr = μR………………….1.

 where Fr-frictional force   μ-coefficient of friction  &  R-normal reaction

                                       W  

                                             R                                                             

                                     F                                                                

The weight ( W) of an object is acting vertically downward.. the normal

reaction (R ) is always acting perpendicular to the plane.. the normal
reaction is equal to the weight.

               R                                          

                                                      R                           

                                                                                 W

                  W                                                                                              R              

W

W = mg

At equilibrium, R = mg, this implies that,

R = W                                      [ g  is  acceleration due to gravity   = 10m/s2]

R = mg

F = μ mg                                                         

Fr = μmg……………………   2

                R                             
Fr                                                      P   

                       W         

Case one: if the force  P is applied, and the object  is stationary.

P – Fr = ma

Since no motion a = 0

P – F Fr = O

P = Fr   …………………….. 3

Case two:  when the force P is applied and the body moves.

 P – Fr = ma

P = Fr + ma

But Fr = μmg

P =  μmg + ma

P =  m [  μg + a ]    …………………………….. 4

For an object on a smooth inclined plane

Case one:  if the body moves upward, a > 0

P – mgsinø = ma

P = mgsinø  + ma   …………………………. 5

Case two:  if the body is stationary  a = 0

P – mgsinø = ma

P – mgsinø = 0

P  =  mgsinø   ……………………………… 6

Case three: if the body slides down the plane, a >0

mgsinø – P = ma

P = ma + mgsinø ………………………… 7

 For a body on a rough inclined plane.

 P – mgsinø – Fr = ma

But Fr =  μmg

P –  mgsinø – μmg = ma  ………………………. 8

Also, R = mg cosø

P –  mgsinø – μ mg cosø = ma  …………………………… 9

If the body moves upward the incline plane

μ = tanӨ………………………………….. 10

EVALUATION
 1. Differentiate between static and dynamic friction.
2. State the laws governing solid friction.

ADVANTAGES OF FRICTION

(1) It makes walking and running possible.

(2) It enables gripping of belt in machines possible.

(3) It enables nails to stay in the wall when driven.

(4) It stops tires from slipping.

(5) Enable cars to stop when breaks are applied.

(6) Enables human to use mouse in surfing web.

DISADVANTAGES OF FRICTION

(1) Causes wear and tear.

(2) Causes the efficiency of the machines.

(3) Causes a lot of energy to be consumed by the machine.

(4) Causes loss of resources.

REDUCING FRICTION

1.  Lubricating surfaces with grease, oil etc.

2.  Using ball or roller on wheels.

3.  Smoothing or polishing the surface.

4.  By streamlining.

EVALUATION
 1. State three (3) advantages & two (2) disadvantages of friction.
1. State three (3) ways of reducing friction.

READING ASSIGNMENT

www.google.com (click on google search, type “what is friction”, click on

search) New school physics by M.W .Anyakoha,Phd. Pg 19 – 28.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1.         Friction depends on the area of surface in contact (a) true (b) false
(c) true & false (d) none of the above

2.         A metal block of mass 8kg lies on a rough horizontal platform. If the
horizontal resistive force is 10N, find the coefficient of static friction
(g=10m/s2) (a) 0.25 (b) 0.125 (c) 0.8 (d) 0.124

3.         Which of the statement is correct (a) static friction is less than
dynamic friction (b) static friction equals dynamic friction (c) static friction
is greater than dynamic friction (d) none of the above

4.         A metal block of mass 0.5kg lies on a rough horizontal plane, what is
the normal reaction (g=10m/s2)(a) 50N (b) 0.05N (c) 500N (d) 5N

5.         If the angle between the incline length and the horizontal platform
of an incline plane is 300 calculate the coefficient of friction (a) 0.542 (b)
0.577 (c) 0.467 (d) 0.866

THEORY

1.         Define friction and state the laws governing solid friction.

2.         A body of weight 6N rest on a plane inclined at an angle of 300 to

the horizontal (a) what force keeps it sliding down the plane? (b) what is
the coefficient of friction?

3.           State two

            (i) Laws of friction

            (ii) Advantages of friction.

(iii) Methods of reducing friction (WAEC,2006)

A force, 10N drags a mass 10kg on a horizontal table with an

acceleration of 0.2ms-2. If the acceleration due to gravity is 10ms-2.
Calculate the coefficient of friction between the moving mass and the
table. (UME,1998)

Notes on Physics SS1 – Edudelight.com

WEEK FIVE AND SIX

TOPIC: VECTOR & SCALAR QUANTITY, DISTANCE/DISPLACEMENT,

SPEED/VELOCITY, ACCELERATION, DISTANCE/DISPLACEMENT –TIME
GRAPH, SPEED/VELOCITY–TIME GRAPH

CONTENT

Scalar & Vector Quantity

Distance & Displacement
Speed & Velocity
Acceleration & Retardation
Distance/Displacement – Time Graph
Speed/Velocity – Time Graph

SCALAR & VECTOR QUANTITY

A scalar quantity is defined as a quantity that has magnitude only but no

direction. Typical examples of scalar quantities are time, distance, speed,
temperature, volume, work, power, electric potential etc.  A scalar quantity
or parameter has no directional component, only magnitude.  For
example, the units for time (minutes, days, hours, etc.) represent an
amount of time only and tell nothing of direction.  Additional examples of
scalar quantities are density, mass, and energy.
A vector quantity is defined as a quantity that has both magnitude and
direction. Typical examples of vector quantities are velocity, displacement,
acceleration, force, momentum, moment, electric field intensity etc

POSITION

Position is referred to as the point in which an object can be located or the

place object is found. The position of an object on a plane can be given by
its co-ordinates, i.e., the signed distances of the point from two
perpendicular axes, OX and OY

                                                            Y

 0  

                                                                                                      X               

Fig. 6.0 Cartesian co-ordinates

The

 – co-ordinates is called abscissa while the

 – co-ordinate is called ordinate. The

 co-ordinate is written first, before the

 – co-ordinates, i.e. (X,Y)

DISTANCE AND DISPLACEMENT

Distance: This is the gap between any two positions in space. It is denoted
by S and measured in metre(m)  it is a scalar quantity and is calculated as
the product of average speed and time.

Thus, distance = average speed X time. 

Displacement: This is the distance covered in a specific direction. it is a

vector quantity measured in metre(m). The direction of motion of bodies
can be found by using the compass.

Displacement = average velocity X time. It is denoted by X

The Use of Bearing to Indicate Direction and Displacement

The bearing of an object from the origin is the angle which it makes with
the north pole in the clockwise sense. It is specified in two ways:

1. The use of cardinal points: N – North, S – South, W – West, and E –

East
2. The use of three digit notation. Students should note that bearing
which are located by cardinal points are with respect or reference to
the North and South.

NW                    N                            NE    

W                                                             E            SW             S                 SE  

Fig. 6.1 cardinal points and their directions

SPEED AND VELOCITY

Speed: Speed is defined as the rate of change of distance moved in an

unspecified direction or the rate of change of distance per unit time in an
unspecified direction. It is measured in metre per second (m/s). It  is a
scalar quantity.

The mathematical expression of speed is

Average Speed: Average speed is defined as the ratio of the total distance
travelled to the total time taken. It is a scalar quantity and measured in
m/s or ms-1

This, average speed =

When a body covers equal distance in equal time intervals, no matter how
small the time interval may be, it is said to be a uniform speed or
constant speed.

Velocity: Velocity is defined as the rate of change of distance moved in a

specific direction or the rate of change of displacement. Velocity is a vector
quantity. For instance, it would be easy and correct to say that a car
travelling at a steady speed of 50km/h in a direction of N40oE has a
velocity of 50km/h, N40oE.

 velocity =  

vel
ocity
v(m/s
)
disp
lacem
ent
x(m)

time
(sec)
Uniform velocity
 time (sec)

Fig 6.2 Uniform Velocity

Uniform (constant) velocity: An object is said to undergo (constant)

velocity, if the rate of change of displacement is constant, no matter how
small the interval may be.

Example 1:

A train moves with a speed of 54km/h for one quarter minute. Find the
distance travelled by the train.

Solution:

            Speed   =    54km/h    =   15m/s

            Time     =    ¼ min     =            ¼ × 60  =  15s

            Distance     =    speed (m/s)  ×  time (s)

                               =   15(m/s)  ×  15(s)                    

       =   225m

ACCELERATION & RETARDATION

Acceleration is defined as the increasing rate of change of velocity. It is

measured in m/s2.
Acceleration (a) = Increasing Velocity change

                                      Time taken                .   ……………………………………5.

When the velocity of a moving body increases by equal amount in equal

intervals of time, no matter how small the time intervals may be, it is said
to move with uniform acceleration.

Retardation is defined as the decreasing rate of change of velocity. It is

measured in m/s2.It is also known as deceleration or negative acceleration

Retardation (ar) = Decreasing Velocity Change

                               Time Taken               

EQUATION OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

S = (v+u) t                        ………………………………………………………7

          2

v = u + at                        ……………………………………………………….8

v2 = u2 + 2 aS                    ……………………………………………………….9

S = ut + ½ at2                   ……………………………………………………….10

Equations (7) to (10) are called equations of uniformly accelerated motion

and could be used to solve problems associated with uniformly
accelerated motion

 where u- initial velocity( m/s), v – final velocity (m/s), a – acceleration

(m/s2), s – distance covered and t – time (m). 

Example 2

A car moves from rest with an acceleration of 0.2mls2 . Find its velocity
when it has moved a distance of 50m.
Solution:

a = 0.2mls2 , S = 50m, u = 0m/s , v = ?

v2 = u2 + 2 as

v2 = 02 + (2×0.2×50) = 20

v = √20 m/s

EVALUATION

1. State the differences & similarity between speed &

velocity.                                                              2.          A car has a uniform
velocity of 108km/hr. How far does it travel in ½ minute?

GRAPHS

The motion of an object is best represented or described with graphs.

These graphs are

1. Distance- time
2. Displacement – time
3. Velocity – time

Distance – time

time (sec)

0, 0  

time
(sec)
 DX  

In a distance-time graph, its slope or gradient gives the speed.

dis
place
ment
x(m)
dis
place
ment
(m)

time (sec)

time (sec)

            (i) Uniform speed                                                          (ii) Non-uniform

speed

Fig. 6: Distance-time graph

Gradient/slope  =          speed   =   

Displacement – time graph

dis
place
ment
x(m)
disp
lacem
ent
x(m)
A displacement-time graph could be linear or curved. For a linear graph,
the gradient gives the velocity.

time (sec)

time
(sec)
a) Non-uniform velocity

Fig. 6.4 Displacement-time graph

Gradients/slope =  velocity (v)  =    

Velocity – time graph

The velocity-time graph is more useful than any of the two graphs
described above because it gives more useful information concerning the
motion of objects. The following information can be obtained from the
graphs (i) acceleration (ii) retardation  (iii) distance   (iv) average speed.

The motion of objects can form shapes such as square, triangle,

trapezium, rectangle or a combination of two or more shapes. Thus, the
sum of the areas of the shapes formed corresponds to the distance
moved, covered or travelled by the objects.

Example 3

A motor car accelerates for 10secs to attain a velocity of 20m/s. It

continues with uniform velocity for a further 20 seconds and then
decelerates so that it stops in 20 seconds. Calculate (i) Acceleration  (ii)
Deceleration  (iii) The distance travelled.

i)         

                    or        
20    = 

A     =  

ii)         Deceleration = 

iii)         Using area of trapezium

            ½ × (AB + OC) h      =     ½ × (20 + 50) 20               

        =  ½ × (70) × 20           =     700m

Example 4

A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly until it reaches a velocity
of 30mls after 5 seconds.  It travels with uniform velocity for 15 seconds
and is then brought to rest in 10s with a uniform retardation. Determine
(a) the acceleration of the car (b) The retardation  (c) The distance covered
after 5s (d) The total distance covered (use both graphical and analytical
method).

The velocity – time diagram for the journey is shown above, from this
diagram

 a.     the acceleration = slope of OA

= AE / EO

= (30-0) /(5-0)=30/5

= 6mls2

  b.      the retardation = slope of BC = CB / CD

= (0-30) / (30-20) = -30/10

= -3mls2  (the negative sign indicate that the body is retarding)

  c.    Distance traveled after 5s   = area of A E O

                                                 = ½ x b x h

                                                = ½ x 5 x 30

                                                = 75m

Total distance covered  = area of the trapezium OABC

= ½ (AB + OC) AE

= ½ (15 + 30) 30

= 675m.

Using equations of motion.

1. U = O, V = 3, t = 5

V=u+t

a = v-u/t = 30 – 0 / 5

a = 30/5 = 6ms-2

a o in

a = v – u / t   = 0-30 / 10

a = -3 mls2

  (c) S = ( u + v)  5

                 2
                 = 30 / 2 x 5

                 = 75m

 (d) To determine the total distance travelled,  we need to find the various
distance for the three stages of the journey and then add them.

for the 1st part              S= 75m  from (c)

for the 2nd stage where it moves with uniform velocity.

                                    S = vt

                                    = 30 x 15

                                    = 450m

for the last stage S = ½ (u + v) t

                                    = ½ (30 + 0) 10

                                    = 150m.

                   Total distance = 75 + 450 + 100 = 675m.

EVALUATION

1. A train slows from 108km/hr with uniform retardation of 5mls2. How

long will it take to reach 18km/hr and what is the distance covered?.
2. Why is velocity – time more useful than displacement time graph?

READING ASSIGNMENT

www.google.com (click on google search, type “ distance & displacement ”,

click on search) & New school physics by M.W.Anyakoha,Ph D  Pg 14 – 18

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1.         A body which is uniformly retarded comes to rest in 10s after
travelling a distance of 20m. Calculate its initial velocity (a) 0.5 ms−1  (b)
2.0ms−1  (c) 4.0ms−1     (d) 20.0 ms−1  (e) 200.0 ms−1

2.         The distance travelled by a particle starting from rest is plotted

against the square of the time elapsed from the commencement of the
motion. The resulting graph is linear. The sped of the graph is a measure
of   (a) initial displacement  (b) initial velocity  (c) acceleration  (d) speed 

3.         Which is the in correct formula for a body accelerating for a body
accelerating uniformly? (a)

            (b)

 (c)

(d)

      (e)

4.         The slope of a displacement-time graph is equal to

            (a) acceleration   (b) uniformly velocity   (c) uniform speed  (d)
instantaneous speed

5.         A body moving with uniform acceleration has two points (5, 15) and
(20, 60) on the velocity-time graph of its motion. Calculate (a) 0.25 ms−2
(b) 3.00 ms−2 (c) 4.00 ms−2 (d) 9.00ms−2

6.         A moving object is said to have uniform acceleration if its (a)

displacement decreases at a constant rate  (b) speed is directly
proportional to time (c) velocity increases by equal amount in equal time
intervals      (d) velocity varies inversely with time
7.         The diagram shows a velocity-time graph of the motion of a car.
What is the total distance covered after the journey? (a) 75m (b) 150m (c)
300m (d) 375m

8.         The area under a velocity-time graph represents           (a) final

velocity attained           (b) direct covered            (c) acceleration (D)
workdone

9.         A body accelerators uniformly from rest at 2ms−2. Calculate its

velocity after travelling 9m.       (a) 36 ms−1            (b) 18 ms−1      (c) 6
ms−1         (d) 4.5 ms−1

10.       A moving object is said to have uniform acceleration if its

            (a) displacement decreases at a constant rate   (b) speed is directly

proportional to time (c) velocity increases by equal amount in equal time
intervals            (d) velocity varies inversely with time

THEORY

1.         A body moving with uniform acceleration a, has two points (5, 15)
and (20, 60) on the velocity-time graph of its motion. Calculate the
acceleration a.

2.         Two points on a velocity- time graph coordinates (5s, 10ms-1) and
(20s, 20ms-1). Calculate the mean acceleration between the two points.

3.         A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly for 5s until it attains
a velocity of 30ms-1. It then travels with uniform velocity for 15s before
decelerating uniformly to rest in 10s;

            (i)  Sketch a graph of the motion

            (ii) Using the graph above, calculate the

            (a) Acceleration during the first 5s

            (b) Deceleration during the last 10s

            (c) Total distance covered through the motion

4.         A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly for 10s, until it
attains a velocity of 25m/s, it then travels with uniform velocity for 20s
before decelerating uniformly to rest in 5s.

(i) Calculate the deceleration during the last 5s

(ii) Calculate the acceleration during the first 10s

(iii) Sketch a graph of the motion and calculate the total distance covered
throughout the motion.

5.         (a) Using a suitable diagram, explain how the following can be
obtained from a velocity-time graph

            (i) Acceleration              (ii) Retardation (iii) Total distance

(b) Show that the displacement of a body moving with uniform

acceleration a is given by S = ut + 1/2at2, where u is the velocity of the body
at time t=0

(c) A particle moving in a straight line with uniform deceleration has a

velocity of  40m/s at a point P, 20m/s at a point Q and comes to rest at a
point R, where QR=50m. Calculate the:

            (i) Distance PQ (ii) Time taken to cover PQ (iii) Time taken to cover PR
(WAEC, 1990)

6.         (a) What is meant by the statement the acceleration of free fall due
to gravity on the equator is 9.78ms-2

            (b) State two factors that affect the value of the acceleration due to
gravity.(WAEC,2006)

7.         Using suitable diagram, explain how the following can be obtained
from a velocity- time graph: (a)Acceleration (b) Total distance covered       
(c) A body at rest is given an initial uniform acceleration of 6.0ms-2 for 20s
after which the acceleration is reduced to 4.0ms-2 for the next 10s. The
body maintains the speed attained for 30s. Draw the velocity-time graph of
the motion using the information provided above. From the graph,
calculate the:

(i) Maximum speed attained during the motion

(ii) Total distance travelled during the first 30s

(iii) Average speed during the same time interval as in (ii) above (WAEC,
2009)

8.         (a) Sketch a distance-time graph for a particle moving  in a straight

line:

            (i) Uniform speed (ii) Variable speed (NECO, 1010)

            (b) A body starts from rest and travels distances of 120, 300, and
800m in successive equal    time intervals of 12s. During each interval the
body is uniformly accelerated.

            (i) Calculate the velocity of the body at the end of each successive
interval.

            (ii) Sketch the velocity- time graph of the motion. (WAEC, 2010)

9.         (a) Explain the terms: uniform acceleration and average speed.

(b) A body at rest is given an initial uniform acceleration of 8.0ms-2 for 30s
after which the acceleration is reduced to 5.0ms-1 for the next 20s. The
body maintained the speed attained for 60s after which it is brought to
rest in 20s.Draw the velocity-time graph of the motion using the
information given above.

            (c) Using the graph, calculate the:

            (i) Maximum speed during the motion.

            (ii) Average retardation as the body is being brought to rest.

            (iii) Total distance travelled during the first 50s.

            (iv) Average speed during the same interval as in (ii) above ( WAEC,
1991)

10.       (a) State two reasons why the acceleration due to gravity varies on
the surface of the earth. (NECO, 2008)           

(b) State the difference between centripetal and centrifugal force.(NECO,

2011)

11.       (i) Define velocity and acceleration

            (ii)List two physical quantities that can be deduced from a velocity-
time graph.

              Define the following  terms; (a) average speed (b) Instantaneous
velocity

(c) A car travels at an average speed of 20ms-1. Calculate the distance

covered in 1hour

1. Starting from rest, a vehicle accelerates at 2m/s2 for 5secs it then

travels for 5secs at the velocity, Vo reached and is brought to rest
with a uniform retardation after the next 5s.
1. Sketch the velocity-time graph for the journey
1. Calculate the value of Vo,
1. What is the retardation
1. The total distance covered

WEEK SEVEN

TOPIC: DENSITY & RELATIVE DENSITY

CONTENT
 Definition of Density
Determination of Density
Relative Density
Determination of Relative Density of Solids  & Liquid

DEFINITION OF DENSITY

The density of a substance is the mass per unit volume of the substance.

Density = mass of a given substance

                     Volume of the substance

Density is scalar quantity& measured in kgm-3 (kilogram per cubic meter)

Determination of Density

The determination of density involves the determination of a mass and a

volume. The mass can be found by weighing. The density of a substance
can be determined using a graduated density bottle.

Relative Density

Relative density is also known as specific gravity. Relative density of a

substance is defined as the density of the substance per density of water.

            R.D = Density of the substance

                        Density of water

R.D is also equal to the ratio weight of a substance to weight of an equal

volume of water. As weight is proportional to mass

 R.D = mass of substance

            mass of equal volume of water

Determination of R.D of Solid (e.g. Sand)

Mass of empty bottle = m1

Mass of bottle + sand = m2

Mass of bottle + sand + water = m3

Mass of bottle + water only= m4

Mass of sand = m2 – m1

Mass of water added to sand = m3 –m2

Mass of water filling the bottle = m4 – m1

Mass of water having the same volume as sand = (M4-M1) – (M3-M2)

Relative density =            Mass of sand

                                    Mass of equal volume of water

        R.D =       m2 – m1

                 (m4 – m1) – (m3 -m2 )

EVALUATION

1. Differentiate between density & relative density

2. A glass block of length 100cm width 60cm and thickness 20cm has a
mass of 4000g.

calculate the density of the glass

Determination of R.D of Liquid

mass of empty density bottle = m1

mass of bottle filled with water = m2

mass of bottle filled with liquid = m3

R.D of liquid = m3 – m1

                        m2 – m1

Example – A glass block of length 10cm width 8cm and thickness 2cm has a
mass of 400g. calculate the density of the glass.

Solution

l = 10cm = 0.1m, b = 8cm = 0.08cm, h = 2cm = 0.02m, m = 400g = 0.4kg

V = lbh = 0.1 x 0.08 x 0.02 = 0.00016m3

Density = Mass (m)            =      0.4             =   2500kgm3

          Volume (V)                     0.00016

Example – Calculate the volume in m3 of a piece of wood of mass 500g and

density 0.76 gcm-3

mass of the wood = 500g

density = 0.76gcm-3

volume = ?

volume = mass / density= 500

0.76

volume = 658cm3 = 6.58 x 10-4 m3

Example – An empty relative density bottle has a mass of 15.0g. when

completely filled with water, its mass is 39.0g. what will be its mass if
completely filled with acid of relative density 1.20?

solution

m1, mass of empty bottle = 15.0g

m2, mass of bottle + water = 39.0g

mass of acid = n – 15 . 0g

mass of water = 39.0 – 15.0g

                        = 24.0g

R.D = 1.20

R.D = n – 15.0g

            39.0 – 15.0g

1.20 = n –15.0

                 24.0

n- 15.0= 1.20×24.0

n- 15= 28.8

n =28.8+15

n=43.8g

NB: The hydrometer is an instrument used to measure the relative density

of liquids

EVALUATION
1.            The volume of an
object is 1.5x10m and its
mass is 3.0×10 kg.
Calculate its density.
2.            A relative density
bottle weighs 20g when
empty, 80g when filled
with water & 100g when
filled with liquid. Find
the relative density of
the liquid.
READING ASSIGNMENT

New school physics by M.W.Anyakoha,Phd.Pg 152 – 157

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
 1. Find the density of a substance, if the mass of the substance is
150,000g and the dimension is 20m by 10m by 500cm.
1.  0.5kg1m b. 0.24kg1m c. 1.50kg/m.
2. What is the height of a cylindrical iron if the density is 7900kg/m3? The
mass is 700kg and the radius is 0.1m.
1.  2.918m b. 2.819m c. 3.418m.
3. Density is defined as the ratio of mass to——-
1.  Pressure b. area c. volume
4. Relative density is the ratio of mass of a substance to——
1.  Mass of 2an equal volume of water b. volume of a substance c.
density
5. The S.I unit of density is ————- a. g1cm b. kg1m c.kg1m .

THEORY      

1. Alcohol of mass 33.2g and density 790kg1m is mixed with 9g of water.

What is the density of the resulting mixture?(density of water is
1g1cm ).
2. Define relative density of liquid.

WEEK 8

TOPIC: PRESSURE , ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLES, UPTHRUST & LAWS OF

FLOATATION 

CONTENT

Pressure
Archimedes’ Principles & Upthrust
Laws of Floatation

PRESSURE

Pressure is defined as the perpendicular force per unit area acting on a

surface. It is a scalar quantity & measured in N/m2 or Pascal (pa).It can also
be defined as the force per unit area, which is calculated by taking the total
force and dividing it by the area over which the force acts. Force and
pressure are related but different concepts. A very small pressure, if
applied to a large area, can produce a large total force.

P = F     ……………………………..1.    Where P-pressure, F- force (N) & A-area

(m2­)    

   A

NB: 1 bar = 105 N/m2 = 105 pa

Example – A force of 40N acts on an area of 5m2. What is the pressure

exerted on the surface?

Solution

F = 40N, A = 5m2, P = ?

P =  F/A = 40/5 = 8pa

Pressure in Liquid

Pressure in liquid has the following properties

1. Pressure increases with depth 

2. Pressure depend on density
3. Pressure at any point in the liquid acts equally in all direction
4. Pressure at all points at the same level within a liquid is the same
5. It is independent of cross-sectional area   

P = hℓg ……………………..2.

 where p-pressure, h-height & g-acceleration due to gravity

Pascal’s principle : Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted

undiminished to every part of the fluid, as well as to the walls of the
container. The operation of the hydraulic press & the car brakes system is
based on this principle.

The ideal press consists of two pistons

of areas ( a , A ) enclosed between
them incompressible liquid as in
figure

When a small force ( f ) acts on the small

piston ( a ) , it exerts a pressure ( p = f/a ).

To keep the large piston  (A) at equilibrium with the small one (a) a load = F
is placed on the large piston .

P = f/a = F/A

EVALUATION

1. Define pressure

2. State five characteristics of pressure in liquid

Archimedes’ Principle & Upthrust

Archimedes’ principle is a law that explains buoyancy or upthrust. It states

that When a body is completely or partially immersed in a fluid it
experiences an upthrust, or an apparent loss in weight, which is equal to
the weight of fluid displaced. According to a tale, Archimedes discovered
this law while taking a bath. An object experiences upthrust due to the fact
that the pressure exerted by a fluid on the lower surface of a body being
greater than that on the top surface, since pressure increases with depth.
Pressure, p is given by p = hρg, where:
h is the height of the fluid column
ρ (rho) is the density of the fluid
g is the acceleration due to gravity
Figure 1: Pressure
difference

Let us confirm this principle theoretically. On the figure on the left, a solid
block is immersed completely in a fluid with density ρ. The difference in
the force exerted, d on the top and bottom surfaces with area a is due to
the difference in pressure, given by
d = h2aρg – h1aρg = (h2 – h1)aρg
But (h2– h1) is the height of the wooden block. So, (h2 – h1)a is the volume
of the solid block, V.
d = Vρg
 Upthrust = Vρg
In any situation, the volume of fluid displaced (or the volume of the object
submerged) is considered to calculate upthrust, because (h2 – h1) is the
height of the solid block only when it is completely immersed.
Furthermore, the pressure difference of the fluid acts only on the
immersed part of an object.
Now, moving back to Vρg. Since V is the volume of fluid displaced, then the
product of V, ρ and g is the weight of the fluid displaced. So, we can say
that
Upthrust = Weight of the fluid displaced

Compare this conclusion with the statement above summarising

Archimedes’ principle. Are they the same? Well, not totally. The “apparent
loss in weight” was not mentioned.

Figure 2: Forces
acting on an immersed
object

In the figure on the left, there are arrows on the top and bottom of the
solid block. The downward arrow represent the weight of the block pulling
it downwards and the upward arrow represent the upthrust pushing it
upwards. If one were to measure the weight of the solid block when it is
immersed in the fluid, he will find that the weight of the block is less than
that in air. There is a so-called “apparent loss in weight”, because the
buoyant force has supported some of the block’s weight.

NB: 1. When an object is wholly immersed, it displaces its volume of fluid.

So up thrust = weight of fluid displaces. = Volume of fluid displaced x its
density x g = volume of object x density of fluid x g

     2   When the object is partially immersed e.g. if ¼ of its volume (v) is
immersed then the up thrust is given by v/4 x density of liquid x g.

Determination of Relative Density by Archimedes’ Principle

1. Relative density of solid

The body is weighed in air w1, and then when completely immersed in
water w2

                                Relative density of solid

             = Weight of solid in air

Weight of equal volume in water

                                 =          w1

                                       W1-W2

Relative density of liquid

A solid is weighed in air (w1), then in water (w2) and finally in the given
liquid (w3)

       Relative density of liquid  = apparent loss of weight of solid in liquid

                                               apparent loss of weight of solid in water.

= W1 – W3

W1 – W2

Example – Themass of a stone is 15g when completely immersed in water

and 10g when completely immersed in liquid of relative density 2.0 . What
is the mass of the stone in air?

Solution:

Relative density = upthrust in liquid

upthrust in water

let W represents the mass of the stone in air

                        2 = w – 10

                               w – 15

2(w – 15) = w –10

2w – 30 = w – 10

2 w – w = -10 + 30

w = 20g
Law of Floatation

A floating object displaces its own weight of the fluid in which it floats or an
object floats when the upthrust exerted upon it by the fluid is equal to the
weight of the body. When an object is floating freely (i.e. neither sinking
nor moving vertically upwards), then the upthrust must be fully supporting
the object’s weight. We can say
Upthrust on body = Weight of floating body. By Archimedes’ principle,
Upthrust on body = Weight of fluid displaced. Therefore, Weight of floating
body = Weight of fluid displaced

This result, sometimes called the “principle of floatation”, is a special case

of Archimedes’ principle

EVALUATION

1. State the law of floatation.

1. State Archimedes’ principle.

READING ASSIGNMENT

www.google.com (click on google search, type “Archimedes’ principle”, click

on search) & New sch. physics by M.W.Anyakoha,Phd. Pg 348 – 358, 150 –
152

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
 1. A force of 40N acts on an area of 10m2. What is the pressure exerted
on the surface?    (a) 8pa (b) 4pa (c) 400pa (d) 10pa
2. What is the height of a cylindrical iron if the density is 7900kglm3  the
mass is 700kg and the radius is 0.1m  [a) 2.918cm [b] 2.819m ©
3.418m
3. Density is defined as the ratio of mass to (a) pressure (b) area (c)
volume
4. Relative density is the ratio of mass of a substance to ———— (A)
mass of equal volume of water (b) volume of a substance (c) density
5. Pressure can be measured in the following except  (a) bar (b) N/m2 (c)
pascal (d) Nm2

THEORY

1. Differentiate between force & pressure.

2. What is the pressure due to water at the bottom of a tank which is
20cm deep and is half of water? (Density of water = 103kg/m3  and g =
1om/s2 )

WEEK 9

TOPIC: WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

CONTENT

Work
Work Done in Lifting a Body & Falling Bodies
Conservation & Transformation of Energy
World Energy Resources

WORK

Work is said to be done whenever a force moves a body through a certain

distance in the direction of force.  Work done can be defined
mathematically as the product of the force and the displacement. It is a
scalar quantity & measured in Joules
W = F X d ……………………………………….1.

W = mgh     ……………………………………….2.

If a force is applied on a body at an angle Ø to the horizontal

Work done to move the body on the horizontal plane = Fcos Ø x d

……………………………..3.

Work done to raise the body to an appreciable height = Fcos Ø x d

………………………4.

Examples- A boy of mass 50kg runs up a set of steps of total height 3.0m.
Find the work done against gravity

Solution

m = 50kg, h = 3m, g = 10m/s2

Work done = mgh

                        = 50 x 10 x 3

                        = 1500 Joules

Energy

Energy is defined as the ability to do work. It is a scalar quantity &

measured in Joules. There are many forms of energy. These include:

1. Mechanical energy
1. Thermal energy
1. Chemical energy
1. Electrical energy
1. Nuclear/Atomic Energy
1. Solar/Light energy
1. Sound Energy
Types of Mechanical Energy
Mechanical energy is classified as

1. Potential energy
1. Kinetic energy

POTENTIAL ENERGY:- is simply “stored energy” i.e. energy possessed by a

body by virtue of its states:

P.E = mgh  …………………………………………….5.

KINETIC ENERGY: is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its

motion. Examples area student running a race, wind or air motion,
electrical charges in motion, a moving bullet

K.E = ½ mv2  ……………………………………………………6.

Example – An object of mass 5kg is moving at a constant velocity of 15mls.

Calculate its kinetic energy.

Solution:         

K.E = ½ mv2  = ½ x 5 x 15 x 15 = 562.5 J

Example – Find the potential energy of a boy of mass 10kg standing on a

building floor 10m above the ground level. g = 10m/s2

Solution:

P.E =mgh = 10 x 10 x10 =1000 J

POWER

Power is defined as the rate of doing work or the rate of transfer of

energy. It is a scalar quantity & measured in watt
Power = work done    

                 Time                …………………………………………..7

P = (F X d)/t  = F X d/t = FV  ……………………………………8

Example: – : A boy of mass 10kg climbs up 10 steps each of height 0.2m in

20 seconds. Calculate the power of the boy.

Solution

Height climbed = 10 x 0.2 = 2m

Work done = mgh = 10 x 10 x 2 = 200 Joules

POWER = work  =        10 x 10 x 2 = 10watts

                        Time                     20

EVALUATION

1. Define power.
2. A boy of mass 960g climbs up to 12 steps each of height 20cm in 20
seconds. Calculate the power of the boy.

WORK DONE IN A FORCE FIELD & ENERGY CONVERSION

Work done in Lifting a Body & Falling Bodies

The magnitude of work done in lifting a body is given by

Work = force x distance = mg x h = mgh

Also, the work done on falling bodies is given by

Work = force x distance = mg x h = mgh

EVALUATION
 1. Explain three types of force field.
1. A loaded sack of total mass 100kg falls down from the floor of a
lorry 2m high. Calculate the work done by gravity on the load.

Conservation & Transformation of Energy

Energy can be converted from one form to another in a closed system. The
law of conservation of energy states that in an enclosed system, energy
can neither be created nor destroyed during transformation. Examples of
such conversions include (a) Motor converts electrical to mechanical
energy (b) Generator converts mechanical to electrical energy (c) Electric
pressing iron convert electrical to heat energy

World Energy Resources

World energy resources can be classified as

1. Renewable Energy Resources: They are energy that can be replaced as

they are used e.g. solar energy, wind energy, water energy & biomass

2. Non-renewable Energy Resources: Energy that cannot be replaced after

use e.g. nuclear energy, petroleum & natural gas

EVALUATION

1. State the law of conservation of energy.

2. Differentiate between renewable & non-renewable energy.

READING ASSIGNMENT

New school physics by M.W.Anyakoha,Phd.Pg  29, 30 & 34

GENERAL EVALUATION
 1. When is work said to be done?
2. State the difference between work, energy and power.
3. Differentiate between kinetic and potential energy.
4. State the energy transformation that take place during electricity
generation at kanji dam.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. The following are example of force field except (a) electric force (b)
magnetic force (c) frictional force (d) gravitational force
2.   Electric cell convert ……… to electrical energy (a) nuclear (b) chemical
(c) mechanical (d) heat
3. The following are examples of renewable energy except (a) biomass
(b) solar (c) wind (d)  nuclear
4.   A boy of mass 50kg runs up a set of steps of total height 3.0m. Find
the work done against  gravity (a) 1200J (b) 1500J (c) 1000J (d) 1300J
5. The SI unit of power is (a) joules (b) kilogram (c) watt (d) pascal
6. A bob of a simple pendulum has a mass of 0.02kg. Determine the
weight of the bob (a) 0.2w (b) 0.52w (c) 0.25w (d) 2N
7. An object of mass 0.5kg has K.E of 25J. calculate the speed of the
object  (a) 50ms1 (b) 25ms-1  (c) 2.ms-1 (d)10ml-1
8. An object of mass 0.5kg has a velocity of 4ms-1 Calculate the K.E (a)
4.0J (b) 40J (c) 0.4J (d) 400J
9. Which of the following fundamental quantities is not correctly paired
with its unit of measurement? (a) Electricity current – Ampere (b)
Amount of substance – kilogram (c) Temperature – Kelvin (c) length –
meter
10. A diver is 5.2m below the surface of water of density 103 kg/m3.  If the
atmospheric pressure is 1.02 x 105 pa. Calculate the pressure on the
diver. [g=10mls2 )  (a) 6.02 x 104 pa (b) 1.02 x 105 pa (c) 1.54 x 105 pa
(d) 5.20 x 105 pa

THEORY
 1. Explain work done.
2. A boy of mass 960g climbs up to 12 steps each of height 20cm in 20
seconds. Calculate   the power of the boy.
3. A loaded sack of total mass 100kg falls down from the floor of a lorry
2m high. Calculate the work done by gravity on the load.
4. State the law of conservation of energy.

WEEK TEN

TOPIC: VISCOSITY

CONTENT

Meaning of Viscosity
Experiment to Determine the Terminal Velocity of a Steel Ball
Falling  in a Fluid
Factors Affecting Viscosity
Effect of Viscosity
Application of Viscosity

MEANING OF VISCOSITY

Viscosity is the internal friction which exists between layers of the

molecules of a fluid (liquid or gas) in motion. The viscosity of a fluid can
also be defined as the measure of how resistive the fluid is to flow. It is a
vector quantity & measured in pascal-seconds(pa.s). It can be defined
mathematically as the ratio of the shearing stress to the velocity gradient
in a fluid

Viscosity (ŋ) =           Force

                   Area x Velocity gradient  ……………………………………….1.

Velocity gradient = velocity

                                Length   …………………………………………………2

W = U +  V

W – U- V = 0        ……………………………………………………………3.

V = W – U (apparent or effective weight) where V-viscous force, W- weight,

U- upthrust

NB : Substances with low viscosity include water, kerosene, petrol, ethanol.

Those with high viscosity are glue, syrup, grease, glycerine etc

Experiment to Determine the Terminal Velocity of a Steel Ball Falling

Through a Fluid

Aim: To determine the terminal velocity of a steel ball falling in through a

jar of glycerin

Apparatus: steel ball, cylindrical calibrated jar, glycerine

Diagram:                                                                  

Procedure:  Set-up the apparatus as shown above & gently drop the steel
ball in the jar of glycerin

Observation: It will be observed that the ball is accelerating in the liquid.

Also the time taken for the ball to move from A-B will be different from B-C
and so on. A time will be reached when the ball will be moving at a
constant speed or velocity. It is that point that terminal velocity is
experience.

Graph :

Conclusion: Terminal velocity is attained when W = V + U. At a point when

the ball is moving at a constant speed through the glycerine.

Precaution: 1. The steel ball should be dropped gently on the liquid 2.

Experiment should be done under constant temperature 3. Avoid error of
measurement when taken the reading.
NB: Terminal velocity is the maximum velocity of an object when the
viscous force due to motion of the object equals the apparent (effective)
weight of the object in the fluid where there is no longer net force on the
object.

Drag force is the force that keeps the object continuously moving after the
terminal velocity has been attained.

Stokes’ Law state that at the terminal velocity, the upward frictional force
(F) = 6Π ŋrV

Where F- Frictional/Drag force, ŋ- viscosity, r- radius of sphere, Vt– 

Terminal velocity

EVALUATION

1. Derive the dimension of viscosity.

2.         Describe an experiment to determine the terminal velocity of a steel

ball falling in a fluid.

Factors Affecting Viscosity

1. Viscosity varies with material (viscosity is a property of material)

2. The viscosity of simple liquids (a) decreases with increasing
temperature (b) increases under very high pressure
3. The viscosity of gases (a) increases with increasing temperature (b) is
independent of pressure & density

Effect of Viscosity

1. Viscosity is responsible for different rate of fluid flow.

2. Viscosity affect motion of body in fluid.

Application of Viscosity
 1. It is use as a lubricant.
2. The knowledge of viscous drag/drag force is applied in the design of
ship & aircraft.
3. Use to estimate the enlarge size of particles.

EVALUATION

1. State two effects of viscosity.

2. State two applications of viscosity.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1.   What is viscosity?
2.   What is terminal velocity?
3.   State two(2) substances with high viscosity.
4.   State Stoke’s law.
5.   What is a viscostatic substance?

READING ASSIGNMENT

New school physics by M.W.Anyakoha,Phd.Pg  105 – 107

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT

1. Viscosity opposes motion of an object in (a) solid (b) liquid only(c) gas
only (d) liquid & gas
2. The SI unit of velocity gradient is (a) m/s (b) s-1 (c)  m/s2 (d) ms
3. Terminal velocity is attained when (a) w + v = u (b) w = v – u (c) w + u =
v (d) w = v + u
4. The following are vector quantities except (a) friction (b) viscosity (c)
upthrust (d) pressure
5. Friction and viscosity are similar but not the same.  True/False

THEORY
 1. Explain viscosity.
2. Describe an experiment to determine the terminal velocity of a steel
ball falling in a fluid.

NB: A liquid is said to be VISCOSTATIC if its viscosity does not change

(appreciably) with change in temperature.