AN ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO

MODERN

The deadliest Weapon systems

aircraft in and tactics
military fortoday's
service air combat

MikeSpick
 AN ILLUSTRATED GUIDE TO

MODERN

Published by Salamander Books Limited

LONDON. NEW YORK
Mike Spick
 A Salamander Book
©1987 Salamander Books Ltd., All rights reserved. No part of this book
52 Bedford Row, may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
London WC1R 4LR, system, or transmitted in any form or
United Kingdom. by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise,
ISBN 086101 319 0 without the prior permission of
Salamander Books Ltd.
Distributed in the United Kingdom by
Hodder & Stoughton Services,
P.O. Box 6, Mill Road,
Dunton Green, Seven oaks,
KentTN132XX.

Contents
Weapon Systems 10
Fighter Aircraft 46
Mikoyan MiG-21 Fishbed 50
Dassault-Breguet Mirage 11i/5/50/3NG 54
• McDonnell Douglas F-4 Phantom 60
Northrop F-5E Tiger II and F-20 Tigershark 66
Mikoyan MiG-25 Foxbat 70
Shenyang F-7 and F-7M Airguard 74
Sukhoi Su-15/ -21 Flagon 71
Mikoyan MiG-23 Flogger 78
DaSS8ult-Breguet Mirage F1 82
Saab JA 37 Viggen
Grumman F-14 Tomcat
YakovlevYak·38
Credits
Author: Mike Spick is the author of Diagrams: TIGA
several works on modern combat aircraft
and the tactics of air warfare, including Typeset by The Old Mill, London
Salamander's Modem Air Combar and Colour reproduction by Melbourne Graphics
Modem Fighting Helicoprers (both with Printed in Belgium by Proost.lnternational
Bill Gunston) and Fact Files on the Book Production, Turnhout
F-4 Phantom (with Doug Richardson),
F-14 Tomcat and FI A-18 Hornet. Acknowledgements: The pubishers are
grateful to all the companies and other
Editor Bernard Fitzsimons organisations who supplied photographs for
Art Editor Mark Holt use in this book .
Designed by TIGA

...

Israel Aircraft Industries Kfir 100

General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon 102
McDonnell Douglas F/ A-18 Hornet 101
Panavia Tornado ADV 110
British Aerosapce Hawk 113
Shenyang F-8 and F-811 Finback
Mikoyan MiG-31 Foxhound
Mikoyan MiG-29 Fulcrum
SUkhoi Su-27
Weapon
Systems
t is the fighter aircraft that catches measure of its capability. The sleek
Iour attention as it trails thunder and simple-looking missiles that hang
across the sky, often sleek and beneath the wings betray its pur-
beautiful , occasionally rather ugly, pose, to blast other aircraft out of the
but invariably epitomising power and skies. in a welter of flame and torn
menace . Neither the featureless air metal , while buried deep in its vitals
superiority grey with low-v isibility are the mysterious black boxes which
markings, nor the spectacular colour enable it to carry out its mission .
schemes often sported by prototypes These, the avionics, are as much a
at international air shows detract part of the machine that bears them
from this impression . Whether dress- as the wings or the tail . The fighter is
ed in working garb or ca rrying the full a weapon system, a tightly knit
cosmetic treatment, the fighter is package of metal and power, and of
designed to kill, and looks it. Yet it is electronics that enable it to detect
in fact no more than a ca rrier of foes far beyond the range of human
weapons, and its sole function is to eyesight in bad weather and dark-
get those weapons into a position ness, and that warn it of threats from
from which they Cel n be used with the air or ground and enable it to take ac-
best possible chance of success, at tion to confound them.
the same time avoiding positions
where an opponent's weapons ca n Below: Pre-flight checks for an
be successfully launched at it. F-15D pilot. The man in the
The fighter as we see it is a cockp it is the fighter 's own
machine that flies, a graceful piece of intelligence, dependent on its life
metal sculpture, an example of support systems for protection
modern art. Yet flight is not the only from a hostile environment.

10
 The fighter carries its own in- cess this information, and present
te lli gence in the form of the pilot, the pilot with just what he needs to
who sits in his small cockpit, pro - know for the accomplishment of the
tected from a hostile environment by current part of the mission. Other
the on -board life support systems. systems can call his attention to
The progress made in avionic emergen cy situation s.
systems over the past two decades
means that he is at the centre of an in - Below: Advances in avionics
formation explosion, the aircraft mean the FIA-18 pilot has infor-
systems gather more information mation filtered, processed and
than he can ever hope to assimilate . presented to him in a form that
More clever systems fi lter and pro - is much more readily assimilable.

11
 The information is presented in brought to bear on oneself. The
amounts that the pilot can (justl han - design of the fighter, and by this we
dle. The HOTAS ensures that every- mean not only the airframe, but the
thing that he needs in critical flight powerplant and the black boxes that
situations such as combat, or lan - go to make up the whole, is therefore
ding, is directly under his hands, conditioned by the weapons that it
although this ca lls for a high degree wi ll car"y, and also by the weapons by
of manual dexterity, while essential which it will be opposed .
information can be flashed up onto The weapons of air combat fal l into
the HUD to obviate the need to look two basic categories, the gun and the
down into the cockpit at a crucial homing rocket. The latter, more
point in the proceedings. usually known as the guided missile,
The remarkab le achievement that is by far the more important, and
is the modern fighter stands at the must be dealt with in some detail.
pinnacle of uncountable man-years Manoeuvring missiles have various
of effort, research and bitter combat types of guidance systems. The
experience. To the designers it is specific type will determine the range
something else, the outcome of a and angle at which they can be laun -
series of hard -fought compromises, ched, and the radar cross-section or
of theories accepted and rejected. It flight profile of targets against which
is also an exercise in packaging; the they can be used. The one thing that
art of fitting things into a finite and they all have in common is that the
often inconveniently shaped volume. manufacturer's brochure figures are
The sole purpose of the fighter is to fairly meaningless when it comes to
bring weapons to bear on an oppo - combat. If we are told that the maxi -
nent and to avoid having them mum speed of the missile is Mach 4,

Below: On his left the Eagle pilot Right: McDonnell Douglas

has radar, fuel and other controls pioneered the HOTAS approach
as well as the throttles with their on the F-15 and refined it for use
multi-function switches . on the F/A-18 Hornet.

12
its time of flight is 60 seconds, and its Taken at face value, this makes th e
range is 30nm (56kml, then w e may fate of an enemy fighter flying at
be fairly sure that if launched at a Mach 1, 20nm (37kml away and able
suitable speed from high altitude it to pull a mere 9g in the turn, seem
will achieve all these conditions . We fairly predictable . In practice , speed,
may also be told that it can pull a range and g all vary enormously with
loading of 30g in a turn, and it pro- the altitude of both launching fighter
bably can . and target, while relative speeds,

F/A-18 HOTAS controls

Communica tions
Pltch! roll tnm
Cha ff ! fla res
Radar
Target au to-acqu Isition
designation mode control
Radar
Air -to -ground
Eleva tion
weapon
release

Non -cooperative
target recognit ion !
FLiR field of view
Air- to-air
weapon
Approach

'"'~' I
power
compensation

Autopilot ! nosewheel
Speedbrake steenng di sengage

13
especially the speed of the launching slower and slower until control is lost
fighter, and target aspect all playa and it falls. I n the latter stages of
great part in modifying the brochure flight it can be outrun by a fast mov-
figures, as does the sensitivity of the ing fighter.
missile seeker head . What, then, of a missile that can
To make some rough generalisa- manoeuvre at30g7 It can be assumed
tions, the brochure speed and range that missile manoeuvrability max -
of the missile are correct for a laun - imises at the point when its velocity is
ching fighter speed of about Mach 1 highest and its weight is lowest,
at around 40,OOOft (12,200ml. The which occurs at about the point of
higher the altitude, the lower the at- motor burnout. Thereafter its energy
mospheric pressure on the back is slowly being depleted, which
chamber of the rocket motor and the reduces its manoeuvre capability,
greater the thrust obtainable. At the while any manoeuvring will further
same time, the attenuated at- deplete its energy.
mosphere causes less drag and In any case, what is the value of a
enables the missile to fly further than 30g turn 7 At a velocity of Mach 4 at or
it could lower down . above the tropopause, it gives a turn
Most missiles have a short motor radius of about 15,600ft (4,750ml and
burn time . In the case of short-range a turn rate of 14.26° / sec. This is
(visual rangel weapons, this is only a nothing very special, and can be bet-
couple of seconds, during which the tered by almost any fighter flying at
missile is accelerated to its maximum subsonic speeds, provided the pilot
velocity. Medium -ra nge (beyond knows that the missile is on its way,
visual range, or BVRI weapons nor- and from what direction, and exactly
mally have a sustainer motor which when to break to avoid it.
takes over after the initial accelera- So far we have been looking at a
tion phase and lasts for a few more missile at high altitude. What hap-
seconds before it too burns out from pens lower down, where less thrust is
lack of fuel . obtainable and the drag is greater due
The time that a missile is actually at
its stated maximum speed is there- Below: M issile range at sea level
fore very brief for a visual range may be as little as one-third the
weapon, and only a few seconds for a value for 40,OOOft, where the
BVR missile . After motor burnout the th inner ai r causes less drag and
missile is just coasting along, flying rocket thrust is increased .

4O,OOOft ~

Launch envelope variation by altitude

3O,OOOft
-+-' ~

20 ,OOOft
-+-' ~

10,OOOft
-+-' ~

Sea level
-+-'
30 25 20 15 10 miles
ApprOXimate maximum aerodynamic missile rang e

14
Launch envelope: non-manoeuvring target

Maximum range

Seeker limit

/'

Look-up
preferable ------'l..-

FuzlI1g
---':'::::""c--/-~=====~~ problems
possible

Above: Against a straight and Below: When the target initiates

level target seeker limitations a level turn the situation
and fuzing problems may reduce becomes much more
the maximum range of a semi- complicated and the envelope is
active radar homing missile. greatly restricted .

Launch envelope: manoeuvring target

Look -up
preferable

Look-up
preferable

---1- I-- -- --.:s;:=-------/-- - --"" FUZIng

problems
possible

15
 to the denser atmosphere? The short A missile is in flight for a finite time,
answer is that the missile is slower and during that time the target is
and does not fly so far. Exact figures moving. Missile range is a static
are variable according to the missile measurement while launch range is a
type, but velocities may fall by as dynamic one. It is moderated by the
much as one third, say from Mach 3 closure, the speed at which the laun -
to Mach 2, while range reduces ching fighter and the target are com -
typically by two thirds, for example ing together, or the negative closure,
from 8nm (17kml to 3nm (6kml. Thi s the rate at which the distance bet-
is a vast difference, and it alters the ween them is increasing.
tactical situation considerably . The accompanying diagram shows
Short-range missiles are the worst af - a very fast missile launched from a
fected, as the sustainer motor of the fighter travelling at Mach 1 against a
medium range type, with its longer co -speed, co-altitude target ap -
burn , gives some extra distance . proaching from head - on, and
So far we have dealt with absolute another going directly away. In the
missile range, or perhaps it should be head-on attack, the launch range is
called travel distance . What really 25nm (46kml, and in the attack from
counts in air combat is launch range, astern it is down to 15nm (37kml with
and this is a different matter entirely . a flight time of 30 seconds . This is a

Below: Head-on and astern 25,oooft (7,620m). In both cases

attack ranges for a missile w ith the missile covers 20nm, but the
an effective flight time of 30 target heading varies the range
seconds; both aircraft are at wh ich it can be engaged from
assumed t o be at Mach 1 and 15nm astern to 25nm head-on.

Semi-active radar homing missile attack ranges

<
________ _ 25nm launch range
)
~ ~~ - - -- - ------------------ - -----------.-- ¢~ ~
Missile Target at
Impac ts launch
POlil t

Target
at
launch M, ss, le
POlilt Impacts

Below: The Hughes AIM -54A a Backfire-type target was

Phoenix carried by t he F-14 engaged at a range of over 1oonm,
T omcat is the only really long- t he missile covering 72.5nm and
range air-to-air missile. In one of reaching 103,5OOft (31 ,5OOm)
t he most dramati c t rials of its before passing within lethal
capabilities, staged in April 1973, range of the simulated bomber.

Phoen ix long-range capability

F-14 at
Mach 1.5
and 14 ,OOOft missile
acqu ires Phoenix 103,500ft
targe t launched at
at 132nm 11 0nm
range range

16
simplistic representation; a rough by the Hughes AIM -54 Phoenix , an
ru le of thumb would be to add 50 per example of which was launched from
cent to the static range for the head- a Tomcat of the US Navy in April
on attack under these condi tions, 1973 at a high-altitude supersonic
and deduct about one third from the target approaching from head-on,
static range for the attack from and passed within lethal distance.
astern . The launch was made from a
The true long-range missile is a rare distance of 110nm 1204kml, although
bird in the air combat world, as it the distance travelled by the Phoenix
must be large and expensive, and was just 72 y, nm 1134km) . This
needs a large and specialised fighter remarkable distance was only achiev-
to carry it . The current world record ed by pre -programming the big
for a long-range interception is held missile into a high trajectory , peaking

Launch envelope variation by closure speed

MaXimum launch range for co -directional targets +200

~ ~

+ 100

'"'ci'"? ~ ~

u
E
'"c>
"0
0
Q; ~ ~
'"
E
:J
.~
X

'"E
~ - 100
Vi ~ ~
~
:;;:

Co-speed
- 200
~- ~

4001 5001 60CI 700 800 Launch

Target speed knots pOint

Above: Given a missile with an - lope severely restricted if the

effective flight time of 30 target has a speed advantage.
seconds and an average speed of Even against a slower target he
Mach 2, an attacker travelling at will not be able to exploit the
600kt engaging a target from missile's theoretical maximum
astern will find his launch enve- aerodynamic range.

BOM-34E
augmented
to Simulate
radar
cross-sec tion
of Backfire
at Mach 1.5
and 5O,OOOft
-=i#JO ~
M ,ss, le impacts Position of target
72.5nm from launch pOint at PhoeniX launch

17
at 103,500ft 131 ,500m) , thus giving It Front and rear quarter attacks tend
positional energy in the form of to run the length of the target aircraft,
height which could be traded for and provided that the missile ex-
kinetic energy in the form of speed to plodes somewhere along this line,
maintain its manoeuvre capability at lethal damage is very likely to occur.
the end of its run. Phoenix, which has Missiles approaching from the beam,
a brochure speed of Mach 4, averag - on the other hand, stand a good
ed less than Mach 3 during this in- chance of overshooting before
terception. detonating, causing no damage, and
The final problem common to all the same thing can happen in reverse
missiles, although this is beginning to in a maximum range astern attack,
be overcome, is fuzing. If a direct hit when the built-in fuze delay
is scored, all well and good, but often detonates the warhead short of its
the launch results in a very near miss, target, in which case limited damage
and a proximity fuze is needed to may be caused, but not the max-
make the kill. The difficulty arises imum . Finally, the fuze must not be
from the vast disparity of interception detonated by the launching aircraft; a
angles that are possible, with atten - built-in delay while the fuze arms
dant speed variations. Obviously,
there needs to be a fractional delay Below: After launch from an F-16
between the proximity fuze detecting (top), an Amraam missile homes
the target and the detonation of the on and smashes through a QF-l02
warhead. target, which crashes in flames.

18
itself is obligatory, but causes a achieve a worthwhile range with its
minimum range barrier under which it radar, and the carriage of such a
wi ll not work. Again, this problem is weapon would considerably reduce
gradually being overcome, but a the aircraft 's performance . It would
decade ago the minimum range was also be expensive to the point of be-
of the order of half a mile. ing unaffordable by all but the richest
Three types of guidance system nations .
are commonly used for AAMs . These A compromise solution adopted by
are active radar homing, semi-active Phoenix, and also by AIM - 120
radar homing (SARH), and infra-red Amraam and the French MICA , is to
(IR ) homing . Active radar homing use some form of midcourse guid -
demands a very large missile if it is to ance to take the missile to within a

Amraam operation

Above: Amraam allows the Below: Amraam (top), Sparrow

launch fighter to manoeuvre (centre) and Sidewinder homing
after launch: missile guidance is methods. The second requires
inertial. with data-link update illumination by the launch fighter
and terminal active radar homing. until the missile impacts.

Missile homing methods

M
~ d=~:> -~=======ll."-- Inertial system updated,
then miSSile tracks
target with own radar

Missile homes on
radiation transmitted
by launch aircraft and
reflected by target

~ ~==:
ou- ~ > ~.
~e~=====-~
~. I
homes on
~ target's own
~ Infra -red radiation

19
few miles of the target, then use the Another failing of SARH, which is
active radar for the terminal homing also the reason why active radar
phase , of say , 5-10nm (9-18km) . The homing has a short range in practice,
midcourse guidance can either be is that the sensitivity of the seeker
preset inertial, or an update via data head is limited . A small missile can
link from the launching fighter's naturally carry only a small antenna,
radar . and this severely restricts the radar
SARH IS rather simpler and returns that can be detected . This is
cheaper than active radar homing : it further modified by the radar reflec-
requires the fighter to illuminate the tivity of the target, which controls the
target with its own on -board radar, amount of energy that is reflected
enabling the missile to home on the back .
reflected energy . This has an inbuilt Sparrow is one of the most com -
disadvantage in that it requires il - mon SARH missiles in use today, and
lumination throughout the flight of its aerodynamic range is stated as
the missile, making the launching something in excess of 25nm (46km) .
fighter predictable , and therefore Against a head-on target this could
vulnerable , for far too long . be increased considerably, provided
Moreover , if it makes any but the
mildest change of course, the radar Below: A direct hit by a Sparrow
lock will be broken and the missile will means a certa in kill, but near
go ballistic . misses pose fuzing problems.

20
that the seeker head can detect the manoeuvre freely immediately after
reflected emissions . Against a small launch . IR is generally used in short-
target, such as the MiG -21 at the range missiles; its ability to track a
frontal aspect, detection and there- target attenuates rapidly with dis-
fore homing range of the AIM -7E tance, and if it could be used at BVR
Sparrow is only some 7 -8nm ranges, great care would need to be
113-15kml. SARH also has problems taken that no friendly aircraft was
against lower flying targets from anywhere near the line of flight, as it
some aspects, notably the beam, and lacks discrimination, and can easily
against co -speed targets from astern . switch targets . Possibly the most
The simplest of all missile guidance serious failing of IR homing is that it
systems is IR, which homes on heat becomes ineffective in cloud or
emissions from the target and per- heavy rain, which makes it less
mits true fire-and -forget weapons, suitable for European conditions than
enabling the launching fighter to it would be in, say, the Middle East.

Aircraft target signatures

At subsonic speeds this delta

canard future fighter offers
minimal infra-red signature.

With the use of afterburner the

hottest areas are more visible in
the 2-3 micron infra-red band .

At the longer 10.6 micron

wavelength most of the airframe
will be emitting IR energy.

Radar signatures can only be

conjectural, but the blue areas
will probably be most reflective.

21
 The final weapon in air combat is nology notwithstanding, there is no
the gun . This is usually somewhere reason to assume that anything has
between 20mm and 30mm in calibre, changed to invalidate the surprise
and rates of fire vary between 1,200 factor, and the crucial element in
and 6,000 rounds per minute . Either achieving surprise is detecting the
one or two are normally carried, and it enemy first. Whoever sees his oppo -
is regarded mainly as a back -up nent first gains the initiative, and an
weapon that is instantly available, opponent on the defensive is half way
and usable within minimum missile to being beaten .
range, and provides a means of There are several ways of detect-
defence when all missi les are expend - ing the enemy . Radar is the most
ed . Theoretical ranges vary, but the widely used , and takes various
maximum distan ce at whi ch the forms : the fighter will carry a radar
average pilot can be expected to hit and use it to actively search for the
anything is about 1,500ft (450ml . enemy; ground -based radars linked
Air-to-air gunnery is a book on its ta a fighter control system can play
own, but basically there are two an important part; and airborne radar
types of shot; the tracking shot, with in the form of airborne early warning
the firer following the target with the and control AEW&C aircraft is able to
gunsight, and the snapshot, a shot of control and monitor vast areas of
opportunity taken when tracking is airspace, assess threats, and, in con -
not possible . tact with both ground control and air -
Given the weapon s, the problem borne fighters via data link, exert a
then arises of how best to employ tremendous influence on events.
them. Historically, the dominant fac- To be introduced before very long
tor in air fighting has been surprise, is the Joint Tactical Information
and roughly four out of every five Distribution System, or JTIDS. This
pilots shot down failed to see their will feed essential information direct -
assailants until it was tad late, if at all . ly into the avionics and radar systems
(This is, of course, in fighter versu s
fighter combat; fighters versus a Below: The JTIDS display in an
bomber formation in broad daylight F-15 cockpit shows friendly.
are something elsel . Modern tech - hostile and unidentified aircraft.

22
Datalink application

Intruders
~
~

Ground -contrOl led

Intercept station

Above : How pairs of Tornado Below: Tornado ADV and

interceptors will apply infor- Nimrod AEW.3, the combination
mation from AEW&C aircraft and of fighter and AEW&C aircraft
ground radar stations. designed to defend UK airspace.

23
of fighters, enabling them to fly much Range-while-search, used for de-
of a m~sion with their on-board tection out to about BOnm (150km) of
radars on standby , The advantage of all ta rgets, regard less of veloci ty,
this is that radar is an emission and it aspect, or heading.
is detectable by the other side, When Track-while-scan, w hich keeps tabs
the radar is used only for brief on up to ten sepa rate targets and
periods, it greatly lessens the chance displays the eig ht most likely ones,
of detection by the enemy and in- while displaying t he altitude, aspect,
creases the probabi lity of attaining and velocity of the greatest threat;
surprise , It also promises to solve the range is below 40nm (75kml. Coupl-
vexed problem of BVR identification, ed with Amraam, TWS mode will
A modern fighter radar will be allow simultaneous multiple ta rget
multi-mode, Some of its modes wi ll engagement.
be concerned with navigation, the Single target track is automatical ly
delivery of air-to -ground ordnance cued if the RWS mode is engaged
and terrain avoidance, but others will and the target comes wit hin range. It
be for air combat. The Hughes APG - displays steering commands and
65, currently f lying in the F- 1B, data for weapon launch on the HUD
selected for the updating of Luft- while target aspect, velocity and
waffe F-4Fs and a contender for the altitude are shown on a cockpit multi -
Eurofighter, has a typical selection of function display This mode can be
air to air modes coupled with high used to give SARH guidance for
reso lution alpha -numeric displays. Sparrow,
The modes are : Raid assessment uses Doppler
Velocity search, used for long range beam sharpening to separate the
detection against rapidly closing elements of a tightly bunched forma -
targets, It has no range capability, tion. It can be used at ranges up to
but gives the pilot the direction and 30nm (55km),
speed of approach of a threat, or As described, these modes are all
threats , pulse, for look-up and look-level; for
look -down, pulse-Doppler is needed .
Below: Air-to-air search and track A pulse radar mode looking down
modes available with the F/A-1S's picks up all the clutter from the sur-
APG-65 radar, showing relative face of the ground; over the sea it
ranges and scan angles in pulse might have some look-down capa-
look-up/look-Ievel operation. bility, but not. a lot. Pulse-boppler

APG-65 air-to-air modes

24
APG-65
displays

80
RWS
D 5r--
D
D 24
D
'8'
D <
--~ 40
D

51 ------- - ----'5
~----~----~~--~----~o
20000

Above: Typical display generated Below: In track-while-scan mode

by an APG-65 radar in range- the APG -65 can monitor up to
while-search mode at high PRF ten targets while displaying data
and at a range of 80nm (150km). on the most immediate threat.

D o
D
D D
o o

25
APG-65 boresight mode

Boresight acquisition uses a 3.3 0

beam aligned wit h the Hornet's
centreline. This mode is most
usef ul in a stern pursuit attack .

APG-65 vertical acquisition

_ _:_ __________
~ ~
A~~"
-;~..c------
.

®
\
,
:
,
..
:,.,/

D
Above: With the Hornet or both target - that is, he positions his
it and the target in a hard turn aircraft so that the target
vertical acquisition mode would appears to be above the centre
be employed. While the radar of his canopy bow. Acqu isition
scans an arc 5.3 0 wide 60 0 above should then be automatic, but if
and 14 0 below boresight, the necessary he can tighten the
F/A -1 8 pilot rolls his aircraft into turn, causing the target to
the same plane of motion as the appear to move down.

screens out the unwanted radar head needs special filters to screen
returns and gives a good look-down out the unwanted returns, and this is
capability, albeit at a certain loss of easier said than done, although the
range capability. What it also does, problem has been pa rtly so lved.
and this is undesirable, is to screen In addition to those already de -
out targets that are moving at about scribed, there are a series of air com -
90° angle off the fighter's flight path . bat manoeuvre modes. These are
It should also be made clear that boresight, which is a narrow beam
radar look-down is one thing, while pointing ahead of the axis of the
missile shoot-down is another : to fighter; vertical acquisition, which
detect a target is not necessarily to be is used against a hard turning target;
able to shoot it. The missile seeker and HUD acquisition, which scans

26
APG-65 HUD acquisition

Head-up display acquisition

mode scans the 20° by 20° HUD
f ield of view once every two
seconds, automatically locking
on to the first target detected.

APG-65 gun director

Gun director mode uses pulse-to-

pulse frequency agility to track
targets and display a HUD gun
aiming point: the pilot manoeu-
vres to place this on the target.

the area in the field of view o f the more. The scan can also be trained
HUD . All three are primarily for use up, level, or down .
with Sidewinder, although other The pOint is that the fighter radar
missiles can be employed. Finally can only cover a small portion of the
there is gun director mode, whi ch is sky in front of it, and none of the sky
se lf explanatory. around, above and under it. In this
The fighter radar traditionally respect, it IS very limited; look -down
scans a pie -s haped piece of sky allows a higher assai lant to slip in
ahead of it approximately 65 ° to each unobserved, and vice versa, while
si de of the centreline, although in the flank s and rear are unguarded.
some modes the angle is mu ch This is where AEW&C and JTIDS
smaller . The depth of the pie is quite can prove decisive, keeping a friendly
thin; scan depth is divided into bars, eye on a fighter's unguarded sectors.
and varies from two to eight bars. As Fortunately, the opposing fighters
a rough approximation, a bar is 2° will also be heavily reliant on radar for
deep, so the scan varies between 4° early detection, and radar warning
and 16° The larger the field of scan systems (RWS) are used to detec t
se lected , the longer the radar takes to their emissions and give the pilots
sweep through it, the time variation warning of what is going on, with
being of the order of between a azimuth and poss ibly altitude infor-
quarter of a second to 12 secon ds or mation, but probably no range . In a

27
confused multi-bogey situation this the countermeasures on the 8 -18 are
can be a mixed blessing, and the half what they are cracked up to be,
RWS needs to be programmed to IR detection might be better than
give warning only of imminent nothing .
threats. Finally, there remains visual detec-
Infra-red can be used for detection tion, which in close combat wi ll be
and has been for many years. It has more l, sed than any other system .
the advantage that it is a passive This has led to an all -round improve-
detector, with no te ll-ta le emissions, ment in visibility from the cockpit,
but it is far from satisfactory in cloud - with teardrop canopies giving a good
laden skies, and w hile it has better view to the rear . Mirro rs on the
angular resolution than radar , it has canopy bow are also standard . Visual
proved unsatisfactory in use in the detection is essential at very short
West, although it appears that the range ; some smaller fighters are all
latest generation of Soviet fighters
carry I R detection systems . Either the Below: An unseen opponent is
Soviets are more advanced in this detected and its position
field, or they are concerned about the indicated on the head-up display
latest American stea lth projects : if of an F-14 Tomcat.

28
but invisible from head on at 2nm The other justification for this prac-
14km). tice is that escalating costs have
We have examined the weapons reduced the affordable number of
and the detection systems, and they modern fighters, and a refurbishment
look pretty formidable. The case is job is a cheap and easy way of keep-
the same for all opponents, as even if ing up the numbers, which must not
Soviet material and techno logy is be allowed to fa ll be low a certain
behind that of the West, they will be strength no matter how capable their
level pegging within a few years, and replacements . There is at least one
the hardware flying now wil l be op - case of a Phantom pi lot flying the
posed by equal quality at some future same machine as his father flew
date. The importance of the weapons many years before .
and detection systems is underlined The modern fighter has to defeat
by the fact that many nations are weapons and systems the equal of its
refurbishing what can only be de-
scribed as elderly airframes with new Below: Another Tomcat is
avionics to do battle in up to 15 years caught in an F-14 HUD . The
time, when some of the designs will extreme angle of bank is shown
be approaching their half centenary . by the long oblique line.

29
own, or sometimes inferior systems they will almost certainly be sub-
and aircraft but in superior numbers. jected to heavy jamming.
What sort of machine is needed to do The overall tactical situation will be
this? either defensive or offensive . In the
The worst case situation in fighter defensive case, circumstances
terms is always an all -out war in Cen - favour the defenders. They will be
tral Europe using conventional operatlr>g over their own lines, where
forces . Nuclear war has not seemed enemy jamming of communications
likely for many years, and since the and radar will be less effective; the air
Chernobyl incident seems even less
likely . On the other hand, it seems Right: Artist's impression of a
equally certain that armed clashes possible ASTOVL fighter using
will occur on a limited scale in other vectored thrust to negotiate a
trouble-spots around the world, with bomb-cratered runway.
the Middle East as hot favourite .
Fighter forces in both Western and Below: Half a billion dollars'
Eastern Europe can be seen as a worth of 1st TFW F-15s parked
deterrent, helping to keep the admit - on acres of vulnerable concrete
tedly uneasy peace, rather than an at Langley Air Force Base, Virginia .
outright weapon : both the intercep-
tor and the counter-air fighter are
essentially defensive, in that their
purpose is to neutralise attacking air
units. They do, however, have to be
capable of doing the job, and if suc-
cessful, they must carry the fight to
the enemy .
Taking the worst case first, con -
ventional war in Centr~1 Euope, the
Achilles' heel of almost all modern
fighters is their dependence on a fix-
ed base with long concrete runways.
Such bases are vulnerab le in the ex-
treme, and it is debatable how many
aircraft would leave the ground by
the third morning . Good short field
performance is therefore a prime
asset, and the ability to operate from
dispersed bases is even better.
The intake covers on the Soviet
MiG-29 appear to be designed as anti-
FOD shutters, which will enable this
aircraft to take off from really rough
strips, or from damaged airfields. The
MiG-29 needs a braking parachute on
landing, however, so the problem of
recovery on a damaged strip remains.
Alone among combat aircraft now
flying, the Harrier will have little or no
problem in this direction, and the Ad-
vanced STOVL project would appear
to make more sense than the Eu ro-
fighter, the Rafale, or for that matter
the American Advanced Tactical
Fighter, although there isa possibility
that the last programme might in-
clude a STOVL proposal.
Assuming that the fighters can get
off the ground, much will depend on
the tactical situation and how well the
communications are working, as

30
31
 defence ground environment should APG-66 detection ranges
be more or less intact; and the
fighters will receive a fair amount of The detection range of the
aid both from AEW&C aircraft and F-16A's APG-66 radar is
from ground control (one of their substantially reduced in look-
primary tasks will be to defend these down mode. Figures for Soviet
vital facilities!. aircraft are calculated from flight
In the offensive case the probabili - test results involving US types.
ty is that the fighters wi ll have to be
able to work autonomously, depen -
ding entirely on their own on -board
avionics and tactical skill. Each cir-
cumstance will have to be met as it
arises; there will be little opportunity
for preplanning . Their task will be to
wrest a degree of air superiority over
a limited area long enough to allow
the interdiction units to do their work .
Probably the only factor which will
work for them is confusion, and there
will be plenty of that. A confused
situation is where superior training
and tactical skills pay handsome
dividends . Below: Low and fast is safest in
The first condition to be met in hostile airspace. The place to be
combat is to detect first, preferably is demonstrated by a pair of
avoiding detection at the same time, Eagles in the Grand Car.yon .
and in the defensive case', this is more
easily achieved . If AEW&C and
ground radars are working, the
fighter pilot can put his radar on
standby and let the defensive system
vector him into an advantageous
position, using his own radar only
when an attacking position is about
to be reached . At the same time, a
sharp visual lookout is advisable in
case an intruder has slipped the net.
Over hosti le territory, these advan-
tages no longer apply, and it is pro-
bably best to use the radar in intermit-
tent scans to keep a watchful eye on
events before latching on to a target.
Aswe have seen, the range capability
of radar is degraded when looking
down, but at the same time, the
fighter can travel faster at altitude . If
mission requirements allow, it is
preferable to remain at very low level
over enemy territory with the radar
looking up for optimum range perfor-
mance, at the same time degrading
the enemy's range performance. If
detected, it can only be by pu lse-
Doppler radar, and the RWS shou ld
indicate this . A smart turn of 90°
angle off to the enemy aircraft's flig ht
path should then remove one's blip
from his radar screen .
Over friendly territory, medium or
high altitude may well be better, as it

32
allows higher speeds and lower fuel off. Clouds apart, the best move is to
consumption. If positioning for an at - turn the hot tailp lane aWay from the
tack using information from AEW or missile, and reduce the plume of hot
GCI is possible, the position can be exhaust gas by throttling back. Some
reached much faster, especia lly if missiles are designed to home on the
shoot-down missiles are carried. A hot metal of the tailpipe, while others
front quarter attack is optimum if us-
ing SARH weapons, while the stern Right: Overwing launch of a
quarter is the preferred angle for heat Matra R550 Magic heat-seeker
seekers, even though they may have by a French Air Force Jaguar.
some all-aspect capability. If no
shoot-down missiles are avai lable, it Below right: IR image of flares
becomes preferable to attain a level fired by a USAF Phantom shows
slightly below that of the target in the multiple targets produced.
order to cut out clutter. The main
drawback of going to low level is that Below: An R550 Magic
of missile range being reduced, mak - demonstrates its ability to deal
i ng it necessa ry to get closer to with a manoeuvring target.
achieve optimum firing range .
The easiest way to defeat an
enemy missile attack is to stay out of
his missile parameters: what is not
launched ca n not hit. But in any
shooting war it is almost inevitable
that an air-to-air missile will be laun -
ched against a fighter . Once it is on its
way, it ca nn ot be stopped, but it can
be defeated . The trick IS to know that
it is coming, and from what direction .
It also helps to have some idea what
type of missile it is and what its
capabilities are .
A good rule of thumb is that a
missile must be able to pull at least
five times the g loading of a man -
oeuvring target to have a really good
chance of success. A hard turn col -
lapses missile envelopes quite
dramatically, and if started before
launch, may take the target aircraft
out of parameters before the launch
can be accomplished. If not, it can
still make tracking very difficult for
the missile.
Countermeasures are obligatory,
chaff against a radar homer and flares
against a heat seeker, or both if the
defender is not certain. They may
work, but they may not, and no true
fighter pilot is going to stake his life
on countermeasures when he can
take fu rther action.
If it is thought that the missi le is a
heat seeker, it is a perfectly vali d
move to fly into a cloud if there is one
handy and it can be reached in time,
but if the possibility exists of the
adversary aircraft carrying radar
homers also, it wou ld be wise to get
out of the cloud and regain sight as
soon as the missile has been shaken

34
 use the exhaust plume as a target. factors can also be built into the
Aircraft which use reverse thrust are fighter at the design stage. These are
more vu lnerable to the former, as it is the so-called stealth features which
impossible to shroud the tailpipe as is reduce the detection signatures, and
done on some aircraft. Finally, lining with them the range at which the
the aircraft up with the sun can fighter can be detected. The radar
sometimes decoy a heat missile . signature can be reduced by avoiding
Against a radar homing missile, a sharp corners and angles of 90° or
90° angle off may work if it is a shoot- less; wing-body blending is a good
down type, while if all else fails, main - stealth feature, as is shielding the
taining a beam-on aspect will take ad - face of the engine compressor if this
vantage of any fuzing problems it can be done without compromising
may have, as previously noted. engine performance. The use of
Manoeuvring makes any type of radar absorbent materials and com -
missile work harder to track. Most posites also help.
missiles use proportional navigation The infra-red signature is rather
in their homing systems, which more difficult to hide, although
operate by manoeuvring the missile chemicals can be used to lower the
to fly a constant lead path on a colli - temperature of the exhaust gases .
sion course. A hard turn gives this far The Sea Harrier, with its four efflux-
more work to do and, better still, may es, has a larger exhaust plume than
cause the movable seeker head to
bump its gimbal limits and lose track Right: Replay of an engagement
altogether. The object of the exercise on the Cubic Combat
is to give the missile seeker head a Manoeuvring System. A
rate of angular change of the line of symbolic coffin encloses the
sight which is too high for it to cope victim of an AIM -7F.
with .
Sometimes the missile is not seen Below: Cockpit and display in
until too late to develop enough angle BAe's air combat simulator, with
off, but a hard break downward using a Phantom in the process of
gravity for extra assistance may rec- engaging a MiG-23.
tify matters . This has a secondary ad -
vantage; it forces the missile seeker
head to look down into the ground
clutter, and it may break lock. If the
missile continues to track the fighter
downward, a last ditch hard break
back up and out of plane can often
throw it off.
A rear quarter shot from near max -
imum range can often be outrun,
although this sounds distinctly spor-
ty, and it is necessary to keep the
missile in sight at all times, so a small
degree of angle off should be main -
tained. On the other hand, a near
minimum range front quarter shot
can be defeated by a turn into the
missile and across its nose. There is
always a slight lag in guidance system
response times, and as it turns to
follow, a hard reverse by the target
fighter is likely to cause an out of
phase response as the guidance
system tries to correct, resulting in a
wide miss. This is most effective at
high altitudes where the control
response times of the missile are at
their slowest.
Countermeasures apart, certain

36
 most, but it is more diffuse, and in
many ways forms a more difficult
target.
Probably the most difficult of all to
hide is the visual signature. The adop-
tion of low visibility paint is fine, but it
only caters for a certain range of
backgrounds. White paint in the in -
takes reduces the black hole effect of
a fighter approaching nose-on, but
the best answer is to make the fig hter
small, even at the expense of some
capability.
As mentioned earlier, the best way
to defeat a missile - or gun - attack
is to keep out of firing parameters .
And however superior the fighter's
detection and weapon systems may
be, it will become necessary sooner
or later to outfly the opponent.
Often there will be no alternative to
encountering an enemy fighter from
head-on . It is a valid ploy to launch a
missile out of parameters under these
circumstances, for the sake of get-
ting the first shot in: it would be a
foolhardy opponent that would stake
his life on the shot not being a threat,
and his normal reaction will be to
forget offensive action and concen -
trate on defeating the oncoming
missile . He will be forced to
manoeuvre on the defensive, and
with his attention concentrated on
the oncoming missile will probably
lose track of the fighter that launched
it. This will give the latter the initiative
instantly, enabling it to start man-
oeuvring into a position of advan -
tage .
Manoeuvre combat is conducted
at visual distance, although some-
times this will be marginal. Normally
it will be multi-bogey, with several
fighters milling around and a distinct
possibility that others, from both
sides, may join the fray from any
direction at any moment. The well
trained fighter pilot has a whole ar-
moury of air combat manoeuvres at

Above right: Many air forces

have experimented with attitude
deception schemes, but only the
Canadian Armed Forces have
adopted false canopies.

Right: A more subtle scheme

was this asymmetric two-tone
grey camouflage applied to F-14s
for trials in 1977.

38
his disposal, but rarely will there be preselected target, after which the
time to employ more than one or two profile is a series of short hard turns of
before the need to clear his tail arises . between 60° and 90 ° , interspersed
It is commonly thought that the with brief straig ht line accelerations
way to handle a multi -bogey situation to keep energy levels high, and taking
is to hang around on the edge of what shots of opportunity on the way. To
is termed the bogey cloud, and try take time out to tackle as a single op-
and pick off anyone who gets isolated ponent for more than a few seconds
from maximum range, but the dyna - would be to risk retribution from his
mics of modern air combat mean that friends, and get caught up in the 'fur-
the fighter is sooner or later going to ball', from whiCh, considering the
get caught up in it. capability of modern missiles, it will
No matter how good the pilot, and be difficult to extricate oneself. The
how good his aircraft and avionics, dogfight in the World War I sense no
he is inevitably going to lose track of
the broad situation . He will not be Right: Even in dry thrust the F-16
alone, although wingmen may well has impressive performance. In
be forced to split off, and provided combat, the use of afterburner
there are several friendly fighters on offers brute force manoeuvre
the scene, a certain amount of coin- solutions while an opponent
cidental support will be provided, so might need to conserve energy.
that an opponent turning in behind
may well find that he in turn is coming Below: With afterburners lit and
under attack . wing flaps deployed a Tornado
The main prerequisite of launching ADV begins its climb to
the attack is to obtain surprise, and operating height. Good climb
the second to select the egress rou te . rate is essential to minimise the
The attack is made at high speed at a time required for an interception .

40
41
longer exists, and any attempt to turn, in recent years. The fact is that
emulate it might well prove fatal. the turn rate of modern fighters is
We have covered the weapons and pretty slow by World War I and II
the detection systems, and the main standards, while the turn radius is
circumstances in which they are like- vast. This is because turning ability is
ly to be used . What then are the closely linked to speed, and speeds
qualities needed by the modern have increased manyfold. In a com-
fighter , and by this, we mean a bat situation, the best turning fighter
fighter that will remain a formidable is often the one that is the slowest at
adversary in say, 15 years time? that moment, limited only by corner
The FA Phantoms of the Luftwaffe velocity, which can be defined as the
and those of many other nations are point where lift limitations and struc-
about to be upgraded, yet their tural limitations meet; it is therefore
aerodynamic capabilities remain the point where the highest rate of
thoseof the 1960s. In the multi-bogey turn, and normally the lowest radius
situation that we have just outlined, of turn, are achieved. Above corner
they remain a very potent weapon, velocity, the minimum radius in-
using 'blow-through and shoot' tac- creases rapidly but the turn rate
tics, but if they do get split off and decreases slowly . In combat it is
caught in the furball their chances of therefore better to start at a speed
survival are not good : they simply do well above corner V, as speed will
not have the performance and bleed off rapidly down to this level.
manoeuvrability to fight their way Sustained turn is exactly what it
out. The same applies in limited wars says, a turn rate and radius that can
where the numbers taking part are be maintained for long periods .
small . The smaller the force density in Naturally it varies with altitude. In-
any engagement, the better the aero- stantaneous turn is the turn rate and
dynamic and handling Qualities of the radius that a fighter can pull in exactly
fighter need to be . one set of conditions, and it will
Most future air fighting will take changeasthespeedwindsdown . ltis
place at low and medium altitudes, so
a high ceiling is only of value to in-
tercept the occasional high flying
reconnaissance aircraft or intruder. A Defender at
good climb rate is essential to enable 300kt turn s
the fighter to get off the ground and on 2,OOOft
ra di us,
reach operating altitude as rapidly as co vering 84 0
possible. In 6sec
Climb rate can be approximately
linked with acceleration, another
must. Acceleration gains energy
quickly for the attacking fighter and
also for its missile on launch, giving
the missile a better chance of scoring .
It helps to confer the initiative, and
also facilitates escape from an un - Rate of turn
promising situation . Finally it
replaces energy which has been bled Rate of turn may be more
off in hard manoeuvring. important than radius : the faster
Mach 2 is useful for an interceptor fighter turns through a wider
but not for much else . It takes forever radius, but turns 90° against the
to get there, and uses a lot of fuel target's 84°.
when it does . In combat there would
rarely if ever be time to accelerate
from subsonic cruising speed to
Mach 2. On the other hand, a super-
sonic top speed at sea level with a full Attacker at
bag of weapons would be well worth 500kt turn s
having . on 3, 200ft
Much has been written about turn - radius, bu t
co vers 90°
ing ability, and especially sustained 1116 sec

42
 Turn radius and turn rate
3.25
(0 .991 +-
3.00
(0.91 I

2.75
x
E
(0 .83
I +- 1. 9

§. 2.50
+-
x (076 I

E
o3 2.25 .. ~ 29
"'
oe
"0
'"
0:
(0 .68

,
2.0
(0.60
. ~9
~ ~ P+'- ~~
I
.~

59

150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Veioci Y In knots

it- +-
79 Structu allimll
69

-+= +t-
59
49
..L
' ...
Li ft liml

10 0
+I~ 39

-
29
~
..-+1 1.59 F ate of tUIi °/ sec

Above: For a fighter with a Below: In a maximum power turn

minimum flying speed of 150kt initiated at a speed of Mach 1.2
and a strength limit of 7g both in formation with an F·4, an F·16
radius and rate of turn are best demonstrates its ability to turn
at around 400kt. on half the Phantom 's radius .
 in most cases superior to sustained extra structure and volume to hold it,
turn and will be more readily used in all of which adds weight. The weight
emergency. But what is more import- of the fuel itself also affects the
ant than either is how quickly the thrust/weight ratio.
fighter can get into the turn. The current state of the art fighters
A fast rate of roll is good, but rate are both in the technology demon-
of acceleration into the roll is even strator stage. They are the Euro-
more important, as it determines how fighter, as evidenced by the British
quickly a turn can be initiated. Pitch
rate is another factor here, and
speeding this up is just one reason
why the canard foreplane has be-
come so popular in recent years .
Dassault, who use it on Rafale, are
convinced that instantaneous man -
oeuvre capability is more valuable to
a fighter under modern combat con -
ditions that sustained performance.
The next important point is a good
thrust:weight ratio, preferably better
than unity on takeoff. This improves
climb rate, and confers a good sus-
tained turning performance, and
most important, aids manoeuvre
generally through a high level of
specific excess power tlnder a wide
range of flight conditions. This in -
creases manoeuvrability; it also
serves to replace energy bled off in a
hard-turning fight very quickly .
Finally we have combat persis-
tence. In part, this is the number of
on-board kills carried; two missiles
would not last long in a multi -bogey
fight, and ideally a mix should be car-
ried of radar and heat homers for
operational flexibility . The optimum
number seems to be emerging as
about six or eight. On-board fuel is
yet another factor in combat per-
sistence . Fuel may be carried exter-
nally in jugs, but they hinder perfor-
mance, and often have to be dropped
in action . They also sterilise a pylon
which might othewise have been
used for weaponry . The optimum
fuel fraction seems to be emerging as
0.3 or a little under . More fuel needs

Right: BAe's EAP demonstrator

takes off for the first time on
August 8, 1986. Described by test
pilot Dave Eagles as " superb,
remarkably agile and yet very
easy to fly . .. ideal and what
every fighter pilot would want,"
t he EAP shares the unstable
delta canard configuration with
Dassault-Breguet's Rafale and
points the way to the future
European Fighter Aircraft.

44
Aerospace EAP, and Dassault's tained and transient. Similar in some
Rafale. Each is an unstable canard ways, in others they show markedly
configured delta with a kinked different solutions to what is essen -
leading edge to the wing, a moderate tially the same problem, perhaps the
wing loading and low aspect ratio, a most obvious of which is the design
high thrust loading and all the latest of intake. Where fighters of the near
electronics. Both are optimised for future are discussed, these are two to
very high manoeuvrability, both sus- watch .

45
Fighter Aircraft
t is customary in books of this lack of accuracy in compiling the
Inature to list current fighter aircraft brochure figures . Often Imperial and
together with a greater or lesser metric measurements do not tally, in
amount of data culled from manufac- which case the figures given in the
turers' brochures or other sources. system used in the country of origin
Some of the data is accurate; some is are most likely to be right. There are
accurate but not particularly rele- also, regrettably, instances of term-
vant; yet more is of a "gee whiz" inological inexactitudes, the purpose
nature : the difficulty for the reader is of which appears to be to make the
in making valid comparisons bet- product look superior to its rivals .
ween the different fighters shown . Manufacturers are, after all, in the
There are many reasons why this is commercial marketplace, where seil -
so . Often the information, while ac- ing the product is the name of the
curate, lacks relevance . A fighter game, and it would be unrealistic not
may well be able to attain a speed of to expect a bit of sales hype to creep
Mach 2.5 in a clean condition, but in somewhere.
without missiles it would be unable to Another major factor in inaccuracy
harm an opponent . It could use its is security . The product has to be
speed to escape from an opponent sold, but the customer is not going to
after exhausting its missiles, but be best pleased if a potential adver-
would take two or three minutes to sary, who is equipped with a rival pro -
wind up to top speed anyway, during duct, has been able to discover exact
which time it would be vulnerable . details of what the new machine will
Top speed, or V max, is irrelevant un- do and, more importantly, what it will
less it is attainable by a fighter carry- not do . Brochure material is therefore
ing suitable air to air weapons , in a of necessity rather bland; it must give
tactical situation that permits the little away .
relatively long acceleration period Fashion also plays its part, even
needed. Most other brochure para - with the engines of war. Thirty years
meters are also irrelevant, for much ago, a V max of Mach 2 was con -
the same sort of reasoning. sidered absolutely essential, and
In other areas the data in the guns were passe. Ten years ago sus-
brochure is accurate - or is it? Take tained turn rates, guns and 9g load-
wing area : for American aircraft the ings without pulling the wings off
wing area usually includes the body were the fashion . Today the essential
area between the wings, but this is attributes are agility, carefree
not the case for aircraft of other manoeuvring and pointability
nations, so wing area and the closely The final point about both bro-
allied aspect ratio differ as a result. chure and press release material is
Even length is subject to variation : that it is almost impossible to make it
taking a tape measure to an aircraft simultaneously accurate, relevant
and measuring it physically, from and understandable by the non -
front to rear, would probably pro - expert. Flight is a dynamic process,
duce figures substantially different and capabilities of an aircraft are
from those in the manufacturer's changing constantly from takeoff to
brochure not because of any lack of touchdown . Factors that affect per-
accuracy on either part. but as a formance include speed, altitude,
result of some house rule which dic- ambient air temperature and pres-
tates how the measurement is to be sure, while the weight of the aircraft
conducted . The British Aerospace is gradually reducing as fuel is burned
Lightning is a case in point; the house off and missiles launched . Drag
rule states that the length shall be varies by a tremendous amount, not
measured from the lip of the intake only with speed, but also with the
rather than from the tip of the projec - angle of attack in manoeuvring flight
ting centrebody . and the external weaponry and loads
Other discrepancies arise from a carried. Finally, data such as the in -

46
ternal fuel capacity is often not given, omitted from the data tables,
and this is most important for making although where these are infor-
valid comparisons between different mative, they have been included later
types . in the text.
Yet another glaring omission is the The format for the tabular data is
drag coefficient. In a world where outlined here, and the reasons for its
drag coefficients are the latest selling adoption given where necessary . All
points for the motoring fraternity, data is given in both Imperial and
this seems difficult to understand, metric measures, in that order .
but maybe it would be giving too Fighters are listed in chronological
much away. It is also reasonable to order by date of prototype first flight,
assume that too much data would be as another aid to making true com -
cou nter-productive parisons, although where certain
Given such limitations, we have types have run into more than one
endeavoured to formulate a simplis- generation this has been noted .
tic approach to the evaluation of
fighter aircraft from the non - Dimensions
classified information which is freely Length, wingspan and height are
available but without becoming im - given in feet / metres. Wing area is
mersed in advanced aerodynamics . given in square feet / square metres .
In certain cases, notably for the Aspect ratio is the ratio of the square
newer products originating east of of the wingspan to the wing area .
the Brandenburg Gate, it has been
necessary to attempt what can best Weights
be described as a guess tempered These are given in Ib / kg, are approx -
with commonsense, although this imate and are rounded off Empty
has been kept to a bare minimum . weight is generally the brochure
Certain brochure figures have been figure where available . Take -off
weight is in fighter configuration with
Below: By any standards the guns loaded, maximum internal but
F-15 is one of the most no external fuel, and the normal load
form idable fighters in existence, of air-to -air weapons , as stated in the
though simple tables of f igu res text. Combat weight is as take-off
do not tell the whole story. weight but with only 50 per cent inter-

47
nal fuel , is generally calculated from
brochure data and is approximate .
Gross take-off weight has not been
included : it is more relevant to the
ground attack mission than to the
fighter role, and in any case it is usual-
ly a theoretical figure totalled from
the basic aircraft weight with the
rated loads of the weapons hard
points added . It can rarely be achiev-
ed in practice.

Power
Engine make and type, with thrust
outputs at maximum (max) and
military (mill settings . The outputs
are given in terms of static thrust at
sea level in Ib and kN . Of course, in
the dynamic conditions of flight
these alter considerably , often being Above: Accurate data on modern
greater at low altitudes but inevitably Soviet types is hard to come by,
dying away as height increases. It and the first appearance of the
should be noted that turbofan s are MiG-29 in the West produced
much more economical at cruise set- numerous conflicting evaluations .
tings than the older turbojets .
for the same fuel fraction than one
Fuel powered by a turbojet , while an
Given in Ib / kg. Where only volume unaugmented turbofan - powered
figures have been available , the fighter w ill do best of all.
weight of fuel has been calculated as
JP-4 at 6.5Ib / US gallon, for the pur- Loadings
poses of standardisation. Internal Loadings are divided into thrust and
fuel is always given , external wing . Thrust loadings are expressed
sometimes only where it seems rele- as a proportion of the engine stati c
vant to do so, such as where long thrust again st the weight; it has
patrol times over friendly or neutral become fashionable during the last
territory are required . When making decade for fighters to have thrust
comparisons, external fuel should be loadings in excess of unity, or 1:1,
considered with caution as it often w hich usually denotes a high level of
sterilizes a pylon which could other- SEP (specific excess power) with
wise have carried an AAM , and is which to manoeuvre or climb or ac-
therefore adding to flight endurance celerate . In practice it is not quite that
but reducing combat enduran ce. By simple , as drag is also an important
the same token , in-flight refuelling is factor, but it does give some indica-
at times a tremendous advantage, tion . Tornado F.3, togivebutoneex-
but is impractical within range of ample, has quite a sorry thrust :
enemy fighters . Finally, the fuel frac- weight rati o, but its exceptionally low
tion is the percentage of fuel express- drag coefficient gives it surprisingly
eq as a proportion of the take-off good performan ce - better, in fact,
weight in fighter configurati o n . than that of certain fighters with a
Figures of 0.28-0 .30 indicate a fighter considerably better power loading .
has acceptably long legs; a lower It is usual to give power loadings at
figure means it is more or less short combat weight, using that as an op-
on operational radius , while a higher timum point , but for comparative
figure means it is suffering a con- purposes that supposes that all
siderable weight penalty , not only in fighters are down to 50 per cent inter-
terms of extra fuel but also for the nal fuel when they engage, which is
weight of tankage and added stru c- patently absurd . It is conceivable that
tural strength necessary to carry it. a fighter in the air superiority role
A turbofan -powered fighter will could be engaged almost as its
achieve a better radius performance wheels left the concrete, in which

48
case it would probably jettison any 88kt 1163km/ hr) greater at 36,OOOft
external fuel tanks and wade in. On 110,973m) than it is at sea level .
the other hand, a fighter reduced to Service or operational ceiling is
50 per cent internal fuel is in many cir - stated in !tIm. Initial climb rate is
cumstances going to fight with one given in ft l min Im /sec l, and is attain -
eye on the fuel gauge. Such is the ed only at about Mach 0.9 at sea
spread we have chosen in our tabular level . Take-off and landing roll are
material, from take-off to combat given in ftlm . All other performance
weight. data, such as time to altitude, ac-
We have also chosen to give the celeration, instant and sustained turn
loadings in mil power as well as max, rates and combat radius, are given in
and examination of the tables will the text where they can be suitably
show that the power loadings of qualified.
some fighters in mil exceed those of It should be remembered that V
others in max. To take a specific max and ceiling are irrelevant to com -
case, a I"den Flogger would hardly bat, and that they are included mainly
force an F-15 to use full 'burner. It is as a reminder of where the top right
also possible that fuel shortage may hand corner of the performance
be the critica! fa ctor in how the fight envelope lies : the true figures are at
is conducted. least 20 per cent less depending on
Wing loading is stated in Ib/sq ft the missile load carried. No recorded
Ikg/m2), and the same weight range combat has involved speeds in ex -
has been selected, from take-off to cess of Mach 1.6, and very few have
combat weight. Wing loading has taken place above 30,OOOft 19,144m)
traditionally been a method of since the Korean War more than 30
assessing turning capability, but it is years ago.
not quite so straightforward: aspect
ratio, wing shape and high-lift
devices also play a part; lift co- First Flight
efficient is another factor, but not a The date given is generally that of the
large one if supersonic speed is re- model to which the data applies,
quired. A low wing loading is just one though the aircraft are arranged in
of three factors that go to make up chronological order according to the
good turning capability, the others date of the prototype's first flight.
being a fairly high aspect ratio and a
high thrust loading . General
It should be noted that the most
Performance reliable available figures have been
V max is stated in terms of Mach quoted, though in some cases they
number, and is given both for high have been modifed and in others they
altitude and for low level flight. It have been calculated by the author
should be remembered that Mach 1 is using known detai ls.

49
Mlkoyan MIG·2. Fishbed
fighter was needed that co uld take
Type: Single-seat point defence fighter off quickly, gain altitude with a
with limited adverse weather capability minimum of delay, and make the in -
Isome versionsl, lim ited ground attack terception . A high rate of climb, a ser-
capability. Reconnaissance and two-seat vice ceiling of 65 ,500ft (20,OOOm) and
trainer verSion exists . a speed of Mach 2 at altitude were
called for , together with reasonable
manoeuvrability and handling.
The MiG -21 was conceived in 1953, So far, so good, but it also had to
at a time when the greatest threat be available in large numbers, since
was the nuclear-armed manned the potential threat force was
bomber : the American B-47 was numerically strong and the Soviet
entering service in large numbers, Union is a large area, with a cor-
and with the B-52 already on the respondingly large perimeter to de-
horizon the primary requirement was fend : that meant it had to be cheap
~omething able to intercept them . and easy to manufacture . At a time
But without unlimited resources, this when much of the West was thinking
was a conflicting requirement. A in terms of big, colossally expensive

MiG-21F MiG-21MF MiG-21bis

Dimensions Fishbed-C Fishbed-J Fishbed-N
Length Ift / ml 51.71 I 15.75 51.71 I 15.76 51 .71 / 15 .76
Span Ift / ml 23,46 1 7.15 23,46 1 7.15 n,461 7.15
Height Ift/ ml 13,451 4.10 14.751 4.50 14 .75 1 4.50
WlIlg area Isq ftlm'l 247 / 22 .95 247 / 22.95 247 / 22.95
Aspect ratio 2.23 2.23 23

Weights
Empty Ilb / kgl 10,800/4.900 11,850 / 5,370 13.50016,120
Takeoff Ilb / kgl 16,25017,370 18.080 / 8.200 19,73018,950
Combat Ilb / kgl 14,140 / 6,410 15,58017.070 17,23017.820

Power R-ll R-13 R-25

Max lib st / kN) 13.670 / 60 .8 14,450 / 64.2 19.8400/88.2
Mililb st / kNI 9.600 / 42 .7 11,240/50 .0 12.790 / 61.3

Fuel
Internaillb / kgl 4.220 / 1.910 5,000 / 2,260 5.000/2.260
Externaillb / kgl 840 / 380 8401380 840 / 380
Fraction 0.26 0.28 0.25

Loadings
Max thrust 0.84 0.97 0.80 0.93 1.011.15
Mil thrust 0.590.68 0.620.72 0.65 0.74
Wing takeolf Ilb / sq ft / kg / m' l 661321 73 / 357 801390
Wing combat Ilb / sq ft / kg / m' l 57 / 279 63 / 308 70 / 341

Performance
Vmax hi M = 2.00 M = 2.05 M = 2.10
Vmax 10 M = 0.9 M = 0.98 M = 1.01
Ceiling If t i m) 57,400117.500 59.000 / 18.000 59.000 / 18,000
Initial climb Ift / mln / m/ secl 25,900 / 132 N/ A 55)75 / 283
Takeoff roillft / mi N/ A N/ A N/A
Landing rOllift / ml N/ A N/ A N/ A

First flight Dec 1955 1967 1975

50
fighters, capable of Mach 3 and car- MiG -21 family can be regarded as a
rying enough firepower to sink a bat- success . I ts service life looks set to
tleship, the Soviet Union opted for exceed 40 years, and it has been built
simplicity and numbers. In any case, in greater quantities than any other
Soviet technology was behind that of supersonic fighter, in at leastas many
the West. subtypes, and it has been operated
The Ye-4 tailed delta, which can be by more nations . It is also accorded a
rega rded as the first prototype of the fair measure of respect in the fighter
MiG-21, first flew in December 1955. community . Yet its combat record is
The delta wing planform had many hardly inspiring, considering that it
advantages in high -speed, high - has been involved in almost every
altitude flight, and was easy to manu - shooting war around the globe since
facture. It also had no clearly defined 1965.
point of stall, and developed max- The truth is that it is a very ordinary
imum lift at very high angles of in- fighter, and had it been of Western
cidence, albeit at a high penalty in in - origin would probably have sunk
creased drag. Drag was also high in without trace prior to 1970. As a
manoeuvring f light, but the ta iled pilot's aeroplane, it is regarded as
delta avoided the worst drawbacks of simple to fly, and possibly the least
the tail less variety. demanding of all the Mach 2-capable
With the benefit of hindsight, the types . The controls are heavy, to a ~

Above: MiG-21bis Fishbed-L of Below: The MiG-21 has been

the Soviet Air Force. Lack of widely used in the Middle East.
range and poor visibility from the This Egyptian aircraft strafes a
cockpit are two drawbacks. range target with cannon.

51
~ degree where a fair amount of muscle MiG -21 F on internal fuel had an in -
is needed, though this does help pre- terception radius of just 120nm
vent the pilot from overstressing the (222km) - but in practice means that
airframe. The avionics fit is basic, Mach 2 can not be achieved without
with Spin Scan search and track running out of fuel, Mach 1.9 being
radar in the early versions, and the about the limit, even in clean condi -
more advanced but still short-range tion. It also means that in combat, the
Jay Bird in later types, so it is depen - pilot is forced to fly with one eye on
dent on good Gel to be really effec- the fuel gauge. Nor can the brochure
tive. The pilot's view out is not good, ceiling figure be achieved; a zoom
rear vision being almost non- climb will reach no more than about
existent, and even the view ahead is 46,oooft (14,ooom), and performance
restricted by both avionics displays above 20,Oooft (6,loom) has been
and a heavy canopy bow . described as poor .
Perhaps the type's worst short- Turning ability has always been
comings arise from a design fault. presented as the strong point of the
With a fairly low fuel fraction it is a MiG -21, and at the lower speed
short-legged fighter, but the internal levels, it is pretty good by any stan -
fuel is carried mainly ahead of the dards . This stems partly from the low
centre of gravity . As this burns off, corner velocity, which is somewhere
the centre of gravity moves aft until it around 300kt (556km/h), and at
passes the limits of controllability, Mach 0.5 and 15,Oooft (4,6oom) itcan
with the result that up to a fifth of the work up an instantaneous turn rate of
internal fuel load is unusable. This im - 11 .10/ sec, which is rather better than
balance not only reduces the combat its frequent adversary, the F-4E
radius without external fuel to a Phantom, can manage.
ridiculously short distance - (the On the other hand, increase the
speed to Mach 0 .9 at the same because it is cheap . In terms of equal
altitude and the instantaneous turn cost quantities, it is difficult to find
rate has only increased to 13.4 0 and better value .
sustained turn is down to 7.5°/ sec.
Both of these are worse than the slat- Armament
ted Phantom's figures, though to be Early versions: one30mm NR -30 can-
fair, they are better than the exactly non and two AA -2 Atoll missiles .
contemporary Mirage III and Star- Later versions : one GSh -23 23mm
fighter can achieve. cannon with 200 rounds per gun and
The latest Fishbed -N, with its far two or four AA -8 Aphid missiles.
superior thrust :weight ratio, is likely
to have a far better sustained turning Users
performance. Manoeuvre flaps are Afghanistan, Algeria, Angola, Bang -
used to aid turning in combat; they ladesh, Bourkina Fasso, Bulgaria,
are extended to the takeoff setting at Cuba, Czechoslovakia, Egypt,
low speeds, and gradually bleed in Ethiopia , Finland, East Germany,
under dynamic pressure from around Hungary, India, Iraq, NOilh Korea,
220kt (400km / hrl up to 380kt (700- Laos , Madagascar, Mongolia,
km / hr) when they are fully retracted . Mozambique, Nigeria, Poland,
However, although the MiG -21 has Romania, Somalia, Sudan, Syria,
not done very well in combat to date, Uganda, USSR, Vietnam, North
it still must be regarded with respect. Yemen, South Yemen, Yugoslavia,
The MiG -21bis, with its more power- Zambia
ful engine, is a formidable dogfighter,
especially if it is equipped with West - Below: MiG-21bis Fishbed-N,
ern avionics . Whatever its draw - with typical warload of two AA-2
backs, it is popular, and it is popular and two AA-8 missiles.
Dassault-Breguet
Mirage 1II/5/50/3NG
tracteG War of Attr ition, despite
Type: SIngle-seat Interceptor and air sup- clashing with MiG -21s flown by
eriority fighter with limi ted adverse Soviet pilots, until the short but
weather capability II' some versions; others vicious slogging match of the Oc-
optim ised for ground attack . Reconnais- tober War in 1973, when the Israe lis
sance and two ·seat trainer versions exist. were again victorious. Meanwh ile,
many nations clamoured to buy a
During the years following 1967 the combat proven fighter, especially
name Mirage was synonymous with one that, for a Western product, was
success. Outnumbered and sur- affordable, easy to maintain, and not
rounded, the Israeli Air Force had hedged around with restrictions like
subdued the mainly Soviet-equipped most American and British fighters .
Arab air forces during the Six-day The Mirage III was conceived at
War with devastating efficiency . It about the same time, and as a
then maintained an ascendancy over response to the same type of th reat,
its adverseries through the pro - as the MiG -2 1. The French aircraft in -

Dimensions Mirage IIiC Mirage IIIE Mirage 5

Length If ti m) 48.48/14 .77 49.23/15.04 5100/1554
Span Ift/ ml 27 .001 8 .23 27001 8.23 27 .00 1 8.23
Helghtlft / m) 13 .961 4.26 13.961 4.26 14.751 4.50
WII,g area Isq ft / m') 377 / 35.00 377 / 35.00 377 / 35.00
Aspect rallO 1.93 1.93 1.93

Weights
Empty Ilb / kgl 13,040 / 5,9 15 15,5401 7,050 14,550 /6,600
Takeoff Ilb/ kg) 19,000 / 8,620 22,050 / 10,000 21,30019,660
Combat Ilb / kgl 16,44017 ,460 19,1901 8,700 18,320 /8,310

Power Atar9B Atar9C Atar9C

Max lib st/kNI 13,320/59.2 13,670/60 .75 13,670/60.75
Mililb st/k NI 9,460/42 .0 9,430/41.9 9,430/41.9

Fuel
Internaillb / kgl 5,135 / 2,330 5,722 / 2,595 5,967 / 2,710
EXlernalllb / kg) 5,860 / 2,660 5,860 / 2,660 5,860 / 2,660
Fraction 0.27 0.26 0.28

Loadings
Max thrust 0.70 - 0.81 0.62 - 0.71 0.64 - 0.75
Mil thrust 0.50 - 0.58 0,43 - 0,49 0.44 - 0.51
Wing takeoff Ilb / sq ft / kg / m') 50 / 246 58 / 2B6 57 / 276
WlIlg combatllb / sq ft / kg / m'l 44 / 213 51 / 249 49/237

Performance
Vmax hi M ; 215 M ; 2.2 M ; 22
Vmax 10 M ; 1.14 M ; 1.14 M; 1.14
Ceiling Ift / ml 54,100 / 16,490 N/ A N/ A
Initial climb Ift / mlll / m/ sec) 16,400183 N/ A N/ A
Takeoff roll If ti m) 5,250 / 1,600 N/ A 3,500/ 1,070
Landing roillft / m) N/ A N/ A N/ A

First flight Nov 1956 N/ A May 1967

54
dustry, virtually non -ex istent at the jet is in decline, a supplementary
end of World War II, had clawed its rocket motor was incorporated, the
way into the military fast jet market fuel for which occupied the space for
from scratch, determined to catch up the gun ammunition, reducing the ar-
with the UK and the USA. mament to a single, rather ineffective
With the fast, high -flying bomber Matra R .5 11 missile carried on the
the main threat, the Mirage III was centreline , This was later supplanted
developed as an interceptor . The by the rather more effective R .530,
delta wing planform was adopted for and later still two R.550 Magics were
its high -speed, high -a ltitude qualities hung beneath the wings . When the
and for its ease of construction. It rocket was not fitted, the gun arma -
was intended to climb fast and in- ment was two 30mm DEFA cannon
tercept rapidly, and little if any with 125 rounds per gun .
thought was given to manoeuvre Although designed as an II1tercep-
capability, the tailless delta being tor, it was as a tactical fighter that the
worse in this respect than the tailed Mirage achieved fame. The view out
delta form of the MiG -2 1. was co nsiderably better than the
The Mirage was fairly austere, and view from the MiG -21, though the
was an all-French solution to a rear view was almost as bad ; the
French defence need . To give extra cockpit itself was austere but com-
climb and extra speed at high fortable. The Mirage handled very
altitudes, where the power of a turbo- nicely, and was definitely a pilot's .

Mirage 50 Mirage3NG
50,42 / 15 .37 51.33/15.65
2HfJ / 8.23 2HYJI 8.23
14.751 4 .50 14.751 4 .50
377 135 .00 377/3500
1.93 1.93

15,800 1 7,170 15,5401 7,050

22,650 / 10,275 22,050/10,000
19,670 1 8,920 19,0601 8,650

Atar 9K50 Atar 9K50

15,870 170.5 15,870 170.5
11,060/49 .2 11 ,060 / 492

5,967 / 2,710 5,967/2,710

5,860 /2 ,660 8,060 /3 ,660
0.26 027

0.70 - 0.81 072 - 0.83

0,49 - 0.56 0.50 - 058
60 / 294 58 /286
52 / 255 5 1/247

M = 2.2 M =2.2
M = 114 M = 1.14
60,000 / 18,300 54,0001 16,45C
36,600/186 N/ A
2,6001800 N/ A
N/ A N/ A Above: A Mirage IIIE of the Armee de
rAir displays the tailless delta
Apr 1979 Dec 1983 configuration adopted for high-speed,
high-altitude interception.

55
. aeroplane, though it lacked stability only R .530 kill recorded occurred on
at high altitudes; it could have used a November 29, 1966, when an Egyp-
bit more power and a better radar . tian MiG -19 was shot down . In the
The Cyrano radar is generally con- Six-day War, all 58 victories claimed
sidered inferior to the British Airpass, by the Israelis were with guns .
but an RAF exchange pilot with the In fact, the Israeli pilots used the
Armee de I' Air feels that this was classic slashing attacks wherever
because the Cyrano was generally possible, and avoided turning in most
used over land, whereas Airpass was cases . There is one recorded instance
mbre often used over the sea . In all where a Mirage squadron com -
other departments performance was mander fought a Jordanian Hunter
adequate; the standard tailless delta for no less than eight and a half
faults were that speed bled off alarm - minutes before he could administer
ingly in hard turns, and take-off and the coup de grcice: this must be one
landing runs were longer than they of the longest all -jet combats on
need have been . record, and speaks volumes for the
After the Six -Day War . the Israelis inability of the Mirage to turn with the
proclaimed the Mirage to be the gun - subsonic Hunter .
fighting aircraft supreme, although On the other hand, the speed loss
given its inferiority in turning ability attendant upon hard turns could be
compared with the MiG-21 and atten - used to advantage to force an over-
dant speed loss in hard turns, this can shoot. The Armee de I' Air taught a
hardly have been the case. Infact, the sudden, vicious pitch -up as an eva -
Israelis found both the radar and the sion manoeuvre; the tremendous
R.530 missile to be unreliable; the speed loss almost invariably forced

56
an attacker to overshoot, but it left Above : Three Mirage illEs of the
the defender out of airspeed and Armee de I'Air carry (right to left)
vulnerable to a further attack. No firm air-to-ground, air-to-air and
figures are available, but a close ap - anti-shipping weapons, plus drop
proximation of the war record of the tanks .
Mirage III is about 200 victories
(something over half with missiles) to the Mirage IIICZ operated by South
about two dozen losses in the air-to - Africa is fitted with the considerably
air arena. A British Fleet Air Arm pilot more powerful Atar 9K50 and call
who had exercised extensively almost certainly do better. Using the
against the French commented : SEPR rocket motor gives a time to
'They just screamed out from behind 60,OOOft (18,3OOm) of 7 minutes 20
a cloud, or out of the sun, into a firing seconds, and also increases the ceil -
pass . They wouldn't even deign to so ing to 75,5OOft 123,Oooml.
much as drop a wing for us.' Tactical - Israeli experience in the clear skies
ly, this was perfectly correct. of the Middle East led to the develop~
The next major variant after the IIIC mentol the Mirage5, which first flew
was the IIIE, which was slightly in 1967. This version, shorn of much
longer, a bit heavier, more p0werful, 01 the adverse weather avionic
with more internal fuel, and with a system, was rather lighter than the
better avionics system, mainly to im - IIIE but carried more fuel . In essence
prove the air to ground ordnance it was a ground -attack Mirage which
delivery. Most Mirage Ills can reach could operate as a clear weather
40,000ft (12,200m) in about 6 .5 lighter. Political problems ensured
minutes from brake release, although that Israel never received its Mirage ~

57
~ 5s, but some of them found their way since 1973, while Dassault's Milan
to Egypt during the October War of flew in September 1968 with small
1973, and Mirage III clashed with retractable foreplanes, though
Mirage 5, a circumstance which led neither featured relaxed static stabili-
the Israelis to adopt black-edged ty coupled with FBW. To date, the
yellow or orange triangle markings on Mirage IIING has no takers, and it is
their Mirages, a move more than unclear whether the NG is being of-
justified by the number of own goals fered as a new-build aircraft or in the
scored during this war. form of a mid-life update.
The Mirage 5 was followed in 1979 The Swiss operate a purpose built
by the Mirage 50, a 5 hotted up by the Mirage, .the IllS, which has much the
installation of the Atar 9K50 . Some same performance as the IIIE but
Ills were also fitted with this engine costs twice as much. They are cur-
and designated 50s. The Mirage 5 rently planning an update which
had a very similar performance to the features nose strakes, canards, a bet-
III, but the more powerful Mirage 50 ter ejection seat and more modern
had a considerably better initial rate avionics, while a wing strengthening
of climb and acceleration, and could programme is proposed to extend air-
reach 40 ,OOOft i12,200mi from a stan- craft life into the next centu ry. The
ding start in under 5 minutes . Take- strakes are to improve lateral stability
off distance was also considerably at high angles of incidence, while the
improved. canards add lift forward of the centre
Sales of the Mirage 5 were quite of gravity. A Swiss Air Force state-
respectable, but the Mirage 50 at- ment credits the car.ards with in-
tracted very little interest . A con - creasing the instantaneous turn rate
siderably revised aircraft, the Mirage to match that of the F-16 but with less
3NG, is powered by the Atar 9K50; it speed loss.
has a new avionic fit and fly-by -wire is Chile is also planning to modify its
used in the control system . The delta fleet of Mirage 50s with canards with
planform has been modified with a the help of IAI, whose package offers
small leading edge extension at the an increased sustained turn rate of
wing root and canard foreplanes 19°/sec ifrom 14.5° /seci, with an
which, coupled with FBW and ar-
tificial stability , greatly improve Below: Canard foreplanes can be
manoeuvrability. used t o offset some of the
Canards on a Mirage delta are not a disadvantages of t he tailless
new idea : the Israeli Aircraft In- delta layout. This is the sole
dustries Kfir, derived from the Mirage example of the Mirage 3NG : to
III, has featured canard foreplanes date there have been no sales.

58
improvement in angle of incidence Above: A Belgian Mirage 5 with
allowablE: from 2]0 to 42° , whi le Atlas large fuel/multi-sensor pods.
Industries are undertaking a similar Originally designed as a clear air
midlife update on South Africa 's age- attack fighter, the Mirage 5 has a
ing force of Mirage Ills under the new slimmer nose and more austere
name of Cheetah. avionics than the III.
The use of canards generally ap-
proximately doubles the lift :drag Armament
ratio and greatly improves low speed Early versions : one R .530 on the cen -
manoeuvrability . Vmin is claimed to treline
reduce from around 150kt Most versions : two underwing
(278km/hr) t!J 107kt (198km / hr), R.55Os or Sidewinders
which would bring about a reduction All versions (except when carrying
in corner velocity from, in rough rocket motor and fuel): two 30mm
terms, 400kt (740km / hrl to 300kt DEFA cannon with 125 rounds per
(556kml hr) . gun
The final improvement proposed
for the Mirage III family is an in -flight Users
refuel l ing capability Dassault - Argentina, Australia, Belgium,
Breguet have developed an upgrade Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Egypt,
which involves the installation of a France, Gabon, Israel, Libya,
new nose bay ahead of the cockpit, Pakistan, Peru, South Africa, Spain,
involving a 3.6in (9cm) increase in Switzerland, United Arab Emirates
length . The probe, which can be un - Venezuela, Zaire. Lebanon has some
bolted but is not retractable, is offset Mirages but cannot besaid to operate
to the right ahead of the cockpit. A them, while Colombia's Mirage5s are
buddy pack can be used for opera - being fitted with canards and the
tional refuelling . J79-G E engine .

59
McDonneU Douglas
F·4 Phantom
role, needed to protect its giant car-
Type: Two-seat all-weather carrier-based riers at long ranges.
interceptor, adap ted as land-based in - The McDonnell F-4 Pha ntom was
tercepto r, air su peri ority fig h ter, and accordingly developed as a Fl eet Ai r
fig hter-bomber; reconnaissance and W ild Defence Fighter able to launc h,
Weasel variants exist. cruise out to 250nm (463kml from the
carrier , stay on patr o l at that
It is not surprising that the versatility distance, detect and interce pt in-
of the Phantom has become a by - truders with missiles from beyond
word . At the design stage it was real - visual range if necessary, and return
ly no more than a series of solutions to the carrier three hours later. It was
looking for the right problem . At the to be fast enough to catch any ex-
time, fast jet bombers were coming isting or projected threat aircraft , but
into service armed with long-range the ability to outfight it when ca ught
anti -ship missiles, and the US Navy, did not arise ; the colossal speeds of
increasingly conscious of its global the new breed of fighters, and the

.;
Dimensions F-4E F-4F F-4J/F-4S
Length Ift / m) 63 00/ 19 20 63 00/ 19 20 58 16/ 17 73
Span Ift / m) 38.33/ 11.68 38.33111 .68 38.33 / 11.68
Height Ift / m) 16.25/ 4.95 16.25/ 4.95 16.25/ 4.95
Wing area Isq ftlm'l 530/49.25 530/49.25 530 / 49.25
Aspect ra tiO 2.77 2.77 2.77

Weights
Empty Ilb/ kgl 29,535/ 13,400 28,400/ 12,680 28,000 / 12,700
Takeof f Ilb/kgl 45,750/20,750 42,000/ 19,050 44 ,220/20,060
Combat li b/ kg) 39,250 / 17,800 35,800/ 16,240 37,710117,100

Power 2xJ79-17 2xJ79-17 2xJ79-1O

Max li b st/kN) 17,900179.6 17,900179.6 17,900179.6
Mililb st/kN) 11,870/ 52.8 11,870/ 52 .8 11,870/ 52.8

Fuel
Internal lib / kg I 13,020/ 5,900 12,400/ 5,625 13,020/ 5,900
Externail ib/kgl Va ri able Va ri able Vanab le
Fraction 0.28 0.30 0.31

Loadings
Max th rust 0.78 - 0.91 0.85 - 1.00 0.81 - 0.95
Mil thrust 0.52 - 0.60 0.57 - 0.66 0.54 - 0.63
Wing takeoff IIb/ sq ft / kg / m'l 86/ 421 79/ 387 83 / 407
Wing combat IIb/ sq ft / kg / m') 74/361 68/ 330 71 / 347

Performance
Vmax hi M =2.2 M = 2.2 M = 2.2
Vmax 10 M = 1.19 M = 1.19 M = 1. 19
Ceiling Ift / m) 55,000/ 16,750 55,000116,750 55,000/ 16,750
Ini tial climb Ift/ mln / m/sec) 28,000/ 142 28,000 / 142 28,000/ 142
Takeof f roilift/mi 3,300/ 1,000 N/ A N/ A
Landing roilift / m) N/ A N/ A N/ A

First flight Aug 1965 May 1973 Jun 1965

60
J
 new wonder missiles had, so it was Phantom first showed its versatility.
said, rendered the dogfight obsolete. gradually taking over almost every
A two-man crew was needed to ro le from almost every other type on
handle the advanced radar and the inventory.
weapon system, and two engines So far as can be ascertained, the
were needed to provide the required Phantom has notched up more aerial
level of performance for what was a victories than any other type still in
large fighter . Armament was four of front -line service. These have been
the new semi-active radar homing sco red in two main theatres : South
Sparrow missiles, although provision East Asia in Ulliled States service,
was made for two more Sparrows or and in the Middle East in Israeli ser-
four heat-homing Sidewinders to be vice. Iranian Phantoms are still in ac -
carried beneath the wings. tion in the protracted war with Iraq,
The first major variant to see ser- but no firm and reliable information is
vice was the F-4B, but with the Phan - avai lable, except that two have been
tom taking nearly every performance shot down by Saudi Arabian F-15s .
record in sight, Air Force interest was At the last cou nt. the score was
aroused, and intensive evaluation led 283, the majority of victims being
to the F-4C and F-4D being ordered Soviet designs, and so far as is
for the USAF . Both Air Force and I known these com prise 53 Y, MiG -
Navy were heavily involved in the 17s, 10 MiG -19s, 109 Y, MiG -2 1s, and
Vietnam War, and it was here that the two An -2 transports. The rest, with ~

Below: F-4Bs of US Navy fighter squadron VF-121

F-4M (FGR.2) photographed in December 1967. Developed as a
58.75/ 17 .91 carrier-based interceptor, the Phantom has fulfilled
38.33 / 11 .68 many other roles since.
16.251 4.95
530 / 49.25
2.77

31,000 / 14,060
47,220 / 21,420
40,710 / 18,470

2xSpey 203
20,515 / 91 .1
12.2501545

13.020/ 5,900
Vanable
0 .28

0.87 - 1.01
0.52 - 0.60
89 /435
77 1375

M = 2.1
M = 1.2
55,000 / 16,750
32,000 / 163
N/ A
N/ A

Feb 1967

I
~ one exception, are identified as Even when BVR combat was per-
MiGs, and are victims of Israeli Phan- mitted under the Rules of Engage-
toms. The one exception was a ment, it was found that the small
British Jaguar shot down over Ger- MiGs were difficult to hold on radar
many in error. The weapons used in for missile guidance . Nor did the
these victories vary. TheSARH Spar- missiles do anywhere near as well as
row has accounted for 64, the IR - they hild during trials; they had been
homing Sidewinder and Shafrir97 Y', designed to cope with non-manoeuv-
the IR Falcon 5, the 20mm cannon ring targets, and the North Vietnam-
22Y>, and manoeuvring - either lur- ese Air Force MiGs were not so co-
ing the opponent past the point of operative. Furthermore, the missiles
lost control, or running him out of had been designed to be launched
fuel - is responsible for five, while from fighters pulling no more than
the others, mainly Israeli again, re- 2 Y> g, a limitation that did not fit well
main unknown. with close combat.
The Phantom's first kills were The avionic and weapon system of
scored by US Navy F-4Bs over Viet- the Phantom was better than any-
nam in 1965. It was, however, quickly thing possessed by the NVAF MiGs,
found that BVR identification was a but was at least offset by the com-
major problem, and this restricted the prehensive Gel environment set up in
use of the Sparrow to a great degree. North Vietnam. In close combat the
After a couple of own goals visual large and smoky engined Phantom
identification became the order of the could be seen and identified at much
day except in very exceptional cir- greater distances than its small op-
cumstances, so the Phantom be- ponents, which could often ap -
came involved in the close combat proach undetected . The Phantom
arena, for which it had never been lacked agility in the lower speed
designed. range and, worst of all, it lacked a

62
gun, so that it was often caught up in and slats on the wing leading edges
a dogfight without a close-range to improve manoeuvring. This
weapon. Finally, it could be difficult variant was also used in combat by
to fly, suffering from dihedral effect, Israel from the War of Attrition on -
and had rather unforgiving departure wards.
tendencies, which accounted for Next came two specially devel-
many losses . An inexperienced pilot oped Phantoms for the Royal Navy
tended to spend too much time flying and Royal Air Force respectively, the
it and not enough time fighting . F-4K and F-4M, known in British ser-
The early Phantoms to see combat vice as the FG .1 and FG R.2. Neither
were the US Navy and Marine Corps had an internal gun, but both could,
F-4B and the Air Force F-4C . Opera - like the earlier Phantoms, carry gun
tional needs and technical progress pods, though these were inaccurate
quickly led on to new variants, the during manoeuvres as a result of
first of which was the F-4J for the mounting distortion . Nor did they
Navy, with more powerful engines, feature the wing slats of the F-4E .
increased fuel capacity, and .improv- The greatest difference was that they
ed avionics. This was quickly follow- were powered by Rolls-Royce Spey
ed by the USAF F-4D with better turbofan s, which in theory were to
ground-attack capability. A few give improved climb, acceleration,
F-4Js and Ds remain in service even fuel consumption and low-speed
today, but not many . handling . Problems were en -
The greatest advance came with countered in matching the engmes to .
the USAF F-4E which was developed
in parallel with the F-4J to give Below: Eight missiles against
greater air-to-air capability, with an two, longer range and superior
improved radar and weapons control radar were the Phantom 's main
system, an internal 20mm cannon, advantages over the Lightning .
Above: This F-4E of the 388th Below: Israeli F-4Es have seen a
TFW, flying from Korat against great deal of action in the Middle
North Vietnam in 1972, has the East. although their main role is
original short gun muzzle. ground attack.

64
~ the inlets, and many of the an - The Royal Navy relinquished its
ticipated advantages never F-4Ks to the Royal Air Force, where
ma terialised. they still equip two squadrons, but
A part from specialised reconnais- are fast running out of hours, but the
sance va riants, and the FAG Wild F-4Ms will be around until well into
W ease l, the final Phantom to be the 1990s. Many other nations have
developed was the F-4F for the Luft - low-mileage Phantoms in service,
w affe, a dedicated air superiority and given the enormous cost of new
f ighter with the slatted wing of the E, hardware will be looking to upgrade
the internal cannon, various weight- them .
sav ing measures to lower wing The most comprehensive upgrade
loa d ing and increase thrust loading, proposals put forward to date, those
and an armament of just four of the Boeing Military Airplane Com -
Sidewinders . At other times, F-4Bs pany in conjunction with Pratt &
we re upgraded into FANs, and F-4Js Whitney Aircraft, IIlvolve re-engin -
into F-4Ss. ing, a new avioniCS pack and a con -
More than 5,000 Phantoms were formal fuel tank . The suggested
built, and it is estimated that about engines, also favoured by Israel, are
2,000 of them will still be in service at PW1120s giving 15 per cent more
the turn of the century. There IS, thrust along with reduced weight and
therefore, a flourishing market III fuel consumption . The avionics up-
mid-life updates for Phantoms . The dates mainly concern the fitting of
US Navy phased out its last F-4s In modern multi-mode radars such as
1986, although the Marine Corps re - the Hughes APG -65, which will con -
tai ns a considerable number . The fer a tremendous increase in capabili -
USAF has a few FADs and quite a lot ty . Structural strengthening is also a
of F-4Es that it intends to upgrade . possibility , either to increase the
gross weight limit, or lengthen the
structural life .
To date three update programmes
are under way; Japan is going for ex-
tended airframe life coupled with ad -
vanced fire control and avionics;
West Germany is having an Improved
Combat Efficiency liCE) avionics
pack, including APG-65, and com-
patibility with AIM - 120 Amraam
when it becomes available; and Israel
seems to favour a full house, with the
PW .1120 engine, modern avionics,
life extension, and possibly canard
foreplanes to improve manoeuvrabili -
ty and handling .

Armament
Almost all : four AIM -7 Sparrows and
four AIM -9 Sidewillders
West German F-4F : four SideWinders
Ifour Amraam in future)
British : four Sky Flash as an alter-
native to Sparrow
Israel : four Shafrir as alternative to
Sidewinder
A ll F-4E and F-4F have internal M61
20mm cannon; all others can carry a
20mm gun pod on centreline

Users
USA, UK, West Germany, Israel,
Iran, South Korea, Spain, Japan ,
Greece, Turkey

65
Northrop F·5E Tiger II
and F·20 Tigershark
cheap, yet supersonic. In April 1962 it
Type: Single-seat air superiori ty fighterl was adopted by the US Department
quick - reaction intercepto r w ith some of Defense as the Military Assistance
adverse wea ther ca pabili ty, some ground Program all-purpose fighter, which
attack capability . Dedica ted reconna is- meant that it would be supplied to
sance and tw o·sea ter tra iner eXIst. friendly countries on very advan -
tageous terms. Simple and easy to
Unusually, the F-5 series owes its maintain, the Freedom Fighter, as
origins to a trainer, the T-38 Talon , the F-5A was named, could do a con -
which was developed to meet a US vincing job against a basic air threat,
Air Force requirement for a super- but lacked the payload / range cap-
sonic advanced trainer . Northrop ability to pose a threat outside the na-
decided to develop a fighter version tional borders, having what was once
as a private venture; the result wa s pithily described as 'the ability to
the F-5A, a small , austere fighter carry a box of matches the length of a
which had the advantage of being baseball park' .

Dimensions F-5E Tiger II F-20 Tigershark

Length Ih / m! 47.39 / 14 .44 53.92 / 16.44
Span Ih / m! 26.19 / 7.98 26.19 1 7.98
Height If ti m! 13 .34 1 4.07 13.751 4.19
Wing area Isq ft l m'l 186 / 17.28 186 / 17.28
Aspect ratio 3.69 3.69

Weights
Empty Ilb / kg! 9,683 / 4,392 13,376 / 6,070
Takeoff Ilb / kg! 14,847 I 6,735 18,540/8,510
Combat Ilb / kg! 12,6651 5,745 16,01517,265

Power 2xJ85-21A 1xF404-1oo

Max lib st/kNI 5,000/22 .2 18,000 /80 .0
Mil lib st / kN! 3,600/ 16.0 12,000 / 53.3

Fuel
Internaillb / kg! 4,364 / 1,980 4,364 / 1,980
Externaillb / kgl 4,466 / 2,025 5,363/2,430
Fraction 0.29 0.24

Loadings
Max thrust 0.67 - 0.79 0.97 - 1 12
Mil thrust 0.48 - 0.57 0.65 - 0.75
WlIlg takeoff Ilb / sq ft / kg / m'! 80 / 390 100 / 487
WlIlg combat ilb / sq ft / kg / m' ! 68 1332 86 / 420

Performance
Vmax hi M = 1.64 M = 2.0
Vmax 10 M = 0.95 M = 1.2
Ceiling Ih / m! 51,200 / 15,600 55,0001 16,750
Initial climb Ift / mln / m/ sec! 34,300 / 174 53,800 / 273
Takeoff roll If ti m! 2,000 / 610 1,475/ 450
Landing roll If ti m! N/ A N/A

First flight Aug 1972 Aug 1982

66
 The next step was the more power- When it was realised that Mach 2
ful and better performing F-5E Tiger II was irrelevant in almost every com -
which proved itself a dangerous op- bat situation, and that manoeuv -
ponent in simulated close combat, rability was still important, many na -
being selected to equip the USAF tions bought the F-5E, which was,
Aggressor squadrons. In subsonic unlike many other fighters, affor-
performance and manoeuvrability it dable both in acquisition and in runn -
was closely comparable to the MiG - ing costs . The obvious next step was
21, and it had a similar armament of an even better version, which emerg -
two 20mm cannon in the nose and ed in the summer of 1982 as the F-5G
two Sidewinders carried on wingtip The F-5G, or F-20 Tigershark as it
rails . Like its Soviet counterpart, the later became, differed from the F-5E
F-5E is small, has smokeless engines primarily in being powered by a single
and is difficult to see. Turn rates at General Electric F404 turbofan . The
Mach 0.9 and 15,OOOft 14,600ml are avionics fit was updated to suit the re-
14°/sec instantaneous and 7.8°/ sec quirements of the 1990s, with a
sustained; at Mach 0.5 at the same modern multi -mode radar , and per-
altitude in stantaneous turn is 11.4° / formance benefited from the 1Il -
sec. The cg is too far forward, which crease in thrust loading. The new
makes it a trifle sluggish in pitch, but fighter was stressed for 9g turns
its sparkling rate of roll more than 19.4 ° / sec instantaneous turn has
compensates. been demonstrated, and 13.1 °/ sec ~

Above: Big missiles on small Below: The F-20, an upgraded

fighters never look right, as this version of the F-SE Tiger II , is an
F-20 Tigershark armed with outstanding fighter in the close
Sparrows demonstrates, combat arena.

67
~ sustained at Mach 0.8 and 15,OOOft The F-20 is currently in competi -
(4,600ml. A time of just 2.3 minutes tion with the F-16 for a 300-aircraft
to 4O,OOOft (12,200m) from a stand - USAF continental air defence pur-
ing start has also been recorded, and chase, the result of which was to be
an acceleration of 14kt (26km / hr) at announced in November 1986; it has
1O,OOOft (3,050m) is attainable . also been checked out with many air-
As a quick-reaction air superiority to-grol..nd weapons as a contender to
fighter at a reasonable price, the replace the A -lO. Many countries
Tigershark looks unbeatable, yet so have shown interest, among them
far there are no takers . In August South Korea, Switzerland, Taiwan
1986 the fourth prototype was under and Jordan, and Oman actually tried
construction, and this will have even to place an order for six in 1985, but
better performance than the first that was too small for production to
three, coup led with increased man - be initiated .
oeuvrability . Tests have been carried The F-20 is an object lesson in how
out using Sparrow , but carrying such unpredictable the fighter market can
a big missile on such a small fighter be . The F-5A was a success, as was
must be like putting an anchor on it. the F-5E , while the F-18, originally in -
tended as an F-5E replacement, end -
Below: The Tigershark is also ed up as a very expensive multi-role
advertised as an interceptor. It fighter, beyond the purse of most
can be airborne, with all systems F-5E operators. Against this back-
fully up, in just 60 seconds from ground the Tigershark looked certain
engine start, a feat unmatched by to scoop the light fighter market, but
other types . as yet it hasn't.
Weapons
F-5E and F-20 : two 20mm M39
revo lver cannon with 225 rounds per
gun and two Sidewinders on the
wingtips
F-20 only : two AIM-7F Sparrow
demonstrated, Amraam and Asraam
in the future

Users
(F-5E/F onlyl Bahrain, Brazil, Chile,
Eth iopia, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan,
Kenya, South Korea, Malaysia, Mex-
ico, Morocco, Saudi Arabia, Singa -
pore , Sudan, Switzerland, Taiwan,
Thailand, Tunisia, USA, South
Yemen . A total of 19 nations have
operated or are still operating the
F-5A Freedom Fighter.

Right: The F-SE Tiger II is the

most widely used Western
fighter. Head-on it shows only a
small profile, which is all but
invisible at 2nm (4km).
Mikoyan MiG·25 Foxbat
terception of an aircraft flying at
Type: Single-seat pOint defence Intercep - around a statute mile every two
tor with adverse wea ther ca pabili ty; 11'- seconds (nearly 1km l seci some 15
tercept automa ted through data li nk via statute miles (24.4kmi up in the
GCI. Reconnaissance and two-sea t trainer stratosphere, is a very tall order and
verSions eXIst. demands precision of a high degree.
It did not seem likely that the surface-
The MiG -25 Foxbat is unique, being to -air missiles then under develop-
the only fighter designed and built to ment would be able to achieve
counter a single-threat aircraft . It is satisfactory results, and the Soviet
also unique in that, reconnaissance solution was to design an aircraft op-
apart, it has no other role than the in - timised for the highest speeds and
terception of fast and high intruders . altitudes, with a rapid rate of climb,
It was originally conceived as a the ability to carry large missiles, and
counter to the US Air Force 8-70 a ground control system of sufficient
Valkyrie, a nuclear-armed bomber precision to position it where its own
designed to fly the entire mission at radar could be used for the final
Mach 3 and BO,OOOft (24,400mi. phase of the intercept. At the same
It hardly needs saying that the in - time, the geography of the Soviet

Dimensions MiG-25 Foxbat-A

Length Ifl / ml 71.33 / 21.74
Span Ifl / ml 4600114.02
Height Ift / ml 18 .501 5.64
Wing area Isq ft / m'l 662 161 .52
Aspect ratio 3.20

Weights
Empty Ilb / kgl 44,000 / 19,960
Takeoff Ilb / kgl 82,500 / 37,420
Combat Ilb / kgl 66,710 / 30,260

Power 2xR.31
Max lib st / kNI 27.120 / 130 .5
Mil l ib st/ kNI 20.5001 91.0

Fuel
Internaillb / kgl 31,575 / 14,320
Externaillb / kgl nil
Fraction 0.38

Loadings
Max thrust 0.66 - 0.81
Mil thrust 0.50 - 0.61
Wing takeoff Ilb / sq ft / kg / m' l 125 / 608
Wing combat Ilb / sq ft / kg / m' l 101 /492

Performance
Vmax hi M = 2.82
Vmax 10 M = 0.85
Ceiling Ift / ml 78,000 / 23,800
Initial climb Ift / mln / m / secl 41,000/ 208
Takeoff ro illfl / mi 4,528 / 1,380
Landing roillft / mi 7,152 / 2,180

First flight Aug 1964

70
Union meant it needed to be affor- ally a systems manager, responsible
dable in reasonable numbers. for takeoff and landing, throttle con-
Foxbat final ly emerged as a mann- trol, selection of reheat, missile
ed re-usable first stage of a missile launch and the post-attack break. Of
system for all practical purposes. It course, if circumstances demanded
had to be automated to a high he could fly the mission manually
degree : extreme relative speeds with Gel advisory information, but
would be involved in interception, that would only be done if the basic
and visual acquisition could play little auto system was inoperable .
part, since at its operational altitudes Foxbat is big . The destruction of
the sky is deep blue, and the sun very high and fast targets demands
blazes like a giant star, so that unless big missiles and four were carried in
the target is outlined against the earth the form of the AA -6 Acrid, two
below, there is little chance of it being SARH versions on the outer under-
seen by an interceptor . wing pylons and two IR homers in -
The key to interception lay in board . Target acquisition was the
ground control coupled with a digital task of the large and extremely
data link tied to an automatic flight powerful Foxfire radar, with a range ~
control system, designed to control
the aircraft from just after takeoff to Below: MiG-25 Foxbat-A of the
just before touch down. As with the
American F-106, the pilot was basic-

71
~ against a Valkyrie-sized target of achieve the required levels of pefor-
about 50nm (93km) and enough mance, and that this would demand
power to burn through any jamming huge amounts of fuel. The fuel frac -
carried by Valkyrie. The standard at- tion of Foxbat is high at 0.38, and the
tack was either collision course from actual amount carried is enormous,
the front quarter, or from the beam: more than 14 tonnes. Even so, the
Foxbat would have stood little full -burner interception radius is a
chance in a tail chase; it could be mere 160nm (296km), since to
wound up to Mach 3.2, but only at cou nter the effects of kinetic heating,
the cost of wrecking its engines the aircraft is constructed with large
through overspeeding. amounts of heavy nickel steel.
It was clear at the design stage that Manoeuvre combat never figured
the MiG -25 would be forced to use in the design of the MiG -25. With full
prolonged spells of afterburning to internal fuel it is limited to just over

Above: The Foxbat-E seen here Lark radar and a revised nose.
carrying four AA-6 missiles is an The pilot's view from the cockpit
upgraded Foxbat-A, with High is very restricted.
2g, while with more than half the fuel AA -7 Apex missile, carried in SAR H
burned, its limitation is still only 5g - and IR homing pairs . Foxbat-E is
much less than any other fighter in rumoured to have been structura lly
service . And, reconnaissance vari - strengthened to allow manoeuvre
ants apart, its service record is not im- combat, but it seems likely that any
pressive. To date, three Syrian radical change would invo lve a
Foxbat-As have fallen to the Israeli severe weight penalty .
F-15/ Sparrow combination.
Most Foxbat - As have been Armament
upgraded to Foxbat-E standard, with Four AA -6 Acrid or AA -7 Apex
improved avionics including the High missiles 12 SARH and 2 IR homing)
Lark radar , as used on the MiG -23,
which has a much better perfor- Users
mance at low level, coupled with the Algeria, Libya, Syria, USSR

Below: MiG·25R reconnaissance behind it is equipped with

Foxbats. The B in the foreground electronic sensors and side-
carries cameras while the 0 looking airborne radar.
Shenyang F·7 and
F·7M Airguard
cannor instead of the previous single
Type : Single -seat lightweight pOin t NR -30 .
defence and close combat fighter with The F-7 M Airguard is essentially a
limited all -weather and attack capability . revised F-7 , rather sleek er in ap-
perance than most MiG -2 1s, with
The Shenyang F-7 (J -7 in Chinese Western avionics, including a rang -
service) was basicall y an unlicensed ing radar and HUDWAC . Details
ve rsion of the MiG -21 F with similar were first released in October 1984 .
chara cteristics, but only three or four Takeoff gross weight is, at 19,620lb
score were built before produ ction (S,900kg), rather more than that of
ceased from 1966 until the late 1970s, the MiG -21 C but less than that of
when production resumed of an im- later models . It has five hard points,
proved version with a more reliable but only the two inboard wing posi-
engine, greater endurance - the fuel tions appear to be used for AAMs;
fraction is well up on that of the the centreline position seems to carry
original MiG -21 C - and two ;3Omm nothing but a fuel tank and the two

Dimensions F-7M Airguard

Length If ti m! 45 .75 / 13 .95
Span !ft/ m! 23 .46 1 7. 15
Heigh t (ftlm! 13.451 4 .10
Wing area Isq ftlm'! 247 123.00
Aspect ra tio 2.23

Weights
Empty Il b/ kg! 11 ,630 / 5,275
Takeo ff li b/ kg! 17,40017,900
Combat Ilb / kg! 14 ,900 / 6,760

Power 1xWP-7BM
Max lib st / kN! 13,448/ 60.0
Mil l ib st/ kN! 7 ,540 / 33.5

Fuel
Internal IIb / kg! 5,000 / 2,270
External Ilb/ kg! 2,575 / 1,168
Fraction 0.29

Loadings
Max th rust 0.78 - 0.91
Mil thrust 0.45 - 0. 53
Wing takeoff Ilb/ sq ft / kg / m'! 70/ 344
Wing combat IIb/ sq ft / kg / m'! 601295

Performence
Vmax hi M =2.05
Vmax 10 M = 1.01
Ceiling (ftl m! 59 ,700 / 18,200
Initial climb Ift / min / m /sec! 35,4001180
Takeo ff roilift / m! 3, 100/950
Landing roll If tim! 2,950 / 900

First flight Dec 1964

74
outboard wing positions are also Tigershark, and while it is not sug -
plumbed for fuel. gested that the Airguard is superior to
Basically a clear air fighter, Air- either of those, it may well be a better
guard IS capable of 40 minutes on buy in terms of equal cost quantities
CAP with a five-minute combat fuel where a simple mission and numer-
al lowance at a distance of 54nm ical strength are the main factors .
1100km) from base at 36,000ft Much modern thinking seems to in -
111 ,OOOm) while carrying two AAMs dicate that a cheap airframe fitted
and three 500lit drop tank s. With the with Western avionics is an adequate
same configuration it can carry out a compromise, and the Airguard con -
high level supersonic intercept at a forms to this trend, although it will be
maximum distance of 350nm too basic for many tastes .
1650kml.
Widely touted on the export Armament
market, Airguard offers a cheap form Two 30mm cannon with 60 rounds
of defence against a limited threat per gun; 2 PL-2, PL-2A, or PL-7
and looks likely to sell well. Pakistan missiles . Airguard is also compatible
has evaluated it as a replacement for with Sidewinder and Magic .
its remaining F-6s and is believed to
have ordered between 60 and 150 air- Users
craft. This order was won in com - Albania, China, Egypt, Iraq ,
petiton with the Mirage 3NG and F-20 Pakistan, Tanzania , Zimbabwe

Left: the F-7M Airguard can carry Below: The F-7M is a direct
a variety of weapons, both air-to- descendant of the MiG-21 . With
air and air-to-ground, as depicted Western avionics it is a cost-
here. effective light fighter.

75
5ukho.5u-15/-21 Flagon
the first model to see service in large
Type; Sin gle -seat adverse w eat her in - numbers, featured an extended wing
terceptor with secondary ai r supenorlty span with a kinked leading edge .
role . Two-seat trainer verSions eXIst. In 1973 an uprated version , Flagon -
E, entered service with a better radar
The Su -15 Flagon was the Soviet and avioni cs, the detection range
Union's first really effective all - against fighter- sized targets being of
weather interceptor, taking over the the order of 43nm (SOkm) , and more
role from the Su -9/ 11 family . Un- powerful engines; it differed suffi -
usual for a Soviet fighter in having a ciently from earlier models to warrant
high wing loading, with a consequent the new designation Su -21, and has
lack of manoeuvrability , and being since been followed by Flagon -F.
reliant on long concrete runways, the The Flagon is a big fighter , but very
Su-15was optimised for a high rateof aerodynami cally clean, its hardly
climb and high speed and featured an outstanding thrust loading propell ing
automated interception system, it to 36,OOOft (11 ,OOOm) from a stand -
making it a Soviet counterpart of the ing start in 2 Y2 minutes . Its fuel fra c-
American F-l06, although it did not tion is rather low, despite some fuel
carry missiles internally . Flagon -D, being housed in the fin, but its com-

Dimensions Su-21 Flagon-F

Length Ift / ml 72.()() / 21.95
Span Ift / ml 34 .501lO.52
Height Ift/ ml 16 .501 5.03
Wing area Isq ft / m'l 385 / 35.78
Aspect ratio 3.09

Weights
Empty Ilb/ kgl 27,000/12,250
Takeoff IIb/kgl 41,4()() / 18,780
Combat lib/ kg ) 35,900 / 16,285

Power 2x R-13F2-300
Max lib st/ kN I 15,875170.5
M il i lb st/ kN ) 11 ,240/50 .0

Fuel
In ternaill b/ kg) 11 ,000/4,990
Externai llb/ kg) 2,750 / 1,250
Fraction 0 .27

Loadings
Max thrust 0.77 - 0.88
Mil thrust 0.54 - 0 .63
Wing takeoff IIb / sq ft / kg / m') 108 / 525
Wing combat Ilb/sq ft / kg / m') 93 / 455

Performance
Vmax hi M ~ 2 . 05

Vmax 10 M ~ 1 . lO

Ceiling If t i m) 65,600 / 20,000

Initial climb Ift / mln / m / sec) 45,000 / 229
Takeoff roill ft / m) 'long'
Land ing roi l lft / m) N/ A

First flight 1964 IFlagon-EI

76
bat radius on internal fuel only is quite mounted in pods. And it is not likely
respectable, being stated as 390nm to be of much use in close combat; an
1725km), although this is certainly approximate calculation puts corner
not a full -burner, flat-out intercep - velocity at around 470kt 1870km/ hr),
tion. Some sources state that which would mean a large turn radius
Flagon-F is powered by Tumansky and a slow turn rate . The effect of this
R-25 turbojets, which would bring can be judged by comparison with
the thrust:weight ratio at combat the MiG -21 with a V corner of around
weight to well over unity and improve 300kt 1556km / hr) , which is judged to
non -afterburning performance sub- be quite agile . At present, only the
stantia lly, though probably at the ex - Su -21 is in service, in the form of
pense of range . Flagon E and F.
Flagon has served only with the
USSR, being too limited and pro - Armament
bably too expensive for the sort of Four AA -3-2 Advanced Anab Itwo
Third World countries that Soviet SARH and \)No IRH); possibly AA -7
fighters are usually exported to, while Apex and AA -8 Aphid
it needs an integrated ground control
system to be really effective. So far as Below: The clean lines of the
is known it does not carry a gun, Su-21 Flagon-E belie its great size.
although there have been rumours The missiles carried are AA-3
of the twin -barrel GSh -23 being Advanced Anabs.

77
Mikoyan MiG·23 Flogger
visual distance. It also called for an
Type: Single-seat multi -role fighter. AII - operational radius far exceeding that
weather Interceptor, specialist ground - of the MiG-21, combined with high
attack and two -seat trainer verSions eXIst. speed 3nd good rate of climb.
While manoeuvrability is nice to
The MiG-23 Flogger can fairly be have in close combat. surprise is, was
described as the first Soviet attempt and always has been the dominant
to produce an all -round tactical factor in air combat : performance
fighter with a useful payload/range was needed to achieve surprise, and
capability. It is also the first Soviet the manoeuvrability requirement was
variable-geometry aircraft to enter distinctly secondary. Short field
service. The basic requirements were capability was to remain the same as
to be able to match the American that of the MiG-21. Finally, as with
Phantom in the air-to -air arena, both most Soviet warplanes, it was to be
in performance and in weapon cheap and easy to maintain.
system, which meant a comparative- The advantages of variable wing
ly long-range detection and tracking sweep are threefold. Firstly, slower
radar coupled with missiles that take off and landing speeds can be
could be launched from beyond used, with a consequent shortening

MiG-23MF
Dimensions Flogger,G
Length Ift / ml 55.50 / 16.92
Span Ift / ml 46 .75 / 14 .25 max
Height Ift / ml 14 .331 4.37
Wing area Isq ft / m'l 325 / 30.20
Aspect ratio 6.72 - '2.27

Weights
Empty IIb / kgl 25,000 / 11,340
Takeoff Ilb / kgl 38 ,000 / 17,240
Combat Ilb / kgl 33,043 / 14,990

Power 1xR-29B .
Max lib st / kNI 25,3501112 .7
Mililb st / kNI 17,6351 78.4

Fuel
Internal Ilb / kgl 9,914 /4,500
Externaillb / kgl 4,100 / 1,860
Fraction 0 .26

Loadings
Max thrust 0.67 - 0.77
Mil thrust 0.46 - 0 .53
Wing takeoff Ilb / sq ft / kg / m' l 117 / 571
Wing combat Ilb / sq ft / kg / m' l 102 /496

Performance
Vmax hi M ; 235
Vmax 10 M ; 1.10
Ceiling Ift / ml 55,000 / 16,750
Initial climb Ift / mln / m / secl N/ A
Takeoff rOlllft / ml 2,953 / 900
Landing roillft / mi N/ A

First flight circa 1965

78
of necessary runway length. Sec - while others refer to its 'jackrabbit ac -
ondly, endurance, or loiter time, can celeration', neither of which seem
be increased. And thirdly, the wings justified by the modest thrust :weight
can be reconfigured for the optimum ratio, even though the airframe is par -
manoeuvre, high speed, or low ticularly clean. Nor is there any agree-
altitude requirement. Flogger has ment on whether the engine is a tur-
three wing sweep settings, 16° , 45° bojet or a turbofan; the figures issued
and 72°, set manually, and unlike to date seem to indicate a turbojet.
Western VG fighters, the minimum Instantaneous turn rate is nothing
setting is not combat rated; short special, 11.5°/ sec at Mach 0.9 and
field performance was the driving 15,OOOft (4,600mi and 8.6°/ sec at
factor, not manoeuvre capability. MachO.5atthesameheight.ltseems
Two MiG-23 variants have been extremely likely that it could be out-
configured for air combat, the MiG - fought by a well handled Phantom
23M Flogger-B, which entered ser- nearly every time .
vice in the early 1970s, and the MiG - Flogger-G has a radar codenamed
23MF Flogger-G which is the current High Lark, which is rumoured to owe ~
edition. Performance data and gen -
eral remarks passed on Flogger per- Below: The MiG-23MF Flogger-G
formance are conflicting: some will remain the most important
sources ascribe an initial rate of climb Soviet fighter in numerical terms
exceeding 5O,OOOft / min (254m / seci, for many years to come.

79
~ some of its technology to the citement, with the Soviet fighters
AWG-10 carried by the F-4J Phan - having to overfly West Germany on
tom. Whatever the truth, High Lark is the way to Reims, and every NATO
a pulse-Doppler radar with a search fighter pilot for hundreds of miles was
range of 46nm (85km), a tracking trying to get an air test to see them for
range of 30nm (55km) and a limited himself. It is usually stated that the
look down capability . A considerable more sensitive avionics, including
number of Flogger-Bs carried the Jay High Lark, were stripped out for the
Bird radar as fitted to the MiG -21; trip, but at least two NATO pilots
these were generally Flogger-E ex - have commented on hearing the
port models . distinctive warble of High Lark on
Flogger-G was first seen in the their detection kit.
West in 1978 when a small detach - Flogger has seen little combat ser-
ment visited Finland and France . The vice to date, and its record is not im -
French visit caused a great deal of ex - pressive . Libyan Floggers have been

80
intercepted over the Mediterranean however dated Flogger looks, it is im-
by US Navy Tomcats on many occa - portant in the fighter world in terms
sions, and Tomcat crew reaction is of sheer numbers; in 1986 it was the
that the Libyan Flogger drivers are most numerous fighter in the Soviet
not as good as those Libyans who fly, inventory .
say, Mirages. Flogger's only ex-
perience of a shooting war has been Armament
in Syrian service against Israel over MIG -23M and Flogger -E: 23mm
the Beka'a Valley in 1982, when a GSh-23wlth 200 ro unds per gun, plus
total of 36 fell to the guns and missiles four AA -2 Atolls
of Israeli F-15s and F-16s. While fail - MiG -23MF: 23mm GSh-23 with 200
ing to score a single victory. It is rounds per gun plus two AA -7 Apex
possible thllt Iraqi Floggers may have and two or four AA -8 Aphid
clashed with Iranian fighters, but no
firm information is to hand. But Users
Algeria, Angola, Bulgaria, Cuba,
Czechoslovakia, Ethopia, Finland,
East Germany, Hungary, India, Iraq,
North Korea, Libya, Poland, Syria,
Vietnam, USSR

Left: Unlike Western variable

geometry fighters, Flogger is
notorious for its lack of turn and
manoeuvre capability.

Below: Libya operates the export

model Flogger-E, and example of
which is seen here with four
AA-2 Atolls. Flogger has very
poor forward and rear visibility.

81
Dassault-Breluet
Mlrale F.•
to u~e high-lift devices to alleviate
Type: Single-seat intercepto r and air those problems. A conventional wing
superiority fighter with limited adverse will have smaller lifting area· with cor-
weather capability and con sid erable respondingly high wing loading, but
ground-attack capability . Reconnaissance the use of high-lift devices can more
and two -seat trainer versions exist. than offset that.
In the mid-l960s the Armee de I' Air
The Mirage F.l has little in common had a requirement for a big two-seat
with the delta-wing Mirage III series. all-weather multi - role fighter
As we have seen, the delta wing re- powered by the Pratt & Whitney
quires very high take off and landing TF306 turbofan, which emerged as
speeds at high angles of incidence, the Mirage F.2. At the same time,
and a correspondingly long runway; Dassault developed a scaled-down
it also suffers a very high rate of single-seat version powered by the
speed loss due to increased drag in Atar, which was preferred to the
hard manoeuvring, and it is difficult larger machine, and entered service ~

Dimensions Mirage F.1C

Length Ift / m) 50.00/ 15.24
Span Ift / m) 27 .58/ 8.41
Height Ift / m) 14.75/ 4.50
Wing area Isq ft / m') 269/ 25 .00
Aspect rati o 2.83

Weights
Empty lib / kg) 16,315/ 7,400
Takeoff lib/ kg) 25,350/ 11,500
Combat lib / kg) 21,658/ 9,824

Power lxAtar 9K50

Max lib st/ kN) 15,870170.5
Mil lib st / kN) 11 ,060/ 49.0

Fuel
Internal lib / kg) 7,384/ 3,350
External lib / kg) 7,540/ 3,420
Fraction 0.29

loadings
Max thru st 0.63 - 0.73
Mil thru st 0.44 - 0.51
Wing takeoff Ilb /sq ft / kg / m' ) 94 / 460
Wing combat Ilb /sq ft / kg / m' ) 80/ 393

Performance
Vmax hi M = 2.2
Vmax 10 M = 1.2
Ceiling Ift / m) 65,000/ 22,000
Initial climb 1ft/ min i m/sec) 41,930 / 213
rakeoff roilift / m) 1,968/ 600
La nding roilift / m) 2,198/ 670

First flight Dec 1966

82
Above: The orthodox lines of the Below: The single R530 missile
Mirage F.1 tend to obscure the carried on the centreline was
fact that it outperforms the later displaced by two Super 530s
Mirage ilion all counts . as depicted above.
~ as the Mirage F.l C. Compared to the view out can be described as beller
Mirage III, its appearance was pedes- than the Russians but worse than the
trian, while its thrust loadings were Americans . Handling is precise and
roughly the same , its wing loadings pleasant, while the ride at high speed
more than 50 per cent higher and its and low level is smooth. Using a step-
performance envelope much the ped, maximum thrust climb, the
same size . MiragE- F.l C can achieve a Mach 2.2
The real difference was made by interception 170nm (315km) from
the wing, which was lavishly equip- base at 40,OOOft (12,200m) in less
ped with full -span leading edge flaps, than 12 minutes, with internal fuel
and double-slotted trailing edge on ly, and armed with guns. This is a
flaps, greatly increasing lifting capa - trifle unrealistic, and it could reason -
city, and the difference in perfor- ably be expected to achieve a Mach
mance was dramatic . The approach 1.8 interception at the same height
speed was reduced from 182kt carrying a full bag of missiles at
(338kmi h) to 139kt (257km i h), with around 140nm (260km) in the same
the result that runway requirements time , which is still pretty good going .
were much less, while speed for The radar is Cyrano IVM, a multi-
speed the F.l could pull about 19 mode radar with a far superior perfor-
more than the )1), with less speed loss mance to that of the Mirage Ill ' s
in hard turns; the leading edge flaps Cyrano II . It has automatic tracking,
operate as manoeuvre flaps at high and limited track -while-scan capabili -
speeds . The empty weight of the F.l ty, as well as terrain avoidance and
was a little above that of the III, but ground mapping. Using the Matra
the fuel fraction was higher and the Super 530 missile, it can carry out
payload heavier, while both accelera - snap -up attacks on targets well
tion and initial climb were improved . above its own altitude.
The cockpit is fairly basic and the The Mirage F.1C-200 is a subtype
fitted with a fixed in -flight refuelling
probe to give the French fighter force
a long -range deployment capability .
Other variants are the F. 1A, which is
optimised for ground attack, the
F.1B two-seat trainer, slightly longer
but with less fuel , and the F. 1E multi -
role strike fighter produced for ex -
port.
The Mirage F. 1 has seen little air
combat to date . It has been w idely
used by I raq in the continuing conflict
with Iran, but few details haveemerg -
ed from that war that can be trusted .
In South African service the F. 1 has
downed at least one MiG -21 of the
Angolan Air Force .

Armament Above: the Mirage F.1 fulfills

Two 30mm DEFA 553 cannon with both interceptor and counter air
135 rounds per gun, two Matra Super roles. The Super 530 AAMs are
530F SAR H missiles , two Matra R550 for BVR use while wingtip
Magic IR missiles Magics are for close combat.

Users Below: In-flight refuelling probes

Ecuador, France, Greece, Iraq, Jor- are fitted to some F.1Cs to give
dan, Kuwait, Libya, Morocco, Oatar, them a long-distance deployment
South Africa , Spain capability.
Saab JA 37 Viggen
ed country, with a relatively large
Type: Single-seat interceptor and ai r area and lengthy border to defend.
superiority fighter with adverse weather The wonder is that such a numerically
capability . Fighter, attack, reconnais - small population can afford to design
sance, and two -sea t trainer versions each and construct advanced fighters,
have some capability in a secondary role. with a minimum of foreign equip-
ment, in large enough numbers to be
It is hardly possible to build a fighter convincing as a defence force. Yet
without it being reconfigured sooner the Swedes always seem to manage
or later for a secondary role . In the it: since the end of World War II they
case of the JA 37 Viggen, it was in- have remained entirely self-sufficient
tended from the outset that optimis- in home-brew fast jets . They have
ed versions of the aircraft would be made few inroads into the export
built for differing ro les, and in fact the market, so large sa les have not
first Viggen both to fly and to see ser- assisted in keeping pro curement
vice was the AJ 37 attack variant; it costs down, and in the case of the
was several more years before the Viggen no export sa les at all have
counter-air JA 37 left the ground. materialised ..
Sweden is a determinedly unalign - Defending Sweden against air at-

Dimensions JA 37Viggen
Length If tim) 53.92/16.44
Span If tim) 34.77110.60
Height Ift/ml 18.381 5.59
Wing area Isq ft /m') 495146 .00
Aspect ratio 2.44

Weights
Empty Ilb/kg) 23,650/10,730
Takeoff IIb/kgl 36,0001 16,330
Combat IIb/kg) 31,125/14,120

Power 1xRM -88

Max lib st/kN) 28, 11 0/125.0
Mil lib st/kN) 16,2001 72.0

Fuel
Internal Ilb/kgl 9.750/4,423
External Ilb/kgl N/A
Fraction 0.27

Loadings
Max thrust 0.78 - 0.90
Mil thrust 0.45 - 0.52
Wing takeoff Ilb/sq ft /kg/m') 731355
Wing combat Ilb/sq ft /kg/m') 63/307

Performance
Vmax hi M = 2+
Vmax 10 M = 1.1
Ceiling Ift/m) 60,000/18,300
Initial climb Ift/min/m/sec) 40,000 /203
Takeoff roillft /mi 1,312/ 400
Landing roillft/m) 1,6401500

First flight Dec 1979

86
tack an d unw anted incursions ca lls has taken a less optimistic view than
for'short reaction ti mes, high speed, most of the potentia l availability of
a good rate of climb and high speed at fixed airfields, and depl oys to off-
low level rather than exten ded loiter, base facilities, using suitable widen -
and long range or the carriage of a ed stretches of road, as a matter of
grea t deal of external fuel. The inter- routine . Short fie ld performance was
nal fue l fraction is, at 0.27, a trifle on one of the main drivers at the design
the low side, whi le the RM-8 engine is stage, and the canards, fixed sur-
not noted for being particularly eco- faces with trailing -edge elev'ators,
nomical. Nevertheless, the fighter were adopted to overcome the worst
con figuration radius of action is given faults of the delta wing . The result is
as 270nm (500kmi, although without excellent low-speed performance
quali fication it is difficult to comment and short take off and landing
on this figure . Time to altitude is good distances. Landing is carried out as if
- 1 .67 minutes to 32 ,800ft on a carrier - straight in with no flare
(10,OOOmi - w hile wing loading is and a high vertical sink rate - with in-
moderate, but thrust loadings are struments used to obtain a precise ~
very ordinary by modern standards
although they were par for the course Below: The JA 37 Viggen has
at the time of design . fixed canard surfaces and is
Where the Viggen rea lly scores is in designed for operations from
its reduced runway reliance . Sweden dispersed off-base facilities.

87
~ touchdown point and reduce the against the F-16 and came off very
scatter normal to land-based opera- badly, as one might expect given the
tions, and the landing roll is reduced original design concepts coupled
by using reverse thrust. The stand - with a gap of several years between
alone qualities of the Viggen when the two .
used in off-base exercises are very It has been suggested that the
good. thrust reverser can be used to aid
The Viggen is often written up as transient performance in flight. This
some sort of superfighter, though its seems most unlikely; a delta is pretty
ancestry dates back a long way, good at forcing overshoots without
possibly because it was the first of the exotic measures of this nature, and
canard fighters to attain large-scale the energy loss would be prohibitive
service. This configuration does not in any case, though given a thrust:
endow it with any magical qualities, weight ratio well in excess of unity it
however: sustained turn rate at might be a possibility. The thrust
20,OOOft (6,100m) is a mere 6.3 0 /sec reverser has a drawback in combat.
and while the fixed canards give good even without being used for reverse
high AoA handling, being highly thrust, in that it exposes hot metal to
loaded they tend to stall quite quick- the seekers of IR -homing missiles .
Iy, and do little for the sustained turn The Viggen is pleasant to handle and
rate. Instantaneous turn is believed was a first class fighter in its day, but
to be quite good, though no firm that day has come and gone; it is still
figures have been released, but some a formidable adversary, but not in the
years back the Viggen was evaluated same league as the new generation,

88
althoug h relaxed static stability, fly - Above: the Viggen is a good,
by-w ire and a new avionics fit might although rather unexceptional
do wonders for it. fighter. Its unorthodox layout
gives good high AoA handling
Armament and assists STOL capability.
One 30mm Oerlikon KCA cannon
with 150 rounds per\lun, 2/4 AIM -9L Below: By current standards the
Sidew inders, 2/4 Sky Flash Viggen has a modest turn
capability, but the weapons fit of
User Skyflash and Sidewinder AAMs
Sweden helps redress the balance.

89
Grumman F·14 Tomcat
greatest fighter.
Type: Two-seat fl eet air defence intercep- A comparison with its predeces-
to r and air superiority f ighter. Some ai rcrah sor, the F-4 Phantom , shows it to be
can be configured for reconnaissance. bigger, considerably heavier and with
a 1g performance envelope of almost
The Grumman F-14 Tomcat can be exactly the same size, whi le thru st
described fairly as the first of the loadings are comparable and wing
superfighters . More noted for its car- loadings much higher . There the
riage of the ultra- long-range AIM -54 similarity ends: the combination of
Phoenix air-to -air missile , it was variable-sweep wings and a large lif-
~ ,J ned first and foremost as a ting surface, usually known as the
Sparro' -armed counter-air fighter pancake, at the rear of the fuselage ,
for th r 'et air defence role; only later make a nonsense of orthodox wing
were Phoenix missiles added . It is loadings, the pan cake alone pro-
a remarkably fine close combat viding some 40 per cent extra lifting
fighter, with virtually no angle of at- area and combining with the lifting
tack limitations, and despite its age devices on the wings to produce a
and its size it has to be considered a very manoeuvrable bird that even
contender for th e title world ' s F-15 drivers do not care to slow down

Dimensions F-14A F-14D

Length (h i m) 62 .88 / 19. 17 62 .88 / 19 .17
Span (h i m) 64 .13 / 19 .55 max 64 .13 / 19 .55 max
Height (h i m) 16 .001 4 .88 16.001 4 .88
Wing area (sq h i m' ) 565 / 52 .50 565 / 52 .50
Aspect ra tio 7. 28 to 2.56 7.28 to 2.58

Weights
Empty IIb/ kg) 39,92 1/ 18, 110 N/ A
Takeoff IIb/ kg) 58,571 126,570 N/ A
Combat IIb/ kg) 50,47 1/ 22 ,895 N/ A

Power 2xTF30-414A 2xF l l0-400

Max (I b st/ kN) 20,900 / 93 .0 27,080 / 120 .3
Mi l (I b st / kN) 12,350 / 54 .9 16,6 101 73 .8

Fuel
Internal IIb / kg) 16,20017.350 16.20017.350
External IIb/ kg) 3 .800 / 1.724 3.800 / 1.724
Fraction 0.28 N/ A

Loadings
Max thrust 0.71 - 0.83 N/ A
Mil thrust 0.42 - 0.49 N/ A
Wing takeoff IIb/sq ft / kg / m' ) 104 / 506 N/ A
W ing combat IIb/ sq h / kg / m' ) 89 / 436 N/ A

Performance
Vmax hi M ~ 2.31 M ~ 2.31

Vmax 10 M ~ 1 . 20 M ~ 1 . 20

Cei ling (h i m) 56.000117.100 N/ A

Initial cli mb (h /m ll,/ m /sec ) 30 .000/ 152 N/ A
Takeoff rol l (ft /m) 1.400/ 427 N/ A
Landing roll (film) 2, 160 / 660 N/ A

First flight Dec 1970 N/ A

90
and turn with. The F-14A has been in service vir-
The previous-generation Phantom tually unchanged except for minor
is totally outclassed in a turning fight, upgrades since 1972, but in 1988 the
as are many more modern fighters . first F-14A Plus - essentially the
The Tomcat can pull 7g at Mach 2 F-14A with General Electric F110
and still be holding this loading as the engines - enters service . The new
speed winds down through Mach 1. engines give a great deal more
Corner velocity has not been releas- power, allowing a carrier takeoff to
ed, but is somewhere below 300kt be made without afterburner, in-
(556km/hr); nor have sustained turn creasing the patrol time by a con -
rates been revealed, but all else being siderable margin and bringing the
equal it is to be expected that very thrust loading at combat weight to
high g loadings can be sustained at over unity to make it without doubt
the low end of the speed range, giv- one of the most formidable fighters in
ing a very small turn radius and high service anywhere . After 41 of the
turn rate. Equally, it may be assumed F-14A Plus have been delivered pro-
that the large size and great mass of duction will switch to the F-14D, with
the F-14 tend to reduce its transient the advanced Hughes APG -71 radar
performance. If the F-14A hasa fault, and the latest digital avionics fit.
it lies in the engine : the Pratt & Delivery of the F-14D will start in
Whitney TF30 needs nursing if it is to 1990.
give of its best. The Tomcat is a weapon system in
the true sense of the term. Its advanc-
ed AWG-9 radar can detect targets
over 200nm (370km) away; it can
track 24 targets, displaying 12 of of
them on the screen in the rear
cockpit, allocate threats and salvo up
to six Phoenix missiles at six different
targets in quick succession, pro -
viding semi-active homing for them ~

Left: F-14A Tomcat of VF-84 Jolly

Rogers is seen launching an
AIM-54 Phoenix missile.

Below: Wings spread and flaps

deployed, a Tomcat of VF-74
touches down on USS SBrBtogB.
~ on a time-share basis. It can receive
other contacts through the digital
data link, and transmit data to other
aircraft the same way. It works close-
ly with E-2C Hawkeye AEW aircraft
and the EA-68 Prowler electronic
warfare aircraft, and can detect and
destroy ultra-fast, ultra-high targets
at 100nm (185kml ranges, and small
sea -skimming missiles at 25nm
(46kml
Without the long-range kill cap-
ability conferred by Phoenix, it is an
incredibly good fighter : with Phoenix
it is simply unique . As Soviet Foxbat
pilot Viktor 8elenko asked, 'how
does one get near it ?'
Despite its fantastic qualities,
Tomcat ' s war record is nothing
special, although this can be ascribed
to poor pilot quality and lack of 100

Right: With burners blazing, an

F-14 launches from Saratoga. The
more powerful F-14D will be able
to launch in dry power.
per cent serviceability when used in
Iranian service against Iraq. It is
believed to have been used in the
AEW role, and no kill has been at -
tributed to it in that war, though Iraqi
fighters claim to have shot down at
least three Tomcats . In US Navy ser-
vice it has shown itself to be excellent
in peacetime exercises, rarely allow-
ing a threat aircraft to penetrate Its
defensive screen. I t has flown
TAR PS reconnaissance missions,
and armed patrols over Lebanon, and
on the one occasion that it has fired in
anger, on August 19,1981, two Tom -
cats of VF -41 from US S Nimitz
downed two Libyan Su -22 Fitters
with Sidewinders in just 45 seconds.

Armament
20mm M61 Vulcan cannon with 675
rounds, maximum eight missiles In
any combination from six AIM -54
Phoenix, six AIM -7F Sparrow and
four A IM -9L Sidewinder; Sparrow
and Sidewinder will be replaced by
Amraam and Asraam .

Users
Iran, USA

Left: With wings fully swept. a

tight formation of Tomcats
follows a carrier wake.

93
Yakovlev Yak·3S Forger
world's only VTOL fighter capable of
Type: Sing le-seat carrier fighter. Two-seat Mach 2, but the only one that had
trainer exists. worked had been the Hawker Sid -
deley Kestrel, later translated into the
The advantages of vertical takeoff Harrier attack fighter, which used a
and landing have been apparent for single engine with four vectoring
many years, but are accompanied by nozzles.
certain inbuilt penalties, not the least The Soviet Union was also work-
of which is the difficulty of generating ing on a VTOL attack aircraft. First
a thrust:weight ratio sufficient to get came the Yak -36 Freehand , no more
a worthwhile payload off the ground than a technology demonstrator but
with enough fuel remaining to carry it one which appeared to fly quite
a worthwhile distance . The American satisfactorily, followed in due course
tail -sitters of the 1950s were followed by the Yak-38 Forger, known for
by the Dassault Mirage IIIV, whose many years as the Yak-36MP. Theat-
battery of eight lift engines became tack role had meanwhile been drop-
so much dead weight and wasted ped, primarily due to ground erosion
volume in cruising flight , even problems, it is believed , but the
though this format did produce the SQviet Navy had taken up the project.

Dimensions Yak-38 Forger

Length (It / ml 52 .50/ 16.00
Span (It/ ml 24.78/ 7.49
Height (ftlml 1100/ 3.35
Wing area (sq ftlm'l 199/ 18.50
Aspect ratio 3.03

Weights
Empty IIb / kgl 17,00017,700
Takeoff (Ib / kgl 24,000/ 10,(ro
Combat IIb / kgl 21,500/ 9,752

Power 1xAL-21 +2 1ilt

Max (I b st / kNI engines
Mil lib st / kNI 17,985/ 80 .0

Fuel
Internal IIb / kgl 5,000/ 2,270
External IIb/ kgl N/ A Above: A line-up of Yak-38
Fraction 0.21 Forger shipborne fighters
spotted on the deck of the
Loadings Soviet Navy's aircraft
Max thrust N/ A
Mil thrust 0.75 - 0.84
Wing takeoff IIb / sq ft / kg / m' ) 121 / 588
Wing combat (Ib / sq It / kg / m'l 108/ 527
•\::-
Performance
Vmax hi
Vmax 10
M = 0.95
M = 0.85
.
Ceil ing (ft / m) 39,000/ 11,887
Initial climb (It/ min / m/ sec l 15,000176
Takeoff roll (ft / rr) V/ STO L
Landing roll (It / m) V/ STO L

First flight circa 1971

94
 The rapidly expanding Soviet Navy the AA-2 A toll and AA -8 Aphid, both
was lacking the essential facility of short-ranged I R-homers, while the
organic air power. It is not easy to radar is range only, with no search or
build aircraft carriers, adapt aircraft track capability, and the nose shape
for them and put to sea: naval avia- could hardly accommodate a really
tion needs ski ll and experience, and capable radar and antenna .
aircraft wit h VTOL capability can The avionics deficiencies tend to
operate from almost any ship that can rule out the reconnaissance role , and
accommodate more than a single in the close air support mission it
helicopter, so it seems likely that would be compromised by lack of
Forger has been nothing more than a payload - the four pylons are all on
protracted experiment in the opera- the non-folding section of the wing,
tion of fixed-wing aircraft from ships which severely limits space. I R detec-
at sea and of VTO L aircraft in general. tion kit is carried, but its purpose is
This conclusion is the result of a unknown. Thrust loading is not par-
process of elimination. Forger has ticularly good, and certainly not in the
neither the avionics nor the arma- same league as that of the Harrier,
ment to be effective in the fleet air while the wing loading is very high,
defence or air superiority roles; it has and manoeuvrability can be assumed
no integral gun, although pods can to be poor: In a straight contest, the
be carried on the inboard pylons, and British fighter could be expected to
the only missi les carried have been run out an easy winner.
Vertical flight capabi lity is confer-
red by two lift engines, probably Koli -
esovs with around 8,OOOIb (3,630kgl
of thrust each, and the propulsion
engine is believed to be a L'yulka
AL-21 as fitted in the Su-17 /20 series,
the smokiest Soviet engine in ser-
vice; the latter has a vectoring nozzle .
Forger is heavier than the Harrier, and
its payload /ra dius performance can-
not be anywhere near as good; it was
thought at one time that it had no
STOL capability, but that theory has
since been disproved . It is also
thought that Forger has no VIFF
capability.
Forger has one gadget unknown in
the West : called Eskem, its Russian
acronym, it is an automatic ejection
system which has to be switched on
carrier Kiev. Forger combines for take off and landing, processes
two lift engines with a vectored- which use a high-authority auto -
thrust main engine for V/STOL stabilisation system. If certain limits
capability. are exceeded, Eske m promptly
chucks the pilot overboard before the
crash.

Armament
Two GSh-23 twin -barrel gun pods,
two AA-2 Atoll or AA -8 Aphid heat-
seeking missiles

User
USSR

-;::::: --=:s ~ rc:. : -==. -., r.~'l

Left: The hatch above the two lift
engine intakes can be seen in the
open position, just behind t he
cockpit.
, '- i
,,&._.~/...... - - -
95
~ ~"
McDonneU Douglas
F·1S Eagle
fighter which was being mass pro-
Type: Single-seat air superio ri ty figh ter duced in enormous numbers. Foxbat
with ground -attack capability IA and CI; was therefore to a large degree the
two-seat trainers with ful l combat capabili- driving force behind the F-15 Eagle
ty (B and 01 optimised ground -attack lEI and its slightly earlier naval compa -
verSions exist. nion , the F-14 Tomcat .
It was originally intended that the
The F-15 Eagle owes mu ch of its F-15 would outmatch the Foxbat
design to the MiG-25 Foxbat . It is right across the board, even to the
now known that Foxbat was design- Mach 3 top speed which Foxbat was
ed purely to intercept the 8-70, but at thought to possess, and cost was no
one time it appeared that the Soviet object . The result was the second of
Union had made a sudden advan ce the American superfighters, and the
across the board in technology , and second most costly fighter in history .
produced a world beating tactical There was some justification for the

F·15C with
Dimensions F·15A F·15C FAST pack
Length Ih / ml 63 .75 / 19.43 63.75 / 19.43 63.75/19.43
Span Ih/ml 42 .81 / 13.05 42.81/ 13.05 47.. 81 / 13.05
Height Ift / ml 18.461 5.63 18.461 5.63 18.461 5.63
Wing area Isq ft / m'l 608156.50 608/56.50 608/56 .50
Aspect ratio 3.01 3.0 1 3.0 1

Weights
Empty Ilb / kgl 28,000 / 12 ,700 29, 180 / 13,240 30,300/ 13,700
Takeoff Il b/ kgl 41,500/ 18,825 44,500 / 20,185 55,270/25,070
Combat IIb / kgl 35,680 / 16, 184 37,772 / 17,135 43, 668119,81 0

Power 2xF 100· 100 2xF100-100 2xF 100- 100

Max l ib st / kNI 25,000 / 11 1.0 25,000 / 111 .0 25,000 / 111. 0
Mil lib st / kNI 16,2001 no 16,200 1 no 16,200 1 no
Fuel
Internaillb / kgl 11,635 / 5,280 13,455 / 6,103 23,205 / 10,526
Externa i l lb/ kgl 11,700 / 5,310 11,700/5,310 11,7001 5,3 10
Fraction 0.28 0.30 0.42

loadings
Max thrust 1.20 - 1.40 1 12 - 1.32 0.90 - 1 15
Mil thrust 0.78 - 0.91 0.73 - 0.86 0.59 - 0.74
Wing takeoff IIb /sq h / kg /m'l 68 / 333 73/357 91/444
Wing co mbat Ilb/sq ft / kg / m'l 59/288 62 / 303 72 135 1

Performance
Vmax hi M ; 2.5 + M ;2 5 + M = 2.5 +
Vmax 10 M ; 12 M ; 1.2 M ; 1.2
Ceiling Ift / ml 65,000 /330 65,000 / 330 65,000 / 330
Initial climb Ift/mln/m/secl 50,000/ 254 50,000 / 254 N/ A
Takeoff roll Ih/ml 9001275 N/ A I\I /A
Landing roll Ift / ml N/ A N/ A N /A

First flight Jul 1972 N/ A N/ A

96
expense lavished on the naval a sustained turn rate of 11 .8° / sec, in-
fighter; a carrier task force is possibly creasing to 16.5° / sec at Mach 0.5; at
the highest-va lue single target on Mach 0.9 and the same altitude its in -
earth, and its airborne defensive stantaneous turn rate reached
assets are very limited. There was 16.5°/ sec . Design g loading was
less excuse for the Eagle, except that +9g and - 3g . In the shape of the
the Soviets had to be seen to be Streak Eagle, it broke many of the
beaten out of sight technologically . time-to -altitude records held by Fox-
In 1976, when the secrets of the bat, but the maximum speed at
MiG -25 we re laid bare, the US Air altitude had been reduced to Mach
Fo rce was left with what was 2 .5, somewhat slower than the
arguably the world's best close com- original requirement.
bat fighter and no opponent that The F-15 is an exhilarating aircraft
even came near it, and one so expen - to fly, though somewhat sensitive .
sive that it was difficult to afford Aerodynamically, its rate of roll is just
enough to go round . a little on the slow side . It is equipped
The Eagle was given eight missiles, with HOT AS (hands on throttle and
a gun, and a ve ry advanced avionics stick) controls which means that
fit. It could not match the F-14's every control needed in a combat
capacity for simultaneous multiple situation is to hand and can be
destruction, but operated on a look- located by touch, but needs a great
shoot-look sequence against a suc- deal of manual dexterity - the
cession of targets, some of which system is known by the pilots as the
could be beyond visual range . The 'piccolo '. Like the F-14, it had trouble
wing loading was low and the thrust with the engine, which was rather
loading high - above unity through - touchy, and had to be nursed . It was .
out the fighter configuration weight
range - while it was capable of out - Below: Giving a good view of its
matching many other aircraft using twin engines and twin fins
mi litary power alone . At 15,000ft McAir's two-seat demonstrator
14,600m) and Mach 0.9, it could hold lifts off in minimum burner.

97
 also, despite a good fuel fraction , a
trifle short on endurance .
As with all fighters that undergo
development, it has gained weight,
with a corresponding loss of perfor-
mance, although it is still far better
than most. Perhaps the most con -
troversial aspect of the F-15 arises
from its capability, which was arrived
at by giving it the best of everything
at the design stage : it is big, a fact
which has given rise to two conflic-
ting schools of thought . The first is
generally propounded by the pilots of
F-16s, and goes, 'the Eagle can sneak
into the fight unobserved until the
moment comes when it is forced to
turn. Then everyone within eight
miles will see it, and point their noses
and missiles at it'. The standard Eagle
driver's rejoinder is, 'by the time we
get to visual range, the opposition
Above: streaming contrails from will have lost so many that they will
its wingtips, an F-15C Eagle reefs be nothing but defens;ve'.
into a hard turn using military The combat record of the F-15 is
power only_ very impressive. Starting on June 27 ,
1979, when four Syrian M iG-21s
Below: F-15C Eagle with FAST were downed by Israeli F-15s, the
packs attached to 6512th Test record at the time of writing stands at
and Evaluation Squadron at 58 Y:z kills for no loss, of these 15 Y:z
Edwards AFB, California. victims have been MiG -21s, three
were MiG-23s, three were Foxbats sion . Little data has been released on
(all downed with Sparrows), 34 not this variant to date except that the
positively identified but believed to take-off gross weight is to be around
be mainly MiG-23s and Su-22s, and a a1 ,0001b (36 ,742kg) . It must be
solitary helicopter, all Syrian victims doubted whether the low wing
of the Israelis; and two Iranian F-4 loading will permit the Eagle to fly ef-
Phantoms were shot down by Saudi fectively at the levels required to sur-
Arabian F-15s. F-15s flew escort to vive in a modern war scenario . The
the F-16s which mounted the raid on gust response is high, and one report
the Iraqi nuclear reactor at Osiriak, has referred to a height of 500ft
and were solely responsible for the (150m) as an optimum, which is
long-range strike against the PLO much too high for safe penetration .
headquarters in Tunis on October 1, Further in the future is the STOL
1985. Eagle , which is to combine canard
The F-15 is by now quite an elderly foreplanes with vectored thrust
design, and is subject to a Multi- nozzles to give a short - 1,500ft
Stage Improvement Program, which (457m) - runway requirement. It is
naturally includes the avionics , but anticipated that the STOL Eagle will
engines are also being upgraded the have improved instantaneous man-
new F100- PW -220 is reported to give oeuvre capability, greater range and
significant performance im - better acceleration . It is due to fly in
provements, with faster acceleration 1988.
and stall-free operation . The F-15C
and -0 were also fitted conformal fuel Armament
tanks to improve range and en - M61 Vulcan 20mm cannon with 675
durance, though at the expense of rounds , four AIM -7F Sparrows and
some performance, these FAST four AIM -9L Sidewinders (to be
packs increasing the fraction to a replaced by Amraam and Asraam)
huge 0.42.
In the pipeline is the F-15E, a two- Users
seater optimised for the attack mis- Israel , Japan, Saudi Arabia , USA
Israel Aircraft Industries
Kftr
and it was decided to concentrate on
Type: Sing le-seat coun ter-a" fi gh ter w ith new airframes, to use the more
secon dary attack capab il ity . Two -sea t powerful and more readily available
trainer eX ists . General Electric J79, already in ser-
vice in Israeli Phantoms.
It can hardly be denied that the Kfir is Some original airframes stayed
a Mirage III variant which arose from with the Atar; these were called
the Israeli need to be self sufficient in Nesher, and about 40 are believed to
fighter aircraft. The Mirage wa s have taken part in the October War in
available, known and trusted, but 1973. Most of the survivors were later
political considerations were preven - renamed Dagger and e xported,
ting further deliveries. However, the notably to Argentina, for whom they
Israelis managed to obtain engineer- performed creditably but lost heavily
ing drawings for both the A tar engine in the South Atlantic War in 1982.
and the Mirage 5 airframe . To The original Kfir C.l was intended
manufacture both wa s a tall order , as an attack type with secondary

Dimensions Kfir C.2 Kfir C.7

Length Ift / ml 53.98 / 16.45 53 .98/ 16.45
Span Ifl / ml 26 .961 8 .22 26.96 / 8.22
Helghllft / ml 14.94/ 4.55 14.94 / 4.55
W II,g area Isq ftlm ' l 375 / 34 .81 375 / 34 .81
Aspect ratio 1.94 1.94

Weights
Empty Ilb/ kgl 17,2501 7,825 17,480 1 7,930
Takeoff Ilb/ kgl 23,300 / 10,570 23, 540/ 10, 680
Comba t Ilb / kgl 20,470/ 9,285 20,70 11 9,390

Power J79-17 J79-J1 E

Max lib sl / kNI 17,900179 .6 18,750 / 83.4
Mil lib st / kNI 11,918/ 53 .0 11,890/ 52 .8

Fuel
Internaillb / kg l 5,670 / 2,572 5,670 / 2,572
Externaillb / kgl 6,780 / 3,075 8,2 17 / 3,727
Fraction 0.24 0.24

Loadings
Max thru st 0. 77 - 0.87 OBO - 0.91
MlIlhrust 0.51 - 0.58 0.51 - 0.57
Wing takeoff Ilb /sq ft / kg / m' l 62 / 303 63 / 306
WlI1g combat Ilb /sq ft / kg / m'l 55 / 266 55 / 269

Performance
Vmax hi M = 2.2 M = 2.0
Vmax 10 M = 11 4 M = 1.1 4
Ceiling Ift / ml 50,000 / 15,250 58,000/ 17,700
Initial climb Iit/ mln/ m/ sec) 40,000 / 203 40,0001203
Takeoff rOlll fl / ml 4 ,750/ 1,450 N/ A
Landing roill ft / mi N/ A N/ A

First flight 1973 N/ A

.Ill
.. .
,_---.
100
. - - -
counter-air capa bility but priorities play little part over the next few
were soon reversed, and the main years. Then, over the Beka'a Valley in
production type became the C.2, Lebanon in 1982, the brunt of the
w hich featured canard foreplanes fighting was borne by the newer and
and nose strakes. The Kfir was far more potent F-15s and F-16s,
heavier than the Mirage deltas, but though the Kfir did manage to notch
the additional power of the American up a few kills.
engine more than offset that disad - In recent times the Kfir has found a
vantage. Thrust loadings of the Kfir new role : the US Navy and Manne
are better, and this more than makes Corps are now using leased Israeli
up for the wing loadings being C.2s as adversary aircraft with the
hig her. designation F-21 A . The first adver-
Sustained turn at 15,000ft sary squadron, VF -43, based at NAS
(4,600m) isB.4° /sec at Mach 0 .B5 for Oceana, is flying a sortie rate of five
the C.2 and 9.6° /sec at MachO .68 for per day. A USMC squadron is plann -
the C.7. Instantaneous turn at the ed for the Pacific Coast units, based
same altitude is 15.Bo/ sec at Mach at MCAS Yuma, where there is a
0.73 for the C.2 and lB.9°/sec at TACTS /AC MI range .
Mach 0.68 for the C.7. Brochure figures for range are real -
The Kfir arrived just too late to par- ly quite surprising considering the
ticipate in the October War, and apart large wetted area and the fact that
from a few skirmishes it. was able to the J79 is hardly the most efficient
turbojet around. High -a ltitude in -
terception with a supersonic run-ou t
and two minutes combat at Mach 1.5
is stated to be possible at 419nm
(775km), which even with three ex-
ternal jugs seems rather a long way.
In clean config uration, the figure
reduces to 186nm (346km)

Armament
Two 30mm DEFA can non with 150
rounds per gun, two Sidewinder,
Shafrir, or Python IR - homing
missiles

Users
Argentina (Dagger), Colombia,
Israel, USA

Left: Canard foreplanes were

adopted on the Kfir to offset the
faults of the delta wing.

Below: The Kfir was really a

Mirage recast to take the J79
engine. The small nose strakes
are an aid to stability.
General Dynamics F·16
Fighting Falcon
The F-16 dates from a time of reac-
Type: Single-seat air superiority and tion to the spiralling cost and size of
counter-air fighter with Initially limited but new fighters . There could be little
gradually increasing adverse weather cap- doubt that technology, however ad-
ability, used by some air forces primarily in vanced, could be ground down by
the ground-attack role. Two-seater fully superior numbers, and numbers also
combat-capable trainer verSions exist. produced confusion, which further
degraded technology. The answer
In any discussion of fighter manoeuv- sought was to meet the opposition
rability the odds are that the F-16 will with something approaching num-
be used as a yardsti ck. Even 12 years erical parity co upled with a distinct
after its first flight it remains the technical edge. The requirement was
fighter to beat, and while it can be for an austere fighter ; something that
beaten fairly easily in some regimes , it could be easily built in affordable
is very difficult to coun ter across the quantities but could still outfly the
board . adversary aircraft (in this case usually

Dimensions F-1SA F·1SC F-1SC MSIP

Length (h i m! 49.25 / 15.01 49 .25 / 15 .01 49.25/15.01
Span Ih / ml 31 .001 9.45 31 .001 9.45 31 (YJ I 9.45
Height Ih / m! 16.581 5 .05 16.581 5 .05 16.581 5.05
Wing area Isq h i m'! 300/27 .88 300 / 27 .88 300 / 27.88
Aspect ratio 3.20 3.20 3.20

Weights
Empty Ilb / kg! 16,2341 7,364 17,9601 8,150 17,9601 8, 150
Takeo,ff IIb/ kg! 23,810/ 10,800 26,536 / 12,040 26,536 / 12,040
Combat Ilb / kg! 20,3241 9,220 23,050 / 10,455 23,050/ 10,455

Power Fl00-100 F100-100 F100-400 or F100-220

Max lib st / kN! 23,904 / 106.3 23,904/106.3 28,000/124.5
Mil lib st/kN! 14,7801 65,7 14,7801 65 .7 17,0001 75 .6

Fuel
Internal IIb/ kgl 6 ,972 / 3,162 6,972 / 3,162 6,972 / 3,162
External Ilb / kgl 6,760 / 3,066 6,760 / 3,066 6,760 / 3,066
Fraction 0.29 0.26 0.26

Loadings
Max thrust 1.00 - 1.18 0.94 - 1.08 1.06 - 1.21
Mil thrust 0.62 - 0.73 0.57 - 0.65 0.64 - 0.74
Wing takeoff IIb / sq h / kg / m' ! 79 / 387 881432 88/ 432
Wing combat IIb/ sq h / kg / m' ! 68 / 331 77 / 375 77 1375

Performance
Vmax hi M = 2.0 M = 2.0 M=2.0
Vmax 10 M = 1.2 M = 1.2 M = 1.2
Ceiling Ih / m! 50,000 / 15,250 50,000/ 15,250 50,000 / 15,250
Initial climb Ih / min / m / sec! 50,000 / 254 50,000 / 254 50,000 / 254
Takeoff roll Ih / ml 1,750/ 533 1.7501533 1.750/ 533
Landing roll Ih/m! 2,650 / 808 2,650/808 2,650/808

First flight Jan 1974 Jun 1984 Ju11982

102
considered to be MiG-21s) by a wide which combined to give tremendous
margin. A competition was instituted manoeuvrability .
to examine the art of the possible, The new fighter was stressed to
with a flyoff between two con - + 9g and - 3g , and its ability to per-
tenders, GD's YF-16 and Northrop's form a sustained 9g turn was widely
YF-17. The competition, which had acclaimed , but precisely what was
become a full-scale programme , was this worth? In numerical terms, not a
narrowly won by the YF-16 . lot, being attainable only in a relative-
The new fighter was small , con- ly small segment of the envelope and
tained basic avionics for clear air at moderate speeds and low alti-
fighting, and was armed with a 20mm tudes . The difference between a 9g
M61 Vulcan cannon and two Side- turn and an 8g turn at 400kt
winders. Visibility from the cockpit (740km / hr) is little more than 200ft
was exceptional through a large tear- (80m) in terms of radius, and about
drop canopy with low sills, a feature 3° I sec in rate of turn . On the other
which had been revived with the F-14 hand, any fighter pilot will tell you
and F-15 . A single Pratt & Whitney that this could be the difference bet-
Fl00 turbofan gave ample power, ween life and death in a defensive
and the aerodynamic design had situation , though it is of less value
been optimised for close combat when attacking : at 9g the pilot's
manoeuvring, though it used nothing faculties will be impaired , aiming is
in the way of exotic materials such as difficult and it is hard to hose the nose
composites. It did, however, use about at high angles of attack . ~
various hi-tee features such as relax-
ed static stability coupled with quad- Below: A two-seat F-16D
ruplex fly-by-wire controls, variable demonstrates that it is fully
camber wings and leading edge combat capable as it pitches up
strakes to clean up the flow , all of to a high angle of attack.
~ To counteract the effects of high as a primary function, the case with
loadings on the pilot, a radical solu - all Holland's F-16s. It was not dif-
tion was adopted' The seat was raked ficult, the F-16 having been christen-
sharply back, the heel line raised, and ed the 'swing fighter' for its ability to
the standard control column was switch from one role to the other. The
replaced by a sidestick controller on second was perhaps inevitable: a
the right-hand console. Pilot toler- start was made on upgrading the
ance to high g is increased, but there avionics to cope, and the austere
are disadvantages : the raised heel fighter, which had been fairly cheap,
line reduces the usable dash space, started to become more expensive .
the sides tick cuts a good deal of con - Trials have concentrated on BVR
sole area, the seat rake has led to weapons, and many F-16s will carry
strained necks and shoulders, and in Amraam when it enters service. The
the event of a pilot becoming in- F-16 can now be considered the top
capacitated in the right arm he can - end of the small fighter market.
not swap hands to retain control . A deliberate attempt was made to
The F-16A and its two-seat produce an even cheaper version, the
counterpart, the F-16B, entered ser-
vice and were duly hailed as a reversal
of the trend toward increased size
and cost. In USAF service this was
true, as it formed part of what was
known as the hi-Io mix with the F-15.
The first overseas sales were to
NATO members Belgium, Denmark,
Holland and Norway, and while their
pilots were delighted, the F-16 was
immediately criticised for lack of all-
weather capability, a critical con -
sideration when one considers Euro-
pean weather.
The first consequence was that the
F-16 was switched to the attack role
F- 16179, powered with the J79 tur- rent three -phase Multi-Stage Im -
bojet, but this fai led because no provement Program IMSIPI involves
country was willing to accept such a an even more comprehensive avi -
blatantly downgraded version: if they onics fit, as well as the more power
wanted the F- 16, they wanted the ful F100 -PW -220 or F110-GE -400
best version available. engine, which will improve perfor-
Inevitably, a new variant appeared. mance all round .
The F- 16C has improved avionics, Ironically, there has been a move
including the much more capable toward a more austere F-16 in recent
APG-68 radar, which has more times, variously described as the
modes and better performance than F-16E, optimised for ground attack,
the previous APG -66. And the cur- or F- 16CM, which will have the
original APG -66 radar . The US Navy
Below: The F-16F is a tailless has ordered a small quantity of this
cranked delta developed to version as its new adversary aircraft
explore the supersonic cruise and under the designation F-16N, which
manoeuvre regimes. is to have the F110 turbofan , the
APG -66 radar, no gun and some
lower wing fittings of titanium in -
stead of aluminium.
There is one other variant, the
F- 16XL or F-16F, a tailless delta witha
high level of commonality with the
basic aircraft which was developed to
explore supersonic cruise and man-
oeuvre regimes . Heavier and with a
much greater wing area consequent
lower wing loading, but reduced
thrust loading, it carries a colossal
amount of fuel, the fuel fraction be-
ing 0.38. No order has been placed
for the F· 16F, but it may be
developed in the ground attack role at
some later date .
So far, only the Israelis have used
the F- 16 in combat. Israeli F-16s car-
ried out the preCision attack on the
Iraqi nuclear reactor near Bagdhad in
June 1981, and also featured in the
Beka 'a Valley action, where they are
believed to have scored about 30 vic-
tories for no loss . Whatever its faults
may be, it is the fighter that pilots itch
to get their hands on .

Armament
20mm M61 Vulcan cannon with 500
rounds, two or four AIM -9L Side-
winders, Shafrirs or Pythons IAm-
raams and Asraams in the futurel

Users
Belgium, Denmark, Egypt, Greece,
Holland, Indonesia, Israel, South
Korea, Norway, Pakistan, Thailand,
USA, Venezuela

Left: Israeli defences old and

new: an F·16 of the Heyl Ha'Avir
overflies the ancient Zealot
stronghold of Masada.

105
McDonneU Douglas
F/A·1S Hornet
elderly Phantoms and Corsairs, and it
Type: Single-seat multi-role carrier-borne was widely thought that the winner
and land-based fighter . Dedicated recon - of the competition would be
naissance version under development. selected.
Instead , the Navy took a long and
If the F-16 became the aircraft to beat hard look at both contenders before
in close combat, the F/A-18 Homet selecting the YF-17 as having more
set new standards for multi-role development potential and meeting
fighters. It originated in the USAF its requirements more closely. Nor-
lightweight fighter competition won throp teamed with McDonnell Doug-
by the F-16 in 1974, the Hornet hav- las, who had vast experience of
ing been developed from the Nor- building carrier fighters, and the
throp YF-17 that came a very close F/ A-1 8 was developed as a joint ef-
second . At that time the US Navy fort. At the same time, Northrop
was in the market for a new were to develop the land-based F-18L
fighter/attack aircraft to replace its for the export market .

Dimensions F/A-18A
Length If t i m) 56.00 / 17 .07
Span Ift / m) 37 .50 / 11 .43
Height Ift / m) 15 .291 4.66
W ing area Isq ft l m' ) 400 / 37 .17
Aspect rati o 3.52

Weights
Empty IIb/ kg) 21,830/ 9,001
Takeoff Ilb / kg) 35,800 / 16,240
Combat IIb/ kg) 30,370 / 13,775

Power 2xF404-400
Max lib st/ kN) 16,000171 .2
Mil lib st / kN) 10 ,800/47 .2

Fuel
Internaillb/ kg) 10,860/ 4,925
Externaillb / kg) 7,00013,175
Fraction 0.30

Loadings
Max thrust 0.89 - 1.05
Mil thrust 0.59 - 0.70
Wing takeoff Ilb / sq ft / kg / m') 90/ 437
Wing combat IIb/ sq ft / kg / m') 76 / 371

Performance
Vmax hi M=1 .8
Vmax 10 M = 1.01
Ceiling Ift / m) 50 ,000 / 15,250
Initial climb Ift / min/ m/ sec) 50,000 / 254
Takeoff roillft / m) N/ A
Landing roillft / m) N/ A

First flight Jun 1974

106
 It was intended to produce two and air-to-ground modes .
distinct types, optimised for fighter The 1974 air combat fighter com-
or attack work, the main difference petition continues in terms of inter-
being the avionics and cockpit service rivalry, and the merits of the
layou t , but McDonnell Douglas made Hornet against the Fighting Fal con
that unnecessary : using their cockpit are still a matter for debate . Initially,
experience with the F-15, they com- at any rate , the Hornet' s radar and
bined HOT AS with CRT displays to weapons fit was superior, with two
produce what was in effect a new- Sparrows and two Sidewinders as
generation cockpit with hardly any standard, while the F-16 had no
o ld fashioned dials and tape in- answer to the BVR weapon and its
struments ; instead, there were three radar was comparatively short on
screens on which selected informa- both range and capability . This has
tion could be ca lled up at need . The since been rectified, but the Sparrow
aircraft was also designed to carry is a big missile, and is carried with less
two Sparrows conformally for the penallty by the larger Hornet than the
fighter mission, and to be quickly smaller Fighting Falcon , to whi ch
changed for the attack mission by conformal carriage is denied .
substituting FLiR and laser desig- At close range the odds shorten . In
nator pods in their places, while the purely numerical terms the F-16 ap-
Hughes APG -65 multi-mode radar pears to be the better of the two, but
has numerous high -qua lity air-to -air the outside of the envelope is seldom
if ever reached in combat. The F-18
cannot match the sustained turning
capabi lity of the F-16, but has better
acceleration between Mach 0.8 and
Mach 1.2, is at least as good in the roll ~

Left: An F/A ·18A Hornet of

VMFA·314 Black Knights, based
at EI Toro, fires a Sidewinder.

Below: The remarkably sleek

lines of the Hornet are seen to
advantage in this study of a
VFA·113 Stingers formation.
108
~ and is distinctly snappier in pitch . It edge, while at close range the fight
has virtually no AoA limitations, will go to the best pi lot.
while the F-16 is believed to be a bit In the export field the FI A -18 was
short on high-AoA capability. The often directly opposed by the F-16,
engines on the F-18 were much more and in most cases the F-16 was
resistant to hard use than that on the selected, but it should be remem-
F-16, but the new generation of F-16 bered that the F-16 was considerably
engines will level the score on this cheaper, and It IS very noticeable that
point. In BVR combat, the Hornet's whenever the operational require-
superior avionics should give it the ments were particularly stringent, the
FI A-18 was selected - so far by
left: A Canadian CF-18 shows Australia, Canada, and Spain.
the typical Hornet armament of The Hornet has not seen action,
two Sparrows and two 'winders . though it is credited with the destruc-
The dummy canopy is painted on tion of a T A -4 Skyhawk which was
for aspect deception. unfortunate enough to get in the way
of a jettisoned bomb rack . Its great
merits are that it can look after itself
en route to the target, being quite a
formidable fighter even with a load
on, while on the return trip, where a
dedicated attack aircraft might need
a fighter escort, a Hornet swarm
becomes a fighter sweep in its own
right. It seems a pity that the lighter
but equally powerful Northrop F-18L
found no buyers, as it would have
been an even more potent fighter
than its navalised and more heavily
loaded cousin .
The two-seat FI A -18B is fully com -
bat capable, but carries 600lb (272kgl
less fuel and is consequently a bit
shorter on range and endurance. A
dedicated reconnaissance variant is
under development, while the FI A -
18C and D will Shortly make their ap-
pearance, the change in designation
indicating that they are compatible
with Amraam, ASPJ, and IIR Mav-
erick. A two-seat night and adverse
weather variant has been considered
to replace the ageing A -6 Intruder,
with an advanced avionics fit
dedicated to ground attack, but it
seems unlikely that this will proceed.

Armament
20mm M .16. Vulcan cannon With 570
rounds, two AIM -7M Sparrow and
two AIM -9L Sidewinder (Amraam
and Asraam laterl

Users
Australia, Canada, Spain, USA

left: The leading edge strake

shows up well from this angle as
a VMFA-323 Death Rattlers F-18
launches from Corsi Sss.

109
Panavla Tornado ADV
ing afterburner if necessary ; plenty of
Type: Two-seat long-range interceptor. In- missiles to give combat persistence;
terdiction/strike version in service, recon- and an advanced radar and avionics
naissance and electronic war fare versions system to permit multiple target
proposed. engagement in any weather, beyond
visual range , and in the fa ce of in-
The air-defence Tornado was dev- tense ECM . These qualities are
eloped from the IDS deep-pen - similar to those required by a carrier
etration interdiction and strike fighter, and in fact the Grumman F-14
bomber Tornado, and while many was evaluated for the role , but it was
reasonable attack aircraft have been decided that Tornado was more cost-
developed from fighters, the reverse effective and had a far more modern
is very rare . The reason in this case is avionics suite .
the .need to defend both the United In terms of cold figures , Tornad o
Kingdom and the airspace around it F.3 is nothing very special. Wing
out to a considerable distance : the loadings are high, thrust loadings are
priorities were long range and en - low and the fuel fra ction is moderate;
durance, with extended peri ods us- it appears to be no more than a vehi -

Dimensions Tornado F.3

Length Ift1ml 59.25/18.06
Span Ift/ ml 45.58/ 13.89 max
28 .21/ 8.601min
Height Ift(ml 18.31 / 5.53
Wing area Isq ftlm'l 323/30.01
Aspect ratio 6.43 to 2.46

Weights
Empty Ilb/kgl 31,500/ 14,290
Takeoff lib/ kg I 50,200/ 22 ,770
Combat IIb / kgl 43,950/ 19,935

Power 2xRB 199 Mk 104

Max l ib st/k NI 16,920/75.2
Mil lib st/k NI 9,656/42 .9

Fuel
Internailib/ kgl 12,500/ 5,670
Externailib/ kgl 14,391 / 6,530
Fraction 0.25

Loadings
Max th rust 0.67 - 0.77
Mil thrust 0.38 - 0 .44
Wing takeoff IIb/sq ft / kg / m'l 155/759
Wing comba t IIb /sq ft / kg / m'l 136/ 664

Performance
Vmax hi M = 2.27
Vmax 10 M=1 .20
Ceiling Ift/ ml 50,000/ 15,250 +
Initial climb Ift/ min / m/ secl 40,000/ 203 +
Takeoff roilift / mi 2,500/760
Landing roil ift/mi 1,200/370

First flight Oct 1979

11 0
cle to take missiles to a suitable angle. In addition, a fair amount of
launch position. But the figures are body lift is created by the broad
misleading: no-one is going to pre- fuselage.
tend that a Tornado will outfight an Nor are the low thrust loadings and
F-16 in the close combat arena, but it fuel fraction particularly relevant in
would not be outclassed as com- the case of Tornado. The engines
pletely as the bare figures suggest. were designed for economy, in-flight
The variable geometry wing is a great refuelling is available, and it is
advantage, having more high-lift noticeable that the maximum exter-
devices than any other Mach 2 nal fuel load exceeds that carried in-
capable fighter, and they combine to ternally. And while the engines are
give it what is probably the highest lift not the optimum for an air superiority
coefficient of any fast jet. The result fighter, acceleration is remarkably
is that it out-manoeuvres any other good, Tornado F.3 out-accelerating
aircraft in RAF service, and is both the Lightning and the Phantom
predicted to become a very effective quite comfortably. This is partly a ~
performer in the close combat arena.
The F.2 had only four wing settings, Below: Tornado F.2 displays the
but the F.3, like the Tomcat, has fully assortment of high lift devices
variable automatic sweep, which which give it such a remarkable
keeps the wings at the optimum combat performance.
~ result of its aerodynamic cleanness serving with No 229 OCU at RAF
and partly due to a good fineness Coningsby. The remaining fighters
ratio. are F.3s, which are also to enter
The avionics are superb, and the Saudi Arabian and Omani service.
back-seater can be given the broad
tactical picture via digital data link. Armament
He is responsible for structuring the 27mm Mauser cannon, four Sky
combat, and at close quarters be- Flash or Sparrow, four Sidewinders
comes a second pair of eyes looking (Amraam and Asraam in futurel
out. The combination of high lift
wings and good acceleration makes Users
Tornado a surprisingly good per- Oman, Saudi Arabia, UK
former in the close combat arena,
and it is anticipated that when the day Below: Tornado F.2 in battle gear,
comes, the Tornado knockers are with four Skyflash and two
due for a big shock . Sidewinders. Tornado F.3 carries
Only 18 Tornado F.2swere built, all two more Sidewinders.

112
British Aerospace Hawk
fighter standards a poor rate of climb,
Type: Two-sea t trainer equi pped for clear and, except in a dive, is firmly sub-
weather air defence IHawk T.1A) and sonic.
single-seat light air defence fighter and bar At the same time, it can carry a
ner patrol aircraft IHawk 2001. 30mm gun pod on the centreline and
a Sidewinder under each wing; it is,
It is common for military trainers to be as would be expected from a trainer,
used as light attack aircraft, but it is very manoeuvrable, and can turn
very unusual to equip a trainer for the very well, sustaining 14° Isec at400kt
air to air role . The Hawk , though, is a (740km/hrl in full fighter configura-
quite exceptional aeroplane. It has a tion; it has been designed for + 9g
quite ordinary fuel fraction, coupled and - 3g, and has been cleared to
with an unaugmented Adour tur- + 8g with full internal fuel and
bofan ; it is small; and it carries little in weapons load; the economical Adour
the way of avionics . Thrust loading IS turbofan gives it a remarkable range
low, and wing loading low to and endurance; and, finally, it is a
moderate , although these are coupl- small radar and infra-red target as
ed with a high aspect ratio and a high well as being visually small .
co-efficient of lift. It has by modern It is immediately obvious that the ~

Dimensions Hawk T.1A Hawk series 60 Hawk 200

Length Ift / ml 38.92/1186 38.92 / 11.86 37 .33/ 11 .38
Span Ift / ml 30.831 9.40 30 .831 9.40 30.831 9.40
Helghtlft / ml 13.161 4.00 13 161 400 13.671 417
Wing area Isq ft / m'l 180 / 1669 180 / 1669 180 / 16 .69
Aspect ra tiD 5.28 5.28 5.28

Weights
Empty Ilb / kgl 7,4501 3,380 8,015 / 3,635 8.765 / 3,975
Takeoff Ilb / kg) 11,3001 5,125 11,650/ 5,285 12,630 / 5,730
Combat IIb / kgl 9,8751 4,480 10,187 /4.620 11.163/ 5,065

Power Adour 151 Adour 861 Adour 871

Max lib st/kNI N/ A N/ A N/A
Mil lib st / kNI 5.300 / 23 .6 5.7001253 5,845 / 26.0

Fuel
Internaillb / kgl 2,849 / 1,292 2,927 / 1.330 2,927 / 1,330
External Ilb / kgl 1.5601708 2,966 / 1,345 2,966 / 1,345
Fraction 0.25 025 0.24

loadings
Max thrust N/ A N/ A N/ A
Mil thrust 0.47 - 0.54 0.49 0.56 0.46 - 0.52
Wing takeoff Ilb / sq ft / kg / m') 63 / 307 65 / 317 70 / 343
Wing combat Ilb / sq ft / kg / m'l 551268 57 / 277 62 / 303

Performance
Vmax hi M = 0.98 M 098 M = 0.98
Vmax 10 M = O.94 M = 0.94 M = 0.94
Ceiling Ift / ml 50.000 / 15.250 50,000/ 15.250 50,000/ 15,250
Illitial climb Ift / mln / m / secl 6,000 / 30 .5 9,300 / 470 12.000/ 610
Takeoff roillft / mi 2,000 / 610 1,750/ 520 1.500/457
Landing rOlllft / ml 2,000 / 610 1.900 / 580 1.900/ 580

First flight Aug 1972 N/ A May 1986

113
~ Hawk might make an adequate air a 24in (610mm) antenna, either the
defence fighter in the service of a Ferranti Blue Fox or Blue Falcon or
Third World country opposed by a the Emerson APG-69. It will carry two
low-grade threat, but less apparent guns internally - the 27mm Mauser
how it might fit into the RAF's force cannon used by Tornado, the stan-
structure . However, as we have dard 30mm Aden, or the 25mm Aden
seen, confusion degrades technol - asca'ried by Harrier GR .5-and it has
ogy, and numbers contribute to con - the high lift Phase III combat wing,
fusion. An enemy attack on the which adds to its already impressive
British Isles can only be effectively manoeuvrability, while at low level it
delivered from long range and at low is reported to be able to sustain 8g
altitude . Laden attack aircraft are 'forever'. The Phase III wing has a
subsonic, and are therefore well small leading edge droop, and an
within the performance envelope of enlarged leading edge radius, with
the Sidewinder-armed Hawk . improved flaps .
The Hawk will in fact be used as a One further Hawk variant is the
second line of defence, in one of two BAe / McDonnell Douglas T-45 Gos-
modes. The first is the combat air hawk, which will be the US Navy's
patrol in clear weather, aided by GCI basic trainer for many years to come.
or AEW, a task for which its long en -
durance fits it well; the second is the Armament
Mixed Fighter Force Concept One or two cannon (see text), two or
(MFFC), which has been widely four AIM-9L Sidewinders
tested in recent years . MFFC origi -
nated in the early 1970s during air Users
defence exercises, when Phantoms Abu Dhabi, Bahrain, Dubai, Finland,
at high altitude used their radars in Indonesia, Kenya, Kuwait, Saudi
look-down mode to detect low flying Arabia, UK, USA, Zimbabwe
intruders, after which they would
direct other Phantoms onto them .
M FFC involves attaching two or
three Hawks to a Phantom which will
operate in the director role for their in-
terceptions . The small and agile
Hawks coupled with the BVR kill
capability of the Phantom should
make a dead ly combination .
The basic Hawk in RAF service is
the T .l; modified to carry Side-
winders it becomes the T.1A, and
training unit aircraft have been
allocated shadow squadron numbers
63, 79, 151 and 234 . In time of war
they would be flown by instructors .
The Series 50 Hawk, an export ver-
sion aimed at the light attack / trainer
requirement with improved avionics
and a more powerful Adour, was
followed by the Series 60, with more
thrust, better handling and other im-
provements, while the Hawk 100 is
dedicated to the attack role.
The latest Hawk variant is the
single seat Hawk 200 which, while
advertised as a fighter, can be op-
timised for almost any role by using a
variable front fuselage section . Hawk
200 made its first flight from Dunsfold
on May 19, 1986, but just 28 flights
later it crashed on July 2 of the same
year. Hawk 200 will carry a radar with

114
Above: RAF Hawk trainers have Below: With the new designation
been equipped with Sidewinder Hawk T.1A. the Sidewinder-armed
missiles and gun pods housing a Hawks will operate in conjunction
30mm Aden cannon for the with radar-equipped Phantoms to
secondary intercept role . intercept subsonic attackers.
Shenyang F·8 and
F·811 Flnback
there is a direct link between Finback
Type: Single-seat tWin engined multi -role and Flipper is not known; in any case,
fighter capable of all-weather interception the first photograph of the F-8 I was
and air superiority, with secon dary Inter- only released to the West in 1984, Ap-
diction and close air support capabilities. parently a scaled-up version of the
F-7, it featured a pitot nose intake ,
The original J -8 Finback bore a strong First indication of the F-8 II came
resemblance to the Mikoyan Ye-152 from a defector in the early 19BOs
Flipper, first seen in public in 1961 , who stated that Finback was under-
which was hailed by certain sections going a nose job similar to that carried
of the Western Press as the first out on the F-6 to turn it into the A-5.
Soviet Mach 2 fighter big enough to This report was followed by an an -
have a reasonable payload/range; nouncement from the Xinhua News
however, it could not carry a big Agency that a J -8 with side intakes
enough radar antenna and was drop- had flown in May 1984, This new con-
ped in favour of the Su -15. Whether figuration gave a performance im -

Dimensions F-8 II Finback

Length Ift/ ml 50.86/ 15.5
Span Ift / mi 34.45 / 10.50
Height (ft l ml 17 .231 5.25
Wing area Isq ft / m'l 358/33.3
Aspect ratio 3,32

Weights
Empty Ilb/kgi 18,0001 8,165
Takeoff ([b/ kgi 31,000 / 14 ,061
Combat ([b/ kgi 26,625 / 12,077

Power 2xR-33D
Max ([b st/kNI 18,300/ 81 ,3
Mil ([b st/kNi 11,250/50,0

Fuel
Internal ([b/ kgi 8,750 / 3,969
External ([b / kgi 2,000 /007
Fraction 0,28

Loadings
Max thrust 1,18 - 0,84
Mil thrust 0.73 - 0,84
Wing takeoff ([b / sq ft / kg / m'i 87 / 422
Wing combat Ilb/sq It / kg / m'l 74/363

Performance
Vma,x hi M =2,3
Vmax 10 M = 1,2
Ceiling Ilt / mi 55,000 / 16,750
Initial climb Ilt / mln /m/seci 50,0001254
Takeoff roll Iftl mi 1,640/500
Landing roll (ft/mi 1,475/ 450

First flight 1977

116
provement and also allowed a brochures issued there form the basis
modern AI radar and more powerful for this account.
engines to be fitted. Finally, a model The tabular data assumes the use
with a large, folding ventral fin was of theWP -78M turbojet, while the in-
shown at Farnborough 86, and ternal fuel capacity has been calcu -
lated from the given data . It is entirely
possible that the engines are more
powerful and that much more inter-
nal fuel is carried, in which case the
takeoff and combat weights would
be greater. Maximum range is stated
as 1, 187nm (2,200kml, but this is un-
qualified, as are the takeoff and lan-
ding speeds of 175kt (325km / hr) and
156kt (290km / hr) respectively .

Armament
One 23mm twin -barrel cannon with
Above and below: The F-8 II is 200 round s: IR and SARH missiles.
the latest Chinese f ighter to be
revealed to the West. The ventral User
fin is folded sideways for takeoff. China .

11 7
Mikoyan MiG·3. Foxhound
follow up to counter the Rockwell
Type: Two-seat air defence interceptor B-1A which, with its mission profile
with all-weather capability . combining Mach 2.2 at high level
with high subsonic speeds at low
One thing that can be said with total level, would have been - and still
certainty about the MiG -31 Fox- would be -a difficult interception
hound is that it has been developed problem.
from the MiG -25 Foxbat. Virtua lly What is often overlooked is that
everything else is speculation, stem - the B.52 switched from high to low
ming either from the various Western level penetration at about the time
intelligence agenCies or from other that Valkyrie was cancelled, and even
experts in the field of military avia- that lumbering giant, firmly subsonic
tion, and given the past record of and with an enormous radar cross-
such sources we can only accept the section, and whose idea of low level
published data until such time as it was 1,5OOft (460m! above ground
can definitely be proven or refuted . It level, would still have been an awfully
is known that the Foxbat was difficult target for an air force almost
developed as a counter to the B-70 totally dependent on ground control,
Valkyrie, and it has been postulated especially in view of the increasing in-
that the Foxhound was the obvious genuity of its countermeasures. It is

Below: Designed to
Dimensions MiG-31 Foxhound counter low-flying
Length Ift / m) 72-"1) / 22 .10 interdictors, the MiG-31
Spanlft/ m) 46 .00 / 14.02 clearly shows its
Height Ift/ m) 18.50/ 5.64 derivation from the
Wing area Isq ftl m') 662/ 61 .52 earlier MiG-25.
Aspect ratio 3.20

Weights
Empty lib/ kg) 47,500/ 21,545
Takeoff lib/ kg) 85,000/ 38,556
Combat lib / kg) 69,000/ 31,300

Power 2xRD-F
Max lib st / kN) 32,000/142 .5
Mil lib st / kN) 22,000/ 98.0

Fuel
Internal lib / kg) 32,005/ 14,520
External lib / kg ! 6,868/ 3.120
Fraction 0.38

Loadings
Max thrust 0.75 - 0.93
Mil thrust 0.52 - 0.64

.,
Wing takeoff Ilb / sq ft / kg / m') 128/ 627
Wing combat IIb/sq ft / kg / m') 104/ 509

Performance
Vmax hi M = 2.40
Vmax 10 M = 0.95
Ceiling (ft/ m) 75,000/ 22,900
Initial climb (ft/ min / m/ sec! 41,000/ 208
Takeoff roll (ft / m) N/ A
Landing roll (ft/ m) N/ A

First f light 1975

118
much more likely that Foxhound was The MiG -31 's radar is believed to
developed to counter low-flying in- have been derived from Western
terdictors in general rather than the technology, and has a search range
B-1 in particular, and it is open to of 165nm (305kml and a tracking
question whether Foxhound is an ef- range of 145nm (270km), but the
fective answer to the B-1B. radar cross-section of the target is
To move on from Foxbat, the first not given ; it is also believed to have a
need was look-down radar capability, multiple target engagement facility,
either in the fighter or in the form of and certainly Foxhound has I R detec-
AEW. Then the worst failings of Fox- tion kit, presumably for use against
bat - high fuel consumption, severe the B-1B. Its main missile armament
structural limitations, and the almost is the large AA -9, which has the
total dependence on GCI via data link remarkably short range of 25nm
- had to be fixed. (46kml at high and half that at low
High fuel consumption could be altitude from head -on . 000 sources
cured by using more efficient ascribe a Vmax interception radius of
engines, but probably at the expense 400nm (740kml to Foxhound, and a
of the very high speed capability. The patrol radius of double that.
substitution of titanium for nickel The MiG -31 will be standard equip -
steel would save weight and alleviate ment for the component of the
the structural limitations to some reorganised and upgraded intercep-
degree, although not enough to per- tor force that is dedicated to strategic
mit Foxhound to indulge in close air defence .
combat. Finally, a Doppler look -
down radar with its own operator, Armament
coupled with the long-distance Four AA -9 missiles, possibly with
detection capability of the 11 -76 four smaller AA -8 missiles
Mainstay AEW&C aircraft would
al low MiG-31 crews a measure of User
autonomy in their tactics . USSR

119
Mikoyan MiG·29 fulcrum
more exact estimate of the overa !1
Type: Single-seat all -weather counter-air dimensions became possible . T he ac-
fighter with secondary attack capability. compying data table is still fairly
Ful., combat capable two -seat trainer be- speculative, therefore, and the
Ing built. figures cannot be regarded as more
than approximations based on what
Since the appearance of the first can be observed and what can be in -
satellite pictures of Fulcrum at the ferred .
Ramenskoye test centre appeared It was at first thought that the
severa l years ago, the MiG -29 has MiG -29 was to be a Soviet equivalent
been the subject of intense specula- of the F-16, albeit twin -engined, but it
tion by the West. The speculation did now appears that it is very close in
not end when six of these fighters dimensions and probably fairly close
visited the Finnish Air Force base 1'It in weight to the bigger F / A-18
Kuopio-Russala in July 1986 : ex- Hornet . Intelligence sources deemed
cellent photographs of the type it to be an uncompromised air super-
became available for the first time, Iority fighter, with a look -
but little firm information was forth - down /s hoot -down weapon system
cominq, apart from the fact that a based on APG -65. It was thought to

Dimensions MiG-31 Fulcrum

Length If ti m! 56.43/1720
Span Ih/m! 3773/11 50
Height Ih/m! 14441 440
Wing area Isq ft /m'! 400131.76
Aspect ratio 356

Weights
Empty IIb / kg! 22,500/10,205
Takeoff Ilb/kg! 35,000 / 15,875
Combat IIb/kg! 30,125/ 13,665

Power 2xR -33D

Max lib st / kN! 18,300 / 81 .3
Mililb st/kN! 11,250 / 50.0

Fuel
Internal lib / kg! 9.150 /4,425
External lib/kg! 2,000/ 907
Fraction 0.28

Loadings
Max thrust 1.05 - 1.21
Mil thrust 0.64 - 0.75
Wing takeoff Ilb /sq h / kg / m'! 88 / 427
Wing combat Ilb /sq ft / kg / m'! 75/368

Performance
Vmax hi M ; 2.2
Vmax 10 M ; 1.06
Ceiling If ti m! 55,000/16,750
Initial climb Ift/mln/m/sec! 50,000 1254
Takeoff roll If ti m! N/ A
Landing roll (h i m! N/ A

First flight 1977

120
carry two cannon of either 23mm or It is tempting to specu late that the
30mm in the wing roots, plus six Soviet engine designers have cut it a
missiles - either two Apex and four bit too close, and that the engine
Aphid or six of the new AA- 10. needs an absolutely straight inlet for
It has since become obvious that optimum functioning at high speeds.
only one cannon is carried, in the port On the subject of inlets, however, the
wing root, and that four missiles may most fascinating feature is the doors
be the norm. Sustained turn has been that close when weight is on the
assessed as 16 0 / sec at Mach 0.9 and nosewheel. It has been speculated
15,000ft 14,600m), and instan - that they can be closed in flight to
taneous turn 21 0 /sec at the same prevent enemy radars picking up
heigh t and speed. Various estimates reflections from the compressors,
of operational radius have appeared, but the obvious answer is that it is an
but it seems unlikely that it is as good anti -fod measure . The Soviets, being
as the Hornet. pragmatists, have probably adopted
Overall size and similar configura - the device to prevent ingestion of
tion - twin canted fins, comparable snow and slush and to allow opera-
aspect ratio, and large extensions to tion from hard surfaces of poor quali-
the wing leading edge root - make ty, and in time of war runways are
comparisons with the Hornet in - likely to be littered with debris .
eVitable, but the Western design that Fulcrum represents a new genera-
the MiG-29 most resembles is the tion of Soviet fighters, and the view
fixed -wing F-14 variant that was pro - from the cockpit, while not up to the
posed at one design stage; the wing latest Western standards, represents
shape is similar, and the effect is a major advance over their previous
enhanced by the twin engine tunnels . aircraft. Whether CRT displays are
The wide spacing of the engllles, IIlstalled remains to be seen; Fulcrum
while good from a survival viewpoint, has been hailed as a true multi -role
adds to the wetted area and conse- fighter, and if that is the case it would
quently to drag, although it does give need modern multi -function displays
extra keel area, but hardly allows to ease pilot workload. One feature
room for stores to be carried without that has aroused considerable com-
an unacceptable degree of in - ment is the presence of what appears
terference drag. to be an Infra-red ball sensor on the
nose, just ahead of the cockpit. While
Left: MiG-29s airborne, showing It has been used on many Western
their widely separated engines fighters, I R detection has not really
and sharply raked intakes. proved a great success . It IS sus-
pected that the Soviet Union is ahead
Below: One of the quartet of of the West in this field; it is equally
Fulcrums that paid a surprise possible that, with the 8 -18 entering
visit to Finland in July 1986. service in Increasing numbers, their
need IS greater .
Fulcrum entered service in 1984,
and, unusually, It is to be exported in
a full -up rather than a degraded ver-
sion to both Syria and India . This is
quite out of keeping with normal
Soviet practice, but any attempt to
explain it would Just be more specula -
tion .

Armament
One cannon , probably 23mm single-
barrel , in the port wing root, four or
possibly six AA -10 medium-range
missiles, or two AA -7 Apex and four
AA-8 Aphids

Users
India, Syria , USSR

121
Sukhol Su-27 Flanker
proved wrong : Fulcrum is more like
Type: Single-seat al l-weather air superiorI- the FI A -18 Hornet - while Flanker
ty tighter with some attack capability. was likened to the F-15. Flanker has
not yet been seen in the West, and
Developed simultaneously with details of it are even more conjectural
Fulcrum, and bearing a strong family than those given for Fulcrum, which
likeness despite the fact that to dif- has at least made one appearance .
ferent design bureaux are involved, According to data so far re leased,
the Su -27 Flanker was also spotted Flanker is slightly bigger than the F-15
by satellite at the Ramenskoye test and considerably heavier, wing
site in 1977. The similarities were loading and aspect ratio are higher,
such that Western intelligence jump- thrust loading is similar, ceiling is
ed to the conclusion that the two air- lower and initial climb rate is better.
craft, code-named Ram-K (Flanker) Turn capability is better - sustained
and Ram-L (Fulcrum), comprised a turn at Mach 0 .9 and 15,OOOft is
hi-Io mix like the F-15 and F-16, with reported as 17° / sec and instan -
Fulcrum thought to be about the taneous turn as 23° Isec - and at
same size and capability as the F-16 least comparable with that of the up-
- an assumption that has since been engined F-16. Fulcrum is not quite so

Dimensions Su-27 Flanker

Length (ft/ ml 67.3/20.5
Span (ft/ ml 47 .50/14.48
Height (ft / ml 18041 5.50
Wing area (sq ftl m') 689164
Aspect rati o 3.27

Weights
Empty (Ib / kg) 33,070115,<XX)
Takeoff IIb/ kg) 49,600122,500
Combat (Ib / kg) 42,435 / 19,250

Power 2xR.29
Max lib st/kN) 28,100 / 125
Mil lib st/kN) 15,700170

Fuel
Internal IIb/ kg) 14 ,330/6,500
Externaillb / kg) 6,86413,310
Fraction 0.29

Loadings
Max thrust 1.13 - 1.32
Mil thrust 0.63 - 0.74
Wing takeoff IIb / sq ft / kg / m') 72/352
Wing com bat IIb/sq ft / kg / m') 62 / 301

Performance
Vmax·hi M = 2.3O+
Vmax 10 M ;" 1.1 0+
Ceiling (ft / m) 60 ,<xx) I 18,300
Initial climb (tt / min / m/sec) 50, <XX) 1305
Takeoff roll (ft / m) N/ A
Landing roll (ft/m) N/ A

First f light 1977

122
good, despite the fact that the also include a digitial data link to the
smaller aircraft might be expected to ground detection and control
be superior, and Flanker's high systems and airborne early warning .
aspect ratio appears to have been Flanker is believed to carry IR search
tailored for sustained turn. Accelera- and tracking equipment, probably
tion is also good, reportedly some 20 very similar to that seen on Fulcrum .
per cent better than that of Flogger. Flanker is replacing Fiddler and
Flanker has a multi-mode radar Flagon in Soviet service and is known
which uses Doppler modes to give a to be operating from an airfield near
true look-down/shoot -down cap- the Baltic coast which has a runway
abi lity and is believed to be used on marked out to simulate the flight deck
Western technology. It has a track- of a 65,000-tonne aircraft carrier
while-scan facility, and performance similar to that of the new aircraft car-
is reported to be 130nm (240kmi rier Krem in . The obvious inference is
search range and around 100nm that a naval Flanker will be devel-
(185kmi tracking range. The avionics oped, but where Soviet aviation is
concerned nothing is ever obvious,
Below: The Soviet Union has and using Flanker as a carrier fighter
been keeping the Su-27 Flanker is going to be very difficult for a na-
under wraps; this picture, taken tion without non-VSTOL fast jet car-
from a television screen, is the rier experience.
best currently available.
Armament
One 23mm or30mm cannon, four , six
or eight AA - l0 missiles, or four
AA - l0 and four AA -ll dogfight
missiles .

User
USSR .

Below: Flanker is the newest

Soviet air superiority fighter and
has performance comparable to
that of the F-15 Eagle. It became
operational w ith air defence
regiments early in 1986.
Dassault-Brelllet
Mlrage2000
Phantom, or maybe even a Tomcat:
Type: Single-seat Interceptor / alr super the one certa in thing was that it was
lonty fighter Other vanants optimised for expensive, costing two and a half
the attack (2000C1), two -seat trainer times more than the Mirage F.1.
12000BI, low -level and nuclear stnke Dassault, with the knack of produc-
12oooN) and reconnaissance (2oooRI roles ing the right design at the right time,
was already working on a simpler and
The origins of the Mirage 2000 are cheaper aircraft, which was adopted
confused, to say the least. After when the so-called Super Mirage was
the variable geometry Mirage G, cancelled.
Dassault's next project was the The reversion to the tailless delta
Mirage GSA, or F.S, a fixed -wing layout was the result of several fac-
twin-engine fighter capable of in- tors. The trend was for very man-
tercepting high -s peed, high-altitude oeuvrable aircraft, and the F-16 had
intruders . It was probably intended to emerged as the fighter to beat in this
be a French equivalent of an updated field, but the requirement to intercept

Dimensions Mirage 2000C

Length (ft / ml 4650 / 14 .17
Span (ft / ml 29501 8.99
Height (ft / m) N/ A
Wmgarea Isq ft / m'l 441 / 4098
Aspect rati O 1.97

W eights
Empty (Ib / kg) 16,8351 7,636
Takeoff (Ib / kgl 25,928 / 11.761
Combat (Ib / kg) 22,400 / 10,161

Power SNECMA M53

Max (Ib st / kN) 21,400 /95 .0
Mlilib st/kNI 14,400 / 64 .0

Fuel
Internal (Ib / kg) 7,055 / 3,200
Externaillb / kg) 8,758 / 3,973
Fraction 0.27

Load ings
Max thrust 0.83 - 0.96
Mil thrust 0.56 - 0.64
Wing takeoff (Ib / sq Itlkg / m') 59 / 287
Wing combat IIb/ sq ft / kg / m' ) 51 / 248

Performance
Vmax hi M ~ 2 . 35
Vmax 10 M = 1.20
Ceiling (ft / m) 60,000 / 18,300
Initial climb (ft / mln / m / sec) 49,212 / 250
Takeoff roll (ft / m) N/A
Landmg roll (ft / ml 1,200 / 410

First flight Mar 1978

124
high and fast intruders remained . span leading edge slats operate
Analysis led the French to believe automatically at angles of attack
that transient performance was more greater than five or six degrees when
important than sustained turning the gear is up, and there are two-
ability, while advances in aero - section elevons on the entire trailing
dynamics and avionics could over - edge . Small strakes are fitted to the
come the inherent shortcomings of intake sides to' reduce the download
the delta configuration. On the other and produce a vortex, and to offset
hand, the tailless delta was well the moderate power available com-
suited to the high -speed, high - posites have been used to reduce
altitude mission . weight
The first step was to utilise relaxed In close combat the Mirage 2000 is
stability combined with quadruplex formidable . Fly -by-wlre gives care-
fly-by -wire to overcome the natural free handling, and while the normal
stability of the large delta wing (no stress limits are + 9g and - 3g the
manual reversion was provided), ac- pilot can override them to pull 13.5g
companied by variable camber : full - in emergency. Doing so produces a
high AoA with a consequent drag in -
Below: New technology allowed crease, causing a sharp loss of speed
Dassault to revert to a delta combined with a tighter turn to force
planform for the Mirage 2000, a fly through. The engine would be
producing a remarkable fighter. left at full throttle during this man-
oeuvre in order to regain the lost
energy quickly . The aircraft IS snappy
in pitch and acceleration into the roll
is fast, the maximum roll rate being
270° I sec . Instantaneous turn is high,
according to Dassault between 20°
and 30° Isec, while sustained turn at
Mach 0.9 and 20,OOOft (6,OOOml is
about 11 ° Isec . Controllability is
good down to 40kt (74km / h) in- ~

Below: Interesting points seen

here are the small strakes on the
intakes and the trailing-edge
wing/fuselage fillet.

125
~ dicated, while at the other extreme (rate of fire 1,800 rounds per minute)
brake release to Mach 2 at 49,OOOft are also carried internal ly in the lower
(15,OOOm) takes just four minutes . fuselage .
The radar has been criticised in cer- I t seems that Dassau It have done it
tain quarters for lack of capability. It again, and produced a small, cheap,
is a Thomson -CSF pulse-Doppler but very ca pable fighter, which is
multi-mode set, with a maximum already doing well in the export
detection range of 55nm (l00kml. market, and is likely to do better in
The normal weapons fit is two Matra future.
Super 5300 medium-range missiles,
with a snap -up and snap-down Armament
capability, plus two R.550 Magic 2 Two 30mm DEFA 554 cannon with
dogfight missiles. The Super 5300 125 rounds pergun, two Matra Super
is intended to be able to deal with 5300 and two Matra R.550 Magic
Mach 3 targets at 80,OOOft (24.400m) missiles
from a launch altitude of 5O,OOOft
(15,250m), while the heat-homing Users
Magic is reported to pu ll 50g in the Egypt, France, Greece, India, Peru,
turn. Two DEFA 554 30mm cannon United Arab Emira tes

Above: The automatic leading Below: As with most fast jets, a

edge manoeuvre slats and the two-seat conversion trainer is
two-section elevons are used to necessary, the Mirage 2oooB,
produce variable camber. seen here with IFR probe.

126
British Aerospace
Sea Harrier
takeoffs and landings on the deck of
Type: Single-seat carner-borne counter- HMS Ark Royal, An admiral watch-
air fighter with reconnaissance and stnke ing the proceedings later commented
ca pability . that the thing that struck him most
was 'the almost comp lete absence of
The land-based Harrier attack aircraft fright' . Previous jet fighters had been
has served with the Royal Air Force heavier and faster than their
and US Marine Corps for many years, predecessors and carrier operations
and the first experiments involving had seemed to become increasingly
ship-board basing and operations more perilous . The pilot's comment
date back to February 1963, when was that it was easier to stop and
test pilots Bill Bedford and Hugh then land on a carrier than to land and
Merewether carried out a series of then stop.
Within a few years British fixed-
wing carrier aviation had disap-
Dimensions Sea Harrier peared, leaving the British fleet to be
Length Ift / m) 47 .58 / 14.50 protected by land-based air power.
Span Ift/ m) 25.251 7.70 This was quickly shown to be inade-
Height lft/m) 12 . 161 3.71 quate, but the American solution -
Wing area Isq ft,I m') 201/ 18 .69 giant aircraft carriers embarking
Aspect ra tlO 3.17 nearly 100 aircraft of which nearly
half were dedicated to protecting the
Weights carrier and the other ships of the task
Empty IIb / kg) 13,000 / 5,900 force - was clearly not affordable.
Takeoff IIbl kg) 19,650/8, 915 The British requirement was, in
Combat lib/kg) 17, 12517,770 any case, different from that of the
Americans, primari ly involving the
Power Pegasus 104 protection of shipping in the North
Ma'x li b st / kN) N/A Atlantic sea lanes, far from RAF land
Mil lib st /k N) 21,500/ 95 .5 bases, where the main air threat was
considered to be long-range air-
Fuel launched missiles fi red from Bear air-
Internaillb / kg) 5,050 /2, 290 craft, or submarine-launched mis-
Externaillb/kg) 2,966/1,345 siles using information supplied from
Fraction 0.26 Bears via data link , The Bears would
be at medium or high altitudes where
Loadings they could be detected by ships'
Max thrust N/A radar ; the ships could then vector a
Mil thrust 1.09 - 1.26 Sea Harrier out to intercept. The Sea
Wing takeoff Harrier force would be numerically
Ilb/sq ft / kg / m') 98/ 477 small and was to be carried on the so
Wing combat called through -deck cruisers of the
IIb/sq ft / kg /m') 85/416 new Invincible class . The Sea Harrier
was considered adequate for this job,
Performance which was essentially a back -up to
Vmax hi M = 0.97 land-based air power.
Vmax 10 M = 1.25 The Sea Harrier was derived direct-
Ceiling Ift/m) 51,200/15,600 ly from the attack Harrier, navalised
Initial climb to minimise corrosion from sea spray
Ift / min / m/sec) 50,000 /254 and with the cockpit raised to give
Takeoff roll 1ft/ m) N/ A extra space under the floor and extra
Landing roilift / m) N/A side console area. A spin-off of this
was that the all -round view was much
First flight Aug 1978 improved, especially rearward. The
avionics were optimised for the task, ~

127
~ and included the Blue Fox pulse minimal, the Sea Harriers were forc-
radar, which had no real look -down ed to resort to the wasteful practice
capability but was adequate for the of standing patrols, which meant that
medium and high altitude work en - they were often outnumbered, albeit
visaged . The two 30mm Aden can - in relatively small engagements . With
non pods were retained, and provi - little radar look -down capability,
sion was made for two Sidewinder most sightings were made visually,
missiles. and many chances were missed.
It is often claimed that the Argenti - Finally, too much has been made
nian forces in the 1982 South Atlantic of the AIM -9L Sidewinder's all-
War were disadvantaged by the aspect capability. In practice, it was
distance from their bases over which rarely if ever used, and even though
they were forced to operate, but the most missile launches were made
disadvantages suffered by the Sea from astern, the kill ratio achieved
Harrier force are rarely pointed out. was only about 67 per cent. At very
The two British carriers, Hermes and low level, where the majority of
Invincible, had to be kept well back engagements took place, the broch -
out of harm' s way , as the loss of ure range of AIM -9L is severely cur-
either could have been disastrous, tailed; accounts of launches at co-
which Increased the distance to the speed Skyhawks from astern at
patrol areas and reduced the time on visual range ISkyhawk is small, and
patrol. visual range shortl refer to them fail -
With no airborne early warning and ing short. All in all, it is quite
ship-borne control in many cases remarkable that the Sea Harriers did
as well as they did . For no losses in
the lack of augmentation and the
air-to -air combat, they downed twoeconomical turbofan engine enable it
Mirage Ills, nine Daggers, eight to go farther than one might expect.
Skyhawks - all but two Skyhawks Maximum interception radius is
with Sidewinders - plus a Pucara, astated to be 400nm (740kml.
Canberra, and a Hercules. Particularly spectilcular is its ac-
In close combat, the Sea Harrier is
celeration from low speeds, which is
excellent. I t is small , with a smokeless
probably better than any other fighter
in the world . This is the resu lt of the
engine, and therefore difficult to see .
It is an odd shape, and it can be dif-
high thrust loading in a regime where
ficult to tell what it is doing from
afterburning is inefficient. All else be-
some aspects. The STOVL ing equal, in combat with a conven-
characteristics hardly need com - tional afterburning fighter, it will be
ment, and from a short rolling takeoff
the non-STOVL type that breaks off
it can reach 40,oooft (12,ooom) in just
first for shortage of fuel .
two minutes . It turns well (and even Much has been made of the Sea
better if VIFF is employed), and isHarrier's response to vectoring of the
snappy in the rolling plane. The engine thrust in forward flight (VI FF) .
modest fuel fraction is deceptive, as
While the technique certainly allows
the Sea Harrier to pul l sortle other-
Below: A Sea Harrier lands aboard wise impossible manoeuvres, it was
HMS Illustrious off the Falklands, not used in the South Atlantic : it
where the type proved invaluable would normally be used only In ex-
in the 1982 war. ceptional circumstances, as it tends ~
~ to be somewhat imprecise in control SCADS (Shipborne Containerized
- to force an overshoot in an Air Defence System) which will allow
emergen cy, or in small amounts to quite small ships to carry their own
nibble off a few degrees of angle to fighter . Another obvious scheme is
bring the guns to bear. for a supersonic Sea Harrier, using
The Sea Harriers of the Royal Navy plenum chamber burning. This pro -
will shortly undergo upgrading to ject, known as ASTOL (Advanced
FRS .2 standard . It was found in 1982 STOll is likely to produce a rather
that just two Sidewinders was inade- larger aircraft with more advanced
quate, and made for short combat avionics, capable of maintaining
persistence, and RN Sea Harriers combat air patrol for two and a half
already carry four . The update in- hours at an unspecified distance f rom
volves a pulse-Doppler radar, the Fer- the mother ship.
ranti Blue Vixen, which will give a If ASTOL proceeds, it will give the
true look -down / shoot-down cap - Harrier fami ly a credibility that it has
ability, and in order to make the most lacked until now . Almost no advanc-
of the new radar the weapons fit will ed nation can see much virtue in a
be increased to four AIM - 120 subsonic fighter, and certainly one of
Amraams, Sea Harrier being the first the most telling arguments against
European fighter scheduled to carry the Sea Harrier in recent times has
the new missile, which should be been 'how do you intercept a super-
much rnore satisfactory should it sonic Backfire with a subsonic Sea
become necessary to take on Soviet Harrier' . A supersonic STOVL air-
Backfire and Blackjack bombers . craft might just prove to be the right
India flies the Sea Harrier FRS .51, product at the right time in the world
which varies from the FRS.1 mainly marketplace.
in details of the avionics and in the
fact that its main weapon is the Matra Armament
R.550 Magic . Italy is expected to Two 30mm Aden cannon with 100
order Sea Harrier shortly to equip its rounds per gun, two or four AIM-9L
new helicopter carrier Giuseppe Sidewinder or R.550 Magic missiles
Garibald/~ which has a ski -jump on (later four AIM -120 Amraam)
the flight deck.
Various schemes are afoot for Users
future Sea Harriers. One of these is India, UK .

130 .
Above: One of the Indian Navy's Below: The Sea Harrier FRS.2
SelLHarrier FRS.51s shows its will be the first European fighter
Matra R.550 Magic missile to be armed with Amraam
armament during a pre-delivery missiles: new avionics and a
flight over southern England . new radar will also be installed .

131
Dassault-Breguet Rafale
fighter . It has, by modern standards,
Type: SlIlgle-seat multi -role fighter. very low wing loading, and extremely
high thrust loading - better, in fact,
Regardless of the fact that Rafale is a in military thrust than many other
proposed replacement for the fighters have using afterburn -
Jaguar, Mirage IIIE and Mirage 5 ing - and at the 1986 Farnborough air
from 1995, it seems obvious that show Rafale A demonstrated a sus-
Dassault-Breguet have done every- tained turn rate of 24* /sec at low
thing possible to produce a close altitude, an exceptional perfor -
combat fighter to beat all others . mance. Six missiles plus a 30mm can-
Rafale combines the delta configura- non give good combat persistence,
tion with relaxed stability and fly-by- as does the high , although not ex-
wire, or maybe even fly-by-light in the cessive, fuel fraction .
future; it has movable canard fore- In common with the F-16, the
planes to reduce the downloads and fighter that has for many years been
to create a vortex across the wings; used as a yardstick for close combat,
and the fact that the foreplanes are Rafale has an inclined seat, a
movable allows direct lift to be used , sidestick controller and a teardrop
increasing the pointability of the canopy giving 360° vision. In-flight

Dimensions Rafale A Rafale B

Length Ift / ml 51 .84 / 15.80 N/ A
Span Ift / ml 36.08 / 1100 N/ A
Height Ift/ ml 16.401 400 N/ A
Wing area Isq ft / m' l 506147 .00 474 / 44 .00
Aspect ra tlO 2.57 N/ A

Weights
Empty Ilb / kgl 20,9501 9,500 18,7501 8.500
Takeoff Ilb/ kgl 30,870 / 14,000 28.670 / 13,000
Combat IIb / kgl 26,450 / 12,000 24.250/11,000

Power 2xF404 2xSNECMA M8

Max lib st / kNI 16,000171 .1 16.800/75.0
Mil lib st / kNI 10,600/ 47 .1 11 ,500/ 51 .0

Fuel
Internal IIb/ kgl 8.800 /4,000 8,800 /4,000
Externaillb / kgl N/ A N/ A
Fraction 0.29 0.31

Loadings
Max thrust 1.04 - 1.21 1 17 1.39
Mil thrust 0.69 0.80 0.80 - 0.95
WlIlg takeoff IIb /sq ft / kg / m'l 61 / 298 61 / 295
Wing combatllb / sq ft / kg / m'l 52 / 255 51 / 250

Performance
Vmax hi M; 2 M; 2
Vmax 10 M ; 1.2 M ; 12
Ceiling Ift/ ml 1.300/ 400 1,300/ 400
Il1Itlal climb Ift / m", / m/sec l 9801300 980 / 300
Takeoff roillft / mi N/ A N/ A
Landing roillft / mi N/ A N/ A

First flight Ju11986 N/ A

Rafale 8 weights. fuel fraction and loadings eS\lmated

132
 refuelling wil l be incorporated, and equated with cost; the heavier
the ability to operate from a 500m Eurofighter will be more expensive.
strip with two AAMs and guns loaded Rafale is to carry a pulse -Doppler
was a basic requirement. multi-mode radar with a maximum
Rafale A is purely a technology search range of 55nm (100km)
demonstrator to prove the concept, against fighter-sized targets, and
and the production Rafale B will be allow a look-down / shoot-down cap-
smaller. Rafale was once a contender ability . It will be able to track up to
for the European Fighter Aircraft, but eight targets while continuing to
the French dropped out because they search and be able to assess raids and
wanted a specifica lly ligh ter aircraft: allot priorities to targets. It w ill carry
Rafa le B wil l be about a tonne lighter the Matra MICA missi le, a French
than the A; the overall dimensions are Amraam equivalent with inertial mid -
to be slightly smaller and the wing course guidance and either I R or ac-
area reduced, and extensive use of tive radar terminal homing, as wel l as
composites wi ll save weight. In fact, Magic 2.
it is the weight saving that shifts A carrier - based version with
Rafa le B into an exceptional thrust- beefed-up gear and an arrester hook,
loaded class and promises outstand - plus provision for catapult launching,
ing performance. That bodes well for will be some 1, 100lb (500kg) heavier.
the export market, as does the light The gear is to be stressed for a sink
empty weight, which can be roughly rate of 13ft (4m) per second, rather
low judged by American standards,
which are approximately double that.
Ski -jump takeoffs have also been
mentioned by one source, but this
hardly seems likely in a carrier con -
text, as the ski-jump would be an
obstruction In the event of a bolter .
No order has been placed for Rafale ;
but development is proceeding, and
it certainly seems a very potent
fighter .

Armament
One 30mm DEFA 554 cannon, four
MICA medium -range missiles, two
R.550 Magic 2 missiles

Above: The intake adopted for Below: Seen here is Rafale A, a

Rafale compromises between the technology demonstrator for the
side and chin positions. proposed Ratale B.
Euroftghter EFA
started from the basic premise that
Type: Single-seat counter-air fighter w ith most future combats would begin
intercep tion and attack as secondary beyond visual range using a launch-
capabilities . and-leAve weapon such as Amraam ,
after whi ch the range would swiftly
The origins of the Eurofighter lie in close down to visual . The first need
the requirements of three nations , was to accelerate hard to impart the
France, Germany and the United maximum energy to the missi le on
Kingdom . France has dropped out launch and so increase its manoeuv-
and gone ahead with Rafale in - rability and probability of kill at near-
dependently while Italy and Spain maxi mum range ; after launch heavy
have joined Germany and the UK in a manoeuvring w ould be ca lled for to
consortium to build the new fighter evade a hostile missile attack which it
for Europe . The Eurofighter is bigger was presumed would be launched at
and rather heavier than Rafale, the the same time .
factor which led to France abandon- In both phases Eurofighter will
ing the joint project. benefit from a thrust:weight rati o
The design has been influenced by which is high by any standards . The
current weapo nry advan ces, and airframe is optimised for high agility

D imensions BAeEAP
Length Ift / mi 57 .50/17 .53
Span Ift / mi 36 .65 / 11 .17
Height Ift / mi 18 .131 5.53
Wing area Isq ft / m' i 538150.00
Aspect ratio 2.5

Weights
Empty (Ib / kgi 22,050 / 10,000
Takeoff ((b/ kgi 34,000 / 15,420
Combat ((b / kgi 29,250 / 13,270

Power 2xRBl99 Mk 1040

Max lib st / kNi 16,500173 .3
Mil lib st / kNi N/ A

Fuel
Internal ((b / kgi 9,500 /4,310
External (Ib / kgi N/ A
Fraction 0.28

Loadings
Max thrust 0.97 - 1. 13
Mil th rust N/ A
Wing takeoff ((b / sq ft / kg / m') 63 / 308
Wing combat ((b/ sq ft / kg / m'i 54 1265

Performance
Vmax hi N/ A
Vmax 10 N/ A
Ceiling Ift / mi N/ A
Initial climb Ift / min / m/ seci N/ A
Takeoff roll (ft / m) N/ A
Landing roll (h / mi N/ A

First flight Aug 1986

134
and BAe have predicted that it will Armament
outmanoeuvre any aircraft now fly- One 25mm Aden or 27mm Mauser
ing . The main emphasis is on instan- cannon ; four AI M-120 Amraam or
taneous turn , with the high thrust Sky Flash missiles, two Asraam or
loading replacing lost energy quickly . AIM -9L Sidewinder missiles
The wing is a kinked delta which
gives the best combination of low Users
wave drag and aspect ratio, with the Germany, Italy, Spain, UK
steeply swept inboard generating
vo rti ces to increase lift at high AoA .
Automatic wing camber is also
featured as a function of velocity and
AoA , and to minimise supersonic
drag, while the lower lip of the intake
is hinged to optimise airflow at high
AoA.

Right: The EFA in mock-up form

representing the configuration
finalised in the Spring of 1986.
The apparent curvature of the
wing is an optical illusion.

left: The EFA mock-up, on show

at Farnborough 86, showing the
all-moving canard surfaces and
the box-section nodding type
intake.

Below: An artist's impression of

EFA in flight, showing the basic
configuration, but with a fin that
is far too small.
Saab lAS 39 Grlpen
definitely a state-of-the-art fighter ,
Type: Single-seat multi -role fighter for the with advanced avionics and con -
counter-air attack and reconnaissance miS- siderable use of composites , it is
Sions. A two -seat fu ll y combat-capable believed that its performan ce will not
trainer may be bUilt. exceed that of the F-16, although it
might feature direct lift sideforce
Much of the tabular material on the control, whi c h the Swede s are
Gripen is of a highly speculative known to favour for close combat.
nature: the only figure released for First flight is scheduled to take place
the weight is that it is half that of the in 1987.
Viggen, and the other figures given
are based on that statement; any fur- Armament
ther calcu lations would simply com- One 27mm Mauser BK27 cannon,
pou nd the errors . four AAM s.
Gripen is the lightest of the new
genera tion of unstable canard delta User
fighters by quite a margin . While it is Sweden

Right: The Gripen cockpit is

Dimensions JAS 34 Gripen clearly state of the art, w ith three
Length Ih / m) 45 .90 / 14 .00 multi-function CRT displays and a
Span If t im) 26.251 8.00 wide-angle HUD.

Weights Below right: Gripen follows the

Empty IIb / kg) 14,000 / 6,350 current fashion for delta wings
Takeoff Il b/ kg) 18,000/8,170 with canard foreplanes for
Com bal l lb / kg) 15,50017,030 greater manoeuvrability,

Power Below: A true multi-role fighter,

Max li b st/ kN) 18,000 / 80 Gripen is shown equipped for air
M il i lb st/k NI 12,1 40 /54 combat (top) and with air-to·
ground weapons,
Combat Tactics

.Above: Small is beautiful in close Below: Phantom versus Tomcat.

combat - a Top Gun Skyhawk Grumman Chief Test Pilot Chuck
breaks away after a successful Sewell easily outmanoeuvres US
attack on a TOincat. Navy test pilot Lt D. Walker.
 he modern fighter combines mode while the more sophisticated
T detection and countermeasures, combinations have a certain amount
aerodynamics and power, along with of off-boresight capability . The latter
many different types of weapons, to is often limited by the aiming system,
form an integrated weapons system. which is shown on the HUD, and
Its capabilities can be considerably which has led to the development of
increased by such force multipliers as wide angle HUDs. The next step will
airborne early warning and control , be to use helmet-mounted sights,
dedicated countermeasures aircraft with the aim information projected
and the humble tanker which, as a onto the pilot's visor.
flying gas station, can extend a In air combat terms, aiming or
fighter's range and endurance weapon system limitations mean that
considerably . Capabilities vary con- with simple systems the nose of the
siderably from type to type, but it fighter must be pointed at or just
should always be remembered that ahead (for lead) of the target, while
the most advanced fighter is badly the more advanced systems demand
disadvantaged by the most basic if that the nose is aligned with the
the latter is at six o'clock and within general direction of the target.
firing parameters. The capability of the weapon / aim-
In the preceding sections we have ing system determines the degree to
examined the detection systems and which the fighter must point toward
the weaponry in general terms and the target; it also determines the area
the aircraft themselves in detail . that the potential target should keep
There is, however, one weakness out of if possible, to deny the attacker
that has not been touched, one a shot. Against an opponent using a
which is so universal and so obvious missile such as the Matra Super
that it is seldom seen as a weakness , 530D, which is designed to snap up
namely that aircraft weapons can on - and destroy a target flying up to
ly be fired forward . 30,oooft (9,150m) above the launch
The more basic fighter I weapon aircraft this has little relevance, but it
combinations require the nose of the has a great deal of relevance to close
fighter to be pointing directly at the combat at visual ranges : while it may
target in what is known as boresight well prove impossible for the target

Cone of vulnerability

BOOm
range

1,500mm
range

Above: Gun attacks are best vulnerability cone before closing

made from astern, with the to a lethal position w ith in 30°
attacker taking a position in t he angle off.

139
Direct pitch control
~v
f
.-!- V 3
t
2
•v

t V
4

)..-

tv 8 9
f;

~v
Side force control
t
3

f v

5
v
4

~ J-
v
t • V- - - - - - -I. .• v
8 9

Top: Weapons aiming is primarily Above: Side force control

a matter of getting the fighter 's confers similar benefits to pitch
nose on target. Figures 1,2,3 mode control. In lateral
show the fighter climbing while translation (1,2,3), the fighter
maintaining a level attitude in drifts sideways while
what is known as vertical maintaining its original course;
translation mode. Direct lift at a direct sideforce control (3.4,5)
constant angle of attack (4,5,6) permits target tracking, and in
gives precision control in the yaw pointing (7,B,9) the heading
vertical plane, while pitch is changed while the flightpath
pointing (7,B,9) involves remains constant, improving aim
maintaining the original course control. (A=angle of attack,
and speed. V = flight path).

140
fighter to keep out of the danger area and varies wi th expe rience. Some of
all the time, it is helpful to make the the techniques concern BVR com-
opponen t's missi le tracking system bat, which is to a large degree a ques-
wo rk as hard as poss ible. ti on of getting the best out of the
If the launching fighter can be detection and EC M systems and
made to manoeuvre hard at the same which has been covered earlier;
time there wi ll be a further increase in others concern teamwork, tactical
possibli ty of the shot fai ling, as there formations, and air combat man -
is a tendency for a missi le to weather- oeuvres.
cock into the relative wind, which is Teamwork is essentially a matter of
the direction of the airf low past the mutua l cover and backup, increasing
fighter, regardless of which way it is both the offensive and defensive
pointing, and at high AoA, the two capability of the formation as a
can differ by 20° or more. Pointabi lity who le. It includes tactical doctrines
is, therefore, an asset in a fighter, such as Loose Deuce, Double Attack
which explains the current preoc- and others, a discussion of which is
cupation with direct lift and direct unfortunately precluded by space
side-force control. But the nose of limitations.
the fighter still has to be bought to Formations are variable, and are
bear, more or less, on the target, and determined by the number of fighters
for gunshots boresight aiming is an involved, the natu re of the mission
absolute requirement for the sighting and the nature of the opposition. The
system. basic element is always the pair, who
To get the best ou t of his expensive provide mutual cross-cover and try
hardware, the fighter pilot is taught hard, but not always successfully, to
basic manoeuvres which he develops stay together . The pair normally flies

Search and reporting

~
~
Low

Above: The primary (unshaded) quarters of a pilot's time is spent

and secondary areas of searching his primary direction -
responsibility for a pair (top) and high and low. near and far - and
a four-ship formation . Three- all sightings are reported .

141
Inward turnabout

Above: This cross-turn is used to

allow an element of two aircraft
to reverse course with no spatial
displacement_ If altitudes are
staggered, the high man goes
low and the low man high, Low man goes high
checking each other 's six as they
pass_

The sandwich Below: A pair flying in wide

A ttacker th reatened abreast formation can sandwich
by other defender an attacker. The defending
fighter turns outward while his
Defender wingman turns inwards.
turns hard

a formation called combat spread,

which is a wide line abreast. If the tac-
tical situation permits, the fighter
nearest the line of the sun flies step-
ped down, so that the vertical angle
of the sun is different for each fighter,
and there is less chance of a surprise
attack succeeding from this direc-
tion .
Lateral spacing varies . The idea is
that if one fighter is attacked, the
other can come to its assistance with
the least delay, and ideally this means
one fighter turn diameter at the
height and speed selected. In condi-
tions of poor visibility the distance
would have to be reduced to about
half that over which a visual contact Attackers
could be made. If a radical change in
direction is called for the aircraft
cross over in the turn, while for a
course reversal an inward turnabout
is favoured, with the high man going
low and the low man high. This has

142
the double advantage that there is no identify bogeys, when the leader
lateral displacement of the patrol line, makes the identification and the
if pa trol line it is, while in the turn, the wingman locks up his radar for a BVR
pil ots are well placed to check each shot, or for the leader to 'drag' the
other's blind spots below and astern. bogeys and set them up for a rear
Many other permutations are pos- quarter shot by the wingman . In an
sible, usua lly but not always in com - uncontrolled environment, or against
binations of two . Two pairs abreast fighte rs believed to have BVR or all-
an d stepped down towards the sun is aspect weapons, such practices are
common , while pairs in trai l can have gradua lly becoming too risky; on the
advantages . Finally, if a four-ship for- other hand, combat spread is so
mation is scheduled and one of the popular that it may make the pair too
ai rcraft is found to be unserviceable predictable.
at the last moment , a three-ship Air combat manoeuvres, or basic
layout with the pair trailing the leader fighter manoeuvres as they are
could be used. sometimes cal led, are essential ly
Echelon and trail have been used methods of pointing the fighter's
for pai rs, but as the rear machine has nose at the target while preventing
no cover they are tactically unsound . him from reciprocating .
They can be used in a controlled en - The manoeuvre phase of combat
vi ronment, such as in an engagement commences at the moment that the
where no unexpected hostile fighters attacker loses the advantage of sur-
are likely to appear, either to visually prise . Of course, it is possible for

Defensive split

Below: The defensive split is

used to force two attackers to
concentrate on one aircraft,
leaving the other free. One
defender pulls high while the
other goes low: the defenders
must then make every effort to
rejoin for mutual support.

143
 Air combat phases

3.

Air combat can be broken into

five phases. Historically, the
dominant factor governing
success in ai r combat is surprise,
and the first three phases are
devoted to its achievement.
1) Detection: it is essential to
detect the enemy first and gain
the initiative. 4: M anoeuvre
2) Closing: used to gain a position
from which to attack .
3) Attack : with the advantage of 2 C105"'9
surprise is often successful.
4) Manoeuvre: the phase that
occurs when surprise is lost.
5) Disengagement.

close combat to start from a neutral trying for a hea rt-of -the-envelope
position, with the opponents spot- heat missi le shot, or a tracking gun
ting each other simultaneously, in shot. In t he first case he will be trying
relative positions which give neither to drop in exactly astern outside
the advantage . Defeating missiles minimum missi le range, whi le for a
that have already been launched has gun shot hewill be pu lli ng lead on the
been covered earlier : manoeuvre ta rget, with his nose pointed slightly
combat is about fighter defeating ahead, while rolling to get in plane
fighter . with the motion of the target. The
The usual direction of a close- defender's first move is the break .
range surp rise attack is from the The break is a maximum rate turn
astern quarter. The attacker will be into the direction of the attack. If a

144
 missile attack is expected, the aim
will be to create as much angle-off as
possible in the time available, while if
the situation looks like a gun attack,
the break must be combined with a
roll or pull out of the plane of motion;
otherwise the attacker is presented
5: Dise ngagement
with a snap-shot at a planform target,
the biggest possible presented area .
Often the attacker closing for a
stern shot will be travelling faster
than the defender . If the speed
disparity is too great the attacker will
overshoot, and the defender should
Fp. be alert to the possibility of reversing
his turn to gain the advantage . This
will become apparent as the attacker
goes wide in the turn; if his relative
speed takes him wide quickly an early
reverse is called for , but if he drifts
slowly the reverse should be made
late or not at all. If the attacker does
not overshoot , either from not having
excess speed or simply through being
better in the turn , the defender must

The break
Right: The break is a maximum Defender turns
sharply II1to
rate turn designed to spoil an direction of
opponent's aiming solution and allack
is often combined with an out-of-
plane manoeuvre. It may force an
attacker into an overshoot, when
the defender <;an reverse to turn
the tables.

Allacker about to
achieve firing
posit ion

145
stay in the hard turn and try to in- If all else fails, the last resort is jink-
crease, or at least maintain, the ing - a series of turns, skids, yaws,
angle-off already generated . Against and pitch-ups intended to produce an
a better turning adversary this may unpredictable flight path in order to
not work : it becomes a question of spoil the attacker's aim. At very low
holding him off until help arrives, or levels jinking can be highly effective,
until he runs low on fuel. as the countryside at close range can
Altitude permitting, the spiral dive quite distract the attacker from his
is the next move for the defender, aim.
trading altitude for energy to main- If an overshoot is forced at the
tain a hard turn. This can sometimes outset, and the defender reverses his
be accompanied by a reduction in turn, a scissors may occur . This is a
power while flattening out the dive, series of turn reversals aimed at mak-
which is difficult for the attacker to ing an opponent fly through and end
spot, and may result in an overshoot, up in front, where he in turn becomes
or at least a neutral position . the quarry . Scissoring with a more

Overshoot in spiral dive

OverShoo t initiated ... and

(attacker fa lls to pulls up
maintain nose/ tall
separation)

\
I I

Above: Maintaining nose/tail

The scissors separation is essential when
following an enemy in a spiral
dive to avoid overshooting.

Below: Scissori ng is a seri es of

turn reversals designed t o force
an opponent out in front. The
advantage lies with the more
manoeuvrable fighter.

Attacker reverses
overshoots

146
The Split S Below: The Split S, or half roll, is
a manoeuvre in the vertical plane
which is used to disengage from
unfavourable situations. It is best
used when the attacker fails to
keep enough separation.

Defende r rolls
inverted .

. . aderOll
turns .

. . alld pulls out

III opposite direction

manoeuvrable opponent is not re-

commended, since acceleration into
the turn gives a considerable advan -
tage, as does instantaneous turn
rate .
The vertical rolling scissors is a
variation on a theme . It is usually car-
ried out in a steep climb or dive, with
complete barrel rolls replacing the
turn reversals . In a protracted ascen-
ding vertica l rolling scissors the ad -
vantage will lie with the fighter which
has the best sustained climb rate .
Disengagement from a vertical rolling
scissors is best made with a Split S
and a lot of hope .
The Split S is a disengagement
manoeuvre which can be used from
many positions, provided only that
enough altitude is available to allow

147
the pull -out. It consists of a rapid roll three-dimensional manoeuvre, one
to an inverted position followed by a which can be used against an at-
vertical dive, aileron turning on the tacker closing fast from dead astern,
way down ready for a pull -out in the It involves a speed loss - up to lookt
desired direction, usually the op- 1185km/hrl in some cases - while
posite course to that of the oppo - the spiral path slows the forward
nent. Ideally it should be used from a velocity vector. Against a much
position of neutrality, following an faster attacker it usually results in a
overshoot, or after a head -on pass, or fly-through, but a co-speed or only
from a position where the opponent slightly faster attacker will follow the
has lost sight for a moment . It defender through the move and end
presents a difficult missile target to an within easy gun range. The man-
attacker because of the ground clut- oeuvre can also be used to defeat a
ter, while one of the time-honoured head -on missile attack by causing
rules of air combat states 'never ' large angular changes in the seeker
follow anyone down' . A further ad - head tracking rate.
vantage is that, like most three- Often a very fast attacker will be
dimensional or vertical manoeuvres, unable to stay with the target fighter
it allows a fighter to turn 'square cor- in a hard turn: the solution here is the
ners' relative to the horizontal plane . High YoYo, which uses the vertical to
The High-g Barrel Roll is another prevent overshooting. Relaxing his

The High-g Barrel Roll

Defender rolls .. . and out

away from behind
the turn

Above: The High-g Barrel Roll case it can cause the attacker to
can be used to defeat either a overshoot; in the latter it
fast attack from astern or a head- compounds missile tracking
on missile shot, In the former problems,

148
turn a little, the attacker pu lls high rectly , and if the nose is pulled too
and rolls inverted both to retain visual high it allows the defender to
contact and to avoid excessive disengage with a Split S. If the tac-
nega ti ve g . Speed loss in the pu ll-up tical situation permits, a series of
and climb, com bined with the extra g small High YoYos is often preferable.
of gravity, reduces his turn radius as The Rollaway, or Vector Roll, is a
he co mes over the top, leaving him variation on the High YoYo used in
well placed to co me down into the much the same circumstances ; the
target's stern quarter . The H igh attacker relaxes his turn and pulls up,
YoYo is very di ff icu lt to judge cor- then rolls away from the direction of

The High YoYo Below: The High YoYo is used to

defeat a better turning opponent
by using the vertical plane to
Inverted
increase turn rate. both by
reducing speed and by using the
extra g of gravity. and prevent an
overshoot.
Defender
pulls up .

The Rollaway Below: The Rollaway. or Vector

rolls away Roll . is a variation on the High
from direction YoYo consisting of a pull·up
of turn
followed by a roll away from the
turn and a pull through to come
up from under.

and drops In behind

149
the turn, pulling over the top then reach a firing solution. The problems
down and across the circle into the arise from excessive angle off and ex -
rear hemisphere of the target. cessive speed, both of which are ma-
The opposite case to the High jor contributors to an overshoot: the
YoYo is the Low YoYo, which is used manoeuvres to counter an overshoot
to catch a faster, hard turning bogey, in either case have been given, but
or to break a stalemate turning situa - there remains one final counter to an
tion. It is based on trading height for overshoot caused purely by speed.
speed, and is executed by dropping Lag Pursuit consists of avoiding
the nose on the inside of the turn and overshooting by taking up a position
gaining speed in a shallow dive across on the outside of the target's turn and
the circle before pulling back up in the matching his turn rate, at the same
target's stern quarter . time maintaining a speed (and there-
The main problems facing attack - fore energy) advantage while turning
ing fighters are to do with achieving on the wider radius. This, incidental -
the best possible firing solution while ly, is the one fighter manoeuvre
maintaining the element of surprise . where sustained turn radius really
Surprise demands that the firing counts for the defender.
position be achieved quickly - the The real problem for the defender
longer the delay , the more chance the is that the attacker is out of sight,
target has of spotting the attacker - below and astern, and he cannot see
and the problems are positional and what is happening. Unless each
dynamic. Rarely is a target detected fighter has a free wingman , who can
at an ideal angle to be attacked, and if keep them informed of the situation,
there is no speed disparity at the Lag Pursuit rapidly develops into a
detection stage, there will be as soon game of chicken. The attacker is
as the attacker accelerates to try and preoccupied with watching his oppo -

Lag Pursu it

Defellder breaks

Attacker mall1tall1s
POSition 011
outside of turn

Above: Lag Pursuit is anot her the defender's rate of turn,

method of avoiding overshoots. maintaining a position on the
When the defender breaks the defender's belly side from which
attacker takes up position on t he he cannot be seen, thus k eeping
outside of the turn and matches t he initiative.

150
Above: The pursuing Tomcat is in
the saddle for a guns shot
against the USN Phantom.

The Low YoYo

and
pulls up
within
flClng range

Attacker gall1s speed

In shallow dive

Above : The Low YoYo can be pulling up to attack when

used to close the range on a weapons range is reached. The
co-speed target in straight best counter to this is for the
pursuit by trading altitude for defender to keep sight by
speed in a shallow dive, then weaving, and match the dive.

151
The Barrell Roll Attack

Left: The Barrel Roll Attack

prevents an overshoot by using a
three-dimensional manoeuvre to
change the angle off.

The Vertical Reverse

nent for the next move, and will very

quickly become concerned about
what is going on around him, and
worried about catching a belly missile
from a unseen opponent, while the
defender, not knowing what is going
on behind him, has the constant tem-
pation to reverse in order to find out.
That would not be healthy, and the
defender's best move would be to
tighten into a spiral dive .
There are many cases where a
three-dimensional manoeuvre can be
used to counter a two-dimensional
one . Gravity can be used to tighten
turn radii, while vertical manoeuvres,
especially the three -dimensional
variety such as the barrel roll, can be
used to turn what are, in flat plane
terms, square corners.
The Barrel Roll Attack is one exam-
ple. Similar in nature to the Rollaway,
it is also used to prevent overshooting
a hard turning target : the attacker
rolls wings level then pulls up hard, Above: The Vertical Reverse is
rolling away from the direction of turn the modern equivalent of the
before pulling the nose through in the stall turn . As flying speed is lost
direction of the target. the fighter rudders sharply
The Vertical Reverse is basically a around, swapping ends very
repositioning manoeuvre carried out quickly to confront a pursuer
at the top of a climb : as speed falls head-on.

152
away the fighter is given full rudder, out on the opposite heading at the
which drops it over into a vertical top of the climb, or in any desired
dive. Most recent fighters can do it, direction by aileron-turning during
but it is beyond the capabilities of the vertical climb.
some of the older types. The Sea Har- The foregoing are part of the
rier, using vectored thrust, can per- fighter pilot's standard bag of tricks
form it magnificently and most unex- when engaged within visual range.
pectedly. It can be used to terminate They are designed to cope with situa-
a vertical ascending scissors. tions that may occur in combat, and
The Immelmann Turn is another anyone of them may need to be pull-
repositioning manoeuvre: a pull -up ed out of the hatata moment's notice
to the vertical is completed by rolling to meet a given situation. But it

The Immelmann

Above: The Immelmann is used

to reposition and change the
heading by any angle while
remaining over the same spot.
Effectively flying a square corner
in the horizontal plane, but with
an altitude increase.

153
would be unrealistic to assume that a gauge carefully, and still manage to
fighter pilot would engage in an ex- keep a notional look-out for any other
tended dogfight at one versus one, bogeys joining the fray. He very
going from one move to the next in a quickly overloads, and his situational
set sequence . A move that works to- awareness sinks to zero.
day may not work tomorrow, and In every air conflict there have been
when real missiles are in the air, a few pilots who have beaten the
anything more than a break turn odds . They are the aces, and the
tends to feel fancy . quality that sets them apart from the
The real task of the fighter pilot is rest is their apparent ability to keep
the strike rapidly, using every possi- track of what was going on around
ble advantage to ensure surprise, them to a much greater extent than
carry out a successful attack, then the average.
disengage and reassess the situation . The electronic wizardry of the
In even a small combat such as a two modern fighter and its force multi-
versus two, each pilot has to keep plier systems has made such aware-
track of three other aircraft and what ness even more difficult than ever
they are doing, fly his fighter, use the before. There are, for example, cer-
weapon systems, watch the fuel tain set pieces for opening moves for
two versus two , and two versus behind , each bogey will turn into the
many, but the choice depends on attack , because that is what the book
knowing in advance what the opposi- says they should do, and in doing so
tion is, what its capabilities are, they will present their hot tailpipes
whether it has all -aspect BVR mis- obligingly toward their real as oppos-
siles, and so on . ed to their assumed attackers .
Typical of this genre is the heart at- If however, it turns out that they
tack, or bracket. Detecting two detected first by whatever means,
bogeys approaching in combat AEW perhaps, and are carrying BVR
spread, a pair splits wide to outflank launch -and -Ieave missiles, they
them, turning in just before an simply turn toward one or other of the
abreast position is reached, with inbound fighters, aquire and launch,
each pilot performing a stern conver- then turn back for a two versus one
sion on the fighter furrhesr from him . on the survivor. The more complex
If they achieve surprise, all well and the situation , the more theoretical set
good; the natural sequel is a stern piece plays become . Historically, hit
quarter attack, a heat missile launch- and run tactics have always proved
ed, and mission accomplished . If best . There can be little doubt that
they are seen visually as they curve in this is a situation that will continue .
OTHER SUPER-VALUE MILITARY
GUIDES IN THIS SERIES......

Air War over Vietnam Modern Soviet Navy

Allied Fighters of World War II Modern Sub Hunters
Battleships and Battlecruisers Modern Submarines
Bombers of World War II Modern Tanks
Electronic Warfare Modern US Air Force
German, Italian and Japanese Fighters Modern US Army
of World War II Modern US Navy
Israeli Air Force Modern Warships
Military Helicopters NATO Fighters
Modern Destroyers Pistols and Revolvers
Modern Elite Forces Rifles and Sub -machine Guns
Modern Fighters altd Attack Aircraft Space Warfare
Modern Soviet Air Force World War II Tanks
Modern Soviet Ground Forces

*Each has 160 fact-filled pages

* Each is colourlully illustrated with hundreds of action photos and technical drawings
* Each contains concisely presented data and accurate descriptions of major international weapons
* Each represents tremendous value

If you would like further information on any of our titles please write to:
Publicity Dept. (Military Div.!. Salamander Books Ltd_,
52 Bedford Row, London weIR 4LR
 A detailed examination of the
aircraft, their weapon systems
and the tactics they employ in
today's air combat arena

160 pages packed ISBN 0-86101-319-0

with graphic
diagrams, full-
colour action
photographs,
detailed data and
informed analysis I
61 013197