UNIT THREE

AN OVERVIEW OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA

3.1. POSITION, SIZE AND SHAPE OF AFRICA
3.1.1. Position of Africa

Africa lies between 37021’N and 34052’S latitudes

17033’W and 51028’E longitude

The extreme points of Africa are

- Extreme north – Cape Bon (Tunisia) - 37021’N

- Extreme south – Cape Agulhas (Republic of South Africa
(RSA)) - 34052’S
- Extreme east – Cape Guardafui (Somalia) - 51028’E
- Extreme west – Cape Verde (Senegal) - 17033’W
 The north-south (8000km) and east-west (7600km) extents are almost
equal.
 The equator crosses Africa almost at its north-south center. The north-
south extents above and below it are almost equal, although the
northern area is greater. The land north of the equator is about twice
that of the south.
 Africa is the only continent crossed by the Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of
Capricorn, Equator and Prime Meridian.
 Almost ¾ of the continents total area is found within the tropics.
Therefore, much of the continent experiences tropical climates.

Africa is found to the

- Southeast of Asia
- South of Mediterranean sea
 - West of Indian ocean
- East of Atlantic ocean
- North of the southern ocean

Africa gets closest to Europe across the Strait of Gibraltar, which is about
22kms between Morocco and Spain.

With relation to Asia, the continent comes closest across the Strait of Bab-el
Mandab, which is about 40kms wide.

A narrow stretch of land called Isthmus of Suez, which is cut in to two by

artificial canal called the Suez Canal, connects Africa with Asia.

3.1.2. Size of Africa

- Africa is the second largest continent next to Asia.

- The total surface area is about 30,335,000 km2.
- It constitutes 20.2% of the earth’s total land surface.
- The continent is about 2/3 of the size of Asia and 3.36 times larger than
Europe.
- Africa’s large size gives the continent advantages like
- Large area for settlement, agriculture and other activities
- Huge resource potentials
- Large size also has disadvantages such as difficulty of integration which
make integrated development and international trade a challenge.

3.1.3. Shape of Africa

Shape is the geographical form of an area. It means external geographical

appearance of a place.

Africa has relatively compact (close to that of a circle) shape. This means
that the continents longest east-west and north-south distances are equal.
The following supports the compact shape of Africa:
  The east-west and north-south distances are almost equal.
 Africa has unbroken or smooth coastline.
 The unbroken coastline of Africa makes the continent poor in natural
harbors.
 Many places are not very far from the coast. Almost all places are at
most located 1500km from the coast.
 The unbroken coast line discourages external communication

3.1.4. Regional Division of Africa

Eastern Africa

- It accounts 21% of the continent’s total area.

- There are 18 countries of which 7 are landlocked.
- It is characterized by diverse relief which contain very high volcanic
mountains, extensive plateaus, great rift valleys and low depressions.
- There also exists diverse climate that ranges from desert to alpine
climates. This helped the development of varied vegetation zones.
- It is drained by Nile, Wabishebelle and Genale river basins. It is also the
region where most of Africa’s highland and rift valley lakes are found.
- It is the most populous accounting for about 31.3% of Africa’s total
population.
- 22% of the population is urban.
- Life expectancy average 51 years.
- Agriculture is the most dominant activity. Commercial cash crops such as
coffee, tea, sisal, and sugar cane are the most important products.
- Livestock resources are also important sources of income.
- The mining and industrial sectors are little developed in the region.

Northern Africa

- It is the largest region which covers nearly 1/3rd of the continent’s total
area.
- There are 7 countries, two of which namely Sudan and Algeria are among
the largest states.
- All states have direct access to the sea.
- It is characterized by desert climate. Mediterranean climate also
dominates the Maghreb region.
- The topography is dominated by mountains and plains.
- The Atlas Mountains and Sahara basin and uplands are the most common
features.
- Much of Northern Africa is covered by desert vegetation. However,
Mediterranean vegetation is also found in areas where Mediterranean
climate dominates.
- The population accounted for about 20.5% of Africa’s population.
- Nearly 50% of the population is urban.
- Life expectancy averages 69 years.
- The economy is dominated by agriculture, industry and mining.

Western Africa

- It accounts 20% of Africa’s total area.

- It has 17 countries.
- It is made up of highlands and lowlands. The Guinea highlands, Fouta
Djalon and Jos plateau form higher parts of the region.
- It is drained by Niger, Benue, Volta, Gambia and Senegal Rivers.
- The western coasts experience tropical humid climate with high
temperature and rainfall, the interior lowlands are characterized by low
rainfall and high temperature.
- There exists diverse vegetation that includes tropical forests, woodland
and grasslands.
- It accounts for about 29.7% of the Africa’s population. The most populous
country, Nigeria, is found in this region.
- 42% of the population lives in urban.
- Life expectancy is 51 years.
- The economy is dominated by agriculture. Coffee, Cacao, Palm oil, rubber
and ground nuts are among the most important crops.
- Industrial development is limited to coastal areas.
- In Nigeria, Ghana, and guinea, mining is the most important economic
activity.

Central Africa

- It covers 22% of total area and possesses 9 countries.

- Nearly 2/3rd of the region is drained by Congo basin.
- The highlands include Cameroon Mountains and Ruwenzori Range.
- It experiences almost all climate type except Mediterranean type.
- Equatorial rainforest, savanna woodland, gallery (riverine) vegetation,
Desert and semi-desert vegetation are the most common vegetation.
- It accounts for about 12.5% of total population. It has low population
density due to its climatic conditions.
- 41% of the population is urban.
- Average life expectancy is 51 years.
- Agriculture, forestry, mining and manufacturing constituted the economy.
However, the dominant sector is subsistence agriculture.
- It has huge potential for commercial crop production. It owns about 30% of
Africa’s tropical woods.
- It is also rich in minerals. Angola, Gabon and Cameroon are rich in
petroleum.

Southern Africa

- It contains 5 states accounting for about 8.9% of Africa’s total area.

- It is the smallest region in the continent.
- Its topography is dominated by high plateaus of over 300m high.
Drakensberg Mountains are among the highest areas.
- It is drained by Limpopo, Orange and Vaal Rivers.
- There are also inland basins such as Ngami-Kalhari, Makarikari and
Okovango basins.
- The climate is diverse which contain tropical, desert, alpine and
Mediterranean climates.
- The Mozambique and Benguela currents produce greater impact on the
climate of the east and west coast respectively.
- It is endowed with different species of flora and fauna.
- It accounts 5.8% of total population of Africa which is the least.
- 56% of the population lives in urban.
- Life expectancy is 52 years.
- It has the most diverse economy which contains mechanized agriculture,
mining, manufacturing and tourism.
- Gold, Diamond and Coal are among the most important.
- The region has most of major mining and manufacturing industries in the
continent.

3.2. GEOLOGICAL HISTORY AND RELIEF STRUCTURE OF AFRICA

3.2.1. Geological History of Africa

Africa was part of the old continent called Pangea. In the Jurassic period,
200 million years ago Pangea broke into 2, forming Laurasia and
Gondwanaland. Laurasia is the northern continent, and Gondwanaland is
the southern. As time passed, each of the continents was further broken
down, forming the 7 present day continents.

Africa was part of Gondwanaland.

Precambrian Era (4.5 billion – 600 million years before present)

- It is the oldest and largest era. It covers 5/6th of the geological history.
- Due to its remoteness and lack of fossil, less is known about this era.
- The formation of the Precambrian or crystalline basement complex rocks
which cover 2/3rds of the continent took place. These rocks are rich in
metallic mineral deposits such as gold and copper.
- Orogenesis which is a mountain building process, also took place.
Mountains that make the face of the continents very rough and undulating
like in South Africa were formed.
- Orogenesis changes in the level of the earth’s crust in which rocks are
thrown up into folds or blocks to form ranges of mountains.

Paleozoic Era (600 – 250 million years before the present)

- It is the second longest and largest era in the geological history.

- There was no major rock formation.
- Denudation and peneplanation took place. Denudation is the lowering of
the earth’s surface, while sinking of land and its resultant peneplanation is
the formation of level surfaces as a result of lowering in altitude.
- The denudation and peneplanation processes were facilitated by heavy
erosion. The accumulated in the Maghreb region, the Western Sahara, and
the southern cape. From eastern Africa, sediments were taken to South
Africa and Middle East. The sediments finally formed sandstones, shale
and limestone.
- Fold Mountains that run parallel to the Great Karroo, the interior plateau,
formed.
- During the carboniferous period, coal was formed. Thick layers of partially
decayed swamp vegetation, covering the coastal lowlands were buried
under marine deposits when the coastal lands sank. More swamps were
formed when the water grew shallower and the process was repeated. As
the deposits become compressed and hardened, the vegetation matter
formed coal.

Mesozoic Era (250 – 70 million years before the present)

- It is the 3rd largest and oldest era in the geological history.

- There was alternate sinking and rising of land.
- The era is divided into 3 periods namely Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous.
- The land sank and transgression of the sea happened during the Triassic
period.
- The land remained under the sea during the Jurassic period. In this period,
mountain ranges uplifted like in Cape Mountains.
- The land uplifted and regression of the sea occurred during the cretaceous
period.
- Sedimentary rocks were formed because of the sinking and rising of the
land.
- The Sahara was flooded by water that advanced from Tathys (a sea that
separated Laurasia from Gondwanaland).

Cenozoic Era (70 million - present)

- It is the most recent and shortest era. It is also called living era.
- These are 2 periods called tertiary and quaternary period.
- A number of geologic events that changed the face of the continent took
place. The present surface configuration formed during this era.
- The Mediterranean Sea, the Great East African Rift Valley, Red Sea and the
Gulf of Aden were formed.
- Young fold mountains and volcanic mountains were formed.
- Climate change that resulted cooling and warming occurred. The cooling of
climate resulted in the Pluvial (Fluvial) rains. Warming of the climates
resulted heavy evaporation and drying of water surfaces that resulted in
the formation of extensive lava plains like Afar.
- River terraces and raised beaches that formed glaciations were formed.
- There also occurred heavy deposition in basins such as the Kalahari basin.

3.2.2. The Relief Structure of Africa

- Africa’s relief consists of 71% plateaus, 25% plains and 4% mountains.

- Africa is the only continent with high proportion of plateau.

- The relief of Africa ranges from 5895 m above sea level at Mt. Kilimanjaro
in Tanzania to 132m below sea level at Qattara Depression in Egypt.

-Maximum relief is the difference in altitude between the highest and lowest
points of a place. The maximum relief of Africa is

5895 – (-132) = 6027m, we consider 132 negative because it is

measured below sea level.

Plateaus

- It is an area which is above 300m altitude. Their altitude reaches maximum

in Eastern Africa, and the Ethiopian plateau reach over 2000m above sea
level.
- Africa’s average altitude, 700m, is dividing for the 2 plateau types, high and
low plateau.
- High plateaus: lie above 700m, and their general elevation is above
2000m. They are found in southern and eastern Africa. It was drained by
Kalahari in the West and Great Karoo in the south. It includes East African
plateau, Bihe Plateau, Southwest African highlands and Malagacy
highlands.
- Low plateaus: lie between 300m-700m. They dominated the northern and
western parts of Africa. They form inland basins such as Chad, Libyan and
Sudd basins because they are surrounded by high plateaus. It includes
Fouta Djalon Mountains, Jos Plateau, Adamawa uplands, Ahagar
Mountains, Tibesti and Red Sea hills.

Mountains

- It is high land with steep slopes and a peak.

- Africa is dominated by 2 types of mountains known as volcanic and fold
mountains.
- Volcanic mountains: they are formed as a result of great volcanic activities
that took place in the tertiary period of Cenozoic era. They constitute the
highest points. They are concentrated in East Africa. They include Mt.
Kilimanjaro, Kenya, Ras Dashen, Meru, Elgon and Cameroon.
- Fold Mountains: they are found in the northern and southern extreme
points. They are divided in to two as young and old.

Young fold mountains: they are found in Northwestern Africa in the

Maghreb, a region that covers areas in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. They
are called Atlas Mountains. They are contemporary to Alps of Europe and
Himalayas of Asia. They were formed during the Alpine Orogenesis during
Cenozoic era. Their elevation decreases from west to east.

Old Fold Mountains: they are found in the South Africa. They are formed
during the Hercynian orogeny in Mesozoic era. They are contemporary to
Australian Alps. They are also called cape ranges.

- Mt. Ruwenzori is among the highest peaks the formation of which was
associated with faulting. It is a block/ horst/ fault mountain.
- Fold Mountains are result of compressional forces which results in bending
upwards.

Plains

- They are areas of low relief with more or less flat surface configurations.
- They lie below 300m above sea level.
- They are confined to coastal areas.
- They are narrow, small, hot dry, poorly vegetated and sparsely inhabited.
- Due to smooth and regular shores, the continent lacks natural harbors.

NOTE: Northern and western Africa is known Low Africa because of their
low mean elevations than the east and north that is known as High Africa.

Refer figure 3.5 on page 118

The Great East African Rift Valley

It stretches from Syria to Mozambique and covers 7200 km.

It was formed in the tertiary period as a result of faulting.
It extends 5600 km in Africa, touching 15 countries in the continent.
It has 4 treches or brances.
Ethio-Eritrea-Djibouti-Northern Somalia branch: it runs through 4
countries. It is the most northern part, extending from north from Lake
Turkana. It branches into 3 at the Afar Triangle, forming the Red sea and
Gulf of Aden. It has many lakes like Lake Hawassa, Langano, Shalla and
Ziway.
Western branch: it runs from Uganda to Tanzania through Congo, Rwanda
and Burundi. It contains the continent’s highest block mountain,
Ruwenzori, and also lakes as Edward, Kivu and Tanganyika.
Eastern Branch: it runs from Lake Turkana crossing Tanzania to the east of
Lake Victoria. It contains lakes like Turkana, Naivasha, Norton, Manyari and
Eyasi.
Malawi Rift Valley: it is where the eastern and western branches converge.
It runs through Tanzania and Mozambique, and ends at port if Biera of
Mozambique. It includes lakes like Malawi, Rukuwa and Chilwa.
The rift valley is slowly widening and causing many volcanic eruptions and
earthquakes.
Lake Victoria is found trapped between the western and eastern trenches.
The rift valley –is bounded by steep escarpments
- Has numerous active and dormant volcanoes
- Is affected by earth tremors like earthquakes and landslides
making it unstable.
- Ha hot and dry climates making living difficult
- Include many basins.

Refer figure 3.8 on page 123

3.3. CLIMATE OF AFRICA
3.3.1. Controls of Weather and Climate in Africa

Variation in climatic conditions is due to the intervention of weather and

climate controls. These controls are

Latitude

- It indicates the distance places have from the equator.

- It affects temperature by affecting the amount of incoming solar
radiation.
- Much of Africa is within the tropical latitudes which results in high sun
angles throughout the year. This makes Africa the hottest continent.

Altitude

- Much of Africa is highland and this reduces maritime influence and

reduces temperature.
- East Africa, despite its closeness to the equator, experiences highland
climates. This is similar with Atlas Mountains in north and Cape Ranges
in south.
- Temperature is low in high land for the following reasons: air is very
thin in high altitude, when air rises it cools and atmosphere is heated
from below (by earth) directly, not by sun.
- The impact of altitude is highly pronounced in Atlas Mountains, Cape
Range-Fold Mountains and East African Highlands.

Distance from the sea

- Water bodies have great impacts on temperature and rainfall

conditions.
- Northern Africa is very wide; so much of the area is far from sea.
 - Th extensive plateaus that almost reach the coast with steep edges,
form barriers reducing sea influence.
- Furthermore, the continents smooth coastline reduces sea’s influence.
- Therefore, most of African interior part experience continental climate
with insignificant maritime influence.

Ocean currents

- It is the horizontal movement of ocean water.

- Based on its origin it can be warm and cold.
- Warm currents have high temperature and moisture, and therefore
have warming effect and bring moisture to the coast.
- Cold currents have cool temperatures and low moisture content.
Therefore have cooling effects and bring no rain, making places over
which they blow dry and desert.
- There are 3 ocean currents that affect Africa which are Canary cold
current in northwest, Benguela cold current in Southwest and
Mozambique warm current in Southeast.

Refer figure 3.9 on page 128

Major planetary winds and atmospheric pressure

- Most of Africa lies within the tropics, so much of it lies within the trade-
wind belts which are southeast and northeast trades.
- The westerly from sub-polar high-pressure belts reach the northern and
southern tips of the continent.
- The Guinea monsoon (equatorial westerlies) also has significant
impacts.
- Of the global pressure belts, the sub-tropical highs (around 30 0N and S)
and equatorial lows (doldrums)(between 50N and 50S latitudes) affect
Africa.
 - The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) regulates winds at different
seasons by moving between tropic of cancer and Capricorn, following
overhead sun.

Refer figure 3.10 on page 129

3.3.2. Temperature Conditions in Africa

- Lowlands (coastal areas) and the desert and semi-desert areas have the
highest temperatures.
- Sahara has the highest temperature.
- The Kalahari Desert in the south has relatively cooler temperature because
of Benguela Ocean current.
- The Ethiopian and East African highlands experience low temperature as a
result of their altitude.
- The Atlas of Morocco and Cape Ranges have the lowest temperature in the
continent because of their altitudinal and latitudinal locations.
- In December, January and February, southern hemisphere experiences
summer. During this time, sun is overhead south of the equator which
results in high temperature in Southern Africa.
- In June, July and August, Africa north of the equator experiences high sun
angle. The Sahara and Northern Africa will have high temperature
conditions.in contrast, the southern part now have lower temperature.

3.3.3. Rainfall Distribution in Africa

- Rainfall distribution is controlled by ITCZ which in turn is determined by

overhead sun.
- In July, the overhead sun is around the tropic of cancer. Thus, winds that
carry moisture from Atlantic and Indian Ocean, the Guinea monsoon and
southeast trade winds, invade parts of Africa north of the equator making
the region receive high rainfall. West Africa, Ethiopia and eastern
Madagascar get their heavy rain.
- In January, the sun is overhead near the tropic of Capricorn, pulling the
northeast trade winds southward. These winds are continental in origin,
carrying limited or no moisture. Northern Africa remains dry except for the
Maghreb region. However, southern Africa gets its maximum rainfall from
southeast trades of the Indian Ocean.
- The Congo basin gets rainfall from moist winds of Atlantic Ocean.

In short,

- The Guinea monsoon winds bring rainfall to north Africa up to the

southern fringes of the Sahara in July;
- Moist winds from Atlantic and southeast winds from Indian Ocean bring
rainfall to southern Africa in January;
- Westerly winds bring rainfall to the Maghreb region of North Africa and
Cape Province of South Africa in their winter seasons. Summer is not
the wettest season in these places;
- Summer is a season of heavy rainfall in all Africa, except in Sahara and
Mediterranean climate regions;
- Winter is dry except for equatorial and Mediterranean climate regions.

NOTE: - overhead sun at the tropic of cancer on June.

- Overhead sun at the tropic of Capricorn on December.

- At March and September, sun is overhead at the equator.

3.3.4. Climate Regions of Africa

Climatic region is a geographical area with more or less similar climatic

characteristics mainly of temperature and rainfall. There are 7 climatic
regions in Africa. These are:

Equatorial climate

- It surrounds the equator extending 60 or 70N and S latitudes.

- It is dominant in western and central Africa.
 - It has high mean annual and monthly temperature averaging more than
270C annually.
- It has high daily and low annual range of temperature which is between
10C to 30C annually.
- It has high mean annual temperature normally exceeding 1500mm per
year and reaches 3200mm in some places.
- Conventional type of rainfall is dominant.

Tropical continental (savanna) climate

- It is found between 50 and 15o north and south latitudes. It occurs north
and south of the tropical wet zone, in many parts of western and
southern Africa and most of Madagascar.
- It is known as the zone of transition because it is suited between
equatorial region and desert which are the wettest and driest regions.
- Summer is very hot and winter is cool.
- There is well defined dry season of 3 to 8 months with annual rainfall
ranging between 500-1500mm.
- There is progressive decline in rainfall and rise in temperature, north
and southwards
- Slightly higher ranges of temperature with the range increasing with the
distance from the equator
- There is high daily temperature in the northern section and relatively
lower temperatures in its southern and eastern sections, due to higher
altitudes.

Tropical desert and semi-desert climate

- It is found bordering the tropical savanna especially in north central and

Southern Africa.
- There are 2 types called coastal and continental deserts.
 - The coastal deserts are found along the western coast like Namib and
Western Sahara. The Sahara which is continental desert is located north
of the equator.
- There is short rainy season with about 2500-500mm rain in semi-desert
and less than 250mm in the desert region.
- Variable, unreliable and insufficient rainfall
- High daily average temperature which ranges between 25 o and 360C.
- There are significant temperature variations and extreme fluctuations in
temperature.
- Day time temperature exceeds 50oC, but winter night temperatures
drop below freezing.

Tropical maritime (monsoon) climate

- It is found only in the southern hemisphere on the southeast coast of

Africa.
- It extends from Durban in South Africa to Dar-es-Salaam in Tanzania.
- It has heavy rainfall almost throughout the year due to warm
Mozambique Ocean current.
- Summer is the wettest and hottest season, and winter being warm.
- Temperature ranges are greater than equatorial areas but lower than
savanna.
- There is high rainfall and temperature because of Mozambique current.

Warm Temperate continental climate

- It is confined to southern part of Africa, especially to the high veld

(temperate grasslands) of Republic of South Africa.
- It is the smallest region.
- It has higher rainfall due to onshore winds from Indian Ocean.
- It has cooler temperature due to high altitude of the area.
Highland (mountain) climate

- It is found in areas of high altitude like in equatorial and tropical

highlands including East African highlands, higher parts of South Africa
(Drakensberg mountain region) and Atlas Mountains region.
- It is similar to temperate climate of the climate.
- The tropical nature is modified by high altitude.
- Temperature is cool with small annual ranges.
- Some areas like Mt. Kilimanjaro and Mt. Kenya are covered by snow.
- The region experiences high rainfall. The rainfall increases with rise in
altitude.

Mediterranean climate

- It is found in the northern and southern tips.

- The Maghreb in the north (From Morocco to northern Libya) and Cape
Province of South Africa are the main areas with this type of climate.
- Summer is not the rainy season, most of the rain falls in winter. This
makes the region unique.
- Annual rainfall ranges from 250mm to 1000mm.
- It is one of the most attractive climatic zones and tourists visit the
region every year.
- It has hot, sunny, bright, dry summer and a mild wet winter.

3.3.5. Drought in Africa

 Drought is a condition unusually dry weather within a geographic region.

Expected rain does not occur during drought. Therefore, it differs greatly
from an area that is normally dry.
Drought is a period in which an unusual shortage of rain causes a series
hydrological imbalance.
Severity of drought is measured by degree of moisture deficiency, its
duration and size of the area affected.
 Disastrous drought occurs mostly at latitudes of about 15o-20o, areas
bordering the permanently arid regions. Most of Africa lies within these
latitudes; the continent is one of the most affected areas.
Major causes include unwise use of resources like deforestation,
overgrazing and over cropping and the resultant environmental
degradation.
The Sahel region is one of the extremely drought-affected areas. It is the
transitional zone between Sahara and Wetter tropical areas.
Desertification of the Sahel was aggravated by extended drought.
Desertification is the process whereby soil losses its ability to retain
moisture. It is the shrinking the size of the Sahel and causing famine in
many parts.
The drought in the Sahel region of West Africa affected much of
Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Niger and Chad.

Refer figure 3.15 on page 141

3.4. DRAINAGE SYSTEMS OF AFRICA

3.4.1. The Major Rivers and Drainage Systems of Africa

The entire area that a river drains is called Catchment area or drainage
basin.

A group of basins, which are supplied by multiple rivers, with common

characteristics, such as common destination, form a drainage system.

9 major rivers drain Africa which are Nile, Congo, Zambezi, Limpopo,
Orange, Niger, Volta, Gambia and Senegal rivers. They are categorized into 4
major drainage systems.

A. Atlantic Ocean drainage system

- It is the largest in terms of catchment area, annual discharge and
drainage density and accounts 90% of the continent’s surface flow.
- It is made up of all rivers that drain west and southwards and empty into
the Atlantic Ocean.
- It consists of Congo, Niger, Volta, Gambia, Orange and Senegal basins.
- Congo is the largest and second longest river in Africa.
- Niger is the third longest in Africa.
- Gambia is one of the smallest rivers.
- River Volta has Africa’s largest artificial lake.
B. Mediterranean Sea drainage system
- It includes rivers that flow northwards into Mediterranean Sea.
- It has only one major river which is Nile which is the longest in the world.
- Nile has 2 major tributaries named White and Blue Nile. They converge at
Khartoum, Sudan.
- White Nile originates from Lake Victoria in Uganda, while Blue Nile
emerges from Lake Tana in Ethiopia.
- Nile forms an extensive delta in north Egypt.
C. Indian Ocean drainage system
- It includes rivers that flow eastwards into Indian Ocean.
- It is the second largest.
- Zambezi, Wabishebelle and Juba river basins are the major basins.
- Zambezi has Africa’s largest waterfall, Victoria Falls.
- Wabishebelle has high seasonal variation, and therefore usually fails to
reach Indian Ocean in winter, but manages to reach Indian Ocean during
summer.
- Juba forms one of the Somalis most fertile agricultural regions in its lower
valley.
D. Closed (Inland) drainage system
- It is formed by rivers that do not have direct access to sea.
- Most of the rivers have multiple flow directions which makes it different
from other systems.
 - It covers 32% of total area of the continent. It receives 4% of Africa’s total
annual runoff.
- Awash and Ghibe/Omo rivers in Ethiopia, Okovango swamp in Botswana,
Sudd basin in Sudan, Danakil basin in Ethiopia and Eritrea and Lake Chad
are among the inland basins of the continent.
- Chad basin is the largest inland basin.

3.4.2. General Characteristics of African Rivers

a. Steep long profile (steep courses): this affect the navigability of the
rivers
b. Waterfalls and Rapids: they are due to Africa’s number of plateau
lands, steep sides and strong erosion-resistant rock. The longest
waterfall is Tugela in South Africa.
c. Seasonal fluctuation: this is because many of Africa’s rivers have their
origins in areas of seasonal rainfall distribution. Congo River does not
show significant volume variation. Congo is the only African river with
steady volume because it has tributaries running from both within and
south of the equator.
d. Deltaic mouths and Mangrove Swamps: African rivers have low
pressure force along their lower courses that makes them to branch in
to distributaries and form deltas. This affects the penetrability of the
rivers from the coast.
e. Exotic nature of rivers: the rivers run across cool to extremely hot
climates which make them to lose much of their water. Nile faces the
greatest impact followed by Senegal and Orange rivers.

NOTE: Deltaic mouths, mangrove swamps, fluctuation in volume and

waterfalls and rapids hinder navigability but give them huge hydro-electrical
power.
3.4.3. Lakes and Swamps of Africa

The lakes differ in size and depth. For instance Lakes Tanganyika and Malawi
are deep and large, while Victoria and Tana are wide and shallow
respectively.

Lakes of Africa

Lakes are divided into natural and artificial (anthropogenic).

Natural lakes are formed by tectonic, volcanic and/or denudation processes.

Anthropogenic lakes are formed when water is accumulated at the backs of

dams.

Natural lakes

- They are formed under natural conditions.

- Based on their location, they are divided into Rift valley and non-rift valley.
- Lift Valley Lakes are lakes that occupy the floor of the Great East African
rift valley. It includes lakes like Turkana, Tanganyika, Kivu, Albert, Malawi,
Edward and the numerous Rift Valley lakes belong to this group.
- The non-rift valley lakes include Victoria, Chad and Tana.
- Victoria is the largest lake in the world.
- Tanganyika is world’s longest fresh water lake and Africa’s deepest lake.
- Malawi is the most southern lake in the East African Rift Valley.
- Albert is the most northern lake in the East African Rift Valley.
- Tana is one of the shallowest lakes in Africa.

NOTE: Most of the African lakes that are found around the rift valley ate
long and narrow.

Many lakes that mark the western branch of the rift valley have outlets to
ocean through rivers. In contrast most of the lakes that mark the eastern
branch participate inland drainage system except Lake Malawi that empties
through the Shire River.

Artificial (anthropogenic) lakes

They are formed at the back of dams which are constructed for irrigation
and hydro-electric power generation purposes.

The major anthropogenic lakes in Africa are

 Nasser on Nile river in Egypt

 Koka on Awash river in Ethiopia
 Volta on Volta river in Ghana
 Kaindji on Niger river in Nigeria
 Kariba on Zambezi river

Swamps of Africa

Marshes develop mostly in depressions and areas of seasonal flooding along

the courses of the major rivers.

Major swamps of Africa include

 Sudd swamps along Nile river

 Kamulando swamps in Congo basin
 Batorse and Kafue swamps in Zambezi basin
 Okovango swamps in Botswana
 Swamps adjacent to Lake Chad
 Mangrove (coastal) swamps along mouths of major rivers
 Timbukto swamps in Mali along Niger River.

3.4.4. The Uses of African Rivers and Lakes

 Hydro-electric power – Africa has 40% of world’s HEP but very little is
used.
 Irrigation –it is less developed except in Egypt, Sudan, RSA.
  Fishing
 Navigation (inland waterways) – Congo is navigable throughout the
year, but others are navigable in summer.
 Tourism and recreation
 Fresh-water supply
 Source of minerals and construction materials: salt and potash

The Hydro Politics of the Nile River

- The Nile River is one of the politically significant rivers.

- Countries that are found in the basin are Ethiopia, Egypt, Kenya, Sudan,
Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, Eritrea, Tanzania and Democratic Republic of
Congo.
- The countries are categorized into two as upper and lower course based
on the general alignment of the river.
- Egypt and Sudan are upper course countries while the others are lower
course countries.
- Blue Nile is the largest contributor of water. Together with Baro-Akobo
and Tekezze, Ethiopia contributes about 84% of the water of Nile.
- The hydro-politics of Nile is related with the degree of which the river is
utilized in its upper and lower courses.
- Historically, Egypt and Sudan have been the most benefited of all the
countries, especially Egypt. The upper course countries have been the
least benefited.
- This unbalanced and unfair utilization has been a great area of interest.
- The Aswan dam is constructed along the river in Egypt. It is 500 km long
of which 350km is in Egypt and 150km is in Sudan.it has functions such as
protection against floods, generating HEP, irrigation and reduces salt
intrusion in the agricultural field.
- The Nile basin initiative is formed in order to bring equitable utilization of
the river.
3.5. NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILD ANIMALS OF AFRICA
3.5.1. Major Vegetation Zones of Africa

The type of natural vegetation in an area is a reflection of the climate of that

area.

There are 5 different vegetation zones. They are

Tropical rainforests

They develop in areas with equatorial climate.

They are confined to central and western Africa and eastern Madagascar.
They are also known as equatorial broad leaf evergreen forests.
Africa’s most extensive rain forest is found in Congo basin.
They contain broad-leafed evergreen trees.
Different plants exhibit different stages of growth at the same time, due
to the absence of climatic seasons.
They have little under growth as tall trees prevent light penetration.
Most of the trees are hardwood, like mahogany, ebony, ironwood,
rosewood and green heart.
They have high species of diversity and thick growth.
They are complex with 3 layers:
- Top layer: made up of tall trees (30-50m) with buttress roots
- Middle layer: made up of tree ferns, lianas, epiphytes and trees with
heights of 19-34m
- Bottom layer: consists of ferns, herbaceous plants, saprophyte
(plants which live on dead plants) and trees with heights up to 17m.

Refer figure 3.19 on page 159

Tropical Grassland (savanna)

It develops in areas of seasonal rainfall and areas that have wet summers
and dry winters.
They exist encircling the equatorial rainforests in northern and southern
Africa.
Savanna areas that are close to equatorial rainforests receive more
rainfall, compared to the areas at the edge of the desert.
They contain tall grasses as tall as 2m.
Trees are more common in areas bordering the forest, and grasses are
more common in areas bordering the desert.
Most of grasses wither and turn brown in dry season and regain in the
wet season.
The trees survive the dry season by shading their leaves, storing water,
having long roots, thorny leaves and small number of leaves.
There are 3 savanna zones:
- Park (wetter) savanna: is found close to rainforests.it is made up of
many trees and grasses.
- High (true) savanna: is developed between the wetter and drier
savannas. It is made up of more grasses than park-savanna areas,
and contains scattered trees only.
- Thorn scrub (Drier) savanna: developed along the desert margins and
is made up of short grasses with widely scattered thorny trees, thorn
bushes and low scrub. It is common in the semi-arid areas of the
Sahel that extends from Senegal to Ethiopia, northern Kenya, Angola
and Botswana.

Desert and semi-desert vegetation

It is developed in areas where rainfall is scant.

The Sahara, the largest desert in the world, the Namib deserts and the
Sahel region have such vegetation.
 Many think deserts don’t have vegetation, bur Africa’s deserts have
high species diversity.
Cactus, thorn bushes and coarse grasses are among the most common
plants in this region.
The area is characterized by high evaporation and low humidity.
The plants that develop in such regions are xerophytes with high
drought resistance.
To survive the harsh climate they
 Have long roots that reach under ground
 Store water in their spongy leaves, stems, roots, fruits like cactus
 Have waxy or needle –shaped leaves to reduce water loss
through transpiration
 Produce seed that lie dormant for several years
 Small sized leaves which are few in number to reduce water
 Have thorny leaves to protect them from being eaten by
animals.

Afro-Montane (Afro-Alpine) vegetation

It develops over tropical highlands of Africa mainly over the Ethiopian
and East African highlands.
The climate is modified by altitude. As a result, the vegetation that would
have existed in the tropical climate at lower temperatures is replaced by
vegetation typical of temperate regions.
It consists of highland (temperate) forests and temperate grasslands.
As altitude decreases altitude varies.
Alpine plants like Asta and Gibera grow in areas of altitude above 3000m.
Afro-Montane forests grow in altitudes up to 3000m.
Bamboo forests are found at 2000 – 2500m
Temperate evergreen coniferous forests of trees such as Tid, mountain
grassland and heath.
Mediterranean Vegetation

It develops in northwestern and southwestern extremes, where

Mediterranean climate dominates.
It is rich in plant species.
Evergreen and deciduous trees constitute a good part of this zone.
Cork oak, maquis and wild olive are the most common plant types.
They have hot dry summer, and in order to withstand the summer they
adopt mechanisms like
 Storing water in their leaves and bark
 Having waxy thick leaves to reduce water loss through
transpiration
 Having spiny small leaves to reduce water loss
 Having long roots to tap underground water

NOTE: In addition to the 5 vegetation zones, there are also other areas such
as Mangrove vegetation which grows in swampy areas, especially along lake
shores, deltaic mouths and floodplains. The vegetation includes both trees
and grasses.

Factors affecting the natural vegetation of Africa

 Deforestation: is indiscriminate cutting or over-harvesting of trees.

Forest are cleared for the purpose of shifting cultivation, need for
permanent farm land, fuel wood and extractive forest uses such as
selective forestry, to get logs for industries. It also results in extinction
of wild animals and plants.

Possible conservation measures

 Reforestation: is planting tree in areas where the original forest cover

has been removed.
  Afforestation: is planting trees in areas where there was no original
forest cover.
 Agroforestry: is forestry combined with farming.it means associating
crop production with forest development.
 Social forestry: is planting trees in urban areas in association with
human settlements.
 Changing the way people make their living: this is because poverty is
one of the factors that escalate deforestation.

3.5.2. Wild Animals of Africa

- Varied climate and topography, with different vegetation zones of the

continent, create an ideal situation for wild-animal diversity.
- Equatorial rainforests are habitats for tree climbing animals such as
monkeys, gorillas, baboons, as well as birds. It has the highest species of
diversity in Africa. Most of them have small body sizes because of the
thick and dense forest limits movement.
- The equatorial environment of equatorial rainforests hosts large animals
like hippopotamus and crocodiles.
- The savanna land contains large numbers of Herbivorous and carnivorous
animals. Herbivorous animals include antelope, giraffe, buffalo, elephant
and rhinoceros. The carnivores include lion, leopard, cheetah, hyena,
jackal and mongoose.
- The savanna elephant is the largest species of elephant.
- Rhinoceroses are the most seriously affected wild animals in Africa. They
are hunted for their horns.
- There are various species of wild animals in desert and semi-desert areas
such as fox, hares, gazelles, jerboa, wild ass and reptiles as lizards and
tortoises.
- The rivers, lakes, swamps of the continent are inhibited by different
species of aquatic animals such as crocodiles, hippopotamus, fish and
 birds like guinea fowl, pelicans, goliath herons, flamingos, storks, egrets
and ostrich. Many of them are found in eastern and southern Africa.
- The continent also have destructive insects such as mosquitoes, driver
ants, termites, locusts and tsetse flies

Wild animals have different uses. They are used to

 As sources of animal protein

 Help to maintain the balance of nature by feeding on each other
 As a source of income
 Provide scientific and educational opportunities
 Provide inputs for industries
 Add aesthetic value to the environment

Factors affecting wild animals

 Illegal hunting (poaching)

 Human encroachment – deforestation
- Burning of vegetation cover
- Overgrazing which leads to environmental
degradation
- Desertification
- Drought

Possible conservation methods

 Conserving natural vegetation

 Establishing national parks, game reserves and sanctuaries
 Controlling illegal hunting
 Raising the people’s awareness
 Changing the economic position of the peoples through good and
applicable policies and programs
3.6. SOILS OF AFRICA
Soil is a loose and unconsolidated material that overlies the crust of the
earth.

3.6.1. Major Soil Types of Africa

The Food and Agricultural Organization of UN has classified soils of Africa as:

A. Pedalfers

They are soils with aluminum deposits and without layer if calcium
carbonate. They have high content of iron and aluminum. Soils in his group
include the following

Ferrasols: - they are found around equatorial forests and savanna lands.

- They are red and yellow in color.

- They are affected by leaching because of their location in areas
of heavy rainfall.
- They are characterized by high concentrations of iron, clay and
aluminum.

Nitosols: - they develop in humid areas.

- Parent materials are volcanic rocks.

- They have deep profile and are rich in humus content and are
most productive.
- They are ideal for crop production.

Acrisols: - develop in hilly areas with wet tropical and monsoon climates.

- They are weathered, acidic and shallow.

- They are unproductive.
- It is found in West Africa and lakes region of East Africa.

Lixisols: - they are found in the savanna and semi-arid areas.

 - They are reddish and sometimes yellowish in color.
- They are abundant in western Africa, Eastern Africa and east-
Central Africa.
- They are more fertile than Ferrasols and Acrisols.

Plinthosols: - they exist in plains and gently-sloped areas.

- They are soft and laterite.

- They also develop in rainforest areas and the savanna regions.

Luvisols: - they develop in Mediterranean climate regions.

- They have high mineral reserves and are fertile.

Planosols: - they dominate the high veld of South Africa, particularly the

waterlogged plains of the country.

- They are mostly used for grazing.

Fluvisols: - they develop in seasonally flooded plains, valleys ad tidal

Marshes

- They are found in Nile and Zambezi deltas and West Africa.
B. Pedocals

Vertisols: - they are black basaltic soils with clay character.

- They become sticky during rainy season and crack during dry
season. As a result, working is very laborious.
- They are found in the Sahel region at the southern border of the
Sahara.
- In some areas, they are cultivated with irrigation and rain fed
agriculture. However, generally they are used for grazing.

Calcisols: - they are found in the Sahara and Namib deserts.

 - They are fertile in terms of mineral content but poor in humus.
- They are mostly used for grazing.

Solanchaks: - they are found in inland river basins, bottoms of ancient lakes,

depressions and coastal areas.

- They are saline and not very productive.

C. Hydromorphic soils

Gleysols: - they are found in depressions and low lying areas of shallow

ground water.

- They are found in Niger delta, Congo basin and interior parts of
Angola.
- They are used for the production of rice, sugar cane, yam and
vegetables.
D. Azonal soils

Arenosols: - they are found in the humid tropical parts of Africa, the semi-

arid zones south of southern Sahara, southwest Africa and

Africa’s coastal plains.

- They are mainly used for grazing.

Regosols: - they are found in arid areas extending from West Africa to

Ethiopia and Somalia.

- They are used for pastoralist grazing.

Leptosols: - they are young and shallow and stony soils that are susceptible

to erosion and drought.

 - They are found in strongly dissected uplands of northern
Africa, Sahara and in southern, central and eastern Africa.
- Terracing is the most important mechanism for cultivating
these soils.
- They are devoted to transhumance, forestry and tourism.

3.6.2. Problems and Conservation Measures of Soils in Africa

Problems of soils in Africa

Soil erosion and environmental degradation are the major problems.

The major causes of soil erosion are – traditional farming practices

- Overgrazing
- Deforestation
- Over-exploitation of vegetation for
domestic uses.

Soil erosion results in – deterioration and depletion of agricultural lands

- Decline in productivity of cereal crops

- The collapse of agriculture
- Downstream pollution, sedimentation and floods
- Consumption of national economic resources to
control erosion

These areas are highly affected by erosion

- Sahel region which wind is major agent

- Sub-humid of savannah regions and tropical rainforests where
water is the main agent
- Tropical highlands and mountain areas as those of Ethiopia and
East African countries

Conservation measures
 Terracing: constructing stair like structures along hillsides.
 Agroforestry: associating agriculture with forest development.
 Afforestation: planting trees in areas which originally were not
covered by forests.
 Reforestation: planting tree seedlings to replace cut flowers.
 Wind breaks and shelter-belt plantations: planting trees along a line to
break the speed of the blowing wind.
 Check dams: small ditches prepared along sloppy areas.
 Strip cultivation: s planting two or more types of crops on the same
farm.
 Contour plowing: plowing the land sideways.
 Crop rotation: planting different crops alternatively on a farm.
 “Green manure”: cultivating plants on the land and hen ploughed
under to mix them with soil.
 Mulching: covering the soil with plant residue to let the soil regain
some nutrients.
 Fallowing: leaving the farm idle for a while.