Chapter One

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

What is Artificial Intelligence (AI)?
In today's world, technology is growing very fast, and we are getting in touch with different new
technologies day by day.
Here, one of the booming technologies of computer science is Artificial Intelligence which is
ready to create a new revolution in the world by making intelligent machines. The Artificial
Intelligence is now all around us. It is currently working with a variety of subfields, ranging from
general to specific, such as self-driving cars, playing chess, proving theorems, playing music,
Painting, etc. AI is one of the fascinating and universal fields of Computer science which has a
great scope in future. AI holds a tendency to cause a machine to work as a human.
Artificial Intelligence is composed of two words Artificial and Intelligence, where Artificial
defines "man-made," and intelligence defines "thinking power", hence AI means "a man-made
thinking power."
So, we can define AI as:
 "It is a branch of computer science by which we can create intelligent machines which can
behave like a human, think like humans, and able to make decisions." 
Artificial Intelligence exists when a machine can have human based skills such as learning,
reasoning, and solving problems
With Artificial Intelligence you do not need to preprogram a machine to do some work, despite
that you can create a machine with programmed algorithms which can work with own
intelligence, and that is the awesomeness of AI.
It is believed that AI is not a new technology, and some people says that as per Greek myth,
there were Mechanical men in early days which can work and behave like humans.
Why Artificial Intelligence?
Before Learning about Artificial Intelligence, we should know that what is the importance of AI
and why should we learn it. Following are some main reasons to learn about AI:
o With the help of AI, you can create such software or devices which can solve real-world
problems very easily and with accuracy such as health issues, marketing, traffic issues,
etc.

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 o With the help of AI, you can create your personal virtual Assistant, such as Cortana,
Google Assistant, Siri, etc.
o With the help of AI, you can build such Robots which can work in an environment where
survival of humans can be at risk.
o AI opens a path for other new technologies, new devices, and new Opportunities.
Goals of Artificial Intelligence
Following are the main goals of Artificial Intelligence:
1. Replicate human intelligence
2. Solve Knowledge-intensive tasks
3. An intelligent connection of perception and action
4. Building a machine which can perform tasks that requires human intelligence such as:
o Proving a theorem

o Playing chess

o Plan some surgical operation

o Driving a car in traffic

5. Creating some system which can exhibit intelligent behavior, learn new things by itself,
demonstrate, explain, and can advise to its user.
What Comprises to Artificial Intelligence?
Artificial Intelligence is not just a part of computer science even it's so vast and requires lots of
other factors which can contribute to it. To create the AI first we should know that how
intelligence is composed, so the Intelligence is an intangible part of our brain which is a
combination of Reasoning, learning, problem-solving perception, language understanding,
etc.
To achieve the above factors for a machine or software Artificial Intelligence requires the
following discipline:
o Mathematics

o Biology

o Psychology

o Sociology

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 o Computer Science

o Neurons Study

o Statistics

Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

Following are some main advantages of Artificial Intelligence:
o High Accuracy with less errors: AI machines or systems are prone to less errors and
high accuracy as it takes decisions as per pre-experience or information.
o High-Speed: AI systems can be of very high-speed and fast-decision making, because of
that AI systems can beat a chess champion in the Chess game.
o High reliability: AI machines are highly reliable and can perform the same action
multiple times with high accuracy.
o Useful for risky areas: AI machines can be helpful in situations such as defusing a
bomb, exploring the ocean floor, where to employ a human can be risky.
o Digital Assistant: AI can be very useful to provide digital assistant to the users such as
AI technology is currently used by various E-commerce websites to show the products as
per customer requirement.
o Useful as a public utility: AI can be very useful for public utilities such as a self-driving
car which can make our journey safer and hassle-free, facial recognition for security

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 purpose, Natural language processing to communicate with the human in human-
language, etc.

Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence

Every technology has some disadvantages, and the same goes for Artificial intelligence. Being so
advantageous technology still, it has some disadvantages which we need to keep in our mind
while creating an AI system. Following are the disadvantages of AI:
o High Cost: The hardware and software requirement of AI is very costly as it requires lots
of maintenance to meet current world requirements.
o Can't think out of the box: Even we are making smarter machines with AI, but still they
cannot work out of the box, as the robot will only do that work for which they are trained,
or programmed.
o No feelings and emotions: AI machines can be an outstanding performer, but still it does
not have the feeling so it cannot make any kind of emotional attachment with human, and
may sometime be harmful for users if the proper care is not taken.
o Increase dependency on machines: With the increment of technology, people are
getting more dependent on devices and hence they are losing their mental capabilities.
o No Original Creativity: As humans are so creative and can imagine some new ideas but
still AI machines cannot beat this power of human intelligence and cannot be creative and
imaginative.
Application of AI:
Artificial Intelligence has various applications in today's society. It is becoming essential for
today's time because it can solve complex problems with an efficient way in multiple industries,
such as Healthcare, entertainment, finance, education, etc. AI is making our daily life more
comfortable and fast.
Following are some sectors which have the application of Artificial Intelligence:

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1. AI in Astronomy
o Artificial Intelligence can be very useful to solve complex universe problems. AI
technology can be helpful for understanding the universe such as how it works, origin,
etc.
2. AI in Healthcare
o In the last, five to ten years, AI becoming more advantageous for the healthcare industry
and going to have a significant impact on this industry.
o Healthcare Industries are applying AI to make a better and faster diagnosis than humans.
AI can help doctors with diagnoses and can inform when patients are worsening so that
medical help can reach to the patient before hospitalization.
3. AI in Gaming
o AI can be used for gaming purpose. The AI machines can play strategic games like chess,
where the machine needs to think of a large number of possible places.
4. AI in Finance
o AI and finance industries are the best matches for each other. The finance industry is
implementing automation, chatbot, adaptive intelligence, algorithm trading, and machine
learning into financial processes.
5. AI in Data Security
o The security of data is crucial for every company and cyber-attacks are growing very
rapidly in the digital world. AI can be used to make your data more safe and secure.
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 Some examples such as AEG bot, AI2 Platform, are used to determine software bug and
cyber-attacks in a better way.
6. AI in Social Media
o Social Media sites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Snapchat contain billions of user
profiles, which need to be stored and managed in a very efficient way. AI can organize
and manage massive amounts of data. AI can analyze lots of data to identify the latest
trends, hashtag, and requirement of different users.
7. AI in Travel & Transport
o AI is becoming highly demanding for travel industries. AI is capable of doing various
travel related works such as from making travel arrangement to suggesting the hotels,
flights, and best routes to the customers. Travel industries are using AI-powered chatbots
which can make human-like interaction with customers for better and fast response.
8. AI in Automotive Industry
o Some Automotive industries are using AI to provide virtual assistant to their user for
better performance. Such as Tesla has introduced TeslaBot, an intelligent virtual
assistant.
o Various Industries are currently working for developing self-driven cars which can make
your journey more safe and secure.
9. AI in Robotics
o Artificial Intelligence has a remarkable role in Robotics. Usually, general robots are
programmed such that they can perform some repetitive task, but with the help of AI, we
can create intelligent robots which can perform tasks with their own experiences without
pre-programmed.
o Humanoid Robots are best examples for AI in robotics, recently the intelligent Humanoid
robot named as Erica and Sophia has been developed which can talk and behave like
humans.
10. AI in Entertainment
o We are currently using some AI based applications in our daily life with some
entertainment services such as Netflix or Amazon. With the help of ML/AI algorithms,
these services show the recommendations for programs or shows.

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11. AI in Agriculture
o Agriculture is an area which requires various resources, labor, money, and time for best
result. Now a day's agriculture is becoming digital, and AI is emerging in this field.
Agriculture is applying AI as agriculture robotics, solid and crop monitoring, predictive
analysis. AI in agriculture can be very helpful for farmers.
12. AI in E-commerce
o AI is providing a competitive edge to the e-commerce industry, and it is becoming more
demanding in the e-commerce business. AI is helping shoppers to discover associated
products with recommended size, color, or even brand.
13. AI in education
o AI can automate grading so that the tutor can have more time to teach. AI chatbot can
communicate with students as a teaching assistant.
o AI in the future can be work as a personal virtual tutor for students, which will be
accessible easily at any time and any place.
History of Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Intelligence is not a new word and not a new technology for researchers. This
technology is much older than you would imagine. Even there are the myths of Mechanical men
in Ancient Greek and Egyptian Myths. Following are some milestones in the history of AI which
defines the journey from the AI generation to till date development.

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Maturation of Artificial Intelligence (1943-1952)
o Year 1943: The first work which is now recognized as AI was done by Warren
McCulloch and Walter pits in 1943. They proposed a model of artificial neurons.
o Year 1949: Donald Hebb demonstrated an updating rule for modifying the connection
strength between neurons. His rule is now called Hebbian learning.
o Year 1950: The Alan Turing who was an English mathematician and pioneered Machine
learning in 1950. Alan Turing publishes "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" in
which he proposed a test. The test can check the machine's ability to exhibit intelligent
behavior equivalent to human intelligence, called a Turing test.
The birth of Artificial Intelligence (1952-1956)
o Year 1955: An Allen Newell and Herbert A. Simon created the "first artificial
intelligence program “Which was named as "Logic Theorist". This program had proved
38 of 52 Mathematics theorems, and find new and more elegant proofs for some
theorems.

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 o Year 1956: The word "Artificial Intelligence" first adopted by American Computer
scientist John McCarthy at the Dartmouth Conference. For the first time, AI coined as an
academic field.

At that time high-level computer languages such as FORTRAN, LISP, or COBOL were
invented. And the enthusiasm for AI was very high at that time.
The golden years-Early enthusiasm (1956-1974)
o Year 1966: The researchers emphasized developing algorithms which can solve
mathematical problems. Joseph Weizenbaum created the first chatbot in 1966, which was
named as ELIZA.
o Year 1972: The first intelligent humanoid robot was built in Japan which was named as
WABOT-1.
The first AI winter (1974-1980)
o The duration between years 1974 to 1980 was the first AI winter duration. AI winter
refers to the time period where computer scientist dealt with a severe shortage of funding
from government for AI researches.
o During AI winters, an interest of publicity on artificial intelligence was decreased.
A boom of AI (1980-1987)
o Year 1980: After AI winter duration, AI came back with "Expert System". Expert
systems were programmed that emulate the decision-making ability of a human expert.
o In the Year 1980, the first national conference of the American Association of Artificial
Intelligence was held at Stanford University.
The second AI winter (1987-1993)
o The duration between the years 1987 to 1993 was the second AI Winter duration.
o Again Investors and government stopped in funding for AI research as due to high cost
but not efficient result. The expert system such as XCON was very cost effective.
The emergence of intelligent agents (1993-2011)
o Year 1997: In the year 1997, IBM Deep Blue beats world chess champion, Gary
Kasparov, and became the first computer to beat a world chess champion.
o Year 2002: for the first time, AI entered the home in the form of Roomba, a vacuum
cleaner.

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 o Year 2006: AI came in the Business world till the year 2006. Companies like Facebook,
Twitter, and Netflix also started using AI.

Deep learning, big data and artificial general intelligence (2011-present)

o Year 2011: In the year 2011, IBM's Watson won jeopardy, a quiz show, where it had to
solve the complex questions as well as riddles. Watson had proved that it could
understand natural language and can solve tricky questions quickly.
o Year 2012: Google has launched an Android app feature "Google now", which was able
to provide information to the user as a prediction.
o Year 2014: In the year 2014, Chatbot "Eugene Goostman" won a competition in the
infamous "Turing test."
o Year 2018: The "Project Debater" from IBM debated on complex topics with two master
debaters and also performed extremely well.
o Google has demonstrated an AI program "Duplex" which was a virtual assistant and
which had taken hairdresser appointment on call, and lady on other side didn't notice that
she was talking with the machine.
Now AI has developed to a remarkable level. The concept of Deep learning, big data, and data
science are now trending like a boom. Nowadays companies like Google, Facebook, IBM, and
Amazon are working with AI and creating amazing devices. The future of Artificial Intelligence
is inspiring and will come with high intelligence.
Types of Artificial Intelligence:
Artificial Intelligence can be divided in various types, there are mainly two types of main
categorization which are based on capabilities and based on functionally of AI. Following is flow
diagram which explain the types of AI.

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AI type-1: Based on Capabilities
1. Weak AI or Narrow AI
o Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with intelligence. The
most common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world of Artificial
Intelligence.
o Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for one
specific task. Hence it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in unpredictable
ways if it goes beyond its limits.
o Apple Siriis a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined
range of functions.
o IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert system
approach combined with Machine learning and natural language processing.
o Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-commerce
site, self-driving cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.
2. General AI
o General AI is a type of intelligence which could perform any intellectual task with
efficiency like a human.
o The idea behind the general AI to make such a system which could be smarter and think
like a human by its own.

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 o Currently, there is no such system exist which could come under general AI and can
perform any task as perfect as a human.
o The worldwide researchers are now focused on developing machines with General AI.
o As systems with general AI are still under research, and it will take lots of efforts and
time to develop such systems.
3. Super AI
o Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass human
intelligence, and can perform any task better than human with cognitive properties. It is
an outcome of general AI.
o Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think, to
reason, solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its own.
o Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of such
systems in real is still world changing task.

Artificial Intelligence type-2: Based on functionality

1. Reactive Machines
o Purely reactive machines are the most basic types of Artificial Intelligence.

o Such AI systems do not store memories or past experiences for future actions.

o These machines only focus on current scenarios and react on it as per possible best
action.
o IBM's Deep Blue system is an example of reactive machines.
o Google's AlphaGo is also an example of reactive machines.

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2. Limited Memory
o Limited memory machines can store past experiences or some data for a short period of
time.
o These machines can use stored data for a limited time period only.
o Self-driving cars are one of the best examples of Limited Memory systems. These cars
can store recent speed of nearby cars, the distance of other cars, speed limit, and other
information to navigate the road.
3. Theory of Mind
o Theory of Mind AI should understand the human emotions, people, beliefs, and be able
to interact socially like humans.
o This type of AI machines are still not developed, but researchers are making lots of
efforts and improvement for developing such AI machines.
4. Self-Awareness
o Self-awareness AI is the future of Artificial Intelligence. These machines will be super
intelligent, and will have their own consciousness, sentiments, and self-awareness.
o These machines will be smarter than human mind.

o Self-Awareness AI does not exist in reality still and it is a hypothetical concept.

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 Chapter Two
Agents in Artificial Intelligence
An AI system can be defined as the study of the rational agent and its environment. The agents
sense the environment through sensors and act on their environment through actuators. An AI
agent can have mental properties such as knowledge, belief, intention, etc.
What is an Agent?
An agent can be anything that perceive its environment through sensors and act upon that
environment through actuators. An Agent runs in the cycle of perceiving, thinking, and acting.
An agent can be:
o Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs which work for sensors
and hand, legs, vocal tract work for actuators.
o Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared range finder, NLP for
sensors and various motors for actuators.
o Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file contents as sensory input and
act on those inputs and display output on the screen.
Hence the world around us is full of agents such as thermostat, cellphone, camera, and even we
are also agents.
Before moving forward, we should first know about sensors, effectors, and actuators.
Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and sends the
information to other electronic devices. An agent observes its environment through sensors.
Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion. The
actuators are only responsible for moving and controlling a system. An actuator can be an
electric motor, gears, rails, etc.
Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be legs, wheels,
arms, fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.

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Types of AI Agents
Agents can be grouped into five classes based on their degree of perceived intelligence and
capability. All these agents can improve their performance and generate better action over the
time. These are given below:
o Simple Reflex Agent

o Model-based reflex agent

o Goal-based agents

o Utility-based agent
o Learning agent
1. Simple Reflex agent:
o The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These agents take decisions on the basis
of the current percepts and ignore the rest of the percept history.
o These agents only succeed in the fully observable environment.

o The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of percepts history during their
decision and action process.
o The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which means it maps the current
state to action. Such as a Room Cleaner agent, it works only if there is dirt in the room.
o Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:

o They have very limited intelligence

o They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the current state

o Mostly too big to generate and to store.

o Not adaptive to changes in the environment.

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2. Model-based reflex agent
o The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable environment, and track the
situation.
o A model-based agent has two important factors:

o Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the world," so it is called a

Model-based agent.
o Internal State: It is a representation of the current state based on percept history.

o These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the world" and based on the model
they perform actions.
o Updating the agent state requires information about:

o How the world evolves

o How the agent's action affects the world.

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3. Goal-based agents
o The knowledge of the current state environment is not always sufficient to decide for an
agent to what to do.
o The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable situations.

o Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-based agent by having the "goal"
information.
o They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.

o These agents may have to consider a long sequence of possible actions before deciding
whether the goal is achieved or not. Such considerations of different scenario are called
searching and planning, which makes an agent proactive.

4. Utility-based agents
o These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide an extra component of utility
measurement which makes them different by providing a measure of success at a given
state.
o Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best way to achieve the goal.

o The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple possible alternatives, and an
agent has to choose in order to perform the best action.
o The utility function maps each state to a real number to check how efficiently each action
achieves the goals.

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5. Learning Agents
o A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn from its past experiences, or it
has learning capabilities.
o It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and adapt automatically through
learning.
o A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components, which are:

1. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by learning from

environment
2. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes that how
well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance standard.
3. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
4. Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting actions that
will lead to new and informative experiences.
o Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze performance, and look for new ways to
improve the performance.

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Intelligent Agents:
An intelligent agent is an autonomous entity which act upon an environment using sensors and
actuators for achieving goals. An intelligent agent may learn from the environment to achieve
their goals. A thermostat is an example of an intelligent agent.
Following are the main four rules for an AI agent:
o Rule 1: An AI agent must have the ability to perceive the environment.

o Rule 2: The observation must be used to make decisions.

o Rule 3: Decision should result in an action.

o Rule 4: The action taken by an AI agent must be a rational action.
Rational Agent:
A rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and acts in a way to
maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.
A rational agent is said to perform the right things. AI is about creating rational agents to use for
game theory and decision theory for various real-world scenarios.
For an AI agent, the rational action is most important because in AI reinforcement learning
algorithm, for each best possible action, agent gets the positive reward and for each wrong
action, an agent gets a negative reward.
Rationality:
The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can be judged on
the basis of following points:

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 o Performance measure which defines the success criterion.

o Agent prior knowledge of its environment.

o Best possible actions that an agent can perform.

o The sequence of percepts.
Note: Rationality differs from Omniscience because an Omniscient agent knows the actual
outcome of its action and act accordingly, which is not possible in reality.
Structure of an AI Agent:
The task of AI is to design an agent program which implements the agent function. The structure
of an intelligent agent is a combination of architecture and agent program. It can be viewed as:
Agent = Architecture + Agent program
Following are the main three terms involved in the structure of an AI agent:
Architecture: Architecture is machinery that an AI agent executes on.
Agent Function: Agent function is used to map a percept to an action.
f:P* → A  
Agent program: Agent program is an implementation of agent function. An agent program
executes on the physical architecture to produce function f.
PEAS Representation
PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI agent or
rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS representation model. It is made up
of four words:
o P: Performance measure

o E: Environment

o A: Actuators
o S: Sensors
Here performance measure is the objective for the success of an agent's behavior.
PEAS for self-driving cars:
Let's suppose a self-driving car then PEAS representation will be:
Performance: Safety, time, legal drive, comfort
Environment: Roads, other vehicles, road signs, pedestrian
Actuators: Steering, accelerator, brake, signal, horn

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Sensors: Camera, GPS, speedometer, odometer, accelerometer, sonar.
Example of Agents with their PEAS representation

Agent Performance Environment Actuators Sensors

measure

1. Medical o Healthy patient o Patient o Tests o Keyboard

Diagnose (Entry of symptoms)
o Minimized cost o Hospital o Treatments

o Staff

2. o Cleanness o Room o Wheels o Camera

Vacuum
o Efficiency o Table o Brushes o Dirt detection sensor
Cleaner
o Battery life o Wood floor o Vacuum o Cliff sensor

o Security o Carpet Extractor o Bump Sensor

o Various o Infrared Wall Sensor

obstacles

3. Part - o Percentage of o Conveyor belt o Jointed o Camera

picking parts in correct with parts, Arms o Joint angle sensors.
Robot bins. o Bins o Hand

Agent Environment in AI
An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not a part of an
agent itself. An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is present.
The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide the agent with something to sense and
act upon it. An environment is mostly said to be non-feministic.

Features of Environment

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As per Russell and Norvig, an environment can have various features from the point of view of
an agent:
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable
2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable:
o If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of an environment at each point
of time then it is a fully observable environment, else it is partially observable.
o A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to maintain the internal state to
keep track history of the world.
o An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an environment is called
as unobservable.
2. Deterministic vs Stochastic:
o If an agent's current state and selected action can completely determine the next state of
the environment, then such environment is called a deterministic environment.
o A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be determined completely by an
agent.
o In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does not need to worry about
uncertainty.
3. Episodic vs Sequential:
o In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot actions, and only the current
percept is required for the action.
o However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires memory of past actions to
determine the next best actions.
4. Single-agent vs Multi-agent

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 o If only one agent is involved in an environment, and operating by itself then such an
environment is called single agent environment.
o However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment, then such an environment is
called a multi-agent environment.
o The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment are different from single agent
environment.
5. Static vs Dynamic:
o If the environment can change itself while an agent is deliberating then such environment
is called a dynamic environment else it is called a static environment.
o Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does not need to continue looking
at the world while deciding for an action.
o However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep looking at the world at each
action.
o Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment whereas Crossword puzzles are an
example of a static environment.
6. Discrete vs Continuous:
o If in an environment there are a finite number of percepts and actions that can be
performed within it, then such an environment is called a discrete environment else it is
called continuous environment.
o A chess game comes under discrete environment as there is a finite number of moves that
can be performed.
o A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.
7. Known vs Unknown
o Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an environment, but it is an agent's
state of knowledge to perform an action.
o In a known environment, the results for all actions are known to the agent. While in
unknown environment, agent needs to learn how it works in order to perform an action.
o It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially observable and an Unknown
environment to be fully observable.
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

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 o If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information about the state's environment,
then such an environment is called an Accessible environment else it is called
inaccessible.
o An empty room whose state can be defined by its temperature is an example of an
accessible environment.
o Information about an event on earth is an example of Inaccessible environment.
Turing Test in AI
In 1950, Alan Turing introduced a test to check whether a machine can think like a human or not,
this test is known as the Turing Test. In this test, Turing proposed that the computer can be said
to be an intelligent if it can mimic human response under specific conditions.
Turing Test was introduced by Turing in his 1950 paper, "Computing Machinery and
Intelligence," which considered the question, "Can Machine think?"

The Turing test is based on a party game "Imitation game," with some modifications. This game
involves three players in which one player is Computer, another player is human responder, and
the third player is a human Interrogator, who is isolated from other two players and his job is to
find that which player is machine among two of them.
Consider, Player A is a computer, Player B is human, and Player C is an interrogator.
Interrogator is aware that one of them is machine, but he needs to identify this on the basis of
questions and their responses.
The conversation between all players is via keyboard and screen so the result would not depend
on the machine's ability to convert words as speech.

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The test result does not depend on each correct answer, but only how closely its responses like a
human answer. The computer is permitted to do everything possible to force a wrong
identification by the interrogator.
The questions and answers can be like:
Interrogator: Are you a computer?
Player A (Computer): No
Interrogator: Multiply two large numbers such as (256896489*456725896)
Player A: Long pause and give the wrong answer.
In this game, if an interrogator would not be able to identify which is a machine and which is
human, then the computer passes the test successfully, and the machine is said to be intelligent
and can think like a human.
"In 1991, the New York businessman Hugh Loebner announces the prize competition, offering a
$100,000 prize for the first computer to pass the Turing test. However, no AI program to till
date, come close to passing an undiluted Turing test".
Chatbots to attempt the Turing test:
ELIZA: ELIZA was a Natural language processing computer program created by Joseph
Weizenbaum. It was created to demonstrate the ability of communication between machine and
humans. It was one of the first chatterbots, which has attempted the Turing Test.
Parry: Parry was a chatterbot created by Kenneth Colby in 1972. Parry was designed to simulate
a person with Paranoid schizophrenia (most common chronic mental disorder). Parry was
described as "ELIZA with attitude." Parry was tested using a variation of the Turing Test in the
early 1970s.
Eugene Goostman: Eugene Goostman was a chatbot developed in Saint Petersburg in 2001.
This bot has competed in the various number of Turing Test. In June 2012, at an event,
Goostman won the competition promoted as largest-ever Turing test content, in which it has
convinced 29% of judges that it was a human. Goostman resembled as a 13-year old virtual boy.
The Chinese Room Argument:
There were many philosophers who really disagreed with the complete concept of Artificial
Intelligence. The most famous argument in this list was "Chinese Room."
In the year 1980, John Searle presented "Chinese Room" thought experiment, in his paper
"Mind, Brains, and Program," which was against the validity of Turing's Test. According to

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his argument, "Programming a computer may make it to understand a language, but it will
not produce a real understanding of language or consciousness in a computer."
He argued that Machine such as ELIZA and Parry could easily pass the Turing test by
manipulating keywords and symbol, but they had no real understanding of language. So it cannot
be described as "thinking" capability of a machine such as a human.
Features required for a machine to pass the Turing test:
o Natural language processing: NLP is required to communicate with Interrogator in
general human language like English.
o Knowledge representation: To store and retrieve information during the test.

o Automated reasoning: To use the previously stored information for answering the
questions.
o Machine learning: To adapt new changes and can detect generalized patterns.

o Vision (For total Turing test): To recognize the interrogator actions and other objects
during a test.
o Motor Control (For total Turing test): To act upon objects if requested.

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