Rechargeable battery

A rechargeable battery, also known as a storage battery, is a group of two or more

secondary cells. These batteries can be restored to full charge by the application of
electrical energy. In other words, they are electrochemical cells in which the
electrochemical reaction that releases energy is readily reversible. Rechargeable
electrochemical cells are therefore a type of accumulator. They come in many different
designs using different chemicals. Commonly used secondary cell chemistries are lead
and sulfuric acid, nickel cadmium (NiCd), nickel metal hydride (NiMH), lithium ion (Li-
ion), and lithium ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).

Rechargeable batteries can offer an economic benefit when used instead of one-time-use
disposable batteries. Most rechargeable battery technology has been adapted into the
standard “AA,” “AAA,” “C,” “sub-C,” “D,” and “9-volt” configurations that consumers
are familiar with. While the rechargeable versions of these types of cells have a higher
up-front cost than disposable batteries, rechargeable batteries can be discharged and
recharged many times. Some manufacturers of NiMH type rechargeable batteries claim a
lifespan up to 3000 charge cycles for their batteries.

Usage and applications

Unlike nonrechargeable batteries (primary cells), secondary cells must be charged before
use. Attempting to recharge nonrechargeable batteries is not advised as it has a small
chance of causing a battery explosion.

Some types of rechargeable batteries are susceptible to damage due to reverse charging if
they are fully discharged; other types need to be fully discharged occasionally in order to
maintain the capacity for deep discharge. Fully integrated battery chargers that optimize
the charging current are available.
Rechargeable batteries currently are used for lower power applications such as
automobile starters, portable consumer devices, tools, and uninterruptible power supplies.
Emerging applications in hybrid vehicles and electric vehicles are driving the technology
to improve cost, reduce weight, and increase lifetime. Future applications are proposed to
use rechargeable batteries for load leveling, where they would store baseline electric
power for use during peak load periods, and for renewable energy uses, such as storing
power generated from photovoltaic arrays during the day to be used at night.

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association has estimated that U.S. demand for
rechargeables is growing twice as fast as demand for nonrechargeables.[1]

Charging

During charging, the positive active material is oxidized, producing electrons, and the
negative material is reduced, consuming electrons. These electrons constitute the current
flow in the external circuit. The electrolyte may serve as a simple buffer for ion flow
between the electrodes, as in lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium cells, or it may be an active
participant in the electrochemical reaction, as in lead-acid cells.

The reactions in lead-acid cells are illustrated in the following diagrams.

Diagram of the charging of a secondary cell battery.

The half-cell reactions and overall cell reaction for the lead-acid system are as follows:

Positive electrode

Negative electrode
Overall reaction

Battery charger

The energy used to charge rechargeable batteries mostly comes from mains electricity
using an adapter unit. It can be wired or wireless[citation needed]. Charging backup batteries
using off-peak energy paid for by on-peak excess electric power from residential solar
panels exactly matches the critical peak shortage and nightly electric surplus. This load-
leveling function helps eliminate the need for expensive peaking power plants and helps
amortize the cost of generators over more hours of operation. Charging from the 12-volt
battery of a car is also possible. Human powered generators are commercially available.
One can also use portable batteries to charge or to be used directly after recharging. Most
battery chargers can take several hours to charge a battery (excepting Nano Titanate
batteries). Most batteries can be charged in far less time than the most common simple
battery chargers are capable of. Duracell and Rayovac now sell chargers that can charge
AA- and AAA-size NiMH batteries in just 15 minutes; Energizer sells chargers that can
additionally charge C/D-size and 9V NiMH batteries. Flow batteries don't need to be
charged on place, because they can be charged by replacing the electrolyte liquid. Battery
manufacturers' technical notes often refer to VPC. This is Volts Per Cell, and refers to the
individual secondary cells that make up the battery. For example, to charge a 12 V
battery (containing 6 cells of 2 V each) at 2.3 VPC requires a voltage of 15.6 V across the
battery's terminals.

Recharging electric vehicles

Recharging an electric vehicle using off-peak energy paid for by on-peak excess electric
power from residential solar panels exactly matches the critical peak shortage and nightly
electric surplus. While electric vehicles can charge slowly at night, raising the nightly
low electric use, solar panels can lower the daytime peak, flattening the daily usage curve
and lowering the cost of electric power for all users.

Reverse charging

Reverse charging, which damages batteries, is when a rechargeable battery is recharged

with its polarity reversed. Reverse charging can occur under a number of circumstances,
the two most important being:

 When a battery is incorrectly inserted into a charger.

 When multiple batteries are used in series in a device. When one battery
completely discharges ahead of the rest, the other batteries in series may force the
discharged battery to discharge to below zero voltage.

Active Components

The active components in a secondary cell are the chemicals that make up the positive
and negative active materials, and the electrolyte. The positive and negative are made up
of different materials, with the positive exhibiting a reduction potential and the negative
having an oxidation potential. The sum of these potentials is the standard cell potential or
voltage.

In primary cells the positive and negative electrodes are known as the cathode and anode,
respectively. Although this convention is sometimes carried through to rechargeable
systems—especially with lithium-ion cells, because of their origins in primary lithium
cells—this practice can lead to confusion. In rechargeable cells the positive electrode is
the cathode on discharge and the anode on charge, and vice versa for the negative
electrode.
Example: Nickel Metal Hydride

Nickel oxyhydroxide (NiOOH) is the active component in the positive, while the
negative is composed of hydrogen in the form of metal hydride. The electrolyte of this
secondary cell is an aqueous form of potassium hydroxide.

In the discharge process, the nickel oxyhydroxide is reduced to nickel hydroxide and the
metal hydride is reduced to an alloy.

Nickel-Metal Hydride

Location Reactions Voltage

Negative MH + OH- —> M + H2O + e- 0.83

Positive NiOOH + H2O + e- —> Ni(OH)2 + OH- 0.52

Overall NiOOH + MH —> Ni(OH)2 + M 1.35

 Battery types

Voltagea Energy densityb Powerc Effi.d E/$e DODj Disch.f Cyclesg Lifeh

Technology Type Advantages Disadvantages

(% of
(V) (MJ/kg) (Wh/kg) (Wh/L) (W/kg) (%) (Wh/$) (%/mo) (#) (years)
Total)

price, well understood, heavyl;

2.1 or 0.11- 70%-
Wet 30-40 60-75 180 5-8 3%-4% 500-800 dependable, low environmentally
2.2 0.14 92%
maintenance unfriendly; storageq
Lead-acid

VRLAi

20%-
5-7.3[2] robust heavyl; tempt; cost
Ni-iron 1.2 0.18 50 100 65% 40%

Nickel
Ni-cadmium 1.2 0.14- 40-60 50-150 150 70%- 20% 1500 long life; fast charge heavyl; toxic; high
0.22 90% discharge, memory
 effect

0.11- 140- expensive; high

NiMH 1.2 30-80 250-1000 66% 1.37[1] 20% 1000 lightl; high capacity
0.29 300 discharge

Ni-zinc 0.22 60 170 2-3.3 lightl short life

Lithium Lithium ion (cobalt 5%- lightl; low maintenance; volatile; tempt; cost;
3.6 0.58 160 270 1800 99.9% 2.8-5[3] 1200 2-3
oxide) 10% low discharge; short life

as above;
Li ion 0.47- 130- plus charge
3.7 300 3000+[4] ~0.5 thin; lightl; safe
polymer 0.72 200 probl.x;
expensive

Li iron 3.25 80- 170 1400 0.7- 2000+[6] lightl low new;
phosphate 120 [5]
1.6 maintenance; availability;
high discharge; Currently
high power; difficult to
Low material manufacture
cost;
 Li sulfur[7] 2.0 400[8] lightl

[14]
Long Life
Time, Safe,
High power
output,
Nano 87- 0.5- 9000- 20+
2.3 90 4000+[10] extremely quick Low Wh/kg,
Titanate [9]
95%r 1.0[11] 15000[12] [13]

charge < 10
minutes, Temp
range −30 °C to
250 °C

Thin
 ? 350 959 6000  ?p[15] 40000
film Li

rapid charge, by
replacing the
Flow Zinc bromide
electrolyte
liquid
 89%-
NaS lightl; cheap
92%
temp>400 °Ct
70-
Molten salt 150-220 4.54[17] 3000+ 8+ lightl; power
110 [16]

Other
Super iron

Silver zinc 130 240 lightl, efficient cost

Rechargeable
1.5
alkaline

environmentally
safe; long life; heavyl;
Non- 2- 105-107, no memory safety; less
FES n.a. .50 130 90% 20+
chemical 3% [18]
effect; quick mature;
charge and cost[19]
release

Notes
For brevity, entries in the table had to be abbreviated. For a full description, please refer to the individual article about each type.
Battery types for which there is no article yet are listed below.
  a
Nominal cell voltage in V. Most batteries contain multiple cells, for example an
automotive 12 V car battery contains 6 cells * 2.0 V per cell for the total of 12
volts.

Graph of mass energy densities of several secondary cells

 b
Energy density = energy/weight or energy/size, given in three different units
 c
Specific power = power/weight in W/kg
 d
Charge/discharge efficiency in %
 e
Energy/consumer price in W·h/US$ (approximately)
 j
Safe Depth of Discharge to maintain lifecycles
 f
Self-discharge rate in %/month
 g
Cycle durability in number of cycles
 h
Time durability in years
 i
VRLA or recombinant includes gel batteries and absorbed glass mats
 k
most prominent example for an application
 l
"heavy" and "light" refer to low and high energy density, respectively. Of course,
some batteries with high energy density can be quite heavy.
 p
Pilot production
 q
Can't be stored in discharged condition
 r
Depending upon charge rate
 t
temperature related problems
 x
charge problems: If the battery discharges below a certain voltage it may never
be able to hold a charge again, also if overcharged the battery becomes extremely
unstable and may explode.

Less common types

Lithium sulfur battery

 A new battery chemistry developed by Sion Power[20] since 1994. Claims superior
energy to weight than current lithium technologies on the market. Also lower
material cost may help this product reach the mass market.[21] Not to be confused
with lithium sulfur dioxide (Li-SO2) batteries which explode when recharged.
Thin film lithium battery
An emerging refinement of the lithium ion technology by Excellatron.[22] The
developers claim a very large increase in recharge cycles, around 40,000 cycles.
Higher charge and discharge rates. At least 5C charge rate. Sustained 60C
discharge, and 1000C peak discharge rate. And also a significant increase in
specific energy, and energy density.[23]
Smart battery
A smart battery has the voltage monitoring circuit built inside. See also Smart
battery system.
Carbon foam-based lead acid battery
Firefly Energy has developed a carbon foam-based lead acid battery with a
reported capacity from 90 to 160 W·h/kg. This would be an energy and power
density rivaling that of more exotic chemistries, e.g. nickel metal hydride and
lithium ion.