Ancient Civilizations

Marienne Esther A.
Lao
BSPA-LRG 2B
Directions: Choose a specific advancement from the ancient civilizations that

has the greatest impact to human life. Elaborate on this.
This civilization has been credited with MANY inventions that really
changed the world and are still used today. Some of the inventions
include writing (hieroglyphics), ink, make up, advancement in
medicine, toothpaste, door lock, plow, calendar, and sundial to
name a few.
Early Egypt
Much of the history of Egypt is divided into three “kingdom” periods—Old,
Middle, and New—with shorter intermediate periods separating the
kingdoms. The term "intermediate" here refers to the fact that during these
times Egypt was not a unified political power, and thus was in between
powerful kingdoms. Even before the Old Kingdom period, the foundations of
Egyptian civilization were being laid for thousands of years, as people living
near the Nile increasingly focused on sedentary agriculture, which led to
urbanization and specialized, non-agricultural economic activity.
Evidence of human habitation in Egypt stretches back tens of thousands of

years. It was only in about 6000 BCE, however, that widespread settlement
began in the region. Around this time, the Sahara Desert expanded. Some
scientists think this expansion was caused by a slight shift in the tilt of the
Earth. Others have explored changing rainfall patterns, but the specific causes
are not entirely clear. The most important result of this expansion of the
Sahara for human civilization was that it pushed humans closer to the Nile
River in search of reliable water sources.
Apart from the delta region, where the river spreads out as it flows into the
sea, most settlement in the Nile Valley was confined to within a few miles of
the river itself (see map above). The Nile River flooded annually; this
flooding was so regular that the ancient Egyptians set their three seasons—
Inundation, or flooding, Growth, and Harvest—around it.
This annual flooding was vital to agriculture because it deposited a new layer
of nutrient-rich soil each year. In years when the Nile did not flood, the
nutrient level in the soil was seriously depleted, and the chance of food
shortages increased greatly. Food supplies had political effects, as well, and
periods of drought probably contributed to the decline of Egyptian political
unity at the ends of both the Old and Middle Kingdoms.
Although we do not know the specific dates and events, most scholars who
study this period believe that sometime around the year 3100 BCE, a leader
named either Narmer or Menes—sources are unclear on whether these were
the same person!—united Egypt politically when he gained control of both
Upper and Lower Egypt.
Somewhat confusingly, when you look at a map of this area, Lower Egypt is
the delta region in the north, and Upper Egypt refers to the southern portion
of the country, which is upriver from the delta. You may encounter this
terminology when reading about rivers in history, so a good trick is to
remember that rivers flow downhill, so the river is lower toward its end at the
sea and higher closer to its source!
After political unification, divine kingship, or the idea that a political ruler
held his power by favor of a god or gods—or that he was a living incarnation
of a god—became firmly established in Egypt. For example, in the
mythology that developed around unification, Narmer was portrayed as
Horus, a god of Lower Egypt, where Narmer originally ruled. He conquered
Set, a god of Upper Egypt. This mythologized version of actual political
events added legitimacy to the king’s rule.
The use of hieroglyphics—a form of writing that used images to express

sounds and meanings—likely began in this period. As the Egyptian state
grew in power and influence, it was better able to mobilize resources for
large-scale projects and required better methods of record-keeping to
organize and manage an increasingly large state. During the Middle
Kingdom, Egyptians began to write literature, as well. Some writing was
preserved on stone or clay, and some was preserved on papyrus, a paper-like
product made from reed fiber. Papyrus is very fragile, but due to the hot and
dry climate of Egypt, a few papyrus documents have survived. Hieroglyphic
writing also became an important tool for historians studying ancient Egypt
once it was translated in the early 1800s.
An example of New Kingdom hieroglyphics from the thirteenth century BCE.

Four vertical columns of colorfully painted hieroglyphics on a white
background depict birds, eyes, a crab, and pottery, among other images.
An example of New Kingdom hieroglyphics from the thirteenth century BCE. Image courtesy British Museum
As rulers became more powerful, they were better able to coordinate labor
and resources to construct major projects, and more people required larger
supplies of food. Projects to improve agricultural production, such as levees
and canals became more important. Irrigation practices consisted of building
mud levees—which were walls of compacted dirt that directed the annual
flooding onto farmland and kept it away from living areas—and of digging
canals to direct water to fields as crops were growing.
Elites, those individuals who were wealthy and powerful, began building
larger tombs which were precursors to the pyramids. These tombs
represented a growing divide between the elite and common people in
Egyptian society. Only the wealthy and important could afford and be
considered as deserving of such elaborate burials.
A mastaba, which was the typical grave marker for early Egyptian elites.
Looks like a pyramid except lower to the ground and with a flat top instead of
a pointed one.
A mastaba, which was the typical grave marker for early Egyptian elites. These were precursors to the
pyramids. Image courtesy British Museum.
Old Kingdom Egypt: 2686-2181 BCE

During the Old Kingdom period, Egypt was largely unified as a single state;
it gained in complexity and expanded militarily. Old Kingdom rulers built the
first pyramids, which were both tombs and monuments for the kings who had
them built. Building monumental architecture—such as the Great Pyramid
and the Sphinx in Giza, and temples for different gods—required a
centralized government that could command vast resources.
Great Sphinx of Giza (mythical creature with a human head and a lion's body)
and the pyramid of Khafre. The tourists in the photo look like specks
compared to these structures.
Great Sphinx of Giza and the pyramid of Khafre. The people in the photo give you a sense of how large the
structure is! Image credit: Boundless
The builders of the pyramids were not enslaved people but peasants, working
on the pyramids during the farming off-season. These peasants worked
alongside specialists like stone cutters, mathematicians, and priests. As a
form of taxation, each household was required to provide a worker for these
projects, although the wealthy could pay for a substitute. This demonstrates
both the power of the state to force people to provide labor and also the
advantages enjoyed by elites, who could buy their way out of providing
labor.
Egyptians also began to build ships, constructed of wooden planks tied

together with rope and stuffed with reeds, to trade goods such as ebony,
incense, gold, copper, and Lebanese cedar—which was particularly important
for construction projects—along maritime routes.
Egyptian painting of a ship with passengers and crew.
Egyptian ship, circa 1420 BCE. Ships like this would have been used on typical trading voyages. Image
credit: Boundless
Middle Kingdom: 2000-1700 BCE

The Middle Kingdom saw Egypt unified again as kings found ways to take
back power from regional governors. From the Middle Kingdom era forward,
Egyptian kings often kept well-trained standing armies. The ability of the
Egyptian state to create and maintain a standing military force and to build
fortifications showed that it had regained control of substantial resources.
Political fragmentation led to the Second Intermediate Period. The precise

dates are unclear; even though writing allowed for more events to be
recorded, most things still were not, and many more records have been lost or
destroyed.
Taking advantage of this political instability in Egypt, the Hyksos appeared

around 1650 BCE. They were a Semitic people, meaning they spoke a
language that originated in the Middle East, which indicated that they were
not native to Egypt. The Hyksos imposed their own political rulers but also
brought many cultural and technological innovations, such as bronze working
and pottery techniques, new breeds of animals and new crops, the horse and
chariot, the composite bow, battle-axes, and fortification techniques for
warfare.
New Kingdom: 1550-1077 BCE
Around 1550 BCE, the New Kingdom period of Egyptian history began with
the expulsion of the Hyksos from Egypt and the restoration of centralized
political control. This period was Egypt's most prosperous time and marked
the peak of its power.
Also in this period, Hatshepsut, Egypt’s most famous female ruler,

established trade networks that helped build the wealth of Egypt and
commissioned hundreds of construction projects and pieces of statuary, as
well as an impressive mortuary temple at Deir el-Bahri. She also ordered
repairs to temples that had been neglected or damaged during the period of
Hyksos rule.
Photo of Hatshepsut's Temple at the base of a large rock formation. The
temple is rectangular with three tiers and a wide ramp in the center. At the top
tier, set furthest back into the rock formation, there are statues placed in front
of columns. All of the columns and doorways are long and rectangular.
Hatshepsut's Temple. Image credit: Boundless
The term pharaoh, which originally referred to the king's palace, became a

form of address for the king himself during this period, further emphasizing
the idea of divine kingship. Religiously, the pharaohs associated themselves
with the god Amun-Ra, while still recognizing other deities.
In the mid-1300s BCE, one pharaoh attempted to alter this tradition when he
chose to worship Aten exclusively and even changed his name to Akhenaten
in honor of that god. Some scholars interpret this as the first instance
of monotheism, or the belief in a single god. This change did not survive
beyond Akhenaten’s rule, however.
New Kingdom Egypt reached the height of its power under the pharaohs Seti
I and Ramesses II, who fought to expand Egyptian power against the Libyans
to the west and the Hittites to the north. The city of Kadesh on the border
between the two empires was a source of conflict between the Egyptians and
the Hittites, and they fought several battles over it, ultimately agreeing to the
world’s first known peace treaty.
Map of Hittite (modern-day Turkey) and Egyptian empires in about 1274
BCE. Hittite empire is colored in red and Egyptian empire is colored in green.
Egyptian and Hittite Empires in about 1274 BCE. Kadesh is the city right on the boundary between the two.
Image credit: Boundless
Third Intermediate Period: 1069-664 BCE

The costs of war, increased droughts, famine, civil unrest, and official
corruption ultimately fragmented Egypt into a collection of locally-governed
city-states. Taking advantage of this political division, a military force from
the Nubian kingdom of Kush in the south conquered and united Lower Egypt,
Upper Egypt, and Kush. The Kushites were then driven out of Egypt in 670
BCE by the Assyrians, who established a client state (a political entity that is
self-governing but pays tribute to a more powerful state) in Egypt.
In 656 BCE, Egypt was again reunited and broke away from Assyrian
control. The country experienced a period of peace and prosperity until 525
BCE, when the Persian king Cambyses defeated the Egyptian rulers and took
the title of Pharaoh for himself, along with his title as king of Persia.

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Marienne Esther A.

Directions: Choose a specific advancement from the ancient civilizations that

Evidence of human habitation in Egypt stretches back tens of thousands of

The use of hieroglyphics—a form of writing that used images to express

An example of New Kingdom hieroglyphics from the thirteenth century BCE.

Old Kingdom Egypt: 2686-2181 BCE

Egyptians also began to build ships, constructed of wooden planks tied

Middle Kingdom: 2000-1700 BCE

Political fragmentation led to the Second Intermediate Period. The precise

Taking advantage of this political instability in Egypt, the Hyksos appeared

Also in this period, Hatshepsut, Egypt’s most famous female ruler,

The term pharaoh, which originally referred to the king's palace, became a

Third Intermediate Period: 1069-664 BCE

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