S.Y.B.A.

SEM-IV (CBCS)

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER - III

DEVELOPMENTAL
PSYCHOLOGY
A FOCUS ON ADOLESCENT
AND ADULT DEVELOPMENT

SUBJECT CODE : UAPSY 402

 © UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
Prof. Suhas Pednekar
Vice Chancellor
University of Mumbai.
Prof. Ravindra D. Kulkarni Prof. Prakash Mahanwar
Pro Vice-Chancellor, Director
University of Mumbai. IDOL, University of Mumbai.

Programe Co-ordinator : Anil R. Bankar

Associate Professor of History and
Head, Faculty of Humanities,
IDOL, University of Mumbai.

Course Co-ordinator : Dr. Naresh Tambe

Assistant Professor (Psychology),
IDOL, University of Mumbai.

Editor: : Dr. Anita Kumar

Associate Professor (Retired),
Acharya and Marathe College, Chembur, Mumbai.
Course Writers : Dr. Pooja Soni
Assistant Professor,
K. C. College, Dinshaw Vachha Road,
Churchgate, Mumbai.
: Ms. Aarti Shah
Visiting Faculty at Amity University,
Panvel.
: Mr. Shailendra Pasi
Lecturer, MKLM’s B.L. Amlani College of
Commerce & Economics M.R. Nathwani College
of Arts 6, N S Rd Number 3, Hatkesh Society,
JVPD Scheme, Juhu, Mumbai.

April 2022, Print I

ipin Enterprises
Published
Tantia Joganiby
Industrial Estate, Unit No. 2,
Director
Ground Floor, Sitaram Mill Compound,
Institute of Distance and Open Learning,
J.R.University
Borichaof Mumbai,Vidyanagari,
Marg, Mumbai - 400 011Mumbai - 400 098.

DTP COMPOSED AND PRINTED BY

Mumbai University Press,
Vidyanagari, Santacruz (E), Mumbai - 400098.
 CONTENTS
Unit No. Title Page No

Module 1: Physical and cognitive development in middle adulthood

1. Physical & Cognitive Development In Middle Adulthood – I 1
2. Physical & Cognitive Development In Middle Adulthood – II 14

Module 2: Social and personality development in middle adulthood

3. Social And Personality Development In Middle Adulthood – I 27
4. Social And Personality Development In Middle Adulthood – II 41

Module 3: Physical and cognitive development in late adulthood

5. Physical And Cognitive Development In Late Adulthood – I 55

6. Physical And Cognitive Development In Late Adulthood – II 67

Module 4: Social and personality development in late adulthood

7 Social and personality development in late adulthood -I 86
8 Social and personality development in late adulthood -I 101

*****
 Syllabus
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS)
S.Y.B.A. Developmental Psychology Syllabi to be implemented from 2021-2022

Developmental Psychology: A Focus on Adolescent and Adult Development - Paper-III

Part-II Sem-IV
Code Sem Course Title Credit Marks
UAPSY 402 4 Developmental Psychology: Development: Part-I 3 100
A Focus on Adolescent and Adult

Objectives:
1. To help students in building knowledge and understanding of the basic concepts, principles,
perspectives and modern trends in Developmental Psychology
2. To foster interest in Developmental Psychology as a field of study and research among students.
3. To make the students aware of the implications and applications of the various concepts, principles
and theories of Developmental Psychology in daily life in the Indian context

Semester III
Developmental Psychology: A Focus on Adolescent and Adult Development Part II

Module 1: Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Adulthood

a) Physical development
b) Health
c) Cognitive development

Module 2: Social and Personality Development in Middle Adulthood

a) Personality Development
b) Relationships: Family in Middle Age
c) Work& Leisure

Module 3. Physical and Cognitive Development in Late Adulthood

a) Physical development in Late Adulthood
b) Health and wellness in Late Adulthood
c) Cognitive development in Late Adulthood

Module 4. Social and Personality Development in Late Adulthood

a) Personality Development and successful aging
b) The daily life of Late Adulthood
c) Relationships: Old & new
*****
Book for study:

Feldman, R. S. & Babu, N. (2018). Development across the Life Span. (8th Ed).
India: Pearson India Education services Pvt. Ltd

References
 Cook, J. L., & Cook, G. (2009). Child Development: Principles and Perspectives. Boston:
Pearson Education

 Crandell, T. L., Crandell, C. H., &Zanden, J. W. V. (2009). Human Development. (9th Ed).
New York: McGraw Hill co. Inc.

 Feldman, R. S., &Babu, N. (2011). Discovering the Life Span. Indian subcontinent
adaptation, New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley India pvt ltd.

 Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. (2012). Human Development. (12th Ed).
McGraw Hill, international Edition

 Papalia, D. E., Olds, S. W., & Feldman, R. (2012). Human Development. (12th Ed).
McGraw Hill, international Edition

 Santrock, J. (2017). Life-span development (13th ed.). Indian Edition. McGraw-Hill Higher
Education.

 Singh, A. (Ed.) (2015). Foundations of human development: A life span approach. Orient Longman.

*****
 1
PHYSICAL & COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE
ADULTHOOD - I
Unit Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1Defining Middle Adulthood
1.2 Physical development
1.2.1 Physical transitions: gradual change in the body’s capabilities
1.2.2 Height, weight, and strength: the benchmarks of change
1.2.3 The senses: the sights and sounds of middle age
1.2.4 Reaction time: not-so-slowing down
1.2.5 Sex in middle adulthood: the ongoing sexuality of middle age
1.3 Health
1.3.1 Wellness and illness: the ups and downs of middle adulthood
1.3.2 The a’s and b’s of coronary heart disease: linking health and
personality
1.4 The threat of cancer
1.5 Let's sum up
1.6 Questions
1.7 References

1.0 OBJECTIVES
 Illustrating physical change during middle adulthood affecting people
 Discussing the changes in senses that take place during middle
adulthood.
 Explaining changes in reaction time during middle adulthood.
 Recognizing how changes in sexuality take place within middle-aged
men and middle-aged women
 Understanding changes in health occurring during middle adulthood.
 Understanding risk factors related to coronary heart disease
 Understanding types of personality patterns, like type a, leading to
dreadful consequences
 Describing the cancer causes and tools available to diagnose and treat
it.

1
1.1 INTRODUCTION Physical & Cognitive
Development In Middle
Adulthood - I
Even though age boundaries are not set in stone, Middle adulthood is a
period of 40 to 65 years of age, where the visible reminders of the passage
of time is noticed by people. There are unwelcome changes observed in
their bodies and their cognitive abilities to some extent. At this stage,
many individuals manage to make adjustments to the changing demands
of middle age, but at the same time many view this age as a challenge,
which gets them working through it by dieting, exercising and working
towards professional success. In this module we will be looking after
physical and cognitive changes of middle adulthood, which brings us both
good as well as bad news. In this module we will see ways and the process
through which this period brings good and bad news to an individual.
Many people are involved in shaping their life like never before, by
working upon their capabilities. In this unit we will be considering one's
physical development focusing on the changes that come physically
through height, strength and weight, and discuss visible and non-visible
subtle declines in one's senses following the role of sexuality during
middle adulthood. Throughout the unit health and illness both are
examined and special attention is given to major health problems of the
time, cancer and heart disease.

1.1.1 Defining Middle Adulthood:

For most of the individuals, middle adulthood is a period where physical
capabilities decline and responsibilities expand. This is a period where the
awareness about the polarity of young-old comes into picture while the
shrinkage about the little time left in life is realised. This is a point where
individuals seek to transfer something of meaning to the coming
generation, and a time when they reach and are able to maintain
satisfaction in terms of their career. In all, middle adulthood consists of
changes associated with ageing in relation to physical and psychological
aspects in the midst of being able to balance relationships and work
responsibilities. Just like in other age periods, during midlife choices are
made regarding what selection to make, how to invest resources and time
and assessing what aspects of their life they need to bring change in.
During middle adulthood, occurrences of events like loss, illness or
accidents may act as a wakeup call producing a major reformation of the
time and a reassessment of the priorities that one has in their life. Because
of the absence of a senior member to protect, many middle-aged adults
may come across unexpected job losses or are strongly encouraged to take
early packages for retirement. Growth (gains) and decline (losses) are both
extremely important in life-span development. Middle adulthood is a
period where these losses and gains and sociocultural and biological
factors balance out one another. Sociocultural functioning like that of
one’s career, relationships and education may still be at a peak during
middle adulthood in comparison to biological functioning which tends to
decline.

2
Developmental Psychology Thus, for many individuals’ middle adulthood can be viewed as a unique
period of development in which growth and loss keeps getting balanced by
each other. As we have seen in the previous modules, people not only
have chronological age but also psychological, social and biological ages.
As concluded by some experts, it has been viewed that in comparison to
early and later periods, the period of midlife has more influence of
sociocultural factors as compared to that of others. Adults who are healthy
are found to have a long-lasting middle age. There is an increasing number
of experts who describe the age group of 55 to 65 as late midlife. As
compared to the early middle adulthood period, the late middle adulthood
is more likely to be characterised by events related to death of a parent,
becoming a grandparent, retirement preparation, child leaving the parental
home, and the actual retirement in most of the cases. During this age many
individuals experience their initial confrontation with health problems. As
we saw above, gains and losses balance one another during early middle
adulthood, losses may start to dominate against the gains for many during
late midlife. Middle adulthood is full of changes and twists and turns
having an unpredictable path of life.

1.2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

There are gradual changes that one may observe as they age. Changes in
their ability to think, their ability to see things finely like they used to
previously, hair turning grey and not being able to recover quickly from
illnesses are the changes which one may face after reaching the age of 40.

1.2.1 Physical transitions: gradual change in the body’s capabilities:

There is an increasing awareness amongst most people about the gradual
changes in the body indicating the ageing process during middle
adulthood. Some causes of ageing may be due to natural occurrences of
decline related to age, while other changes can be a result of lifestyle
choices, exercise, alcohol, smoking, diet or alcohol use. As we move
forward in this unit, we will be having a look at how lifestyle choices may
have an impact on one’s cognitive and physical fitness during middle age.
We know that physical changes occur life long, yet during middle
adulthood these changes have a completely new significance to it. There is
a major impact over one’s cognitive, physical fitness during the period of
middle age that one faces due to their lifestyle choices. For some, youthful
appearance is of high value while for others psychological changes play an
important role. Emotional reactions to physical changes depend upon
people’s self-concept during middle adulthood. For those whose physical
attributes are highly connected to their self-image, may find middle
adulthood to be a difficult phase of transition. Ageing during middle
adulthood also impacts one’s perception of reduction in physical
attractiveness. However, if the persons’ physical attributes are not
connected to their view of themselves, they generally seem to have no
difference in satisfaction with their body image than younger adults. Thus,
physical appearance plays an important role in determining how people
view themselves.

3
1.2.2 Height, weight, and strength: the benchmarks of change: Physical & Cognitive
Development In Middle
Changes come in all forms. As most people reach maximum height by Adulthood - I
their 20s and are stable with it until the age of 55. During this point people
experience a settling process in which the bones attached to the spinal
column start to become less dense. However, the loss of height is very
slow, women may experience an average height decline of 2 inch while 1
inch of decline is experienced by men over the rest of their life span.
Women are more likely to have a decline in height as they are at a higher
risk of osteoporosis. A condition that causes bones to become brittle, thin
and fragile often due to lack of calcium in the diet is called osteoporosis.
This condition can be avoided by having a calcium rich diet and regular
exercise. When it comes to weight, one might observe an increase in body
fat during this period even in those who had been slim all their lives. Since
there is no increase in height but decline, increase in body fat and weight
leads to obesity. Lifestyle choices, if kept in check (exercising and healthy
eating), there may not be an increased weight experienced. The strength
also seems to decline as there comes changes in one's weight and height.
Compensation for the loss can be done by regularly looking after one's
health and making appropriate lifestyle changes for it, making the person
feel stronger.

1.2.3 The senses: the sights and sounds of middle age:

Changes in senses may also take place as one ages, for example sensitivity
to the eyes, not being able to read fine writing without glasses and
appropriate lights; and other sense organs like hearing.

Vision:
From the age of 40, people experience inability to recognize fine spatial
details for distant and close objects. There are changes encountered in the
elasticity and the lens of the eyes, making it difficult to project images
onto the retina sharply. Since the lens becomes less transparent, less
amount of light gets passed through the eye. The loss of near vision called
presbyopia is experienced universally due to the changes in eyesight
during middle adulthood. Even those who had never needed glasses find
difficulty to read, eventually taking help of reading glasses. Not only these
but changes are also found in one’s depth perception, ability to view the
world in 3 dimensions and distance perception. Due to the loss of
elasticity in the lens there is a lack of ability to adapt to darkness because
of which there is trouble in seeing things in a dimly lit environment.
Sometimes, these changes in vision are a gradual process of ageing while
in some cases, diseases are involved, like glaucoma, caused due to
increase in the fluid in the eye, may be experienced.
Initially, the increased pressure in the eye may constrict the neurons
involved in peripheral vision and lead to tunnel vision. However,
glaucoma can be treated if it is detected early.

4
Developmental Psychology Hearing:
Unlike vision, there is a gradual decline experienced in hearing during
middle adulthood. However, changes in hearing are less evident than that
of one’s vision. Environment also plays a role in some hearing losses. For
instance, people who are into professions that keep them close to loud
noises leading to severe impact over hearing ability. Other changes may
occur simply due to ageing. Just like the elasticity of the lens of the eyes
lessens up, similarly, eardrums may also become less elastic with age
having reduced sensitivity to sound. Presbycusis, degradation of the ability
to hear high-frequency, high-pitched sound may also be experienced in
12% of middle-aged individuals ranging from the age of 45 to 65 years.
There may also be a difficulty in localising the sound, where difficulty in
identifying the origin and direction of sound is experienced. There is
trouble in localising sound, since hearing loss may not affect both ears
equally. There is no marked effect of sensitivity to sound to most people
during middle adulthood. Compensation for the losses occurring easily can
be done by asking others to increase volume, speak up or by paying
careful attention to what one says.

1.2.4 Reaction time: not-so-slowing down:

In most cases, there is an increase in reaction time (taking longer to react
to a stimulus), but this increase is mild and is not very noticeable. For
instance, reaction time for simple tasks like reacting to loud noises have an
increase of about 20% from the age of 20 to 60 years. There is less of an
increase for most complex tasks requiring coordination of various skills.
The speed with which one’s nervous system processes nerve impulses
indicate the increase in reaction time. Can we do anything to slow down?
Probably yes, by making lifestyle choices which involve active exercise
programs which slows the effect of ageing, generating better health,
muscle strength and endurance.

1.2.5 Sex in middle adulthood: the ongoing sexuality of middle age:

During middle adulthood, although there is a decline in the frequency of
sexual intercourse, it still remains an important part of the life. This
implies to not only for heterosexual couples but also for homosexual
couples. After raising children, middle aged married couples experience
sexual enjoyment and freedom that had been missing during their earlier
lives, as they find more time to engage into uninterrupted sexual activities.
There is no fear of pregnancy and the need of birth control for women who
have passed through menopause. Although both males and females may
face some challenges during this period. For instance, males may take
longer to achieve an erection. In case of females, the walls of the vagina
become less elastic and thin, it also starts to shrink and its entrance
becomes compressed, making the intercourse painful. However, these
challenges for women may not create deterioration in the sexual pleasure.
While those who experience troubles can help themselves by medications.

5
The female climacteric and menopause: Physical & Cognitive
Development In Middle
By the age of 45, females enter a period of transition from being able to Adulthood - I
bear children to being unable to do so as the climacteric occurs, which
lasts from 15 to 20 years. The marked period for climacteric is menopause,
cessation of menstruation in females. During menopause menstrual
periods start to occur less frequently or irregularly during the two-year
period starting from 47 or 48. It may even commence as early as 40 or as
late as age of 60. The production of sex hormones, namely, estrogen and
progesterone, begins to decline leading to a variety of hormone-related
changes with age. These changes in hormones may produce a variety of
symptoms, differing with the degree that one might experience it with.
Women may universally experience headaches, heart palpitations, joint
pains and dizziness during the period of menopause. Only one tenth of
women encounter severe distress during menopause while many have no
symptoms at all. Symptoms of menopause for many women begin to
appear a decade before it actually occurs. This period is called as
premenopausal period where the production of hormones starts to
fluctuate resulting in symptoms of menopause. For some the symptoms
experienced during perimenopause and menopause can be significantly
problematic.

Hormone Therapy: A dilemma, no easy answer:

Decades ago, when women faced symptoms caused by the onset of
menopause, physicians would prescribe dose of hormone replacement
drug which was a solution that worked for millions of women. In this
hormone therapy (ht) administration of progesterone or estrogen is done
to reduce the symptoms experienced during menopause. It is found to be
reducing a variety of problems ranging from hot flashes, loss of skin
elasticity, coronary heart disease to osteoporosis like diseases. Estrogen
can reduce depression, improve sex drive, memory and cognitive
performance in healthy women. Even though it may appear to be a
promising therapy, evidence shows that there have been risks associated
with it. For instance, it may increase the risk of blood clotting and breast
cancer. Consequently, many women discontinued taking ht. Recent
findings indicate that there may be some women who may be better
candidates for ht than the others. Ht may be less appropriate for older,
post-menopausal women as it may increase the risk of coronary heart
disease and other health complications, hence women who are at the onset
of menopause and those experiencing severe symptoms may benefit from
ht on a short term basis. Although there is a risk associated with it, it is
assumed to be worth it, for which women must be well informed or well-
read to make a decision for how to proceed.

The Psychological Consequences of Menopause:

Menopause is traditionally linked to symptoms of irritability, lack of
concentration, crying spells and disorders like depression and anxiety.
Around 10% of women experience depression during this period.
Menopause is regarded as a part of aging that does not produce

6
Developmental Psychology psychological symptoms by itself. Women do experience psychological
difficulties at this point but they also do so at other times of their lives.
According to research, a woman's expectations about menopause may
have a significant difference in her experience to it. Those who expect to
have difficulties during menopause are likely to experience emotional and
physical changes. Those who have favorable attitudes towards menopause
experience less physical and physiological changes.
Hence, a woman's perception shapes the experience of the period of
menopause. The extent of menopausal symptoms and its nature also differ
according to one’s ethnicity and cultural background. For instance, in
India women report few symptoms of menopause, rather they view the
post-menopausal period to be having social advantages, like end of taboos
associated with menstruation and a perception of increased wisdom due to
age and hence, look forward to it.

The Male Climacteric:

Until now we discussed climacteric in females, now moving forward let us
discuss do men also experience an equivalent of menopause? Probably the
answer to it is no. They do not have to go through the biological cycle of
menstruation so they would not have to face the difficulty of experiencing
its discontinuation. During the middle-ages, men do experience some
changes which may be collectively referred to as the male climacteric.
This change which is physical and psychological in the reproductive
system takes place during late middle age, mainly during 50s. As these
changes take place gradually, the exact period for male climacterics
cannot be traced. For instance, by the age of 50, typically low levels of
testosterones are noted in 10% of men. Testosterone replacement therapy
for these men may be used. A physical change that quite frequently occurs
in males is enlargement of the prostate gland. Around 10% of men have
enlarged prostates by the age of 40, and this percentage increases in about
half of all men by the age of 80. Problems faced due to enlargement of
prostate produces problems with urination, frequent urination and the need
to urinate frequently at night. There's an increase in sexual problems as
men age. Specifically, erectile dysfunction in which there is an inability to
achieve or maintain an erection. Drugs that regulate the hormone,
testosterone, are usually effective in treating this problem. Men, like
women, experience psychological changes, but the extent to which
psychological changes take place will be discussed more in the next
module.

Check your progress

1. Write the differences between early adulthood and middle adulthood.
2. Enumerate the physical development in middle adulthood.
3. What is menopause? Explain the psychological consequences of it.
4. Write a detailed note on reaction time.

7
 Physical & Cognitive
1.3 HEALTH Development In Middle
Adulthood - I
Developmentalists view that most people are relatively healthy during
middle adulthood, they also get susceptible to a number of health-related
concerns. We will be covering some common health problems of middle
age, particularly, coronary heart disease and cancer.

1.3.1 Wellness and Illness: The Ups and Downs of Middle Adulthood:
Health becomes an important part to people during middle adulthood.
Surveys indicate that at this age most people worry about their safety and
money. Since most people are also concerned about their health, a large
majority of middle-aged adults mention facing no chronic health
difficulties. Somehow, people in middle age are better off than in their
early periods of life. They may be less likely to experience allergies,
respiratory diseases, infections and digestive problems as by now they
have a better immunity after passage from young adulthood. There are
particular types of diseases that begin to show up during middle
adulthood. For example, onset of arthritis begins after the age of 40, if the
person is overweight, they may also suffer from type 2 diabetes occurring
from the age of 50 and 60. The most frequent chronic disorders found in
middle age is Hypertension, high blood pressure. If the symptoms of this
are ignored or untreated, it may elevate the risk of heart disease and
stroke. In order to prevent it, a variety of diagnostic medical tests are
recommended routinely for middle aged people. Due to the onset of
chronic diseases, as compared to early periods of life, the death rate
amongst middle-aged people is higher. However, death may be a rare
occurrence as the death rate for individuals between 40 to 60 years of age
has declined remarkably.

Stress in Middle Adulthood:

Stress is a part of life which also continues to have an impact on health
during middle age, although the nature of the stress might have changed.
Irrespective of what triggers stress, it's results are quite similar.
Psychoneuroimmunologists are the ones who study the relationship
between the brain, psychological factors and immune system. They have
noted that stress produces three important consequences. Firstly,
physiological outcomes that are a direct result of stress experienced. They
range from increase in hormonal activity to blood pressure to decline in
immune system response. Secondly, unhealthy behaviours are adapted
when stress is experienced such as drugs intake, smoking, drinking or
cutting into sleep. Lastly, health related behaviours have an indirect effect
due to stress. Individuals suffering under a lot of stress may fail to seek
good medical care or comply with medical advice. All of these can lead to
serious health conditions.

8
Developmental Psychology 1.3.2 The A’s and B’s of Coronary Heart Disease: Linking Health and
Personality
The main cause of death during middle age is due to heart and circulatory
system than from any other cause. Men are more prone to suffer from
these as compared to women. However, women may not be completely
immune. Each year around 151,000 people under the age of 65 are found
to be losing their lives due to such diseases.

Risk Factors for Heart Disease:

Heart and circulatory diseases being a main problem may not be an equal
threat for all. Some people may be at high risk, while some may be at a
lower risk than others. This can be explained by both experiential and
genetic characteristics. Some may be genetically more predisposed to
heart disease. If an individual's parents have suffered from it, it is highly
likely that s/he may suffer from it. Similarly age and sex can also be
considered as risk factors. Men are more likely than females to suffer from
heart disease, with rising risk as the age increases. Considering these, one
must not neglect the importance of environment and lifestyle choices.
Smoking cigarettes, a sedentary lifestyle, high fat and cholesterol levels in
the diet may increase the likelihood of heart disease. Even psychological
factors play an important role, pertaining to the experience and perception
of stress, appearing to be associated with heart disease. There are certain
personality traits which appear to be related to coronary heart disease
during middle age, called Type A behaviour patterns.
Type A’s and Type B’s:
Type A behaviour pattern can be identified as being impatient,
competitive and a tendency towards being hostile and frustrated. These
individuals engage in multiple activities simultaneously and are driven to
achieve more than others. They easily lose their temper while they become
hostile, both verbally and nonverbally while they are prevented from
reaching or seeking a goal they want to accomplish. In opposition to this
there are many people who display behaviours opposite to Type A
behaviour pattern, known as Type B behaviour pattern. The Type B
behaviour pattern can be identified as being patient, noncompetitive and a
lack of aggressive tendencies. There is little or no sense of time urgency
experienced and are rarely found to be hostile. Type A and Type B
behaviour patterns may not be viewed to be possessed in isolation, rather,
they can be seen as a continuum with people falling in between that
continuum. However, people may be closer to one of the two categories.
When a person reaches middle age, depending upon the category to which
a person falls leads to the incidence of the likeliness of coronary heart
disease. For instance, as compared to Type B men, Type A men are twice
as likely to experience coronary heart disease, fatal heart attacks and are at
higher risk of heart problems. This happens because when Type A men are
stressed, they become aroused physiologically. It is also important to note
that not every component of Type A behaviour is harmful. The key
component of heart disease linked to Type A behaviour is hostility and

9
they are found to be correlational. It must also be noted that all the Physical & Cognitive
research pertaining to coronary heart disease was focused upon men as the Development In Middle
incidence of it occurring in males is much higher than females. Adulthood - I

1.4 THE THREAT OF CANCER

Many individuals view cancer as a death sentence as many middle-aged
people fear cancer. Reality is slightly different. Many forms of cancers can
be cured by medical treatment. Two thirds of people diagnosed with
cancer are found to be living 5 years later. It spreads straightforwardly and
causes for cancer are still not known. However due to some reasons,
specific cells in the body start to multiply rapidly, as they increase in
number, they form tumours. If untreated, they start to absorb nutrients
from healthy cells and body tissue, destroying the ability of the body to
function properly. Unlike heart disease cancer is associated with a number
of risk factors, some are environmental while some are genetic. Some
types of cancer may be purely genetic. For instance, a family history of
blood cancer.
Other risks of cancer involve environmental and behavioural factors. For
instance, poor lifestyle, bad habits, exposure to sunlight and radiation, and
particular occupational hazards (certain chemicals) may all increase the
chances of developing cancer. Once the diagnosis of cancer happens
several forms of treatment are possible, depending on what type of cancer
has been caused.
One such treatment is radiation therapy where the destruction of a tumour
is the target of the radiation. Another being chemotherapy involves
ingestion of controlled doses of toxic substances to poison the tumour.
Lastly, surgery may be used to remove the tumour and the surrounding
tissue. Treatment results in how far the cancer has spread while it was
identified. Because detection of cancer at an early stage improves the
patient's chances to be treated, diagnostics help the initial signs of cancer
which are of most importance. Physicians urge men to regularly examine
their testicles and prostate gland; and women to routinely examine their
breasts for signs of cancer.

Psychological Factors Relating to Cancer: Mind Over Tumour?:

Evidence suggests that cancer along with physiological causes is related to
psychological cases as well. Personality also plays a role in cancer. Which
brings us to the question of how prognosis is related to one's psychological
state. Cancer treatment is usually unpleasant, complex and intricate. Those
who have positive attitudes and also seek therapy are more likely to stick
on to medical treatments. These kinds of individuals are found to
experience success during treatment. Even holding a positive
psychological viewpoint reinforces the body's immune system being a
natural line of defence against cancer producing cells that kill cancer cells.
Consequently, negative attitudes may reduce the ability of the natural
killer cells of the body to fight cancer. At the same time, it is also unfair to
assume that a person suffering from cancer would do better only if s/he
10
Developmental Psychology has a more positive attitude. Data suggests that for these patients
psychological therapy is a must for their routine part of cancer treatment,
even though it may improve client's morale and psychological state.
Check your progress
1. Write the relation between wellness and illness in middle adulthood.
2. Explain type A and type B personality in middle adulthood.
3. Write a detailed note stress.

1.5 LET'S SUM UP

To sum up, physical abilities and health during middle adulthood are good
at this stage. However, there are subtle changes which occur, but these
changes are easily compensated for by the strength of other cognitive
skills that they possess.
At this stage, incidence of life-threatening chronic diseases starts to
increase, specifically for cancer and heart disease. Considering the
cognitive realm, memory and intelligence are found to deteriorate very
gradually in few areas but the decline is hidden by gains and
compensatory stragglers in other areas.
During the age of 40 to 65, people start to show a decline in their strength,
height and increased weight. The best way to battle this deterioration is
through adopting a healthy lifestyle and regular exercise.
We also looked upon how changes in senses happen during middle
adulthood. As the eye lens changes, there is a change in visual acuity.
There are declines in visual, depth and distance perception, perceiving
three dimensional objects and adaptation to darkness. Declines in hearing
are also noted in the loss of ability to hear high frequency sounds and in
sound localization.
We came across how changes take place in reaction time during middle
adulthood. The time taken to react to things tends to increase largely
especially over tasks that are complex. However, reaction time is fast to
those activities which are rehearsed on a daily basis.
We compared how experiences of middle-aged men and women change in
reference to sexuality. They tend to experience less dramatic change
which is also enjoyable having sexual freedom too. Women and men both
experience climacterics. In case of women, it is in the form of no longer
being able to bare children and commencement of the signs of menopause,
which is accompanied by emotional and physical discomfort, to which
various therapies and change in attitudes towards it have shown to reduce
the discomfort. While at the same time, men face changes in their
reproductive system, where the sperm and testosterone levels tend to
decline. Males may even face enlargement of the prostate gland causing
difficulty with urination.

11
Moving forward to which we saw the changes that take place in one's Physical & Cognitive
health during middle adulthood. Usually, middle adulthood is a healthy Development In Middle
period but some people are more likely to get susceptible to chronic Adulthood - I
diseases like type 2 diabetes, hypertension and arthritis and also a higher
rate of death as compared to before. The overall health status of
individuals during middle adulthood varies according to their gender and
socioeconomic status. Those who are at the higher end of SES have
lowered death rates than those at the lower end of SES. Women are found
to have a lower rate of mortality than men but they have higher chances to
have illnesses. While research suggests life threatening diseases to be
experienced more by men than women.
We described risk factors related to coronary heart diseases. Where
genetic factors like gender, family history, age are linked with history of
heart disease while environmental and behavioural factors which include
consumption of fats, cholesterol, lifestyle, age and gender are related to
heart disease. Type A behaviour, a pattern of behaviour linked to
impatience, frustration, competitiveness is associated with greater risk of
heart problems.
Lastly, we understood what caused cancer and tools available to diagnose
it. Heart disease comes as a threat during middle adulthood and is found to
be related to genes and environment. To cure these conditions measures of
chemotherapy, radiation therapy and surgery can be adopted. Even
psychological factors are found to play a role in treating cancer, although
research shows results which are mixed. Individuals with strong family
and social ties seem to be less probable to develop cancer as compared to
those who lack such ties. At the same time women at this age are at risk to
develop breast cancer, which can be identified by mammography, hence
routine checkups for females would help prevent this condition and take
likely measures for cure.

1.6 QUESTIONS
1. Explain sights and sounds of middle age. Elaborate your answer with
suitable examples.
2. Discuss in detail male climacterics.
3. Answer following
a. Write a detailed note of the physical transition.
b. Describe in brief risk factors related to heart disease.
4. Explain psychological factors relating to cancer.
5. Write short notes on
a. Sex in Middle Adulthood
b. The dilemma of hormone therapy

12
Developmental Psychology c. Threat of Cancer
d. Female climacteric

1.7 REFERENCES

• Feldman, R. S., Babu, N. (2011). Discovering the LifeSpan. Indian

subcontinent adaptation, New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley India Pvt
Ltd.

*****

13
 2
PHYSICAL & COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE
ADULTHOOD - II
Unit Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Information Processing
2.2 Cognitive Development
2.2.1 Does Intelligence Decline in Adulthood
2.3 The Development of Expertise: Separating Experts from Novices
2.4 Memory: Remembering information
2.4.1 Functions of memory
2.4.2 Types of Memory
2.4.3 Schemas: An aid to memory
2.4.4 Creativity
2.5 Summary
2.6 Questions
2.7 References

2.0 OBJECTIVES
 Analyzing cognitive development.
 Understanding what happens to intelligence of a person during middle
adulthood.
 Explore the role of expertise in middle adulthood.
 Understanding functions and types of memory.
 Understanding the effects of aging on memory and ways to improve
it.
 Understanding the role of creativity.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous unit we came across Physical development during middle
adulthood and other important factors like health. These along with
Cognitive development, play a vital role in one's functioning and
development through this stage of life. Cognitive development plays a
major role deciding actions that one performs and their ability to process,
remember and retrieve information. In this unit, we focus particularly
upon cognitive development in middle age. We look at the tricky question
14
Developmental Psychology of whether or what kind of intelligence declines during this period, and we
consider the difficulty of answering the question fully. We also look at
memory, examining the ways in which memory capabilities change during
middle adulthood.

2.1.1 Information Processing:

As we have seen in the previous module pertaining to the theories of
development and cognition ranging from infancy through adolescence, the
approach of information processing offers another way to analyze
cognitive abilities. In information processing, the alterations that happen
during middle adulthood are the ones which involve memory, expertise,
speed of processing information and skills to solve problems practically.

Memory:
Findings of a longitudinal study state that verbal memory reaches its peak
during the fifties. But in some of the cross-sectional assessment studies, it
has been observed that there is a decline in verbal memory during middle
adulthood. For instance, when asked to remember numbers, meaningful
prose or words, middle aged adults were found to perform poorly as
compared to that of younger adults. There is still this controversy
regarding memory and its deterioration during the middle adulthood years
where most of the experts conclude saying that it tends to decline.
However, some experts argue that the conclusions about the decline in
memory were drawn from studies that compared young adult participants
who were in their twenties with older middle-aged adults who were in
their fifties and even those who were in their sixties were included in it. In
consideration to this fact, memory decline can be viewed as non-existent
or minimalistic during the early part of middle age but is found to rise in
the latter part of middle age or during late adulthood.

Speed of Information Processing:

As we saw above, it has been found that the speed of processing starts
declining during early adulthood and still continues to decline during
middle adulthood. One of the most common ways to assess information
processing speed is through reaction-time tasks, wherein, as soon as the
individuals see the light appear, they have to simply press a button. The
speed of processing this task is slower in adults from middle age as
compared to that of young adults. However, it must be noted that this
decline is not dramatically low, and may range up to 1 second of delay
according to most of the investigation. Currently, there have been
investigations taking place to figure out the possible causes of decline in
speed of processing information in adults. This cause can take place at
various levels of analysis such as cognitively (maintenance of the goal,
trying to save the internal representations despite having distractions or
being able to switch between the tasks), neurochemical (changes in the
system of neurotransmitters such as dopamine) and neuroanatomical
(changes in particular regions of the brain, such as prefrontal cortex).

15
Expertise: Physical & Cognitive
Development In Middle
Expertise itself is the term that explains one’s proficiency at a given task. Adulthood - Ii
Since it takes a long time for one to attain it, it is more evident during
middle adulthood than during early adulthood. Expertise consists of
having largely organized knowledge and understanding of a particular area
or domain. One is said to have an expertise when they have been
associated with it for many years having experience, effort and learning
towards that domain. There are strategies enlisted below which separate
novices from experts.
 Experts tend to be dependent over their gathered expertise to solve
problems
 Experts tend to automatically process information and analyze it more
proficiently when solving a problem related to their domain as
compared to the novices.
 Experts have a hold of better shortcuts and strategies to solve problems
related to their domain as compared to the novices.
 Experts tend to be more flexible and creative in solving problems in
their domain as compared to the novices.

Practically Problem Solving:

Another important aspect of cognition is problem solving. It has been
observed by researchers that the ability to solve problems practically (for
instance, what would they do if their cheque didn’t get cleared at the bank)
seemed to improve through the age of forties to fifties as they were
presumed to have practical experience of their lives. Meta-analysis of
studies showed that everyday problem solving and effectiveness of
decision making stayed stable during early and middle adulthood and then
declined during late adulthood.

2.2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Individuals in their 40s tend to feel that they are less attentive or are
becoming absent-minded compared to what they were 20 years back
harboring concerns about becoming less mentally able to do things than
while they were young. Evidence shows the ability to display mental
sharpness is lost with age.

2.2.1 Does Intelligence Decline in Adulthood?:

As mentioned above, in this section we shall throw more light on this
process. The most frequently asked questions and consistently answered
by experts is pertaining to intelligence. Experts say that intelligence peaks
at the age of 18 and continues to peak until mid-twenties, thereafter it
starts declining gradually until the end of life.

16
Developmental Psychology Types of Intelligence: Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence:
Drawing conclusions about intelligence on the basis of age-related
changes has still been a difficulty for developmentalists. For instance,
many IQ tests have sections on physical performance, like setting blocks
in a particular design. These sections are scored on the basis of how
quickly they are completed. It is very likely that older individuals may
take longer, due to decrease in reaction time, leading to a low performance
score. This poor performance on IQ might be solely due to physical rather
than cognitive changes.
Furthermore, Researchers believe in two types of intelligence: fluid
intelligence which reflects reasoning, memory and information processing
abilities; and crystallized intelligence which reflects skills, strategies and
information that is learnt and gained through experience, which can also
be applied practically to solve problems. Researchers believed fluid
intelligence to be highly determined by genes while crystallized
intelligence was believed to be determined by environmental and
experiential factors. These assumptions were discarded later on, because it
was found that one needs to look at crystallized intelligence in association
with fluid intelligence. When developmentalists looked at the two kinds of
intelligence separately, they arrived at a new answer to the question of
whether intelligence declines with age. They concluded that answer to this
question is both, yes and no. yes, fluid intelligence declines with age but
crystallized intelligence does not decline with age. In fact, crystallized
intelligence improves steadily in some cases. Until the start of middle
adulthood verbal ability is found to rise and is steady for the rest of their
lives. The answer to the question, why these changes occur is that there
are changes in the brain functioning during middle adulthood. Research
indicates there are 20 genes that significantly contribute to gradually less
efficient functioning of memory, learning and mental flexibility by the age
of 40. Adding to that, as people age, there are changes in specific areas of
the brain that are used to accomplish particular tasks. For instance, young
people use just one hemisphere while older adults use both hemispheres to
complete or initiate a task.
Reframing the Issue regarding the Source of Competence
During Middle Adulthood:
It is during this period of life when people hold some of the most powerful
and important positions in society despite fall in specific cognitive
abilities. It seems quite contradictory that there is continuous, growing
competence along with the ongoing cognitive losses.
Research suggests four reasons to answer this discrepancy.
First, measures of cognitive skills may be measuring different kinds of
cognition compared to what needs to be measured, particularly to be
cognitively successful. For instance, traditional IQ tests fail to measure
cognitive abilities related to success in occupation. Resultantly, we do not
find any difference between cognitive abilities and intelligence during

17
middle age if practical rather than traditional IQ tests are used to assess Physical & Cognitive
intelligence. Development In Middle
Adulthood - Ii
Second, there is a possibility that most successful middle-aged adults may
not be representative of middle-aged adults in general. There might be a
small proportion of successful middle-aged people who might have
achieved moderate or little success. Some might have changed their
occupations or might have been sick or retired or dead. Therefore, just by
looking at successful people will provide a biased sample.
Third, the cognitive ability essential for professional success may not be
very high. because those who are professionally successful might still
show a decline in certain kinds of cognitive ability.
Lastly, elderly people might be successful as they have well developed
specific expertise and competencies. While IQ tests may measure reaction
to novel situations; specific, well-practiced abilities can be influenced by
occupation success. Even though the overall intellectual skills may display
a decline, individuals during middle adulthood may expand and even
maintain distinctive talents needed for professional accomplishments.

2.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF EXPERTISE:

SEPARATING EXPERTS FROM NOVICES
If you were ill and needed a diagnosis, would you prefer to visit a new
young physician who had just graduated from medical school or a more
experienced, middle-aged physician? If you chose the older physician, it’s
probably because you assumed that he or she would have a higher level of
expertise. Expertise is when one has an acquisition of skill or knowledge
in a particular area. More focused than broader intelligence, expertise
develops as people devote attention and practice to particular domains
and, in so doing, gain experience, either because of their profession or
because they simply enjoy a given area. For example, physicians become
better at diagnosing the symptoms of a medical problem in their patients
as they gain experience. Similarly, a person who enjoys cooking and does
a lot of it begins to know beforehand how a recipe will taste if certain
modifications are made. What separates experts from those who are less
skilled in a given area? While beginners use formal procedures and rules,
following them often very strictly, experts rely on experience and
intuition, and they often tend to bend the rules. Because experts have so
much experience, their processing of information is often automatic,
performed without the need for much thought. Experts often are not very
articulate at explaining how they draw conclusions; their solutions often
just seem right to them and are more likely to be right. Brain imaging
studies show that experts, compared to novices, use different neural
pathways to solve problems. Finally, when difficulties arise, experts
develop better strategies for solving them than non-experts, and they’re
more flexible in approaching problems. Their experience has provided
them with alternative routes to the same problem, and this increases the
probability of success. Of course, not everyone develops expertise in some

18
Developmental Psychology particular area during middle adulthood. Professional responsibilities,
educational level, marital status, amount of leisure time, and income all
affect the development of expertise.

2.4 MEMORY: REMEMBERING INFORMATION

When changes in cognitive functions during middle adulthood are studied
by developmentalists, it is found that there is a lack of mental exercise that
tends to be associated with deterioration of cognitive and mental skills.
However, these designs can also be reversed and be sustained for those
undergoing cognitive training and exercises.
It is not uncommon to notice that middle aged people are highly likely to
forget vital information which was never the case before. We all have
observed this happening, feeling that they are losing their memory.
Research shows that during middle adulthood, the memory changes which
take place are minimal, while many exhibit none at all. Many people due
to societal stereotypes might be prone to attribute their absent-mindedness
to aging but discount how absent-minded they were throughout their lives.
consequently, attributing their memory changes to forgetfulness rather
than to their ability to remember information.

2.4.1 Function of Memory:

Since studies related to adult memory with age differences are found to
rarely have included middle aged people, drawing conclusions about
memory functions is difficult. Typically, researchers tend to make a
comparison between very young adults (college students) and adults who
are in their 60s-70s. It is usually seen that psychologists tend to infer that
a middle-aged adult’s performance declines somewhere between the two,
whenever the difference between the two groups is seen to be found. In
other words, it is assumed that memory functions decline in a linear
fashion that is at a steady rate, across adult years. However, this
assumption may not be true.
One of the things known by developmentalists is about memory that
forgetfulness tends to increase with age by manifesting itself subjectively
from person to person. As one starts to get older, more forgetful they think
they tend to become. The most valid reason for this could be that for
middle aged adults the memory demands of everyday lives are greater
than those of young adults. One has to keep in mind the limitation of
working memory of being able to take in limited information, that is, the
more one tries to remember at a time, the more they may tend to forget.
Nevertheless, there are some significant differences between young and
middle-aged adults when tested for their memory performance. For
instance, while storing information in one's visual memory, the ability to
memorize the object seen for a few seconds was found to be declining as
one reaches their middle age.
Further, as the complexity and the length between the stimulus
presentation and the recall of the visual stimulus increases, the greater the
19
difference between young and middle-aged adults. In contrast to visual Physical & Cognitive
memory, memory for auditory stimulus seems to be constant throughout Development In Middle
adulthood. Adulthood - Ii

Usually but not until after the age of 55, there is a decline in the
performance on complex memory tasks pertaining to one’s ability to
remember a list of words and texts in passages. While in contrast, there is
a stability in the ability of one to recognize words and texts throughout
adulthood. These kinds of findings suggest that ability to take information
differs with age with respect to working memory.
Researchers examining the capacity of short-term memory at different
ages showed it to be stable throughout early, middle and late adulthood.
The changes that take place depend on one’s ability to make efficient use
of the available capacity.

Use It or Lose It?:

Usually when most adults practice frequently or learn something
specifically is when they can maintain or gain learning of skill upon any
task. For instance, there is an increase in verbal ability during middle age.
It has been noted that performance on vocabulary or vocabulary per se
does not begin to decline until the age of 65. The given proclamation of
'use it or lose it' seems to be true for cognitive abilities. Herein the adults
that engage in tasks or activities that are intellectually challenging show
lesser loss in cognitive skills as compared to those who do not engage in it
at all.
Similarly, having expertise in a specific field may help compensate for
cognitive functioning deficits that are age related. For instance, in one
study, researchers examined participants from the 17 to 79-year-old age
range for their ability to identify melodies having varying tempos. Out of
which some tunes were rapidly placed and then slowed down until the
participants could identify them. Participant’s ability to identify the
melodies presented was predicted through both their age and year of
musical training they had. The relationship between identifying and
musical training was found to be stronger than the relationship between
age and identification. Other melodies were played slow so that they could
be identified and then they were speeded up. Finally, it was found that
only musical training correlated with identification of tunes played this
way, while there was no relation with age.

2.4.2 Types of Memory:

It is necessary to consider different types of memories in order to
understand the nature of memory changes. Traditionally, memory is
viewed in three components which are sequentially arranged: Sensory
memory, Short-term (working) memory and long-term memory. Sensory
memory can be viewed as an initial, temporary storage of information
lasting only for a few seconds. Information gained through the sensory
system is stored as meaningless and raw stimulus. After which the
information moves to short-term memory, information received, if
20
Developmental Psychology rehearsed, moves to long term memory, is then stored permanently.
Typically, short term memory holds information for 15 to 25 seconds
while sensory memory holds information for less than a second. Though
sensory and the short term memory remain unaffected during middle
adulthood but long term memory is found to be declining with age for
some people. The reason for decline is not that it fades or there’s a loss of
memory but rather with age people tend to register and store information
less efficiently. Not only storing the information but also retrieving the
information becomes a difficulty due to their age. It should be noted that
even though it declines during middle age, this decline may be relatively
minor and can be worked upon by using various cognitive strategies. For
many middle-aged adults paying attention to particular things as a whole
and at the same time developing expertise for the same becomes difficult.
To ease the burden of trying to remember things, they may develop
schemas and shortcuts.

Semantic and Episodic Memories:

Researchers can gain additional insight into age-related memory changes
by studying how well young and middle-aged adults are able to encode
different kinds of memories. Endel Tulving (1972) was the first one to
work in this field, he differentiated between two types of memory, viz.,
episodic and semantic memory. Episodic memory is the ability to re
experience or recollect previous episodes or personal events; semantic
memories are the representations of our facts, meaning for words and
general knowledge of the world. For instance, a person's memory of
receiving an award during their childhood is episodic, while the
knowledge about India getting independence in 1947 is stored as
semantic.
Evidence shows that there is a difference between new episodic memory
and semantic memory when it comes to young and middle-aged adults.
For instance, a middle-aged man while attending a cricket game may
forget where he parked his car (episodic memory). However, it is unlikely
for him to forget the basic rules of the game (semantic memory). Middle
aged adults in order to be proficient and to help themselves remember
information better, can make use of various means like using reminder
notes or cues to aid their memory. Hence, a middle-aged man who knows
that there is a very high chance that he may forget where he parked his car,
may help himself by making a note of nearby landmarks which would help
him remember the location of his car. Middle aged adults in contrast to
older adults, are more likely to have a tendency to use cues as they have a
high sense of self efficacy with respect to their memory. In other words, it
is believed that the efforts that they make to remember information will
make a difference, as they keep working actively to improve their
memories. This pattern of aiding one’s memory can be effectively
strengthened when people perceive themselves to belong to a positive
stereotype category, such as those who are sociable, independent, fun
loving and self-accepting than those who perceive themselves to belong to
a negative stereotype category.

21
2.4.3 Schemas: Aid to Memory: Physical & Cognitive
Development In Middle
As discussed above, one of the many ways helpful for people to recall Adulthood - Ii
information can be through the use of schemas. Schemas are the
organization of information in a particular framework that is stored in
one's memory. They are also called mental frameworks. Schemas not only
represent the organization of the world but also help us to categorize and
interpret novel information. We have various types of schemas, such as
schemas for particular people pertaining to their behavior patterns (such as
father, brother or son) or for categories of people (teachers, doctors or
priests) and behavior or events (dining in a restaurant or visiting an
exhibition). For example, consider having a schema of eating out in a
restaurant. We do not treat a meal at some new restaurant as being a
completely new experience. We already know that when we go there, we
will be seated at a table and will be offered a menu from which we would
select the food we desire to eat. Having this schema of eating out at
restaurants tells us how to relate to the server, sort of food to be eaten first
and tipping the waiter at the end of the meal.
Schemas help organize behavior into a coherent whole and also helps in
interpretation of social events. For instance, when visiting a doctor, the
person knows the schema for a visit to the doctor would most likely
involve removing clothes to get themselves checked and it would not be
surprising for them when s/he would be asked to do so.
They also convey cultural information. Schemas also convey cultural
information. However, information acceptable in one culture may not be
acceptable in other cultures as there exists a difference in the pattern of
how people think. Additionally, information consistent with already
existing schemas are likely to be recalled more than the ones which are
inconsistent.

Learning New things:

It has been evidenced that middle aged adults usually outperform those
who are younger on the tasks which usually involve remembering and
comprehending reading material. These are the accumulated effects of
years of being able to use cognitive skills. For instance, it has been found
by researchers that different approaches are adopted by young and middle-
aged adults when they learn from an expository text (the kind of text
you’re reading right now). Young adults have a tendency to create word-
to-word representations of the texts in their memories. While in contrast,
middle aged adults are found to pay more attention to the overall theme
than to the details. In memory, there might be a difference observed in
decline of the memory for the information that is on a surface level at the
same time accompanying an increase in memory of meanings and themes.

2.4.4 Creativity:
Creativity comes as a different question when focusing upon cognitive
functioning during middle years of adulthood. Creativity is the ability to
generate original, appropriate and valuable solutions and/or ideas to
22
Developmental Psychology different problems. One of the researchers looked at thousands of
renowned scientists from the 19th century to study their lifetime creativity
and productivity. They identified an age at which these individuals
published their initial significant work, their best work and the last work.
Analysis of all this data indicated that in every discipline most of the
thinkers produced their best work during the age of about 40 years on an
average. However, it was also observed that most of them published
significant and even outstanding research through their 40s and also
through their 50s. Even though these findings were made in the 19th
century, modern day scientists follow a similar pattern when it comes to
their creative output throughout their lifetime. It has been noted that
psychologists, physicists, mathematicians and other scientists born during
the 20th century have consistently displayed maximum productivity
(measured through the number of papers published every single year)
while they were about 40 years old. However, research quality (measured
by the number of times peers cited their research paper) remained high
through the age of 50 and even through the age of 60. Creativity may
occur quite later and may be maintained for far longer in case of musicians
and other artists. For instance, researchers assessed aesthetic quality of
musical compositions by 172 composers with the help of judges rating
them on the basis of work created later in life.
One might wonder how the process of creativity actually might work.
Studies have been ongoing since sometime by psychologists in the field of
creativity and still it has a long way to go with a lot to learn. One of the
approaches to creativity describes creativity as a kind of thought process
known as divergent thinking. An individual who employs divergent things
can produce multiple ideas and/or solutions to problems that have no clear
answer. This divergent thinking is not only vital to art but also vital to
science. For instance, the time during which scientists faced a problem
while identifying the causes of Aids, they came up with many tested
hypotheses and various proposals until they became clear with the idea
that the disease was caused by a virus. Similarly, a book writer who wants
his readers to attain insight into a character's motives would try out several
ways of communicating the information before setting on one of those
which work best.
Sometimes creative solutions may just pop into the mind of a creative
individual. Here, most of the time this idea arrives in bits and pieces of
numerous solutions that s/he has been looking over for a while. This
process of looking over for the solution to arrive involves four stages in
order to solve problems. First, preparation on, all the relevant and
necessary information related to the problem is gathered. Second,
incubation consists of only digesting the information gathered without
really trying to work on it. Thirdly, illumination occurs when the process
of digesting information would produce an aha moment in which the
solution to the problem becomes clearer. Lastly, translation, where the
solution received is applied to the problem and needed adjustments are
made as required. We might all know by now from our experiences that
the last stage could be time consuming and difficult because, in our daily
lives’ things do not get translated often as we imagine them to be like. As
23
Thomas Edison put it into one of his sayings 'Genius is 99% of Physical & Cognitive
perspiration while 1% of inspiration' as he knew that after working out on Development In Middle
how to design on an electric bulb theoretically, over a year was spent Adulthood - Ii
making prototypes before finding out the design that finally worked.
Hence, he believed that failure was nothing but an essential aspect to the
process of creativity.

Check your progress

1. What is cognition? Write about changes faced by cognition in middle
adulthood?
2. Write on the relation between cognition and intelligence.
3. Write a detailed note on memory.
4. Write a note on Schemas
5. Describe Episodic and Semantic Memories.

2.5 SUMMARY
To sum up, we saw what happens to an individual's intelligence during
middle adulthood. We also analyzed the most intriguing question of
whether intelligence declines during this period. However, it is a
challenging question to answer as there are significant limitations to it. For
those who parted intelligence into two types of fluid and crystallized
intelligence, found that with the progression of age fluid intelligence
slowly starts to decline through middle adulthood while crystallized
intelligence is found to be steady and improves with time.
It is also seen that people in middle adulthood generally show a high
degree of cognitive competence even after demonstrating declines in
specific areas of intellectual functioning. This may be because individuals
are likely to focus and make use of specific areas of competence which in
turn compensates for the loss that occurs known as selective optimization.
We also looked upon the role of expertise in middle adulthood. It was seen
that cognitive competence is not only maintained but also increased in
specific areas through appropriate practice and attention. It also indicated
that experts process information differently than novices.
Furthermore, we saw how memory is affected by aging and how it can be
improved. It was seen that memory declines during middle adulthood but
however with no issues in sensory or short-term memory. While problems
with long term memory may be due to the strategies that people make use
of to store and retrieve information rather than decline in the overall
memory. It was also noted that ‘if we use it we may not lose it’ wherein,
adults who engage in activities/tasks that are intellectually challenging
would show lesser losses in cognitive skills as compared to those who do
not engage in it at all. While even having expertise in a specific field
would help compensate for age related cognitive functioning deficits.

24
Developmental Psychology We further learnt about the functions of memory. It has been evidenced
that performance of middle-aged adults tends to decline in a steady yet in
a linear fashion, but this assumption may or may not be considered to be
true. forgetfulness is viewed as something that occurs and increases with
age. Forgetfulness is an experience that is subjective from person to
person. It has been noted that as the age increases the tendency to forget
also increases, like that of visual memory, which starts to decline as one
reaches middle age. However, the ability to perform complex tasks starts
to decline after the age of 55, while there is stability in one’s ability to
recognize words and texts. Suggesting that ability to take information
differs with age with respect to working memory.
We also came across types of memory, namely sensory, short-term and
long-term memory. These are estimated to stay intact until middle age.
However, the reason for this decline may not necessarily be the age but it
is mainly out of the inability to register the information with appropriate
efficiency. It must be noted that the changes which occur may encounter
minor alterations as they are compensated by the use of various cognitive
strategies. Amongst the types of memories, long-term memory consists of
semantic and episodic memories. Semantic memory is the representations
of our facts while episodic memory is the ability to re-experience
episodes. During middle adulthood there is a difference in one’s ability to
make new episodic memories as compared to semantic memories.
Memory is found to be intercepted, stored and recalled in the form of
schemas. Schemas organize parts of information as a set of whole by
adding meaning to it. Schemas not only represent the organization of the
world but even helps categorize and interpret novel information. While
mnemonic devices help improve one's ability to recall information by
paying attention to the way information is stored.
Moving forward, creativity has a different role to play when one reaches
their middle age. Creativity is the ability to generate original, appropriate
and valuable solutions and/or ideas to different problems. Research
indicates that creativity may occur quite later in life.
One of the approaches to creativity is a thought process called divergent
thinking. Divergent thinking is the ability to produce multiple
ideas/solutions to problems that have no clear answer. Process of
creativity may follow a process of four stages, namely, preparation,
incubation, illumination and translation. These stages may help while one
is looking for a solution to arrive because there are times when creative
solutions may just pop into the mind out of nowhere. As one follows these
stages of creativity, the idea may arrive into bits and pieces having
numerous solutions.

2.6 QUESTIONS
1. Explain crystalline and fluid intelligence.
2. Discuss the sources of competence during middle adulthood.

25
3. What are the functions and the types of memory? Describe in detail. Physical & Cognitive
Development In Middle
4. How does the memory schema represent the world in middle Adulthood - Ii
adulthood? Explain in detail.
5. Explain the ways people carry out expertise in middle adulthood.
Elaborate your answer with suitable examples.

2.7 REFERENCES
• Feldman, R. S., & Babu, N. (2011). Discovering the LifeSpan. Indian
subcontinent adaptation, New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley India pvt ltd.

*****

26
 3
SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE
ADULTHOOD - I
Unit Structure
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Personality Development
3.2.1 Two perspectives on adult personality development: Normative
crisis versus life events
3.2.2 Erikson’s stage of generativity versus stagnation
3.2.3 Stability and change in self-concept and personality
3.3 Let’s sum up
3.4 Questions
3.5 References

3.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
 How personality develops during middle adulthood.
 Identify Erikson’s view of development during middle adulthood and
how others have expanded on his ideas.
 Discuss the nature of continuity in personality development throughout
middle adulthood.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Middle adulthood is a period known for considerable changes in one’s
personality. It is a period characterized by what is called the middle crisis,
a term coined by Elliott Jaques. This occurs during the 40 year of one’s
th

life. Middle crisis is a potentially stressful life period which is triggered by

review and re-evaluation of one’s past life.
Middle crises according to Jaques generally occur due to the awareness of
one’s mortality. During middle age one becomes aware of and realizes that
they have only a few years left to live, that their time has become shorter
and that they will not be able to fulfill their dreams of their youth. There is
a large body of research that suggests that entering middle age does not
necessarily result in a crisis, for many people this is just one of life's many
transitions and they adjust easily.

27
Social changes influence the ages that people arrive at certain lifespan Social And Personality
stages; this is the case with marriage, the birth of a child, and more. Development In Middle
During middle adulthood, identity continues to form, and thus Erikson’s Adulthood - I
stages of development do not follow a chronological progression.

3.2 PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT

Personality is a branch of human development that is plastic and ever
evolving. Though childhood characteristics (traits) often remain the same,
personality frequently develops for the better, as individuals overcome
life’s challenges. Hence, middle adulthood is a period of substantial
psychological growth. 5
Until recently, the focus of personality development was largely on the
normative-crisis model in which universal sequential stages hold age-
related crises. Viewing development as a chronological progression does
not fit the stage of middle adulthood, as individuals now hold a mixture of
roles.
With the help of developmental perspectives will be studying the aspects
related to personality development in middle adulthood.
3.2.1 Two perspectives on adult personality development: Normative
crisis versus life events:
During adult personality development people move through a fixed
sequence of stages, each tied closely to age. These stages are associated
with specific crises where an individual undergoes a strong period of
questioning and psychological turmoil. This perspective is an aspect of
normative-crisis models of personality development.
Normative-crisis model observes personality development as universal
stages of sequential, age-related crisis. Erik Erikson’s psychosocial theory
predicts that throughout the lifespan people move through a series of
stages and crises.
Several critics say that normative-crisis approaches may be outdated.
These approaches came at a time when society had fairly rigid and
uniform roles for people. Traditionally, men were expected to work and
support a family; women were expected to stay at home and take care of
the children. These roles played out at relatively uniform ages.
Today, there is considerable variety in both the roles and the timing. Some
people marry and have children at 40. Others have children and marry
later. Others never marry, and live with a partner of the same or opposite
sex and perhaps adopt a child or forgo children altogether. In sum, social
changes have called into question the normative-crisis models that are
closely tied to age.
Life events model recommends that particular events, rather than age per
se, determine how personality develops. For instance, a woman who has
her first child at age 21 may experience similar psychological forces as a

28
Developmental Psychology woman who has her first child at age 39. These two women, despite their
very different ages, share certain commonalities of personality
development.
It is not clear whether the normative-crisis view or the life events
perspective depicts personality development and change in adulthood
more accurately. What is clear is that all developmental theorists agree
that midlife is a time of continuing, significant psychological growth.

3.2.2 Erikson’s stage of generativity versus stagnation:

Erikson's psychological conflict of midlife phase is called generativity
versus stagnation. Erikson proposed that middle-aged adults face a
significant issue—generativity versus stagnation, which is the name
Erikson gave to the seventh stage in his lifespan theory. Generativity
covers adults’ desire to leave legacies of themselves to the next
generation. Through these legacies adults are able to achieve a kind of
immortality. Generativity is expressed not only in bearing or rearing one’s
own children, but also through teaching, serving as mentor, or taking on
leadership roles in various civic, religious, or charitable organizations.
Merely having children is not enough for developing generativity in
Erikson’s terms. The optimum expression of generativity requires turning
outward from a preoccupation with self, a kind of psychological expansion
toward caring for others. By contrast, stagnation (sometimes called “self-
absorption”) develops when individuals realize that they have done
nothing for the next generation. Erikson recognized that once people
achieve certain life goals, such as marriage, children, and career success,
they may become self-centered and self-indulgent. Adults with a sense of
stagnation cannot contribute to society's welfare because they place their
own comfort and security above challenge and sacrifice (Hamachek,
1990). Their self-absorption is expressed in many ways-through lack of
interest in young people (including their own children), through a focus on
what they can get from others rather than what they can give, and through
taking little interest in being productive at work, developing their talents,
or improving the world in other ways.
Middle-aged people can develop generativity in a number of ways.
Through biological generativity, adults have children. Through parental
generativity, adults nurture and guide their child. Through work
generativity, adults develop skills that are passed down to others. And
through cultural generativity, adults create, renovate, or preserve some
aspect of culture that ultimately survives.
The generative adult combines the need for self-expression with the need
for communion, integrating personal goals with the welfare of the larger
social world (McAdams & Logan, 200a). Erikson (1950) selected the term
generativity to encompass everything generated that can outlive the self
and ensure society's continuity and improvement: children, ideas,
products, and works of art. Although parenting is a major means of
realizing generativity, it is not the only means: Adults can also be
generative in other family relationships, as mentors in the workplace, in

29
volunteer endeavors, and through many methods of productivity and Social And Personality
creativity. Development In Middle
Adulthood - I
Erikson's theory says that, highly generative adults appear especially well-
adjusted-low in anxiety and depression, high in self-acceptance and life
satisfaction, and more likely to have successful marriages and close
friends (Ackerman, Zuroff, & Moskowitz, 2000; Grossbaum&
Bates,2002; Westermeyer, 2004). They are also more open to differing
viewpoints, possess leadership qualities, desire more from work than
financial rewards, and care greatly about the welfare of their children,
their partner, their aging parents, and the broader society (Peterson,2002;
Peterson, Smirles, & Wentworth, 1997). Furthermore, generativity is
associated with more effective child rearing-higher valuing of trust, open
communication, transmission of values to children, and an authoritative
style (Hart et a1.2001; Pratt et al.,2001). Although these findings
characterize adults of all backgrounds, individual differences in contexts
for generativity exist. Having children seems to foster men's generative
development more than women. In several studies, fathers scored higher in
generativity than childless men (Marks, Bumpass, & Jun, 2004; McAdams
& de St. Aubin, 1992). In contrast, motherhood is unrelated to women's
generativity scores. Perhaps parenting awakens in men a tender, caring
attitude toward the next generation that women have opportunities to
develop in other ways.
Does research support Erikson’s theory that generativity is an important
dimension of middle age? Yes, it does (Gramling, 2007; McAdams &
Olson, 2010; Pratt & others, 2008). A longitudinal study of individuals
from their college years through age 43 revealed that Erikson’s stage of
generativity versus stagnation showed a pattern of slow but steady
increase in becoming more generative (Whitbourne, Sneed, & Sayer,
2009). Another study revealed that parents’ generativity was linked to the
successful development of their children as young adults (Peterson, 2006).
In this study, parents who were generative had young adult children who
were careful and agreeable.
Research has produced hints of such a developmental stage. One cross-
sectional study of young, mid-life, and older women found that
generativity increased in middle age, as Erikson’s theory suggests
(Zucker, Ostrove, & Stewart, 2002). Contrary to what his theory would
predict, however, the oldest group of participants, whose average age was
66, cited generative concerns as being important to them just as frequently
as the middle-aged group did. These findings support Erikson’s claim that
generativity is more common in middle age than in early adulthood, but
they also indicate that generativity continues to be important in old age.
Other research suggests that generativity is a more prominent theme in the
lives of middle-aged women than in the lives of middle-aged men (Morfei,
Hooker, Carpenter, Mix, & Blakeley, 2004). Further, in a study that
measured middle-aged women’s sense of being burdened by caring for
elderly parents, those who exhibited the highest levels of generativity felt
the least burdened by elder care (Peterson, 2002).

30
Developmental Psychology Erikson's theory provides a broad sketch of adult personality development.
For a closer look at psychosocial change in midlife, let's look into three
alternative approaches to this:
1. Vaillant and Gould revision of Erikson’s Theory:
Developmentalist George Vaillant has spent the past three decades
chronicling the development of several hundred adults through early,
middle, and late adulthood. His research has included measures of
change in the physical, cognitive, personality, and social domains. His
findings for the middle adulthood period prompted him to propose a
modification of Erikson’s theory of lifespan development (Vaillant,
2002).
Vaillant claimed that there is a stage between intimacy and generativity
called career consolidation. Like Erikson, Vaillant tended to define the
domains of life fairly broadly, so career may mean a paid vacation or it
could involve a decision to be a stay-at-home mother or father. The
outcome of this phase is the creation of a new social network for which the
middle-aged adult’s primary work serves as a hub. Involvement with this
social network helps the individual meet the psychosocial needs of this
sub stage. Such needs include contentment, compensation, competence,
and commitment (Vaillant,2002). Individuals need to be happy with the
work-related choices they have made, to feel that they are adequately
compensated, to view themselves as competent in their chosen field, and
to be able to sustain a sense of commitment to their work.
Following generativity versus stagnation, Vaillant argued, there is another
stage called keeper of the meaning. In this phase, middle-aged adults
focus on preserving the institutions and values of their culture that they
believe will benefit future generations. For some, religious organizations
become paramount. Others focus on the arts, educational institutions,
historical preservation societies, or political organizations. The key is that
involvement in these institutions is motivated by the desire to ensure their
survival rather than by a concern for how the institution can benefit the
individual middle-aged adult. In other words, the well-adjusted adult in the
keeper of meaning stage wants to give something to the institution rather
than to get something from it. Moreover, the social networks that are
created through middle-aged adults’ associations with institutions support
their need to feel that the work they are doing will make a difference for
future generations.
Psychiatrist Roger Gould (1978, 1980) presented an alternative to both
Erikson’s and Vaillant’s views. He suggested that in a series of stages and
potential crises faced by people in their entire lifespan, there are seven
stages given by Gould which are associated with specific age periods (see
summary table). According to Gould, people feel a sense of urgency in
terms of attaining life’s goals in their late 30s and early 40s as they
recognize that their time is limited. According to him the reality that life is
fixed can push people toward adult maturity. Gould based his model of
adult development on a relatively small sample and relied a lot on his own
clinical judgments. Some research has supported his explanation of the

31
various stages, which was greatly influenced by the psychoanalytic Social And Personality
perspective. Development In Middle
Adulthood - I

2. Levinson's Seasons of Life: Another alternative to Erikson’s work

is Psychologist Daniel Levinson’s work. He reported the results of
extensive interviews with 40 middle-aged men. The interviews
were conducted with hourly workers, business executives,
academic biologists, and novelists. Levinson supported his
conclusions with information from the biographies of famous men
and the development of memorable characters in literature.
Although Levinson’s major interest focused on midlife change, he
defined a number of stages and transitions during the period from
17 to 65 years of age. Levinson underlines that developmental
tasks must be mastered at each stage.
At the end of one’s teen years, according to Levinson, a transition from
dependence to independence should happen. This transition is marked by
the creation of a dream—an image of the kind of life the youth want to
have, especially in terms of a career and marriage. Levinson sees the
twenties as a learner phase of adult development. It is a time of rationally
free experimentation and of testing the dream in the real world. In early
adulthood, the two major tasks to be learnt are exploring the possibilities
for adult living and developing a stable life structure.
From about the ages of 28 to 33, a man faces a transition period in which
he must face the more serious question of determining his goals. During
the thirties, he usually focused on family and career development. In the
later years of this period, he arrives in the phase of Becoming One’s Own
Man. By age 40, he reaches a stable location in his career, outgrows his
earlier, more tenuous attempts at learning to become an adult, and now
must look ahead to the kind of life he will lead as a middle-aged adult.
According to Levinson, the transition to middle adulthood lasts about
five years (ages 40 to 45) and it needs the adult male to come to grips with
four major conflicts that have been in his life since adolescence: (1) being
young versus being old, (2) being destructive versus being constructive,
(3) being masculine versus being feminine, and (4) being attached to
32
Developmental Psychology others versus being separated from them. Seventy to 80 percent of the men
Levinson interviewed found the midlife transition tumultuous and
psychologically painful, as many aspects of their lives came into question.
According to Levinson, the success of the midlife transition rests on how
effectively the individual reduces the polarities and accepts each of them
as an integral part of his being.
Because Levinson interviewed middle-aged men, we can consider the data
about middle adulthood more valid than the data about early adulthood.
When individuals are asked to remember information about earlier parts of
their lives, they may distort and forget things. The original Levinson data
included no women, although Levinson (1996) reported that his stages,
transitions, and the crisis of middle age hold for women as well as men.
3. The Midlife Crisis: Reality or Myth? Levinson (1978, 1996)
reported that most of the men and women in his samples experienced
considerable inner turmoil during the transition to middle adulthood.
Yet Vaillant (1977) saw limited examples of crisis. Instead, change
was typically slow and steady. These contrasting findings raise the
question of how much personal turmoil actually accompanies entry to
midlife. Are self-doubt and stress especially great during the forties,
and do they prompt major reformation of the personality, as the term
midlife crisis implies?
In a survey of more than 700 adults, only one-fourth reported experiencing
a midlife crisis. When asked what they meant by the term, the participants
defined it much more loosely than researchers had done. People reported a
crisis well before age 40, others well after age 50. And most attributed it
not to age but to challenging life events (Wethington,2000).
Another way of exploring midlife questioning is to ask adults about life
regrets-attractive opportunities for career or other life-changing activities
they did not pursue or lifestyle changes they did not make. In two
investigations of women in their early forties, those who acknowledged
regret without making life changes, compared to those who modified their
lives, reported less favorable psychological well-being and poor physical
health over time (Landman et al., 1995; Stewart &Vandewater, 1999).
By late midlife, with less time ahead to make life changes, people's
interpretation of regrets plays a major role in their wellbeing. Among a
sample of several hundred 60- to 65-year-olds, diverse in socio-economic
status, about half expressed at least one regret. Compared to those who
had not resolved their disappointments, those who had come to terms with
them (accepted and recognized some eventual benefits) or had "put the
best face on things" (able to recognize benefits but still had some
remaining guilt) specified healthier physical health and better life
fulfillment.
In sum, life assessment is common during middle age. Most people go for
changes that are best described as "turning points" rather than drastic
alterations of their lives. Those who cannot modify their life paths often
look for the "silver lining" in life's difficulties (Wethington, Kessler, &
33
Pixley, 200a). The few midlifers who are in crisis typically have had early Social And Personality
adulthoods in which gender roles, family pressures, or low income and Development In Middle
poverty severely limited their ability to achieve personal needs and goals, Adulthood - I
at home or in the broader world.

3.2.3 Stability and change in self-concept and personality:

Midlife changes in self-concept and personality reflect growing awareness
of a limited lifespan, longer life experience, and generative concerns. Still
some aspects of personality remain constant, revealing the persistence of
individual differences established during earlier periods.
1. Possible Selves: Possible selves, future-oriented representations of
what one hopes to become and what one is scared of becoming.
Possible selves are the time-based dimension of self-concept-what the
individual is striving for and attempting to avoid. To lifespan
researchers, these hopes and fears are just as vital in explaining
behavior as people's views of their present features. Indeed, possible
selves may be an especially strong motivator of action in midlife, as
more sense becomes attached to time. In middle adulthood, people may
rely less on social comparisons in judging our self-worth and more on
temporal comparisons-how well they are doing in relation to what they
had planned.
Throughout adulthood, people's descriptions of their current selves show
considerable stability. A 30-year-old who says he is cooperative,
competent, outgoing, or successful is likely to report a similar picture at a
later age. But reports of possible selves change greatly. Adults in their
early twenties mention possible selves in many senses, and their visions
are lofty and idealistic-being "perfectly happy" rich and famous,``''healthy
throughout life," and not being "a person who did nothing important."
With age, possible selves become less in number and more modest and
concrete, They are mainly concerned with performance of roles and
responsibilities already begun-“being capable at work", “being a good
husband and father," "putting my children in colleges of their choice,"
"staying healthy," and not being "a burden to family" or "without
sufficient money to achieve my daily needs" (Bybee & Wells, 2003; Cross
& Markus, 1991; Ryff, 1991).
What explains these shifts in possible selves? Because the future no longer
holds boundless opportunities, adults preserve mental health by regulating
their hopes and fears. To stay motivated, they must maintain a sense of
unachieved possibility; yet they must still manage to feel good about
themselves and their lives despite disappointments (Lachman & Bertrand,
2002).
2. Self-Acceptance, Autonomy, and Environmental Mastery: An
evolving mix of competencies and experiences leads to changes in
some personality traits during middle adulthood. Middle-aged
adults incline to offer more complex, integrated descriptions of

34
Developmental Psychology themselves than do younger and older individuals. And many have
reshaped contexts to suit their personal needs and values.

These developments undoubtedly contribute to other gains in personal

functioning. In research on well-educated adults ranging in age from the
late teens into the seventies, three traits have increased from early to
middle adulthood and then leveled off:
 Self-acceptance: More than young adults, middle-aged people, they
acknowledged and accepted both their good and bad qualities and felt
positively about themselves and life.
 Autonomy: Middle-aged adults saw themselves with fewer concerns
about others expectations and evaluations and more concerned with
following self-chosen standards.
 Environmental Mastery: Middle-aged people saw themselves as
capable of managing a wide array of tasks easily and effectively.
In Unit 10, we noted that midlife brings gains in expertise and practical
problem solving. These cognitive changes may support the confidence,
initiative, and decisiveness of this period. Overall, midlife is a time of
increased comfort with the self, independence, assertiveness, commitment
to personal values, psychological well-being, and life satisfaction. Perhaps
because of these personal attributes, people sometimes mention middle
age as “the prime of life”. Although individual differences exist, middle
adulthood is a time when many people report feeling especially happy and
functioning at their best.
3. Coping strategies: Compared to younger adults, middle-aged
people are more likely to identify the positive side of difficult
situations, postpone action to permit evaluation of alternatives,
anticipate and plan ways to handle future discomforts, and they use
humor to express ideas and feelings without offending others.
Notice how these efforts flexibly draw on both problem-centered
and emotion-centered strategies.
Why might effective coping increase in middle adulthood? Other
personality changes seem to support it. In one study, cognitive-affective
complexity-the ability to blend personal strengths and weaknesses into an
organized self-description, which increases in middle age-predicted good
coping strategies. Greater confidence in handling life's problems may also
contribute. In a longitudinal investigation of well-educated women, taking
initiative to overcome difficult times in early adulthood predicted
advanced self-understanding, social and moral maturity, and high life
satisfaction at age 43. Overall, these findings suggest that years of
experience in managing stress promote enhanced self-knowledge, which
joins with life experience to foster more sophisticated, flexible coping
during middle age.

35
 Social And Personality
Development In Middle
Adulthood - I
4. Gender Identity: Many studies report an increase in "masculine"
traits in women and "feminine" traits in men across middle age
(Huyck, 1990; James et al., 1995). Women become more confident,
self-sufficient, and forceful, men more emotionally sensitive, caring,
considerate, and dependent. These trends appear in not just Western
industrialized nations but also in village societies such as the Mayans
of Guatemala, the Navajo of the United States, and the Druze of the
Middle East (Fry, 1985; Gutmann, I977; Turner, 1982). Consistent
with Levinson's theory, in midlife gender identity becomes more
androgynous-a mixture of "masculine" and "feminine" characteristics.
Hence the existence of these changes is well-accepted but explanations for
them are controversial. A well-known evolutionary view, parental
imperative theory, holds that identification with traditional gender roles
is maintained during the active parenting years to help ensure the survival
of children. After children achieve adulthood, parents are free to express
the "other-gender" side of their personalities (Gutmann &Huyck, 1994). A
related idea is that the decline in sex hormones associated with aging may
contribute to androgyny in later life (Rossi, 1980).
But these biological accounts have been criticized. As we discussed in
earlier chapters, parents need both warmth and assertiveness (in the form
of firmness and consistency) to rear children effectively. And although
children's departure from the home is related to men's openness to the
"feminine" side of their personalities, the link to a rise in "masculine"
traits among women is less apparent (Huyck, 1996, 1998). In longitudinal
research, college-educated women in the labor force-especially those in
high-status positions-became more independent by their early forties,
regardless of whether they had children (Helson & Picano, 1990; Wink
&Helson, 1993). Finally, androgyny is not associated with menopause-a
finding at odds with a hormonal explanation (Helson&Wink, 1992).
Besides reduced parenting responsibilities, in midlife other demands and
experiences of may prompt androgynous orientation. For example, in men,
a need to enhance a marital relationship after children have departed,
along with reduced opportunities for career advancement, may awaken
emotionally sensitive qualities. Compared with men, women are far more
likely to face economic and social disadvantages. A greater number
remain divorced, are widowed, and encounter discrimination in the
workplace. Self-reliance and assertiveness are vital for coping with these
circumstances.
In adulthood, androgyny is linked with progressive moral reasoning and
psychosocial maturity (Prager & Bailey, 1985; Waterman & Whitbourne,
1982). People who do not assimilate the masculine and feminine sides of
their personalities incline to have mental health problems, perhaps because
they are unable to adapt flexibly to the challenges of aging (Huyck, 1996).

36
Developmental Psychology 5. Individual Differences in Personality Traits: In previous
sections, we considered personality changes common to many
middle-aged adults, but stable individual differences also exist. The
hundreds of personality traits on which people differ have been
organized into five basic factors, called the "big five" personality
traits: neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience,
agreeableness, and conscientiousness.
The Big Five PersonalityTraits:
 Neuroticism: Individuals with high on this trait are worrying,
temperamental, self-pitying, self-conscious, emotional and vulnerable.
Individuals who are low are calm, even-tempered, self-content,
comfortable, unemotional and resilient.
 Extroversion: Individuals with high on this trait are affectionate,
talkative, active, fun-loving, and passionate. Individuals with low IQ
are reserved, quiet, passive, sober, and emotionally unreactive.
 Openness to experience- Individuals with high on this trait are
imaginative, creative, original, curious, and liberal. Individuals with
low openness to experience are down-to-earth, uncreative,
conventional, incurious, and conservative.
 Agreeableness: Individualswith high on this trait are soft-hearted,
trusting, generous, acquiescent, lenient, and good-natured. Individuals
With low are ruthless, suspicious, stingy, antagonistic, critical, and
irritable.
 Conscientiousness: Individuals with high on this trait are
conscientious, hardworking, well-organized, punctual, ambitious, and
persevering. Individuals with low conscientiousness are negligent, lazy,
disorganized, late, aimless, and nonpersistent.
Longitudinal and cross-sectional studies of men and women in several
countries varying widely in cultural traditions reveal that agreeableness
and conscientiousness rise from the teenage years through middle age,
whereas neuroticism declines, and extraversion and openness to
experience do not change or decrease slightly-changes that reflect "setting
down" and greater maturity (Costa et al., 2000; McCrae et al.,2000;
Roberts et aI.,2003; Srivastava et aI.,2003).
The consistency of these cross-cultural findings has led some researchers
to conclude that adult personality change is genetically influenced. They
note that "big five" traits are large and highly stablein individual
differences: An adult who scores high or low at one age is likely to do the
same at another, over intervals ranging from 3 to 30 years (Costa &
McCrae,1994). In a reanalysis of more than 150 longitudinal studies
including more than 50,000 participants, personality-trait stability
increased during early and middle adulthood, reaching a peak in the
decade of the fifties (Roberts &DelVecchio, 2000).

37
How can there be high stability in personality traits, yet significant Social And Personality
changes in aspects of personality discussed earlier? We can think of Development In Middle
adults as changing in overall organization and integration of personality, Adulthood - I
but doing so on a foundation of basic, enduring dispositions that support a
clear sense of self as people adapt to altering life conditions. When more
than 2,000 individuals in their forties were asked to reflect on their
personalities during the previous 6 years, 52 percent said they had "stayed
the same," 39 percent mentioned that they had"changed a little," and 9
percent said they had "changed a lot"(Herbst et al.,2000).
Again, these findings contradict a view of middle adulthood as a period of
great turmoil and change. But they also underline that personality remains
an "open system," responsive to the pressures of life experiences. Indeed,
certain midlife personality changes may strengthen trait consistency!
Improved self-understanding, self-acceptance, and skill at handling
challenging situations may result in less need to modify basic personality
dispositions over time (Caspi & Roberts,2001).

Check your progress:

1. What is personality development in middle adulthood? Its importance.
2. Why is middle adulthood called a middle crisis?
3. Explain Normative crisis versus life events.

3.3 LET’S SUM UP

Erickson’s theory is a normative crisis model that views personality
development in terms of fairly universal stages, tied to a sequence of age-
related crises (move through fixed stages and crises). Everyone goes
through the same stages at the same ages.
Life events model proposes that particular events, rather than age per se,
determine how personality develops. Personality depends on what happens
in life and when it happens. For example, having your first baby produces
similar changes whether the mother is 25 or 39 years old. Both models
confirmed that adulthood is not a time of passivity and stagnation but of
continued psychological growth.
Generativity Starts in early adulthood but increases significantly as
middle-aged adults face Erikson's psychological conflict of generativity
versus stagnation. Highly Generative people find self-actualization as they
make contributions to society through parenthood, other family
relationships, the workplace, and volunteer activities.
Personal needs and cultural demands jointly shape adults' generative
activities. Highly generative people seem especially well-adjusted. The
negative outcome, stagnation, happens when people become self-centered
and self-indulgent in midlife.

38
Developmental Psychology Vaillant proposed that adults in their late forties and fifties take on
responsibility as guardians of their culture, seeking to "pass the torch" to
later generations.
According to Levinson, middle-aged adults reevaluate their relation to
themselves and the external world. They challenge four developmental
tasks, each requiring them to reconcile two contrasting tendencies within
the self: young-old, destruction-creation, masculinity-femininity, and
engagement-separateness. Perhaps because of the double standard of
aging, middle-aged women express concern about appearing less
attractive. But non college-educated men, even more than women, show a
growth in sensitivity to physical aging. Middle-aged men may adopt
"feminine" traits of nurturance and caring, while women may take on
"masculine" traits of autonomy, dominance, and assertiveness. Men and
successful career-oriented women frequently reduce their focus on
ambition and achievement. Women who have devoted themselves to child
rearing or an unfulfilling job typically increase their involvement inwork
and the community.
Most people respond to midlife with changes that are better defined as
"turning points" than as a crisis. Only a few people experience a midlife
crisis characterized by intense self-doubt and inner turmoil leading to
drastic changes in their personal lives and careers.
Middle-aged individuals continue self-esteem and stay motivated by
revising their possible selves, which become less in number as well as
more modest and concrete as people adjust their hopes and fears to their
life circumstances.
Midlife typically leads to greater self-acceptance, autonomy, and
environmental mastery-changes that promote psychological well-being
and life satisfaction. As a result, some people hold middle age the"prime
of life."
Coping strategies become more effective as middle-aged adults develop
more confidence in their ability to handle life's problems.
Both men and women developandrogynous trait in middle adulthood.
Biological descriptions, such as parental imperative theory, are
controversial. A complex mixture of social roles and life conditions is
possibly responsible for midlife changes in gender identity.
Among the "big five" personality traits, neuroticism, extroversion, and
openness to experience show stability or modest declines during
adulthood, while agreeableness and conscientiousness increase. But
individual differences in the "big five" traits are largely and highly stable:
Although adults change in overall organization and integration of
personality, they do so on a foundation of basic, enduring dispositions.

3.4 QUESTIONS
1. Explain Erikson’s stage of generativity versus stagnation.

39
2. Discuss stability and change in self-concept and personality. Social And Personality
Development In Middle
3. a. Write the importance of Coping strategies. Adulthood - I

b. Describe Levinson's seasons of life.

4. Write in detail Roger Gould revision theory.
5. Write short notes on
a. Big Five Personality Traits
b. Gender Identity
c. Transition to middle adulthood
d. Environmental Mastery.

3.5 REFERENCES
• Feldman, R. S. & Babu, N. (2018). Development across the Life Span.
(8 Ed). India: Pearson India Education services Pvt. Ltd.
th

*****

40
 4
SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT IN MIDDLE
ADULTHOOD - II
Unit Structure
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Relationships: Family in middle age
4.2.1 Marriage, divorce and remarriage
4.2.2 Family evolutions: From full house to empty nest
4.2.3 Becoming a grandparent: Who, me?
4.2.4 Family violence: The hidden epidemic
4.3 Work & Leisure
4.3.1 Work and careers: Jobs at midlife
4.3.2 Unemployment: The dashing of the dream
4.3.3 Switching-and starting-careers at midlife
4.3.4 Leisure time: Life beyond work
4.4 Let’s sum up
4.5 Questions
4.6 References

4.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this unit you will be able to understand:

 Illustrate the patterns of marriage and divorce in middle adulthood.
 Differentiate the changing family situations faced by middle- aged
adults.
 Explain the causes and characteristics of family violence.
 Identify what factors contribute to career transitions in mid-life.
 Discuss people experiencing leisure time in middle adulthood.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
In this unit we are going to explore —the ways in which we share our
lives with others. First, we consider what makes good relationships.
Because relationships form the basis of our lifestyle. Throughout this unit,
the emphasis is on aspects of relationships and work that nearly everyone
experiences during middle adulthood.

41
During this period, individual and societal developments are intimately Social And Personality
interlinked. For societies to thrive and develop, adults should dedicate Development In Middle
their energy and resources to preserving the quality of life for upcoming Adulthood - Ii
generations. In order for individuals to continue to thrive and grow,
societies must provide opportunities for adults to express and fulfill their
generative strivings.
Because middle adulthood covers a relatively long period, there are
opportunities to review and revise one’s commitments and goals along the
way. People experience many transitions in their work and family roles
during this time, encountering a widening circle of relationships and new
responsibilities for the care and guidance of others. Over the course of
adulthood, many situations call for decisions that have no single correct
answer. Several alternatives are possible, and adults must rely on their
ability to gather and evaluate information to determine which choice is
best for them and their loved ones.

4.2 RELATIONSHIPS: FAMILY IN MIDDLE AGE

The middle adulthood phase of the family life cycle is often referred to as
"launching children and moving on." In the past, it was often called the
"empty nest," but this phrase implies a negative transition, particularly for
women. Once adults devote themselves entirely to their kids, the drop in
active parenting will trigger feelings of emptiness and regret. But for many
people, middle adulthood is a liberating time, offering a sense of
completion and an opportunity to strengthen existing ties and build new
ones.
Because increased life expectancy has caused this period to lengthen, it is
marked by the greatest number of exits and entries of family members. As
adult children leave home and marry, middle-aged people must adapt to
new roles of parents-in-law and grandparents. At the same time, they must
create a different type of relationship with their aging parents, who may
become ill or unwell and die. Let's see how ties within and outside the
family change throughout this time of life.

4.2.1 Marriage, divorce and remarriage:

Marriage:
Marital satisfaction always plays a role in midlife psychological well-
being. A recent study revealed that marital satisfaction increases in middle
age (Gorchoff, John, &Helson, 2008). Even some marriages that were
difficult and unsteady during early adulthood turn out to be better adjusted
during middle adulthood. While the partners may have lived through a
great deal of turmoil, in this time duration they eventually discover a deep
and solid foundation on which to anchor their relationship. In middle
adulthood, the partners may have a smaller number of financial worries,
little housework and chores, and more time with each other. Middle-aged
partners are more likely to view their marriage as positive if they connect
in mutual activities.

42
Developmental Psychology Mainly individuals in midlife who are married voice considerable
satisfaction with being married. In a large-scale study of individuals in
middle adulthood, 72 percent of those who were married said their
marriage was either ―excellent‖ or ―very good‖. Probably by middle age,
many of the worst marriages have already dissolved. However, a current
study revealed that married and partnered middle-aged adults were more
likely to view their relations with ambivalence or indifference than their
late adulthood counterparts. Finally, most also feel that their spouses have
grown more interesting over the course of the marriage.
Sexual satisfaction is related to general marital satisfaction. What matters
is not how often married people have sex. Instead, satisfaction is related to
agreeing about the quality of their sex lives.
Are there ―secrets‖ to successful marriages? Not really. However, there
are proven coping mechanisms that allow couples to remain together
happily. Among them:
 Holding realistic expectations: Successful couples understand that
there are some things about their partner that they may not like all that
much. They accept that their partner will do such things that they don’t
like some of the time.
 Focusing on the positive: Thinking about the things that they like
about their partner helps them to believe the things that bother them.
 Compromising: Partners in successful marriages understand that they
are not going to win every argument, and they are not going to keep
score.
 Avoiding suffering in silence: If something does trouble them, they let
their partner know about it. But they don’t bring it up in a harsh way.
Instead, they talk about it at a time when they are both calm.

Divorce:
Most couples enter marriage with the thought that their relationship will
be permanent. Unfortunately, fewer and fewer couples experience this
permanence. Rather than rising together, couples grow apart.
As in early adulthood, divorce is one way of resolving an unsatisfactory
marriage in midlife. Although most divorces occur within 5 to l0 years of
marriage, about 10 percent take place after 20 years or more. Divorce at
any age takes a heavy psychological toll, but mid lifers find to adapt more
easily than younger people. A survey of more than 13,000 Indians
revealed that following divorce, middle-aged men and women reported
fewer declines in psychological well-being than their younger
counterparts. Midlife gains in practical problem solving and efficient
coping strategies might reduce the stressful impact of divorce.
Nevertheless, for many women, marital breakup-especially when it is
repeated-severely reduces standard of living.

43
Men and women tend to agree on the reasons for divorce. Infidelity is the Social And Personality
most commonly reported cause, followed by incompatibility, drinking or Development In Middle
drug use, and growing apart. People’s exact reasons for divorcing differ Adulthood - Ii
with gender, social class, and life-course variables.

Why people divorce is certainly complex. Many factors on different levels

go into the decision to divorce. As shown in figure, macro-level social
issues, demographic variables, and interpersonal problems all factor into
the decision to divorce (Lamanna Riedmann, 2003).

Remarriage:
The trauma of divorce does not discourage people from beginning new
relationships which often leads to another marriage. Typically, men and
women both wait about 2 to 5 years before they remarry.
Research indicates that there are few differences between first marriages
and remarriages (Coleman Ganong, 1990). Second marriages have about a
25% higher risk of dissolution than first marriages, and the divorce rate for

44
Developmental Psychology remarriages involving stepchildren is about three times higher than the rate
for first marriages.
Although women are more likely to initiate a divorce, they are less likely
to remarry unless they are poor. However, women in general tend to
benefit more from remarriage than do men, particularly if they have
children. Although many people believe that divorced persons should wait
before remarrying to avoid the so-called ―rebound effect,‖ hence, there is
no evidence that those people who remarry sooner have a smaller amount
of success in remarriage than those who wait longer.
Adapting to new relationships in remarriage is stressful. For example,
partners might have unresolved issues from the earlier marriage that may
interfere with satisfaction with the new marriage. On children the effects
of remarriages are positive, at least for young adult children who report a
positive effect on their own intimate relationships as an effect of their
parent(s) remarrying happily.

4.2.2 Family evolutions: From full house to empty nest:

An important event in a family is the launching of a child into adult life.
Parents always face new adjustments as a result of the child’s absence.
Students generally think that their parents suffer from their absence. In
fact, parents who live vicariously through their children might experience
the empty nest syndrome, which includes a decline in marital satisfaction
after children leave the home.
The empty nest or post-prenatal period refers to the time period when
children are grown up and have left home. For most parents this occurs
during midlife. This time is recognized as a ―normative event‖ as parents
are aware that their children will become adults and eventually go away
from home. The empty nest creates complex emotions, both positive and
negative, for many parents. Some theorists suggest this is a time where
parents faced role loss; others suggest it is one of role strain relief.
The role loss hypothesis predicts that when people lose an important role
in their lives, they experience a decrease in emotional well-being. It is
from this perspective that the idea of the empty nest syndrome emerged,
which refers to great emotional distress experienced by parents, typically
mothers, after children have left their home. The empty nest syndrome is
linked to the absence of alternative roles for the parent in whom they
could establish their identity (Borland, 1982). In Bouchard’s (2013)
review of the research, in her research she found that few parents reported
loneliness or a big sense of loss once all their children had left home.
In contrast, the role stress relief hypothesis suggests that the empty nest
period should lead to more positive changes for parents, as the
responsibility of raising children has been lifted. The role strain relief
hypothesis was supported by lots of studies in Bouchard’s (2013) review.
A constant finding throughout the research literature is that raising
children has a negative impact on the quality of marital relationships
(Ahlborg, Misvaer, &Möller, 2009; Bouchard, 2013). Most studies have
45
reported that marital satisfaction often increases during the launching Social And Personality
phase of the empty nest period, and that this satisfaction endures long after Development In Middle
the last child has left home (Gorchoff, John, &Helson, 2008). Adulthood - Ii

A number of studies in India suggest that empty-nesters, especially in

more rural areas of India, report greater loneliness and depression than
their counterparts with children still at home. Family support for the
elderly by their children is a cherished Indian tradition. With children
moving from the rural communities to the larger cities for education and
employment this may explain the more pessimistic reaction of Indian
parents than in other countries' samples. The loss of an adult child in a
rural region may mean a loss of family income for aging parents. Empty-
nesters in urban regions of India did not report the same degree of distress,
suggesting that it is not so much the event of children leaving, but the
additional hardships this may place on aging parents.

Boomerang children: Refilling the empty nest:

Young adults living with their parents for a longer duration and in greater
numbers than earlier generations. In addition to those in early adulthood
who have not left the home of their parents, there are many young adults
who are returning after having lived independently outside the house and
these are called boomerang kids.
Boomerang children typically cite money as the main reason for returning.
In the current economy, many college graduates cannot find jobs, or the
jobs they do find don’t pay enough to make ends meet. Others return home
after a divorce. Overall, close to one-third of young adults aged 25 to 34
are staying with their parents. In some countries, the proportion is even
higher (Roberts, 2009; Parker, 2012).
Parents’ reactions to the return of their children depend largely on the
reasons for it. If their children are unemployed, their return may be a
major irritant. Fathers in particular may not grasp what a difficult job
market college graduate’s encounter, and may be decidedly
unsympathetic. There may also be some subtle parent–child rivalry for the
attention between the child and either spouse.
Mothers tend to sympathize more with children who are unemployed.
Single mothers in particular may welcome the help and security that
returning children provide. Both mothers and fathers feel fairly positive
about returning children who work and contribute to the household.

The Sandwich Generation: Between children and parents:

The term sandwich generation is broadly used to refer to the idea that
middle-aged adults must care for multiple generations above and below
them at the same time. Although middle-aged adults who care for elderly
parents rarely have young children of their own in their homes, many are
providing assistance to young-adult children and to grandchildren-
obligations that, when combined with work and community
responsibilities, can lead middle-aged caregivers to experience
46
Developmental Psychology "sandwiched," or squeezed, between the pressures of older and younger
generations.
The survey found that almost 33% of the sandwich-generation adults were
more likely to say they always feel rushed, while only 23% of other adults
said this. However, the survey suggests that those who were supporting
both parents and children reported being just as happy as those middle-
aged adults who did not find themselves in the sandwich generation
(Parker & Patten, 2013). Adults who are supporting both parents and
children did report greater financial tension. Only 28% reported that they
were living comfortably versus 41% of those who were not also
supporting their parents. Almost 33% were just making ends meet,
compared with 17% of those who did not have the additional financial
burden of aging parents.

4.2.3 Becoming a grandparent: Who, me?:

In addition to maintaining relationships with their children and aging
parents, many people in middle adulthood take on yet another role,
becoming a grandparent. The role of grandparents varies around the
world. In multigenerational households, grandparents may play a greater
role in the day-to-day activities of their grandchildren.
The degree of grandparent involvement also depends on the proximity of
the grandparents’ home to the grandchildren. In developed countries, the
larger mobility of the society can mean that grandparents may live long
distances from their grandchildren. Technology has brought grandparents
and their more far-away grandchildren together. Sorenson and Cooper
(2010) found that many of the grandfathers they interviewed would text,
email, or video call with their grandchildren in order to stay in touch.
Cherlin and Furstenberg (1986) described three styles of grandparents.
Thirty percent of grandparents were remote as they rarely saw their
grandchildren. Usually, they lived far away from the grandchildren but
may also have had a distant relationship. Contact was typically made on
special occasions, such as holidays or birthdays. Fifty-five percent of
grandparents were described as companionate as they did things with
their grandchildren but had little authority or control over them. They
preferred to spend time with them without interfering in parenting. They
were more like friends to their grandchildren. Fifteen percent of
grandparents were described as involved as they took a very active role in
their grandchild’s life. The involved grandparent had frequent contact with
and authority over the grandchild, and their grandchildren might even
have lived with them. Grandmothers, more so than grandfathers, played
this role. In contrast, more grandfathers than grandmothers saw their role
as family historian and family advisor (Neugarten and Weinstein, 1964).

4.2.4 Family violence: The hidden epidemic:

Domestic violence is epidemic in India, happening in one-fourth of all
marriages. More than half the women who were murdered in one recent
10-year period were murdered by a partner. Between 21 percent and 34
47
percent of women will be slapped, kicked, beaten, choked, or threatened Social And Personality
or attacked with a weapon at least once by an intimate partner. In fact, Development In Middle
continuing, severe violence characterizes close to 15 percent of all Adulthood - Ii
marriages in India. In addition, many women are victims of psychological
abuse, such as verbal or emotional abuse. Domestic violence is also a
worldwide problem. Estimates suggest that one in every three women
around the globe experience violent victimization during their lives.
Certain factors increase the likelihood of abuse. Spousal abuse is more apt
to occur in large families for whom both financial tension and verbal
aggression are common. Those husbands and wives who grew up in
families where violence was present are also more likely to be violent
themselves.
The factors that put a family at risk are similar to those associated with
child abuse, another form of family violence. Child abuse occurs most
frequently in stressful environments, at lower socioeconomic levels, in
single-parent families, and in situations of intense marital conflict.
Families with four or more children have higher abuse rates, and those
with fewer incomes. But not all types of abuse are higher in poorer
families: Incest is more likely to occur in affluent families.

The Stages of Spousal Abuse:

In 1979, psychologist Lenore Walker found that many violent
relationships follow a common pattern or stage. The entire stage may
happen in one day or it may take weeks or months. It is different for every
relationship and not all relationships follow the stage.

Figure: The Stages of Violence

48
Developmental Psychology This stage has three parts:
i. Tension building phase: Tension builds over frequent domestic
issues like money, children or jobs. Verbal abuses begin. The victim
tries to manage the situation by pleasing the abuser, giving in or
avoiding the abuse. None of these will stop the violence. In the end,
the tension reaches a boiling peak and physical abuse begins.
ii. Acute battering incident phase: When the tension peaks, the
physical violence begins. It is generally triggered by the existence of
an external event or by the abuser’s emotional condition-but not by
the victim’s behavior. This means the start of the battering event is
unpredictable and away from the victim’s control. However, some
experts believe that in some cases victims may unconsciously provoke
the abuse so they can release the tension, and move on to the loving
contrition phase.
iii. The loving contrition phase: First, the abuser is embarrassed of his
behavior. He expresses regret, tries to reduce the abuse and might
even blame it on the partner. He may then show loving, kind behavior
followed by apology, kindness and support. He will truly attempt to
convince the partner that the abuse will not take place again. This
loving and apologetic behavior strengthens the bond between the
partners and will possibly convince the victim, once again, that
leaving the relationship is not essential.
This stage continues over and over, and may help explain why victims
stay in abusive relationships. The abuse may be terrible, but the promises
and generosity of the loving contrition phase gives the victim the false
belief that everything will be alright.

The Cycle of Violence:

Yet other wives stay with batterers because they have also learnt in their
childhood, just like their husbands, that violence is a tolerable means of
settling disputes.
According to the cycle of violence hypothesis, abuse and neglect of
children influences them to be abusive as adults. In line with social
learning theory, the cycle of violence hypothesis suggests that family
aggression is transferred from one generation to another. It is a fact that
those who abuse their wives often witnessed spousal abuse at home as
children, just as parents who abuse their children recurrently were the
victims of abuse as children.

Spousal Abuse and Society: The Cultural Roots of Violence:

Wife beating is especially common in cultures that view women as
inferior to men and treat them as property. Some experts on abuse
proposed that its root cause is the traditional power structure in which
women and men function. They argued that the more a society

49
differentiates between the status of men and women, the more likely it is Social And Personality
that abuse will occur. Development In Middle
Adulthood - Ii
They cite research examining the legal, political, educational, and
economic roles of women and men. For example, some research has
compared battering statistics across the various states in India. Abuse is
more likely to take place in states where women are of mainly low or high
status compared with women in other states. In fact, relatively low status
makes women easy targets of violence, while unusually high status may
make husbands feel threatened and thus more likely to behave abusively.

Check your progress

1. Write about social development in middle adulthood and its
importance.
2. What are the differences in attitude of male and female towards
relationships in middle adulthood?
3. Discuss the effects of divorce in middle adulthood people.

4.3 WORK & LEISURE

Adults in their middle years actually enjoy a rich variety of activities.
Although middle adulthood often represents the climax of career success
and earning power, it is also a time when people throw themselves into
leisure and entertainment activities. In fact, midlife may be the phase
when work and leisure activities are balanced easily. With no longer
feeling a need to prove themselves on the job, and increasingly valuing
their contributions to family, community, and-more broadly-society,
middle-aged adults find that work and leisure complement one another in
ways that improve overall happiness.

4.3.1 Work and careers: Jobs at midlife:

For many, productivity, success, and earning power are greatest in middle
age, but occupational success may become far less attractive than it once
was. This is particularly true for those who have not achieved the career
success they had hoped for. In such cases, family and other off-the-job
interests become more important than work.
The factors that make a job satisfying keep changing throughout middle
age. Younger adults focus on abstract and future-oriented concerns, such
as the opportunity for progress or the possibility of appreciation and
approval. Middle-aged employees care more about the here-and-now
qualities of work. They are more concerned with pay, working conditions,
and specific policies, such as how vacation time is calculated. As at earlier
stages of life, changes in overall job quality are connected with changes in
stress levels for both men and women. In general, though, the relationship
between age and work is positive. The older employees are the more
overall job satisfaction they experience. This is not in total surprising,
since younger adults who are dissatisfied with their jobs will quit them and
50
Developmental Psychology find new positions that they like better. Also, because older workers have
fewer opportunities to change jobs, they may learn to live with what they
have, and accept that it is the best they are likely to get. Such acceptance
may finally convert into satisfaction.

Challenges of Work: On-The-Job Dissatisfaction:

Job satisfaction is not universal in middle adulthood. For various people,
unhappiness with working conditions or with the nature of the job
increases their stress. Conditions may become so terrible that the result is
burnout or a decision to change jobs.
Employee’s experience burnout due to dissatisfaction, disappointment,
frustration, and exhaustion from their jobs. It happens most often in jobs
that involve helping others, and it frequently strikes those who once were
the most idealistic and driven. In some ways, such workers may be
overcommitted to their jobs.

4.3.2 Unemployment: The dashing of the dream:

For a lot of employees, unemployment is a hard reality, affecting them
psychologically and economically. For those who have been fired, being
out of work can be psychologically and even physically disturbing.
Unemployment can leave people anxious, depressed, and irritable. Their
self-confidence may fall, and they may not be able to concentrate.
According to one analysis, every time the unemployment rate going high,
there is rise in amount of suicide, and admissions to psychiatric facilities
go up, in rates men are higher than women. Middle-aged individuals tend
to stay unemployed longer than younger employees. Workers may
discriminate against older applicants, creating more complications in
finding a new job. Research finds that older employees miss less work
days, hold their jobs longer, are more reliable, and are more willing to
learn new skills. Midlife unemployment is a shocking experience. Hence,
for a lot of employees, particularly those who never find meaningful work
again, such involuntary and premature-retirement can lead to distrust, and
sadness. Accepting the new condition takes time and a good compact of
psychological adjustment. And there are challenges for individuals who do
find a new career, too.

4.3.3 Switching-and starting-careers at midlife:

For lots of individuals, midlife brings a hunger for change. Individuals
who are disappointed with their jobs, who switch careers after a period of
unemployment, or who come back to a job market they left years ago,
development leads to new careers. People change careers in middle
adulthood for numerous reasons. Their job may offer little challenge, or
they have achieved mastery. Other people switch because their jobs have
changed in ways they don’t like, or they may have lost their job. They may
be asked to complete more with less resources, or technology may have
considerably changed their daily activities and they no longer enjoy what
they do.

51
Still others are sad with their position and desire to make a fresh start. Social And Personality
Some individuals simply want something new. People look at middle age Development In Middle
as the final chance to make a meaningful occupational change. Lastly, a Adulthood - Ii
major number of people, most of them women, return to the job market
after raising children.
People may enter new professions with unrealistically high expectations
and then be dissatisfied by the realities. Some forecasters suggest that
career changes will become the rule, not the exception.

4.3.4 Leisure time: Life beyond work:

As most nations restrict the number of hours an employer can demand that
an employee work per week, and require employers to offer paid vacation
time, what do middle-aged adults do with their time off from job and
duties, referred to as leisure? Around the world the most common leisure
activity in both early and middle adulthood is watching television,
socializing, reading, and relaxing/thinking.
In Asia, men spend about 5 hours or more per week in leisure activities,
especially on weekends, than do women. The leisure gap between mothers
and fathers is considerably smaller, around 3 hours a week, than amongst
those without children under age. Those aged 35-44 years spend less time
on leisure activities than any other age group. This is not surprising as
these age groups are more likely to be parents and still working up the
ladder of their career, so they may feel they have less time for leisure.
Indians have less leisure time than people in many other nations. One
report suggests that several other nations also provide additional time off
for young and older workers and for shift workers. In Asia, those in higher
paying jobs and jobs covered by a union contract are more likely to have
paid vacation time and holidays.

The benefits of taking time away from work:

Several studies have noted the benefits of taking time away from work. It
reduces job stress burnout, improves both mental health and physical
health, especially if that leisure time also includes moderate physical
activity. Leisure activities can also improve productivity and job
satisfaction and help adults deal with balancing family and work
obligations.
There are many socio-emotional changes that occur in how middle-aged
adults perceive themselves. While people in their early 20s may
emphasize how old they are to gain respect or to be viewed as
experienced, by the time people reach their 40s they tend to emphasize
how young they are. For instance, few 40-year-olds cut each other down
for being so young stating: "You're only 43? I'm 48!‖ An earlier focus on
the future gives way to an importance on the present. Neugarten (1968)
stated that in midlife, people no longer think of their lives in terms of how
long they have lived. Hence, life is thought of in expressions of how many
years are left.
52
Developmental Psychology Check your progress
1. Discuss middle adulthood as the climax of career.
2. Write about the balance between work and leisure.
3. What are the benefits of taking time away from work?

4.4 LET’S SUM UP

The middle-aged phase of the family life cycle is often called "launching
children and moving on. ―Adults must adapt to many entries and exits of
family members as their children leave, marry, and have grandchildren,
and as their own parents age and die.
The most important factors in creating marriages that endure are a stable
sense of identity as a foundation for intimacy, similarity of values and
interests, effective communication, and the contribution of unique skills
by each partner. For couples carrying children, marital satisfaction tends to
decline until the children leave home, although individual differences are
apparent, particularly in long-term marriages. The majority of long-term
marriages are happy.
Currently, odds are about 50–50 that a new marriage will end in divorce.
Conflict styles can predict who divorces. For men and women recovery
from divorce is different. Men tend to have a harder time in the short run,
but women clearly have a tougher time in the long run, often for financial
reasons. Problems between divorced partners usually involve visitation
and child support. Disruptions also occur in divorced parents’
relationships with their children, whether the children are young or are
adults themselves.
Most divorced couples remarry. Second marriages are especially
vulnerable to stress if spouses must adjust to having stepchildren.
Remarriage in middle age and beyond tends to be happy.
Middle-aged adults, frequently caught between caring for ill or frail
parents, supporting young adult children and grandchildren, and meeting
work and community responsibilities, are called the sandwich generation.
The burden of caring for aging parents fa11s most heavily on adult
daughters, though in later middle age, the sex difference declines.
Grandparenthood is an essential means of fulfilling personal and societal
needs. In-law relationships affect the closeness of grandparent- grandchild
ties. In low-income families and in some subcultures, grandparents
provide essential resources, including financial assistance and child care.
When severe family problems exist, grandparents may become primary
caregivers in skipped generation families.
Occupational readjustments are common as middle-aged people seek to
increase the personal meaning and self-direction of their work lives. Job
satisfaction increases at all occupational stages, more so for men than for
women. Still, burnout is a serious occupational hazard, especially for those
53
in helping professions and in unsupportive work environments. Older Social And Personality
workers less often pursue career development because of negative Development In Middle
stereotypes of aging, which impair self-efficacy; lack of encouragement Adulthood - Ii
from supervisors; and less challenging work assignments.
Involuntary career changes result from job skill obsolescence,
organizational restructuring, or financial downturns. Middle-aged adults
who make voluntary career transitions do so to pursue personal fulfillment
or career advancement or because they are prone to risk taking.
Preoccupations can become more focused as interests, which can lead to
the selection of particular leisure activities. People build up a repertoire of
preferred leisure activities. As people grow older, they tend to engage in
leisure activities that are less tiring and more family oriented. Leisure
preferences in adulthood reflect those previous in life. Leisure activities
promote well-being and can benefit all aspects of people’s lives.

4.5 QUESTIONS

1. Discuss marriage, divorce and remarriage as the source for

relationships with suitable examples.
2. Explain family evolutions.
3. Answer the following
a. Describe the roles of grandparents.
b. Write in detail the stages of spousal abuse.
4. What is a job at midlife? Explain in detail.
5. Write short notes on
a. Cycle of Violence.
b. Unemployment
c. Switching-and starting-careers at midlife
d. Leisure time

4.6 REFERENCES
• Feldman, R. S. & Babu, N. (2018). Development across the Life Span.
(8 Ed). India: Pearson India Education services Pvt. Ltd
th

*****

54
 5
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT IN LATE
ADULTHOOD - I
Unit Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Physical development in late adulthood
5.2.1 Aging: Myth and reality
5.2.2 Physical transitions in older people
5.2.3 Slowing reaction time
5.2.4 The senses: Sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch
5.3 Let’s sum up
5.4 Questions
5.5 References

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
 the myths and facts about aging.
 the physical changes that occurred in old years.
 Describe how the senses are affected by aging.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The late adulthood period, which starts around the age of 65, is
characterized by great changes-and persistent personal growth. Older
adults face profound physical and cognitive changes, and by and large
they figure out strategies for adjusting to them.
The decline begins in late adulthood, which remains as a part of people’s
lives until their death. We will see physical and cognitive aspects of this
period which are largely misrepresented in popular stereotypes. Older
people can maintain physical and mental strength virtually until the day
they die, and their social worlds can also remain as vital and active as they
want.
We begin this unit with a discussion of the myths and realities of aging,
examining some stereotypes that color our understanding of late
adulthood. We look at the outward and inward signs of aging and the ways
the nervous system and senses change with age.

55
5.2 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT IN LATE Physical & Cognitive
Development In Middle
ADULTHOOD Adulthood - I

When we say that an older person "looks young'' or "looks old" for his or
her age, we are acknowledging that chronological age is an imperfect
indicator of functional age, or actual competence and performance.
Because people age biologically at different rates, some 80-year-olds
appear younger than many 65-year-olds (Neugarten & Neugarten, 1987).
Beyond this gross comparison, within each person, change differs across
parts of the body.
There is so much variability between and within populations that
researchers have not yet established any particular biological factor that
measures the average rate of aging for an elderly person. Yet we do have
estimates of how much longer older adults can expect to live, and our
understanding of factors influencing late adulthood longevity has been
increasingly growing.

5.2.1 Aging: Myth and Reality:

The definition of ―old‖ is changing. Many people in late adulthood, which
begins around age 65 and continues to death, are as vigorous and involved
with life as people several decades younger. We can no longer define old
age by chronological years alone; we also must take into account people’s
physical and psychological well-being, their functional ages. Some
researchers divide people into three groups according to functional ages:
the young old (65 to74) are healthy and active; the old old(75 to 84) have
some health problems and difficulties with daily activities; and the oldest
old (85 and older) are weak and need care. According to functional age, an
active, healthy 100-year-old would be considered young old, while a 65-
year-old in the late stages of emphysema (lung condition that causes
shortness of breath) would be among the oldest old.

The Demographics of Late Adulthood:

In America one out of every eight is 65 or older, and projection is showing
that by 2050 nearly one-quarter of the American population will be 65 and
above. By 2050 the number of populations over 85 is projected to increase
from 4 million to 18 million (Schneider, 1999; Administration on Aging,
2003) (see Figure 13-1).

56
Developmental Psychology

Figure 13-1 The Flourishing Elderly

The percentage of people over the age of 65 is projected to rise to almost
25 percent of the population by the year 2050. Can you name two factors
that contribute to this increase?
(Source for figure 13-1: Adapted from U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2008).
The oldest old—people 85 or older are one of the fastest growing sections
of the population. With double in size this group has increased in the last
two decades. Among older people the population explosion is not limited
to the United States. As you can see in Figure 13-2, the number of older
people is increasing substantially in countries around the globe. By 2050,
the number of adults worldwide over 60 will exceed the number of people
under 15 for the first time in history (Sandis, 2000; United Nations,
2002).

57
 Physical & Cognitive
Development In Middle
Adulthood - I

Figure 13-2 The Elderly Population Worldwide

Longer life is transforming population profiles worldwide, with the
proportion of those over the age of 60 predicted to increase substantially
by the year 2050.
(Source for figure 13-2: United Nations Population Division, 2013).

Ageism: Confronting the stereotypes of late adulthood:

Late adult assumptions lead others to believe that aging inevitably brings
poor physical health and mental deterioration. These stereotypes are
embodied in everyday interactions, newspapers, and even greeting cards
(Overstreet, 2006). In the United States, age is not respected and so joking
about growing older in birthday cards is one way to get relaxation.
People's derogatory views towards people in late adulthood are signs of
ageism, or age-based discrimination. The term ageism was first used in
1969, and ageism remains one of the most institutionalized manifestations
of discrimination today according to Nelson (2016).
Nelson (2016) analyzed the research on ageism and found that subjects’
memory and cognitive capacities decreased as older people believed in the
negative assumptions of their society regarding others who are elderly. By
comparison, older people in societies such as China, which hold more
favorable views on aging, did not display cognitive deficits. It seems that
if you comply with the assumption, it is a self-fulfilling prophecy, or the
trust in one's capacity results in acts that make it come true.
58
Developmental Psychology Being the target of stereotypes will adversely affect the performance of
individuals on various tasks because they are afraid. They will reinforce
the cultural stereotypes. It is regarded as a stereotype threat, which was
initially used to describe the differences in academic achievement between
race and gender (Gatz et al., 2016). Research on stereotype risks has
shown that older adults internalizing aging stereotypes can experience
poorer memory performance, worse physical performance, and lower self-
efficacy (Levy, 2009).
Many who believe in negative stereotypes are less likely to engage in
healthy health habits, less likely to recover from illness, and more likely to
experience stress and anxiety that can adversely affect immune function
and cardiovascular health (Nelson, 2016). Additionally, the death rate was
higher for individuals who attributed their health problems to their age.
Likewise, physicians who conclude that disease is only a natural
consequence of aging are less likely to involve older adults in clinical
trials or undergo life-sustaining therapy. By comparison, many older
people with supportive and hopeful views of aging are less likely to have
issues with physical or mental health and are more likely to live longer.
Removing social myths about aging and helping older adults resist those
perceptions of aging is another way of promoting older people's health and
life expectancy.

5.2.2 Physical transitions in older people:

Understanding physical transition, we should understand the distinction
between primary and secondary aging. Primary aging, or senescence,
involves universal and permanent changes due to genetic programming. In
contrast, secondary aging includes changes which are not inevitable but
take place due to illness, health habits, and other individual factors. In
secondary aging the physical and cognitive changes are common, possibly
they are avoidable and can sometimes be reversed.

Outward Signs of Aging:

Hair is one of the most noticeable indicators for aging, which usually
becomes distinctly gray and eventually white, and may thin out. The face
and other body parts get wrinkled as the skin loses elasticity and collagen
(the protein that forms the basic fibers of body tissue).
Sarcopenia involves the loss of muscle tissue as a natural part of aging.
Sarcopenia is always seen in men, and people with physical inactiveness
can lose as much as 3% to 5% of their muscle mass each decade after age
30, but even when active muscle loss still occurs. Symptoms like loss of
stamina and weakness, which can decrease physical activity and
subsequently further shrink muscles. Sarcopenia usually occurs faster
around 75 years of age but may also accelerate as early as 65 or as late as
80. Sarcopenia causes a decline in nerve cells that are responsible for
transmitting signals from the brain to the muscles to begin moving, a drop
in the ability to convert proteins into energy, and not consuming enough
calories or nutrients to maintain enough muscle mass. Some muscle loss is
significant because it reduces strength and mobility and sarcopenia is a
59
frailty factor that increases the risk of falls and fractures in older adults. Physical & Cognitive
For independence it is necessary to maintain strong leg and heart muscles. Development In Middle
Running, swimming or other cardiovascular exercises can help reinforce Adulthood - I
the muscles and prevent atrophy.
People with this age may become shorter by as much as 4 inches, partially
due to changes in posture, but mostly because the cartilage (flexible
connective tissue) in the disks of the backbone becomes thinner. Women
suffer more, they are more vulnerable than men to osteoporosis, or
thinning of the bones, this happens due to menopause and low production
of estrogen hormone.
The primary cause of broken bones among older people is osteoporosis,
which affects 25 percent of women over 60. Women can avoid
osteoporosis if they follow adequate exercise, calcium, and protein intake
earlier in life. With drugs osteoporosis can be treated such as Fosamax
(alendronate) (Moyad, 2004; Picavet & Hoeymans, 2004; Swaim, Barner,
& Brown, 2008).

Internal Aging:
Constant changes in the internal functioning of the organ systems results
in internal aging.
As the sign of internal aging, the brain becomes smaller and lighter, as it
shrinks. Due to shrinking, the brain pulls away from the skull; the space
between the brain and skull doubles from age 20 to age 70. The supply of
blood, oxygen, and glucose to the brain would become less. Also, the
number of neurons, or brain cells, declines in some parts of the brain.
Research says that the reduction of cells in the cortex is minimal or not at
all. In fact, some evidence clearly suggests that certain types of neuronal
growth in the brain doesn’t stop throughout the lifespan (Tisserand &
Jolles, 2003; Lindsey & Tropepe, 2006; Raz et al., 2007; Ziegler et al.,
2010).
Due to hardening and shrinking blood vessels, the heart’s ability to pump
the blood to the brain is reduced. In comparison with early adulthood,
people with old age pump low amounts of blood (Kart, 1990; Yildiz,
2007).
Other internal parts of the body also work at lower capacity. Due to aging
the respiratory system becomes less efficient, and the digestive system
produces less digestive juice and it finds difficulty in pushing food
through the system hence they mostly suffer with constipation. Also, the
production of hormone levels gets reduced. Muscle fibers start
deteriorating both in size and in amount, and then muscle fibers become
less efficient to use oxygen from the bloodstream and storing nutrients
(Fiatarone & Garnett, 1997; Lamberts, van den Beld, & van der Lely,
1997; Deruelle et al., 2007; Suetta & Kjaer, 2010).
Though these changes in the people with old age are normal; they often
occur earlier in people who have less healthy lifestyles. For example,
60
Developmental Psychology smoking decreases the functioning of the cardiovascular system at any
stage of life. Lifestyle plays a very important role in aging. It slows down
the changes linked with aging. For instance, people with good exercise
programs may lose muscle fiber at a slower rate than those who are
inactive. Similarly, physical activeness leads to better performance on
mental ability, it helps to prevent a loss of brain tissue, and may even aid
in the development of new neurons.

5.2.3 Slowing reaction time:

In this age people take longer to react: longer to put on a tie, reach a
ringing phone, press the buttons in a video game. Slowing reaction time
begins to increase in middle age and by late adulthood may rise
significantly (Fozard et al., 1994; Benjuya, Melzer, & Kaplanski, 2004;
Dear Deary, 2006).
With the help of two hypotheses, it will become clear why people slow
down. One is the peripheral slowing hypothesis, indicating that average
processing speed declines with age in the peripheral nervous system,
which includes the nerves that branch from the spinal cord and brain to the
extremities of the body. Because of this, information from the
environment takes a longer time to reach the brain and for commands from
the brain to be transmitted to the muscles and organs (Salthouse, 1989,
2006).
On the other hand, the generalized slowing hypothesis suggests that
processing in all parts of the nervous system, including the brain, is less
efficient. As a result, slowing occurs throughout the body, processing
declines for both simple and complex stimuli, and communication to the
muscles also declines (Cerella, 1990).
It is clear that the slowing of reaction time and general processing
increases the incidence of accidents for elderly persons. Slowed reaction
and processing time lead to dangerous situations as they can’t efficiently
receive information from the environment. Slow decision-making
processes make people impair in removing themselves from harm's way.
Prevalence of fatal accidents per mile are higher in drivers over 70 than
young adults (Whitbourne, Jacobo, & Munoz-Ruiz, 1996).

5.2.4 The Senses: Sight, sound, taste, smell, and touch:

Like other organs of the body, sense organs also get affected by old age,
which has major psychological consequences because people interact with
the environment with the help of senses.

Vision:
Late adulthood can cause other vision defects due to changes in the body.
For instance, the blood flow to the eye decreases (perhaps as a side effect
of atherosclerosis), resulting in an enlarged "blind spot" on the retina and
thus a reduced field of vision. The pupil does not widen or narrow as
much or as quickly as it previously did, which means that the older adult

61
has more difficulty seeing at night and responding to rapid changes in Physical & Cognitive
brightness (Kline & Scialfa, 1996). Development In Middle
Adulthood - I
In addition, a significant minority of older adults suffer from diseases of
the eye that further diminish visual acuity and adaptability. For example,
aged 65 and over, roughly one in five have cataracts (a condition in which
the lens inside the eye becomes clouded and obscures vision) and 6% have
glaucoma (a gradual loss of vision caused by damage to the optic nerve
often associated with elevated fluid pressure in the eye) (Millar, 2004).
The leading cause of field restriction for older people is macular
degeneration, a type of age-related deterioration of the retina that results in
loss of central vision. An estimated 20% of those aged 65 to 75, and 37%
of those over age 75, have this condition (Somani et al., 2009). Thus,
many older adults must adapt to significant impairments of vision, and the
process of adaptation doesn’t always go smoothly. Researchers have found
that middle-aged adults adjust more easily than older adults to the
difficulties associated with living with a serious vision impairment (Lindo
& Nordholm, 1999). Moreover, vision loss has a greater negative effect on
an elderly adult’s sense of well-being. Fortunately, many age-related
diseases of the eye can be effectively treated with medications and/or
surgery.

Hearing:
Unlike many other old-age disabilities, hearing difficulties are more likely
to be encountered by men than women. This sex difference is normally
attributed to differential exposure to noise: More men have worked in
environments with high levels of noise (at least in current cohorts of older
adults in developed countries).
Hearing difficulties in late adulthood have several components: First, there
is loss of ability to hear high-frequency sounds (Roland, Kutz,
&Marcincuk, 2010). Both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies suggest
that, for the range of sounds used in normal human speech, the loss after
age 60 is such that a given sound has to be about 1 to 2 decibels louder
each year for the individual to report that he hears it (Fozard, 1990; Kline
& Scialfa, 1996).
Second, most of people with old age develop difficulties with word
discrimination. Even when the sound is loud enough, older adults have
more difficulty identifying individual words they have just heard
(Schieber, 1992). In addition, many adults over age 60 have problems
hearing under noisy conditions. The loss of ability to discriminate between
individual words is even greater in such situations, so large gatherings
become increasingly difficult for older adults.
Tinnitus, a persistent ringing in the ears, also increases in incidence with
age, although this problem appears to be independent of the other changes
just described. Research suggests that 360000 people experience tinnitus
and that 150000 have an impaired quality of life because of it. It is

62
Developmental Psychology believed that tinnitus may be caused by exposure to noise, although this
cause is not well established.
Even mild hearing loss can pose communication problems in some
situations. Those with such problems may also be perceived by others as
disoriented or suffering from poor memory, especially if the person with
the hearing loss is unwilling to admit the problem and ask for a comment
or an instruction to be repeated. Nonetheless, the older adult with a
hearing impairment is not necessarily socially isolated or unhappy. Mild
and moderate hearing losses, even if uncorrected with a hearing aid, are
simply not correlated with measures of general social, emotional, or
psychological health among elderly adults. Only severe hearing loss is
associated with an increase in social or psychological problems, including
heightened rates of depression (Corso, 1987; Schieber, 1992).
Presbycusis and the other hearing changes tend to result from the
progressive degeneration of almost every portion of the auditory system.
Older adults secrete more ear wax which can block the ear canal; middle
ear bones become calcified and less elastic; inner ear cochlear membranes
become less flexible and less responsive; and brain nerve pathways show
some degeneration (Roland, Kutz, &Marcincuk, 2010).

Taste:
The ability to taste the five basic flavors (sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and
umami) does not seem to decline over the years of adulthood. Taste
receptor cells (taste buds) have short lives and are constantly replaced
(Bornstein, 1992). Although other changes in the taste system have an
effect on older adults, such as the secretion of much less saliva, creating a
"wooly mouth" sensation for others. Many elders also report that flavors
seem blander than in earlier years, leading them to prefer more intense
concentrations of flavors, particularly sweetness (de Graaf, Polet, & van
Staveren, 1994). But it may well be that this perception of flavor
blandness is largely due to a loss of the sense of smell.

Smell:
The ability to smell clearly deteriorates in old age. The best information
comes from a cross-sectional study in which researchers tested nearly
2000 children and adults on their ability to identify 40 different smells—
everything from pizza to gasoline (Doty et al., 1984). As Figure 13-3,
reveals, young and middle-aged adults had equally good scores on this
smell identification test, but scores declined rapidly after age 60.
However, the loss of sensitivity to odors is far greater among elderly men
than women (Morgan, Covington, Geisler, Polich, & Murphy, 1997).

63
 Physical & Cognitive
Development In Middle
Adulthood - I

Figure 13-3 Doty’s data show a very rapid drop in late adulthood in
the ability to identify smells.
(Source for Figure 13-3: Doty, R.L., Shaman, P., Appelbaum, S.L.,
Bigerson, R., Sikorski, L., & Rosenberg, L. (1984). Smell identification
ability: Changes with age. Science, 226, 1441–1443.)
These changes in taste and smell can reduce many pleasures in life. But
they can also have practical health consequences. Smells enhance the
pleasure of food, so as the sense of smell becomes less acute, elders are
less motivated to prepare tasty food. In some cases, this can result in
inadequate nutrition or significant dietary imbalances.
Touch:
Loss of touch sensitivity can lead to significant declines in quality of life.
For example, the skin of elderly adults is less responsive to cold and heat
(Stevens & Choo, 1998). Research suggests that the loss of sensitivity
occurs in a pattern that is a reversal of the proximodistal principle of
growth. That means the spinal cord grows before outer body parts. The
children's arms grow before the hands and before the fingers and toes,
hands and feet grow. The last to progress in physical development is the
finger and toe muscles (used in fine motor dexterity). In other words, the
extremities, typically the feet, are the first part of the body which
decreases in sensitivity. As a result, older people are less likely to take
advantage of the perceived comforts associated with physical stimulation.
For example, for an elderly person to be able to feel a warm bath, the
water temperature may have to be so high that it will burn the skin.

64
Developmental Psychology Check your progress
1. The elderly population's fastest growing group is the oldest old, or
those that are 85 and older.
 True
 False
2. ______________aging involves fundamental and irreversible changes
which occur as people get older due to genetic programming.
3. According to the ______________ slowing hypothesis, for elderly
people communication is less effective in all areas of the nervous
system, including the brain.
a. automated
b. global
c. generalized
d. peripheral

5.3 LET’S SUM UP

The number and percentage of the world's older people is higher than ever
before and the elderly are the fastest growing segment of the world's
population. Older people as a group experience stereotyping and
prejudice, a trend known as ageism.
Old age is a time of unmistakable external physical changes suggesting
aging, but many older people remain healthy, active and energetic well
into the era. Older people experience a decrease in brain size and blood
supply (and oxygen) to all areas of the body, including the brain. The
circulatory, respiratory, and digestive systems are all operating less
effectively.
Reaction time in the elderly is slower, a finding clarified by the peripheral
slowing hypothesis (processing speed slows down in the peripheral
nervous system) and the generalized slowing hypothesis (processing slows
down in all areas of the nervous system).
Physical changes in the eye cause reductions in vision, and many eye
disorders, including cataracts, glaucoma and age-related macular
degeneration (AMD), are more common in the elderly. Hearing often loses
the capacity to detect higher frequencies, in particular. Hearing loss has
psychological and social effects as it prohibits elderly people from
engaging in social activities. Late adulthood also demonstrates losses in
the senses of taste and smell.

65
5.4 QUESTIONS Physical & Cognitive
Development In Middle
Adulthood - I
1. Discuss aging in detail. Write your answer with suitable examples.
2. What is primary aging? Describe outward signs of aging.
3. Answer following
a. Write a detailed note on the generalized slowing hypothesis.
b. Explain slowing reaction time.
4. Write about secondary aging. Describe internal aging in detail.
5. Write short notes on
a. Functional age
b. Sight and sound
c. proximodistal principle of growth
d. Hearing.

5.5 REFERENCES
• Feldman, R. S. & Babu, N. (2018). Development across the LifeSpan.
(8 Ed). India: Pearson India Education services Pvt. Ltd
th

*****

66
 6
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT IN LATE
ADULTHOOD - II
Unit Structure
6.0 Objectives
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Health and wellness in late adulthood
6.2.1 Health problems in older people: Physical and psychological
disorders
6.2.2 Wellness in late adulthood: The relationship between aging and
illness
6.2.3 Sexuality in old age: Use it or lose it
6.2.4 Approaches to aging: Why is death inevitable?
6.2.5 Postponing aging: Can scientists find the fountain of youth?
6.3 Cognitive development in late adulthood
6.3.1 Intelligence in older people
6.3.2 Memory: Remembrance of things past-and present
6.3.3 Never too late to learn
6.4 Let’s sum up
6.5 Questions
6.6 References

6.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to:
 Describe the older people's general state of health and to what
disorders they are susceptible.
 Explain how aging affects sexuality.
 Identify the factors that impact life span and the causes of death.
 Examine how well it functions cognitively for older adults.
 Discuss in what ways memory does and does not degrade in late
adulthood.
 Describe how late-adulthood learning and education proceed.

6.1 INTRODUCTION
Physically, people over 65 certainly begin a gradual transition from full
strength and health to an increasing concern about illness, pain, and
67
disease. But this is not the only thing going on in their lives. They can stay Physical And Cognitive
healthy for quite a long time and can continue most if not all of the Development In Late
activities that they enjoyed when younger. Adulthood - Ii

Cognitively, we find that older people adjust quite well to the changes that
seem designed to delay them by adopting new strategies for solving
problems and compensating for lost abilities. Today the view is different.
Researchers have come to discount the view that the cognitive abilities of
older people inevitably decline. Largely intellectual ability and specific
cognitive skills, like memory and problem solving, are more likely to
remain strong. In fact, with appropriate practice and environmental
stimuli, cognitive skills can actually improve.
We begin this unit with a discussion of health and well-being. After
examining some of the major disorders that affect older people, we look at
what determines wellness and why old people are susceptible to disease.
We then consider sexuality in late adulthood. We also focus on theories
that seek to explain the aging process, as well as on gender, race, and
ethnic differences in life expectancy.
Next, we consider intellectual development during late adulthood. We
look at the nature of intelligence in older people and the various ways
cognitive abilities change. We also assess how different types of memory
fare during late adulthood, and we consider ways to reverse intellectual
declines in older people.

6.2 HEALTH AND WELLNESS IN LATE ADULTHOOD

In their old age, many elderly people live healthy lives. Almost three-
quarters of people above 65 have reported their health as good, very good,
or excellent. On the other hand, people with old age are more vulnerable
to diseases. Now I will look into some of the major physical and
psychological disorders of older people.
6.2.1 Health problems in older people: Physical and psychological
disorders:
As we age, the probability increases that we will have some disease or
illness (Ferrucci& Koh, 2007). Most adults who are living up to the age of
80 or older are likely to experience some form of disability. Chronic
diseases (those with a slow onset and long duration) are rare in early
adulthood, rise in middle adulthood, and become more prevalent in late
adult life (Kane, 2007).

Common Physical Disorders:

Around the globe three-quarters of people in late adulthood die due to
heart disease, cancer, and stroke. Because aging comes with a weak
immune system, hence many infectious diseases catch older adults.
Adding to this, most older people suffer with one chronic, long-term
condition. For instance, arthritis, an inflammation of the joints
accompanied by pain, stiffness, and movement problems. Arthritis is
68
Developmental Psychology especially common in older adults. This condition has the ability to affect
hips, knees, ankles, fingers and vertebrae. Individuals with arthritis often
feel discomfort and stiffness, as well as difficulty in going about everyday
routine tasks and performing them. There is no specific cure for arthritis.
However, medications, such as aspirin, range-of-motion exercises for the
affected joints, weight loss, and, in severe cases, replacement of the
damaged joint with a prosthesis, can alleviate the effects of arthritis.
Another medical condition is hypertension, or high blood pressure,
around one-third of older people suffer with this. Many times, this
condition comes with no symptoms hence many people who are suffering
from blood pressure are unaware of their condition, which makes it more
dangerous. Left untreated, hypertension can weaken and damage blood
vessels and the heart and may increase the risk of strokes.

Psychological and Mental Disorders:

Around 15 to 25 percent of older people exhibit the symptoms of
psychological disorder more than younger adults. The behavioral
symptoms related to these disorders are sometimes different in older and
younger adults (Whitbourne, 2001).
In elderly people major depression is a more prevalent problem, the
major symptoms include intense feelings of sadness, pessimism, and
hopelessness. The reasons for depression in this population are the
experience of cumulative losses of their spouses and friends, and their own
declining health and physical capabilities.
The most common mental disorder of elderly people is dementia, a global
term for any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve
a deterioration of mental functioning and memory loss. Individuals with
dementia frequently lose their ability to care for themselves, and can lose
the ability to recognize familiar environments and individuals — including
family members. It is estimated that 23% of women and 17% of men at
the age of 85 and above are at risk of developing dementia.
Alzheimer’s Disease:
It is a progressive, chronic brain disorder categorized by a gradual
deterioration of memory, thought, vocabulary, and eventually physical
functions.
In the early stages of Alzheimer's disease, a person becomes typically very
slow, starting with the difficulty of selective recall, repeated speech, and
disorientation in unfamiliar environments. The memory starts to go off for
recent events. Memory for long-ago events or for well-rehearsed cognitive
procedures, such as simple calculations, is often retained until late in the
illness, presumably because these memories can be retrieved through
many alternative neural pathways (Martin et al., 2003).
Eventually, however, an individual with Alzheimer’s disease may fail to
recognize family members and may be unable to remember the names of

69
common objects or how to perform routine activities such as brushing her Physical And Cognitive
teeth or dressing. Those afflicted with Alzheimer’s suffer declines in the Development In Late
ability to communicate, as well as the ability to carry out daily self-care Adulthood - Ii
routines. The changes in appetite regulation are particularly problematic
for those with Alzheimer’s, because they can’t rely on habit to regulate
their eating behavior, as healthy older people do. Left to their own
devices, Alzheimer’s victims may consume as many as three or four
complete meals at one sitting without realizing how much they have eaten.
Consequently, their eating behavior must be closely supervised.
People with Alzheimer’s also have difficulty in processing information
about others’ emotions, such as facial expressions (Burnham &
Hogervorst, 2004). Others have trouble regulating their own emotions and
showing intense frustration bursts or even aggression. Others exhibit an
increased level of dependency and clinginess toward family or friends
(Raskind & Peskind, 1992). In addition, research suggests that the
incidence of depression among elders with Alzheimer’s disease may be as
high as 40% (Harwood et al., 2000).
Genetic factors seem to be important in some, but not all, cases of
Alzheimer’s (Bannon et al., 2010). Researchers have found a gene variant
on chromosome 19 (apolipoprotein E4 or ApoE4) that controls production
of a protein that is linked to Alzheimer’s disease (Diamond, 2011). If there
are errors in the synthesis of this protein, the neuronal dendrites and axons
in the brain get intertwined, and as a result do not act as effectively.
However, this gene does not act alone. Many other genes combine with
ApoE4 in ways that researchers don’t yet fully understand to trigger the
onset of the disease (Elias-Sonnenschein, Bertram, & Visser, 2012;
Reiman et al., 2007). Even in families with very high prevalence of
Alzheimer’s disease, ages of onset are highly variable. In one family
study, age of onset ranged from age 44 to age 67, and in another, onset
ranged from the early 60s to the mid-80s (Axelman, Basun, & Lannfelt,
1998; Silverman et al., 2005). Moreover, there were wide variations in the
severity of the disease’s behavioral effects and in the length of time the
victims lived once they developed Alzheimer’s.
A special concern is caring for patients with Alzheimer disease (Iliffe&
others, 2009; Kelsey, Laditka, & Laditka, 2010; Silverstein, Wong, &
Brueck, 2010). Health care professionals believe that the family can be an
important support system for the Alzheimer patient, but this support can
have costs for the family, who can become emotionally and physically
drained by the extensive care required for a person with the disease
(Elliott, Burglo, & Decoster, 2010; Ferrara & others, 2008; Lavretsky,
Siddarth, & Irwin, 2010). For example, depression has been reported in 50
percent of family caregivers for patients with Alzheimer disease
(Redinbaugh, MacCallum, &Kiecolt-Glaser, 1995). A meta-analysis found
that female caregivers reported providing more caregiving hours and
higher levels of burden and depression, as well as lower levels of well-
being and physical health, than did male caregivers (Pinquart& Sorensen,
2006).

70
Developmental Psychology 6.2.2 Wellness in late adulthood: The relationship between aging and
illness:
Sickness is not inevitable in old age. Only age is not responsible for illness
or wellness, other factors are also involved in this, such as genetic
predisposition, past and present environmental factors, and psychological
factors.
Genetic component plays a role in developing cancer and heart disease,
but a genetic predisposition does not automatically mean that a person will
get a particular illness. People’s lifestyles—smoking, diet, exposure to
cancer-causing agents such as sunlight or asbestos (harmful mineral)—
may increase or lower their chances of coming down with such a disease.
Lastly, psychological factors play an important role in determining
vulnerability to illness. For example, a sense of control is systematically
associated with life satisfaction (McConatha, McConatha, Jackson, &
Bergen, 1998). Experiences in life such as engaging in physical activity,
the freedom to select one's leisure activities or the ability to decide when
to retire are all examples of factors that may improve the sense of control
of an older person. This sense can be weakened by lack of financial capital
and social support or decreased physical resilience. Taken together, one
may conclude that people who are extroverted, open to new experiences,
positive, experience a sense of usefulness, have a strong sense of humor,
and feel like they are in charge of events in their lives, would also show a
high degree of satisfaction.

Promoting Good Health:

The notion that physical exercise is a key contributor to good health in
people over 65 is familiar enough. Physical exercise continues to be a
powerful health intervention. Sedentarily healthy older adults up to age 80
who begin endurance training (walking, cycling, etc.) show gains in vital
capacity that compare favorably with those of much younger individuals.
And exercise of weight-bearing began in late adulthood-even as late as age
90-promotes muscle size and strength. This translates into improved
walking speed, balance, posture, and ability to carry out everyday
activities, such as opening a stubborn jar lid, carrying an armload of
groceries, or lifting a 30-pound grandchild (deJong& Franklin, 2004;
Goldberg, Dengel, & Hagberg, 1996). Exercise also enhances the supply
of blood to the brain, helping to maintain brain functions and behavioral
capacity. Brain scans show that, compared with sedentary elders, those
who are physically fit experienced less tissue loss in the cerebral cortex
(Colcombe et al., 2003). In one study, researchers used fMRI to assess
changes in brain activity resulting from a 6-month program of regular
brisk walking. Compared to a physically inactive group, 58- to 77 -year-
old walkers displayed increased activity in areas of the cerebral cortex
governing control of attention, as well as improved sustained and selective
attention during mental testing (Colcombe et al., 2004).
The physical changes of late life led to an increased need for certain
calcium and vitamin D to protect the bones; zinc and vitamins Bu, C, and
71
E to protect the immune system; and avoiding free radicals with vitamins Physical And Cognitive
A, C and E. Yet declines in physical activity, in the senses of taste and Development In Late
smell, and in ease of chewing (because of deteriorating teeth) can reduce Adulthood - Ii
the quantity and quality of food eaten (Morley, 2001). In addition, the
aging digestive system finds it more difficult to consume other nutrients,
such as protein, calcium and vitamin D. And older adults living alone may
have shopping or cooking issues, and may feel less comfortable eating on
their own. Together, these physical and environmental conditions increase
the risk of dietary deficiencies, which affect 10 to 25 percent of North
American elders (High, 2001). In several studies, a daily vitamin-mineral
tablet resulted in an enhanced immune response and 50 percent drop-in
days of infectious illness (Chandra, 2002; Jain, 2002).
Although healthy diet and physical activity are most effective when they
last a lifetime, change is never too late. Elders who come to value the
intrinsic benefits of exercise feeling stronger, healthier, and more
energetic-are likely to engage in it regularly (Caserta & Gillett, 1998). Yet
lack of awareness of the health benefits of exercise and expected
discomforts from engaging in it are major barriers to getting older people
to take up a fitness routine; 75 percent of men and 80 percent of women
are not active enough (Stewart et al., 2001).

6.2.3 Sexuality in old age: Use it or lose it:

Another behavior that is affected by the cumulative physical changes of
aging is sexual behavior. As we studied in module 5, the frequency of
sexual activity declines gradually in middle adulthood. Both cross-
sectional and longitudinal data suggest that this trend continues in late
adulthood (Lindau et al., 2007).
The decline in the frequency of sexual activity in late adulthood doubtless
has many causes. The continuing decline in testosterone levels among men
clearly plays some role. The state of one’s overall health plays an
increasingly larger role with advancing age. For example, blood pressure
medication sometimes produces impotence as a side effect; chronic pain
may also affect sexual desire. Stereotypes that portray old age as an
essentially asexual period of life may also have some effect.
Despite declining frequency, though, more than 70% of adults continue to
be sexually active in old age (Lindau et al., 2007). Moreover, the
physiological capacity to respond to sexual stimulation, unlike other
aspects of functioning, appears not to diminish with age. Indeed, some
studies suggest that older adults, especially women, are more sexually
active; that is, they appear to be more willing to engage in sexual
experimentation than young and middle-aged adults (Purnine& Carey,
1998).

6.2.4 Approaches to aging: Why is death inevitable?:

No matter how healthy you are living your life, we all know that we will
definitely face physical declines and that life will end. But why?

72
Developmental Psychology To understand this, we are having two major approaches which will tell us
why we undergo physical deterioration and death: genetic programming
theories and wear-and-tear theories.

Genetic programming theories of aging:

The theory proposed that for reproduction of human cells our body’s DNA
genetic code contains a built-in time limit. After a genetically determined
period, the cells no longer divide and the individual begins to deteriorate
(Rattan, Kristensen, & Clark, 2006).
DNA, which includes the genetic code for any organisms, accumulates
damage over time. It is typically not a problem because our cells will
repair damage during our lives. In fact, some of the damage is harmless.
Some damage can't be fixed however, and remains in our DNA. Scientists
agree that this trauma is an essential aspect of aging, and the body's
inability to repair itself. When damage to DNA accumulates with age, it
can cause degradation and malfunction of cells (Jin, 2010). Factors that
may cause DNA damage include ultraviolet radiation, cigarette smoking
and hydrocarbon emissions, such as vehicle exhaust and coal (Dollemore,
2006).
The Cellular Clock Theory suggests that biological aging is due to the fact
that normal cells cannot divide indefinitely. This is known as the Hayflick
limit, and is observed in test tube studied cells that divide about 40-60
times before they stop (Bartlett, 2014). But what is the mechanism behind
the senescence in the cell? On the end of each chromosome strand is a
sequence of DNA that does not code for any specific protein, but protects
the rest of the chromosome, called a telomere. The telomere shortens with
each replication. If it gets too small, the cell can do one of two things. It
can avoid replication by turning off itself, known as cellular senescence. It
can stop replicating by dying, called apoptosis.

Wear-and-tear theories of aging:

Wear-and-tear theory implies that the body, like any computer, is slowly
decaying and eventually wearing out. This theory describes very well
other diseases, such as osteoarthritis. Years of use of the joints cause
weakening of the protective cartilage lining resulting in pain and rigidness.
Wear-and-tear theory, however, doesn't clarify any other facets of aging.
Adding to that, some wear-and-tear theories say that the body produces
by-products by continuously generating energy to sustain the activities.
These by-products come with toxins and threats of everyday life (such as
radiation, chemical exposure, accidents, and disease), when it reaches a
higher level then they impair the body’s normal functioning. Thus, the
result is deterioration and death.
The cellular process of wear-and-tear theory that may contribute to aging
relates to the body’s ability to deal with free radicals (Kenyon, 2010; Liu,
Cao, & Finkel, 2011; Rattan, 2006). Free radicals, which are molecules or
atoms that possess an unpaired electron, are a normal by-product of body
metabolism and can arise, for example, exposure to certain substances in
73
food, sunlight, radiation and air pollution. Free radicals also occur more Physical And Cognitive
frequently in older people than in younger people’s bodies because of age- Development In Late
related deterioration of the mitochondria, the cell structures that convert Adulthood - Ii
food into energy (Nichols &Melov, 2004). These radicals, especially the
subgroup called oxygen free radicals, enter into many potentially harmful
chemical reactions, resulting in irreparable cellular damage that
accumulates with age. For example, oxidation reactions caused by free
radicals can damage cell membranes, thereby reducing the cell’s
protection against toxins and substances.

Life Expectancy: How Long Have I Got?:

Life expectancy is known as the average number of years the population
(or species) members live in. According to the World Health Organization
(WHO) (2019) global life expectancy for those born in 2019 is 72.0 years,
with females reaching 74.2 years and males reaching 69.8 years. Women
are living longer than men all over the world and the gender gap has
remained the same since 1990. The global life expectancy increased by 5.5
years between 2000 and 2016. Improvements in child survival and access
to antiretroviral medication for the treatment of HIV are considered factors
for the increase. Nevertheless, the life expectancy is 18.1 years lower in
low- countries (62.7 years) than in high-countries (80.8 years). In high-
income countries, the majority of people who die are old, while in low-
income countries almost one in three deaths are children under 5 years of
age.

Gender Differences in Life Expectancy:

Biological Explanations: Biological variations in sex chromosomes and
distinct gene expression patterns are theorized as one explanation why
females live longer (Chmielewski, Boryslawski, &Strzelec, 2016). Males
are heterogamous (XY), while females are homogamous (XX) for the sex
chromosomes. Males can only express their mother-derived X-
chromosome genes, while females have an advantage in choosing the
"better" X-chromosome from their mother or father while inactivating the
"worse" X-chromosome. This selection mechanism for "better" genes in
males is unlikely and results in greater female genetic and developmental
stability.
Men are more likely to contract viral and bacterial infections, and their
cellular-level immunity declines considerably faster with age. Although
women are much more vulnerable to autoimmune and inflammatory
disorders, such as rheumatoid arthritis, the progressive weakening of the
immune system in women is slower (Caruso, Accardi, Virruso, &Candore,
2013; Hirokawa et al., 2013).
Looking at the effects of hormones, levels of estrogen in women seem to
have a protective effect on their cardiac and circulatory systems (Viña,
Borrás, Gambini, Sastre, &Pallardó, 2005). Estrogens also have
antioxidant properties which protect against the harmful effects of free
radicals, which damage components of cells, cause mutations and are

74
Developmental Psychology partly responsible for the aging process. The levels of testosterone in men
are higher than in women, and are associated with more severe
cardiovascular and immune disorders. Testosterone rates are also partly
responsible for male behavioral trends, including elevated aggression and
violence (Martin, Poon, & Hagberg, 2011; Borysławski Chmielewski,
2012). The frontal lobe of the brain is another component responsible for
risky behaviors. In boys and young men, the frontal lobe which controls
judgment and consideration of the consequences of an action develops
more slowly. This lack of judgment has an impact on lifestyle decisions
and ultimately many more men and boys die from smoking, binge
drinking, injuries, drunk driving, and violence (Shmerling, 2016).
Lifestyle Factors: Of course, not all of the reasons why women live
longer than men are biological. As described earlier, male behavioral
patterns and lifestyle play a significant role in the shorter male lifespans.
One important reason is that males work in more risky occupations,
including police, fire fighters, and construction, and are more vulnerable
to violence.
Finally, social interaction is also significant, because isolation is
considered a danger to health. Up to 20 percent of men over 50 have
contact with their friends less than once a month, compared to only 12
percent of women who rarely see friends (Scott, 2015). Generally, it seems
that the lower life expectancy for men is due to both biological and
lifestyle factors.

6.2.5 Postponing aging: Can scientists find the fountain of youth?:

Are researchers close to finding the scientific equivalent of the fountain of
youth?
Not yet,but they’re very close to it in nonhuman species. For instance,
researchers have extended the lives of nematodes (microscopic,
transparent worms that typically live for just 9 days) to 50 days—the
equivalent of extending human life to 420 years. Researchers have also
doubled fruit flies’ lives (Whitbourne, 2001; Libert et al., 2007; Ocorr et
al., 2007).
The most capable avenues for increasing the length of life are these:

Telomere therapy:
Telomeres are the tiny areas at the tip of chromosomes that become
shorter each time a cell divides and finally disappears, and it stops doing
cell replication. Researchers suggest that aging could be slowed, if
telomeres could be lengthened. Now the scientist is in the findings of
genes that control telomerase production, an enzyme that increase the
length of telomeres (Steinert, Shay, & Wright, 2000; Urquidi, Tarin, &
Goodison, 2000; Chung et al., 2007).

75
Drug therapy: Physical And Cognitive
Development In Late
In 2009 some scientists discovered the drug rapamycin could extend mice Adulthood - Ii
life by 14 percent by interfering with the activity of a protein mTOR
(Blagosklonny et al., 2010; Stipp, 2012; Zhang et al., 2014).

Unlocking longevity genes:

There are certain genes in our body that control the ability to cope with
environmental challenges and physical adversity. If harnessed, then those
genes may provide a way to increase the life span. There is one promising
family of genes which are sirtuins, which may control and indorse longer
life (Guarente, 2006; Sinclair &Guarente, 2006; Glatt et al., 2007).

Reducing free radicals through antioxidant drugs:

Free radicals are unstable molecules that travel throughout the body, these
molecules known for damaging other cells, which leads to aging. The
number of free radicals could be reduced by antioxidant drugs, which
slows down the aging. Moreover, it may be possible to insert in human
cells genes that produce enzymes that act as antioxidants. Hence,
nutritionists always advise people to follow a diet which contains
antioxidant vitamins (Birlouez-Aragon & Tessier, 2003; Kędziora-
Kornatowska et al., 2007; Haleem et al., 2008).

Restricting calories:
Once researchers conducted a correlational experiment of low-calorie diet
and free radicals on rats, in this experiment rats are fed an extremely low-
calorie diet with 30 to 50 percent of their normal intake. They found that
rats with a low-calorie diet live 30 percent longer than better-fed rats,
providing they get all the vitamins and minerals they need. This is because
it produces fewer free radicals. Analysts trust to create drugs that imitate
the impacts of calorie confinement without constraining individuals to feel
hungry all the time (Mattson, 2003; Ingram, Young, & Mattison, 2007;
Cuervo, 2008).

The Bionic solution: replacing worn-out organs:

Heart transplants, liver transplants, and lung transplants: We live in an age
where the expulsion of harmed or unhealthy organs and their substitution
with better-functioning ones would be possible.

Check your progress

1. Although we may expect the elderly to be in poor health or sickly,
approximately ______________ of people 65 and older reported their
health as good, very good, or excellent.
a. one-half
b. three-fourths
c. two-thirds
76
Developmental Psychology d. one-fourth.
2. Which of the following is NOT a physical change in the brain
associated with Alzheimer’s?
a. The hippocampus shows deterioration.
b. Deterioration of the frontal and temporal lobes.
c. Specific neurons die, which leads to a lack of transmitters like
acetylcholine.
d. The brain enlarges.
3. A strong relationship exists between economic well-being and illness in
that those individuals who can afford to maintain good health care in their
later years remain in better health.
 True
 False

6.3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN LATE

ADULTHOOD
Although there is an increased likelihood of cognitive and intellectual
disorders as we age, cognitive decline is not inevitable for all (Cohen,
2012). Among the young (aged 65 to 74), cognitive changes are still fairly
small, and these older adults show little or no decline on some measures,
e.g., numerical ability. But the old and the oldest show an average decline
in nearly all intellectual ability measures, with the largest decline in any
measure involving speed or untrained skills (Schaie& Willis, 2005). Still,
poorer performance on standardized tests of cognition and intelligence
does not necessarily equate to poorer performance on everyday skills—
there is more to living life than what we can measure on a test (Stuart-
Hamilton, 2012).

6.3.1 Intelligence in older people:

Developmental psychologist K. Warner Schaie uses sequential methods,
which combine cross-sectional and longitudinal methods to study
intelligence in older people, by looking at a few diverse age bunches at a
number of focuses in time.
In Washington, Sahaie’s conducted a study, he randomly took 500 people
for this study and all have been tested for cognitive ability. The
individuals had a place in diverse age bunches, beginning at age 20 and
amplifying at 5-year intervals to age 70. The members were tested, and
proceed to be tested, every 7 years, and more individuals are enlisted each
year. At this point, more than 5,000 members have been tested (Schaie,
Willis, & Pennak, 2005).

77
The study, and several researches, have given the place for many Physical And Cognitive
generalizations (Craik & Salthouse, 1999, 2008): Development In Late
Adulthood - Ii
 Around 25 age people face gradual decline in their abilities, while
others live stable lives (see Figure 14-1). It has been seen that there is
no fixed pattern of age-related intellectual changes. For example,
fluid intelligence (the ability to deal with new problems and
situations) decreases with age, while crystallized intelligence (the
store of information, skills, and strategies that people have acquired)
remains intact and in few cases improves (Schaie, 1993).

Figure 14-1 Changes in Intellectual Functioning

Although some intellectual abilities decline across adulthood, others stay
relatively steady.
(Source for figure 14-1: Changes in Intellectual Functioning from Schaie,
K. W. (1994). “The course of adult intellectual development.” p. 307).
 On average, a few cognitive decreases are found in all capacities by
age 67, but they are negligible until the 80s. Indeed, at age 81, less
than half of the individuals tested appeared reliable decreases over the
past 7 years.
 There are too noteworthy personal contrasts. A few individuals start
to appear in their 30s, whereas others appear to have no decreases
until their 70s. In reality, around a third of individuals in their 70s
score higher than the average young adult.
 Cultural and environmental factors play a role. Those with no chronic
disease, good socioeconomic status, participation in an intellectually
stimulating community, an adaptable personality style, an optimistic
spouse, good perceptual processing speed, and fulfillment with one's
attainments in midlife or early age appeared to experience less
decline.

78
Developmental Psychology Relationship between environmental factors and intellectual skills
indicates that older people can retain their mental abilities with
stimulation, practice, and motivation. Such plasticity shows that in late
adulthood the changes occurring in intellectual abilities are not set. The
motto "use it or lose it" suits mental life, as it does in so many other
aspects of human development. This indicates intervention could be in
place to help older adults retain their skills in processing information.
However, changes in patterns of cognitive activity may lead to the disuse
and consequent atrophy of cognitive abilities (Hughes, 2010). This
concept is embodied in the concept of "use it or lose it". Activities such as
reading books, doing crossword puzzles and going to seminars and
concerts are the mental behaviors that possibly help the retention of
cognitive skills in older adults. Use it or lose it is also a significant
component of the interaction model for cognitive optimization that
emphasizes how intellectual and social involvement can reduce age-
related declines in intellectual growth (La Rue, 2010; Park & Reuter-
Lorenz, 2009; Stine-Morrow & others, 2007).
6.3.2 Memory: Remembrance of things past-and present:
Forgetfulness becomes more frequent with age (Ponds, Commissaris, &
Jolles, 1997). However, it’s important to remember that the same basic
rules seem to apply to memory processes among both older and younger
adults. For both groups, for example, recognition is easier than recall, and
tasks that require speed are more difficult. Further, metamemory and
metacognition skills are just as important to memory function in old age as
they are earlier in life (Olin &Zelinski, 1997). In many studies, older
adults achieve scores very similar to those of younger adults on tests of
memory accuracy, although they typically take longer to complete
memory tasks and make more errors (Babiloni et al., 2004).
As older adults take in information more slowly and find it harder to apply
strategies, inhibit irrelevant information, and retrieve relevant knowledge
from long-term memory, the chances of memory failure increase
(O'Connor & Kaplan, 2003; Persad et. a1.,2002). A decreased capacity to
retain information when operating on it in working memory means
memory issues are especially noticeable on complex tasks.
Memory aging research typically focuses on two forms of memory:
explicit memory, (the deliberate and conscious remembering of
information) that is learned and remembered at a specific time; and
implicit memory, (the unconscious remembering of information learned
at some earlier time, such as how to drive a car) are largely unaffected by
age. Explicit memory is further divided into episodic memory (the
general memory class relating to the conscious recall of information from
a specific time or event) and semantic memory (the general memory class
relating to the recall of meanings of words or concepts not related to a
particular time or event).
Short-term memory is the encoding and retrieval capacity of five to nine
bits of information within a minute or two. It is the memory scratch pad
which is used when someone is telling you a phone number or gives you
79
an address. Additionally, older people find it difficult to remember details Physical And Cognitive
about unfamiliar objects, such as prose passages, people's names and Development In Late
faces, and instructions on a drug label, likely because new information is Adulthood - Ii
not properly recognized and processed when first encountered. Even these
changes are small and the bulk of the elderly naturally learn to
compensate.
Autobiographical Memory: Reminding the Days of Our Lives:
Once it comes to autobiographical memory, memories of one's own past,
older people are prone to lapses much as younger people. Of example,
recall also follows the Pollyanna Principle, in which it is more common
to remember good memories than negative memories. Similarly, people
appear to miss details that don't suit the way they see themselves today.
Everyone appears to better recall certain times of life than others. As can
be seen in Figure 14-2, 70-year-olds appear to better remember
autobiographical information from their twenties and thirties, whereas 50-
year-olds are likely to have more memories of their teen years and 20s.
Recall is stronger in both cases for earlier years than in more recent
decades, but not as complete as for more recent events (Fromholt&
Larsen, 1991; Rubin, 2000).

Figure 14-2 Remembrances of Things Past

80
Developmental Psychology Recall of autobiographical memories varies with age, with 70-year-olds
recalling details from their 20s and 30s best, and 50-year olds recalling
memories from their teenage years and 20s. People of both ages also recall
more recent memories best of all.
(Source for figure 14-2: Rubin, 1986).

Explaining Memory Changes in Old Age:

Explanations for variations in memory in older people rely on three main
categories: environmental causes, deficiencies in information processing
and biological factors.
 Environmental factors: Some environmental factors common to a lot
of older people can cause memory declines. Older people, for
example, frequently take prescription medications that impair
memory, and this can account for their poor output on memory tasks
rather than age per se.
However, retired people, who no longer face job challenges, can use less
memory. Therefore, their ability to remember information may be weaker
than before, and they may be less motivated to do their best in
experimental test conditions than younger ones.
 Information processing deficits: Declines in memory can also be
related to changes in the capacity to process information. This may
weaken the capacity to suppress irrelevant knowledge and thoughts
that interfere with problem solving, and may decrease the pace of
information processing (Bashore, Ridderinkhof, & van der Molen,
1998; Salthouse, Atkinson, & Berish, 2003).
One perception of the processing of information indicates that older adults
lose the ability to concentrate on new content and have difficulty paying
attention to relevant stimuli and storing data in memory. Under this
information-processing-deficit approach, which has extensive research
support, older people use fewer effective methods to recall information
from memory. This leads to reductions in ability to remember (Castel &
Craik, 2003; Luo & Craik, 2008, 2009).
 Biological factors: The last of the major methods focuses on
biological factors. According to this view, changes in memory are due
to degradation of the brain and body. Declines in episodic memory,
for example, may be due to weakening of the brain's frontal lobes or a
decrease in estrogen. Several experiments also show a lack of
hippocampus cells, which is vital to memory. Some memory
disorders, however, occur without any indication of underlying
biological impairment (Eberling et al., 2004; Lye et al., 2004; Bird &
Burgess, 2008; Stevens et al., 2008).
6.3.3 Never too late to learn:
More than 250,000 people participate each year in thousands of classes
arranged by Elderhostel, the largest late adulthood education program for
81
elderly people. Represented on campuses across the world, the Elderhostel Physical And Cognitive
movement is further evidence that intellectual growth and change continue Development In Late
throughout people’s lives. As we have shown before, practicing cognitive Adulthood - Ii
skills will help older adults retain their mental functioning (Sack, 1999;
Simson, Wilson, & Harlow-Rosentraub, 2006).
While not everyone can afford tuition from Elderhostel, by providing free
tuition, many public colleges allow senior citizens to participate in classes.
Additionally, some retirement communities are situated on or near college
campuses, such as Michigan University and Penn State University
(Powell, 2004).
Some elderly people question their intellectual capacities and thus refuse
to participate in daily classes with younger students, their fears are largely
unfounded. Older adults still have little problem in retaining their status in
strict college classes. In addition, the inclusion of older people with their
diverse and meaningful life experiences is usually considered by
professors and other students to be a significant educational advantage
(Simpson et al., 2006).

Technology and Learning in Late Adulthood:

The use of technology is one of the biggest generational divisions.
Individuals 65 and older are much less likely than younger people to use
technology (see Figure 14-3).

Figure 14-3 Technology Use and Age

Older individuals are less likely to use the Internet than those who are
younger.
(Source for figure 14-3: Charness & Boot, 2009, Figure 1A.

82
Developmental Psychology How are seniors less likely to use technology? One explanation is because
they are less interested and motivated, partially because they are less likely
to work and therefore less willing to learn new technology skills. Yet
cognitive is also another obstacle. For example, since fluid intelligence
(the ability to cope with new problems and situations) shows some age-
related declines, this can affect the capacity to learn technology (Ownby et
al., 2008; Charness & Boot, 2009).
That hardly means people in late adulthood can't learn to use technology.
In reality, more and more people use email and social networking sites
like Facebook. The disparity in technology adoption between younger and
older adults is likely to diminish as the use of technology becomes ever
more common in general society (Lee &Czaja, 2009).

Check your progress

1. When it comes to autobiographical memories, older individuals, like
younger individuals, follow the ______________, in that they are more
likely to remember pleasant memories.
a. saliency effect
b. environmental effect
c. Pollyanna principle
d. positive effect
2. Explanations for memory changes aim to focus on three major
categories: environmental factors, biological factors and
______________.
a. social support
b. life changes
c. information processing deficits
d. personal influences
3. Despite memory problems and mental capacities, older adults have no
difficulties in retaining their place in rigorous college classes.
 True
 False

6.4 LET’S SUM UP

While some people are healthy, the occurrence of certain severe illnesses
rises in old age, and the potential to recover decreases. Most elderly
people suffer at least one long-term disease. The main causes of old-age
mortality are heart disease, cancer and stroke. Older people are more

83
vulnerable to psychological conditions such as depression, brain disorders Physical And Cognitive
and Alzheimer's disease in particular. Development In Late
Adulthood - Ii
In older age, psychological and lifestyle factors can influence wellness. A
sense of control over one's life and environment can have beneficial
consequences, as can healthy diet, exercise, and risk factors such as
smoking avoidance.
Sexuality persists in old age, with certain improvements in sexual activity,
given both physical and mental health are strong.
Death's inevitability is unquestioned but unaccountable. Theories of
genetic conditioning say that the body has an integrated time limit on life,
while wear-and-tear theories suggest that the body simply wears out. Life
expectancy has gradually risen for decades, and continues to do so, with
class, age, and ethnicity disparities.
Technological advancements such as telomere therapy, the use of
antioxidant drugs to suppress free radicals, the development of low-calorie
diets and the replacement of organs may further increase the life span.
According to longitudinal research, such as those performed by
developmental psychologist K. Warner Schaie, analytical abilities
continue to gradually diminish during old age, but different skills shift in
different ways. Training, stimulation, practice and motivation will help
older people retain mental capacity.
During late adulthood, memory loss is not general but limited to certain
forms of memory. Many affected are episodic memories, although largely
unaffected are semantic and implicit memories. Short-term memory
slowly declines until age 70, then quickly deteriorates. Explanations of
changes in memory may concentrate on environmental causes, deficits in
the processing of information and biological factors. It is not entirely
established which solution is the most reliable.
Older people in college and other classes will appreciate and participate
actively, and their participation in classes with younger students adds a
distinct and welcome viewpoint. Older students can increase the number
of college courses substantially by bringing their perspectives and
advanced learning to the classroom.

6.5 QUESTIONS
1. Discuss in detail health problems in older people.
2. Illustrate the relationship between aging and illness. Write your
answer with suitable examples.
3. Answer following
a. Write a detailed note on sexuality.
b. Why is death inevitable? Describe in detail.
84
Developmental Psychology 4. Explain in detail memory changes in old age.
5. Write short notes on
a. Telomere therapy
b. Autobiographical Memory
c. Explicit memory
d. fluid and crystalized intelligence
e. Learning in late adulthood.

6.6 SUGGESTED READING

Feldman, R. S. & Babu, N. (2018). Development across the LifeSpan.
(8 Ed). India: Pearson India Education services Pvt. Ltd
th

*****

85
 7
SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT IN LATE
ADULTHOOD - I
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives
7.1 Introduction of personality development in late adulthood
7.2 Age and its relationship to distribution of resources, power and
privilege
7.3 Age and Wisdom
7.4 Successful Ageing: Theories of ageing
7.5 The daily life of late adulthood-circumstances in which older people
live and difficulties they face
7.6 Financial security and old age
7.7 Summary
7.8 Questions
7.9 References

7.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will be able to understand:
1. How personality develops in old age
2. How distribution of resources and power differ in old age
3. How wisdom develops in old age
4. How different theories explain ageing
5. What are the difficulties old people face and the role of financial
arrangements in old age?

7.1 INTRODUCTION OF PERSONALITY

DEVELOPMENT IN LATE ADULTHOOD
Mrs Narmada, 79 years old, is very lively and energetic in her life as she
was in her 20s, something that not all old people can do. She does yoga,
she writes to her old friends, and she helps her grandchildren in their daily
chores.
Based on the case study of Mrs. Narmada, explained above, we can realise
that „personality development‟ is an area to research about by life span
developmental psychologists.

86
Developmental Psychology Continuity and Change in Personality during late adulthood:
Which aspects of personality in old age are continuous and which aspects
are changing in old age – is a question very frequently researched by
psychologists. Certain aspects of personality in late adulthood are very
stable. For example: Costa and McCrae spoke about the five basic
personality traits and called them as “Big Five" traits – neuroticism,
extroversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and
conscientiousness. People who are calmer at age 20 are also cool tempered
at age 75. Individuals who have positive self-esteem early in life also see
themselves positively in late adulthood. Research has found that
personality traits remain quite stable throughout life span. Personality
seems to continue fundamentally over old age also.
In spite of this general stability in basic personality traits, there are still
changes in some aspects of personality. Changes in a person's social
environment give rise to changes in personality. The things important to a
person at age 80 are not the same as what was important at age 40.
Some theorists have discussed how some aspects of personality
development are discontinuous in nature. Psychologists have studied the
changes in personality that happen as a result of new challenges coming in
late adulthood.
In this section, we shall discuss the work of Erickson, Peck, Levinson, and
Neugarten in the field of changing personality traits in old age.

A. Ego Integrity Versus Despair: Erikson's Final Stage:

According to Erik Erikson, an elderly individual moves into the last stage
of his psychosocial development. Erikson called the last stage of life's
eight stages of psychosocial development as “ego-integrity-versus-despair
stage. It involves looking at your life till date, evaluating it and
accepting it. Individuals at this stage evaluate their life retrospectively.
They ponder over their lives and find out whether they have reached their
goals or not. They also think in terms of whether they have led their lives
in a satisfactory way. People who successfully pass this stage experience a
sense of satisfaction and achievement which Erikson called "integrity".
Those who look back at their life and feel they have missed important
events and have not attained what they desired. Such people may feel sad,
angry about what they could not do or about what they did in their life.
This is called by Erikson „despair‟.

B. Peck’s Developmental Tasks:

Erikson's approach talks about broad possibilities of late adulthood. Other
theorists give a little differentiated view about what happens in the final
stage of life. For example: Robert Peck (1968) pointed out that personality
development in late adulthood involves three major developmental tasks.
As per Peck, adulthood comes with various changes in late adulthood.
First task is that old people must define their lives apart from job roles or

87
occupations. This stage is named as REDEFINITION OF SELF VERSUS Social And Personality
PREOCCUPATION WITH WORK ROLE. When people stop working, Development In Late
this change can be difficult to adjust to, which can influence the way they Adulthood - I
see themselves. Peck advised that people should not give much value to
themselves as workers. They should focus on aspects that do not involve
work roles. For example: being a grandparent or a photographer.
The second major task in late adulthood is – BODY TRANSCENDENCE
VERSUS BODY PREOCCUPATION. Old people's physical capacity can
really decrease so old people must learn to cope with and accept these
physical changes(transcendence). If they can‟t, they become obsessed
with their physical deterioration.
The third developmental task faced by old people is EGO
TRANSCENDENCE VERSUS EGO PREOCCUPATION. Here, elderly
people should totally be in acceptance of one’s mortality, that is death.
They should be aware that death is unavoidable and not too far but they
have contributed to society. For example: taking care of children or social
activities. If they see they have contributed to society well, they will
experience EGO TRANSCENDENCE. If not, they may become
preoccupied with the question of whether their lives had been worth it in
society or not.

C. Levinson's Final Season: The Winter of Life:

According to Daniel LEVINSON‟S theory of adult development, an
individual enters into late adulthood after going through a process of
transition. This theory, rather than focusing on the problems of ageing,
tries to explain the different processes involved in emotional, social and
behavioural changes as an individual grows old.
LEVINSON‟S theory of late adulthood focuses on processes of
personality change in old age. According to him, old people experience a
transition phase around age 60-65. In this phase, they see themselves as
being “old". With time, old people realise that they are now not in the
centre stage of life but are playing the game of life in parts.
This loss of power, respect and authority may be difficult for some old
people to adjust to. On the positive side, old people can serve as experts
for young people. Old people can be viewed as „venerated elders‟ whose
guidance is considered helpful. Old age also can allow people to do things
for the sake of enjoyment and pleasure rather than doing something
because of obligation.
According to Levinson, the process of ageing depends upon the nature of
society and the characteristics of an individual. Society can influence an
individual's view towards ageing through stereotypical thinking. When
society views elderly individuals as helpless and useless individuals, it can
increase an individual's struggle in the ageing process. On the other hand,
being exposed to a culture that is free of stereotypical thinking, will enable
an individual to positively look at the ageing process. Also an individual's
adjustment depends upon his or her abilities and resources. Resourceful
88
Developmental Psychology individuals are more likely to be respected, helping them to adjust
positively to the ageing process.

D. Coping With Ageing: Neugarten's Study:

Neugarten (1972, 1977) studied different ways old people cope with
ageing. Neugarten found different personality types in her research on
people in their 70s.
Disintegrated and disorganised personalities: some people are not able
to accept old age and become sad as they grow old. Such people are often
found in hospitals or nursing homes. These individuals find themselves
experiencing more physical and psychological problems and are often not
liked by people around them.
Passive- dependent personalities: some elderly individuals experience a
high level of fear. Some of the fears that are commonly experienced are-
scared of falling sick, or experiencing fear of the future or fear of not
being able to cope with life. Such people are so scared that they find it
difficult to manage on their own. This difficulty makes them seek help
from other family members. Sometimes, they may seek help even when
they really don‟t need it. This pattern of their behaviour may make them
dependent on others.
Defended personalities: this type of personality is characterised by
difficulties in accepting the ageing process. They experience fear of
ageing however they respond to this fear by denying it and with an attempt
to stop it. Individuals with such characteristics try to act or look young,
they exercise a lot, engage in activities that usually young people engage
in. Such people may get disappointed probably because of unrealistic
expectations about ageing.
Integrated personalities: these people cope with ageing comfortably.
They accept their old age and remain in self-dignity. Majority of people in
Neugarten‟s study were in this category. They were able to look back and
accept their future totally.

E. Life Review And Reminiscence: The Common Theme Of

Personality Development:
Looking back at one’s own life (life review) is a common theme in the
work of Erickson, Peck, Levinson and Neugarten‟s views of personality
development in old age. In life review, people look back and evaluate their
lives. This is the most common theme of most personality theories of late
adulthood.
According to Butler (2002), life review gets initiated due to the thought of
one's death. As people become older, they look back and examine what
has happened in their lives. This retrospective examination has its own
advantages and disadvantages. Although it may generally be considered as
harmful, people often better understand their past through such a life
review process. In the process of reviewing one's own life, old people are

89
better able to solve chronic conflicts they had with some people. This may Social And Personality
also lead to patching up with people, developing meaningful relations with Development In Late
others. Through this process, they are able to face their lives with peace. Adulthood - I
(Latorreet al., 2015).
Other advantages of the life review process are a sense of sharing and
interconnectedness with others. This also becomes a reason for social
interaction with old people to discuss their past experiences with others.
Thus, it has social advantages.
Life review also has cognitive advantages especially on memory. Studies
have shown reflecting on the past can lead to other cognitive benefits, like
improving one‟s own memory as the life review process allows old people
to bring back old memories. They may remember events of the past which
may promote memories of image, sound and even smell associated with
those events.
However, there are some disadvantages too. Some people become
obsessive about the past by reliving old insults, feeling guilty, angry and
depressed for people who may not even be alive. This results in
psychological deterioration. Some may even be obsessively concerned
about the past and may not be able to forgive and forget certain old
incidents that they had undergone. This makes it difficult for them to come
to terms with the present causing psychological disturbances. (DeGenova,
1993)
Overall, life review is essential in providing continuity between past and
present. It also can provide new insights about the past and into others.
This allows people to function more effectively in the present.

7.2 AGE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO THE

DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES, POWER, AND
PRIVILEGE.
Age stratification approaches to late adulthood:
Age, like gender, can help to rank the people in society. Age stratification
theorists believe that economic resources, power and privilege are
distributed unequally in people at different stages of life. The
inequality is observed the most during late adulthood.
Even though life spans have advanced due to medical facilities, power and
prestige for elderly have declined. Financial earnings decline in old age.
Young people have more independence and are isolated from elders.
Rapidly improving technologies cause old people problems as they do not
develop important technological skills. Also, older members are not
considered as productive members of society. Additionally, old people‟s
status in society also goes down. His adjusting to this decline in status
becomes a major task in late adulthood.

90
Developmental Psychology However, in less industrialised societies, ageing is regarded as positive. In
agricultural societies, older people have control over important resources
like land or animals. There is no concept of retirement in such societies.
Older people are respected as they contribute in daily activities.
Agricultural practices do not change rapidly so older people are seen as
having great wisdom. There are cultural values too of respecting the
elders. Thus, the way elderly are treated in societies is shaped by how
elders are perceived in a particular culture.
The way we look at old age is influenced by the culture in which we live.
For example: Asian people hold old people in higher respect than western
cultures. Although the trend is changing due to industrialisation, still
elderly people are still treated more positively in Asia than in western
cultures.
What is it especially about Asian cultures that leads to this difference?
People in this culture are similar in socioeconomic status. Old people are
given more responsibility with increasing age. People in Asian society
show more continuity throughout life span than in western cultures. Older
people continue to engage in activities that are considered important in
societies. Asian cultures include extended families where older people are
also involved a lot in family structures. Young people look forward to
listening to the wisdom achieved by older members of the family.
However, there is another side to this. Some societies who show strong
ideals for treating old people do not execute those standards in reality. For
example, Chinese people show great respect for late adulthood but in
reality, they fail to be positive with old people. Sons and wives are
expected to take care of elderly parents. Parents with just daughters do not
have anyone to take care of. Thus, it is important to make international
standards for treating old people in society.
It is not just the Asian cultures that respect elderly. People in Latino
cultures consider old people having inner strength. In African cultures, old
age is regarded as divine intervention. In traditional Indian society,
informal support systems of family and friends are considered to be
supporting older members of the family too. However, changes in
traditional values, younger generation relocation, changing family
structures, and working women have given rise to the crisis for caring for
the elderly (Prakash, 2004).

7.3 AGE AND WISDOM

Does age bring wisdom?:
Old age brings with it the benefit of developing wisdom. It seems that as
we get older, we get wiser. However, the concept of wisdom has received
little attention from gerontologists. Defining and measuring wisdom is
difficult. Wisdom can be seen as a reflection of knowledge, experience,
and contemplation. With the help of this definition, old age may be
necessary to develop wisdom to some extent.

91
Wisdom is different from intelligence. Knowledge that is obtained from Social And Personality
intelligence is here and now. Wisdom is a timeless quality. Intelligence Development In Late
allows you to think logically. Wisdom provides a holistic understanding of Adulthood - I
human behaviour. Wisdom is defined as expert knowledge in the
practical aspects of life. According to Sternberg, who has researched into
practical intelligence, intelligence allows one to develop atom bombs but
wisdom prevents from using it.
Measuring wisdom is challenging. Staudinger and Halted (2000) did a
study to assess people's wisdom. They gave people (ranging in age from
20 to 70years) to discuss difficulties in life. For example: one problem
situation given was that if someone gets a phone call from a good friend
that he or she is planning to commit suicide. Another problem was that a
14 years old girl wanted to move out of her family home immediately.
Participants were asked what they would do in these situations.
There were no right or wrong answers to the problems. The responses
participants gave were examined based on many criteria. For example:
amount of facts known, considering the result of each decision,
considering the problem in context of the central character's life span, the
values that the central character held, or whether participants realised that
there may not be a possible single, right solution.
Using the above criteria, participants‟ responses were evaluated as being
wise or unwise. The study revealed that older people engaged in wise
thinking. Other research studies also suggested that wise people might be
older adults. As one grows old, one develops the ability to infer about
one's thoughts and emotions. Added years of experience allow older
people to have a sophisticated developed mind.

7.4 SUCCESSFUL AGEING: THEORIES OF AGEING.

What is the secret of successful ageing?
How people age depends on personality factors and life events that they
face. Some people continue to actively engage in daily activities while
some others gradually become less involved in day-to-day activities. There
are three main theories of ageing: disengagement theory, activity theory,
and continuity theory.

A. Disengagement Theory: Gradual Retreat:

This theory involves slowly removing oneself from the world on
physical, psychological and social levels. (Cummings & Henry, 1961).
On a physical level, in old age, people have lower energy levels and it
makes them slowdown in daily life. Mentally, old people slowly begin to
withdraw from others, and are not interested in the activities happening
around them. In old age, people want to spend more time looking inward.
On a social level, old people engage in less interaction with society. Some
older people are less involved in the lives of others.

92
Developmental Psychology According to this theory, withdrawal seems mutual because of the general
norms about old age and what is expected from old people. In addition to
this, even society begins to withdraw from old people gradually. For
example: retirement age compulsorily forces old people to withdraw from
work. This hastens the process of disengagement.
Although the theory looks logical, there have been a few criticisms. The
theory does not talk about the failure of society to give enough
opportunities for meaningful engagement during late adulthood. Secondly,
the theory blames old people for not being engaged.
Although some degree of disengagement may be healthy as it allows old
people to internally, look within and reflect. Old people while gradually
withdrawing also be careful about social relationships and focus on people
who meet their needs. (Liang and Luo, 2012).
Still most gerontologists reject this theory as according to them,
disengagement is not common. Old people remain engaged, actively
involved in daily life and remain busy throughout old age. This is very
commonly seen non-western cultures. Thus, clearly, disengagement is not
an automatic, universal process. (Crosnoe& Elder, 2002).

B. Activity Theory: Continued Involvement:

Activity theory suggests that successful ageing only happens when old
people continue to engage in their interests and activities that they
involved themselves in middle adulthood. Old people will be happier
and more satisfied if they continue to involve themselves with the world.
Successful ageing will occur only if older people adjust to unavoidable
changes in the environment without resisting social involvement.
Activity theory pointed out that older people must involve themselves in
activities that they participated earlier or participate in replacement
activities.
However, the theory does not differentiate between various types of
activities. Just remaining engaged will not assure that in old age people
will remain happy or satisfied. The nature or quality of the activities in
which people engage will influence more than the frequency of activities
(Adams, 2004).
For some people, less activity brings more enjoyment in life. Because
slowing down brings increased enjoyment of life. They reduce activities
and do only those things that can bring satisfaction. Some older adults
view their ability to lower the pace of life as the strength in old age. In
fact, they may sometimes welcome inactive or solitary existence.
In short, neither disengagement nor activity theory provides a complete
picture of successful ageing. For some people, a gradual disengagement
occurs and this helps them to experience high levels of happiness and
satisfaction. For others, engaging in some activity and involvement in life

93
helps them to lead a satisfactory life. (Ouwehand, de Ridder, &Bensing , Social And Personality
2007). Development In Late
Adulthood - I
C. Continuity Theory: A Compromise Position:
This theory proposes a middle position. It suggests that people need to
maintain their desired level of involvement in society to maximise
well-being and self-esteem. A little bit of disengagement and a little bit of
activity, both are required for successful ageing as per this theory. People
need to maintain a desired level of involvement in society to maximise
their well-being and self-esteem (Whitbourne, 2001).
Those who are active and social will be happy mostly. The retiring people
who enjoy solitary activities like reading will be happy if they are given
freedom to pursue that much level of sociability. Irrespective of their level
of activity, old people enjoy positive emotions like younger adults as
gradually they become better at managing and regulating their emotions.
Apart from level of activity, there are other factors that can improve
happiness in old age. Factors like good physical and mental health also are
crucial in influencing older people‟s well-being. Additionally, financial
security is also important as basic needs are taken care of. Personal
autonomy and control over one‟s life is essential to maintain a sense of
well-being.
Even the way they perceive their ageing process does impact their overall
happiness and satisfaction with life. Those who view old age as positive
may see old age as time to gain knowledge and wisdom. However, those
who view old age as a burden may perceive old age as unfavourable due to
their pessimistic attributes. (Levy, 2003).

D. Selective Optimization With Compensation: A General Model Of

Successful Ageing:
Psychologist Baltes (1990) has given importance to selective optimization
with compensation models for successful ageing. The assumption held in
this theory is that old age brings with it changes and losses in abilities
which change from one person to another. It is possible to overcome such
shifts in abilities with selective optimization. According to selective
optimization with compensation models, successful ageing occurs when
an old person focuses on his or her most important areas of functioning
and compensates for losses in other areas.
Selective optimization is the process by which people concentrate on a
specific skill to compensate for losses in other areas. They do this by
enhancing one‟s motivational, cognitive and physical resources as well as
focusing on developing skills in some specific areas of interest. For
example: a person who has run marathons for all her life may have to cut
or give up on other activities in order to increase her training. By giving
up other activities, s/he may be able to maintain her running skills by
concentrating on the specific skills.

94
Developmental Psychology At the same time, elderly people might have to compensate for the losses
that might have occurred due to old age. Compensation can be in the form
of using a hearing aid to help one to hear better or reducing the speed with
which one carries out some activities for better able to perform them for a
long time.
For example, Piano artist Arthur Rubinstein. In later years of his life, he
maintained his concert career through various strategies which can give an
idea of how compensation models work with selective optimization.
Firstly, he was very selective in what he played in concerts. Secondly, he
also practised those pieces more often. This is an example of optimisation.
Thirdly, he played faster pieces for some time immediately followed by
slowed musical passages giving the audience an illusion that he was
playing as fast as he had ever played before. This was an example of
compensation. (Baltes,1990).
Overall, the model of selective optimization with compensation involves
fundamentals of successful ageing. Old age may bring about reduction in
many abilities, one can focus on making the most out of one‟s
achievements in specific areas and still compensating for the limitations
and losses faced in old age. The outcome that is reduced in life may be
modified and transformed through other areas.

Is Age really just a state of mind?:

There was a pioneering study of the connection between mind and body.
Psychologist Langer called 8 men who were in their 70s to the monastery
to spend five days there. They were told to live as if they were suddenly
20 years younger. They were not allowed to look into the mirror. They
only saw photos of them in their 50s. They were no longer treated like old
men. They were told to take care of themselves. They also were asked to
talk about events that happened in their 50s. In every possible way, the
illusion was created to the mind that the last 20 years had been erased
from their lives. (Grierson, 2014).
At the end of the study, these men were not only acting younger but also
looking younger. Their strength and dexterity had also improved. Their
vision was too enhanced. This study showed that decline in age is partially
a state of mind. People act old because they think they have become old. If
they think of themselves as young, have purpose in life then they can
become rejuvenated.
Langer called this link between mind and body as mindfulness. People
tend to experience the outcomes they expect to experience. Men who
grow old prematurely and see themselves as old have an increased risk of
coronary heart disease. Women who have children later in life tend to feel
younger than their chronological years and tend to live longer.
Langer is currently conducting research on women with terminal late-
stage cancer to check whether they will benefit from living as if they went
back 20 years in time.

95
7.5 THE DAILY LIFE OF LATE ADULTHOOD: Social And Personality
Development In Late
CIRCUMSTANCES INWHICH OLDER PEOPLE LIVE Adulthood - I
AND THE DIFFICULTIES THEY FACE.
Living arrangements- the places and spaces where older adults live:
There was a 65-year-old retired computer engineer. When he was going to
retire, everyone told him he would miss his work, feel lonely, feel bored as
life would be without any challenges. However, after he retired, he felt
that it was his best time of life. There was nothing to miss, no deadlines,
no training sessions, evaluations or worry about losing a job. There were
some things which he missed like the people at work. However, he felt
that he had his savings, hobbies and spent quality time travelling with
family.
When we think of old age, mostly nursing homes come to our mind.
Elderly people living in unpleasant institutions feel lonely under the care
of strangers. Older men and women living with their families feel less
lonely than those living in old age homes. Older people living with
families and friends have better relationships than those living in old age
homes. (Bajpai, 2015)
Various researches have studied the effects of living arrangements on the
quality of life of the old people. The studies have revealed that living
arrangements and family structure, in which old people live, have a major
impact on the physical and psychological well-being of the elder
individuals. Old people living with family have better quality of life than
the old people living in nursing homes (Sowmiya, 2012)

A. Living At Home:
As per census 2011, nearly 104 million elderly persons in India live alone.
In most cases, they live with their spouses. Some old people live with their
siblings. Some others live with their children or grandchildren.
There are different consequences depending on the nature of the setting in
which old people live. For married couples, living with a spouse shows
continuity with earlier life. For people who live with their children,
adjusting to life with family members can be challenging. Here, there is a
loss of independence and privacy and older people may feel
uncomfortable with the way their children are raising their grandchildren.
The conflicts can arise among family members if specific rules about roles
family members have to play are not specified, (Navarro, 2006). Living in
extended families that are in joint families is most common among the
higher castes, the elite, and those with more assets. (Khatri,1975).

B. Specialised Living Environments:

Old people sometimes have to live in a different type of specialised
environment. For example- continuing care community. Such
communities offer an environment in which all people of retirement age or

96
Developmental Psychology older live together needing various levels of care which is provided by the
community. Residents sign a contract under which the community makes
a promise to provide a rewarding atmosphere which is helpful for all those
in late adulthood.
The disadvantage of such an arrangement is that as people age and their
needs increase, old people start living in separate houses that are supported
by medical providers. Continuing care ultimately leads to full-time nursing
care. Joining such a community will also require a huge amount of initial
payment which may be possible only for financially well-off old people.
Sometimes, such a community offers to incorporate day care centres on
the premises and develop programs that involve younger generations to
increase opportunities for old people to interact with other generations.
Several types of nursing institutions exist- part times versus full time. For
example, in adult day care facilities, old people are given care only during
the day but they spend their nights and weekends in their own homes.
During the day, elderly people participate in scheduled activities.
Sometimes adult day care is combined with child day-care programs to
provide interaction between old and young. The most intensive institutions
are, „skilled-nursing facilities‟, which provide full time nursing care for
old people with chronic illnesses.
The more the extent of nursing home care involved, the higher the
adjustment required by the elderly people. Some old people adjust quickly
but others may face difficulties. Additionally, elderly people in nursing
care homes also face stereotypes about nursing homes from society.
However, the well-being of senior citizens is mandated in the constitution
under article 41. The Right to Equality is guaranteed by the Indian
constitution as a fundamental right. Social security is also a parallel
responsibility of central and state governments.

C. Institutionalism And Learned Helplessness:

Being in nursing homes can lead to institutionalism- a psychological state
in which old people develop apathy, indifference, and a lack of care about
oneself. Institutionalism develops to a small extent because of learned
helplessness- a belief that one has no control over one‟s environment.
(Peterson and Park, 2007)
Learned helplessness due to institutionalism can have harmful effects on
elderly. For example- the deadliest change that happens in the lives of old
people is that from being independent in the past they move to having less
control over their daily life activities like when to eat, what to eat, sleeping
schedules. Old people who enter nursing homes may no longer have
control over their most basic activities. They may be told when to sleep
and when to visit the bathroom. But if the old people even though living in
nursing homes are given some choices to make for their own basic life
decisions, they are happier and healthier.
There was an experiment done by Langer and Janis (1979), in which they
showed the effect of losing control in old age. They classified elderly
97
people living in nursing homes in two groups. One group of older Social And Personality
residents were allowed to make many choices about their daily life Development In Late
activities. The other group had the staff of the nursing home making Adulthood - I
decisions for them. The results showed that residents who had choices
were happier, and healthy. After 18 months of the experiment, only 15%
of the choice group old people had died as compared to 30% of the no
choice comparison group. Thus, having a choice about one's own day to
day activities can have a major influence on the well-being and health of
elderly people.
Another study done by Agrawal (2012) on living arrangements on health
status of old people clearly indicated that elderly people who lived alone
suffered more from chronic health issues like asthma, tuberculosis and
acute illnesses like malaria or jaundice.
We have to remember one thing that all the nursing homes are not the
same, the best way is to allow residents to make their basic life decisions.
This may allow them to feel some sense of control over their lives which
in turn will enhance their physical and mental health.

7.6 FINANCIAL SECURITY AND OLD AGE.

Financial issues: The Economics of Late Adulthood:
Like people in all the other stages, even people in old age can vary on a
continuum of socioeconomic status. For example, some can be very rich,
some can belong to the middle income group or some can be very poor
too. Old people who were rich during their working years tend to stay
relatively affluent, whereas those who were poor at earlier stages of life
tend to remain poor when they become old.
The social inequity in different age groups becomes exaggerated as age
increases. As people reach old age, financial pressure increases due to
increasing life span. Because the more they live, the savings are going to
decrease soon. The Government of India has implemented programs like
health insurance for senior citizens or has provided provisions for tax
benefits. Factors like allowing entry in health insurance schemes till 65
years, transparency in premium amount charged, reasons for denying the
renewal of health insurance can be kept in mind. No insurance company
can deny the senior citizens their right for health insurance without
genuine reasons.
The government has also come up with provisions for tax benefits to old
people. Income tax exemption for senior citizens of 80 years and above for
up to 5 lakh per year income. There are tax benefits for individuals who
pay medical insurance premiums for their old parents. People are eligible
for deductions in tax even when they spend a specific amount for
treatment of a dependent senior citizen suffering from specified diseases.
The Ministry of home affairs also allows protection of life and the
property of senior citizens. State governments are required to provide a

98
Developmental Psychology widely covered plan for safety and security of old people. The ministry of
Home Affairs has also advised safety and security for elimination of all
forms of neglect, abuse, and violence against old people through
sensitising police regarding safety and security of old individuals. The
Government of India also has set up toll free senior citizens help lines and
senior citizen security cells.

Retirement: Filling A Life of Leisure:

In today‟s times, due to technology and education, even elderly people
who are active and healthy, are refusing to lead a dull life when they can
lead a purposeful life even in their 80s. This is possible because there is a
lot of awareness for improving quality of life in later years and not just
standard of life. Due to the internet reaching everywhere, there are old
people who wish to live an active and purposeful life instead of a dull or
sad life. Due to globalisation, the life of elderly individuals in the rural
areas too is getting affected in an indirect way. Many families have seen
their children migrating to foreign countries; which affects their lives in
different ways. This has its own advantages and disadvantages. Although
it has made elderly people feel left alone because of their children taking
up jobs in cities leaving them feeling lonely. It has also been associated
with economic betterment. Children becoming independent can financially
uplift the lives of elderly family members. However, the flip side is that
they are left to take care of themselves even if they are financially well-
off.
A common activity in India that is stereotypically associated with old age
is spiritualism. Although it is true for several elderly people to engage into
spiritual activities like “satsangs” and attending other spiritual discourses,
it is not true for many other elderly individuals. Some elderly people have
not just restricted themselves to spiritual activities. They visit libraries, go
for morning walks, enjoy kitty parties, and travel to nearby places alone or
with friends. They learn the use of social media and play virtual games in
their leisure time. According to their interest, they write blogs, do art or
craft, and some even take admission in universities to achieve their
unfulfilled desires. Thus, social media and technology has today changed
the lives of many elderly individuals.

7.7 SUMMARY
While some aspects of personality remain stable, others change to reflect
the social environments through which people pass as they age. Eriksson
called older adulthood the ego-integrity- versus- despair stage, focusing on
an individual's feelings about his or her life. While Peck focuses on three
tasks that define the period. According to Levinson, after struggling with
the notion of being old, people can experience liberation and self-regard.
Neugarten focuses on the ways people cope with ageing.
Age stratification theories suggest that the unequal distribution of
economic resources, power, and privilege becomes particularly visible
during late adulthood.

99
Wisdom is defined as expert knowledge in the Practical aspects of life, Social And Personality
won through the accumulation of knowledge, experience, and Development In Late
contemplation. Because it is experience based, wisdom may be dependent Adulthood - I
on ageing. Societies in which elderly people are respected for their
wisdom are generally characterised by social structure, extended families,
responsible roles for older people, and control of significant resources by
older people.
Disengagement theory suggests that older people gradually withdraw from
the world, which can lead to reflection and satisfaction. In contrast,
activity theory suggests that the happiest people continue to be engaged
with the world. A compromise position- that of continuity theory- may be
the most useful approach. The most successful model for ageing may be
selective optimization with compensation.
Elderly people live in a variety of settings, although most live at home
with a family member.
Financial issues can trouble older people, largely because their incomes
are fixed, health care costs are increasing, and the life span is lengthening.

7.8 QUESTIONS
1. Describe ways in which personality develops during late adulthood.
(20 Marks)
2. Explain how age relates to the distribution of resources, power, and
privilege (10 marks)
3. Define wisdom and describe how it is correlated with age? (10 marks)
4. Differentiate the theories of ageing. (20 marks)
5. Describe the circumstances in which older people live and the
difficulties they face. (20 marks)
6. Discuss how financially secure older people are in India today? (10
marks)

7.9 REFERENCES
• Feldman, R. S. (2014). Development across the Life Span. (7th Ed).
New Jersey: Pearson Education

*****

100
Developmental Psychology

101
 8
SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT IN LATE
ADULTHOOD - II
Unit structure
8.0 Objectives
8.1 The positives, negatives and stages of retirement in old age
8.2 Marriages in late adulthood
8.3 The typical reactions to the death of a spouse during late adulthood.
8.4 The nature of relationships in late adulthood.
8.5 Ageing and family relationships.
8.6 Causes and prevention of elder abuse
8.7 Summary
8.8 Questions
8.9 References

8.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you will understand:
1. What are the positives, negatives and stages of retirement in old age
2. How marriages help or hurt in late adulthood
3. What are the reactions to death of a spouse in old age
4. Nature of family relationships in late adulthood
5. What are the causes of elder abuse and how to prevent it

8.1 THE POSITIVES, NEGATIVES AND STAGES OF

RETIREMENT IN OLD AGE.
Work and retirement in late adulthood:
Mrs. Pradhan turned 80 last month. She was a school teacher. In her entire
life, she was involved in teaching and coaching children who were
academically not performing well, after school hours, for more than 40
years.
When her husband died, she decided to retire and move to her home town
in Orissa. This place was beautiful. People were friendly. But Mrs.
Pradhan did not actually retire. She began helping poor children in their
studies.

101
The case mentioned above is a clear example of the decision of when to Social And Personality
retire is a difficult decision faced by the majority of individuals in old age. Development In Late
For some, retirement can be difficult as they may not have people asking Adulthood - Ii
them for advice now. For others, retirement may symbolise ‘a life of
leisure’.

Combating Age Discrimination:

Many other people continue to work for some part of their late adulthood
because they enjoy intellectual and social rewards that work provides and
also, they work because of financial reasons. However, some employers
force older people to leave jobs because they feel that older people may
not be able to adapt to the demands of the job.
In reality, older people may have great contributions in fields like art,
science or literature. In a large-scale study, it was found that age was not a
predictor of older police officers’, fire fighters’, and prison guards’ work
performance. Rather, case-by-case individual assessment of their
performance was a more accurate PREDICTOR of their work
performance overall. (Landy & Conte, 2004)
However, age discrimination still remains a problem. The conditions of
the economy may help decrease age discrimination. The companies can
offer incentives to older adults to either remain in the workforce or return
to it after they have retired. Still, for older people, retirement is the norm.

Retirement: Filling A Life of Leisure:

Retirement decisions are influenced by many factors. Sometimes it’s
because of burn out. They are fatigued after a lifetime of work. Old people
want relief from the tension and frustration of their jobs. They wish to
experience relief from the frustration of their jobs because they feel they
are not doing as much as they once could do. Other factors may include
reasons for retirement like decline in health, incentives offered by
companies on retirement, or some want to utilise their retired life for travel
or study or to spend some more time with their grandchildren,

Stages of Retirement:
Whatever the reason may be for retirement, old people pass through a
series of retirement stages.
1. Honeymoon period: Retirement may start with the honeymoon
phase. Elderly individuals involve themselves in travel or a variety of
other interesting activities like joining hobby class, spending quality
time with family or friends, that they could not do during work period.
2. Disenchantment: the next phase is disenchantment. Retired people
feel that retirement is not all they thought it would be. They may have
thought that they would now get a lot of time to enjoy life in this
phase but they may soon realise that retirement is not all that they
imagined. In reality, they miss the work life or friendships of their

102
Developmental Psychology previous jobs and soon they find it hard to keep themselves busy.
(Osborne, 2012
3. Reorientation: in this phase, people who have retired begin thinking
about how they will spend the ample time meaningfully that they have
now. Retired persons reconsider options and become involved in new
and more meaningful activities like volunteering, joining part time
jobs nearby, or developing hobbies.
4. Retirement Routine: If successful in the earlier phase, older
individuals enter in retirement routine. Here, in this phase, older
people accept the realities of retirement and find purpose in the new
phase of life. All people do not reach this stage and some may still
experience disenchantment with retirement for many years.
5. Termination: Some people choose to terminate retirement by re-
entering the workforce. For most people, however, termination occurs
when they suffer major physical deterioration. For most people, this
phase involves decrease in physical health. Their health becomes too
fragile to function independently. That is their health becomes very
bad and they can’t function independently.
Everyone does not pass through all the stages and the sequence is not the
same for everyone. Overall, the person’s reactions to retirement come
from the reasons for retirement in its first place. For example: someone
who was forced to retire due to health reasons will have a very different
experience than someone who loved the job and retired due to retirement
age.
The psychological consequences of retirement may differ from person to
person. One can do many things to plan a good retirement.

How to plan a good retirement?:

Gerontologists (researchers researching on old age) point out that there are
many factors related to successful retirement. (Noone, Stephens, &
Alpass, 2009)
 Plan in advance for financial security. Save money for retired life.
Financial experts say that only pension amounts may be insufficient
so personal savings will be very useful. It is also very important to
have medical insurance.
 It’s essential to gradually withdraw from work. Sometimes one can
shift from full-time to part-time work. This might help the elderly
individual to prepare for full-time retirement.
 It is also important to discover one's own interests before one retires.
Find out what you like about your present job and think how you can
translate your interests into leisure activities.

103
 If the older adult is married, it is very crucial to discuss with the Social And Personality
partner one's own views about ideal retirement. One has to discover a Development In Late
plan that suits both the partners. Adulthood - Ii

 Plan where one wants to live after retirement. Temporarily, one can
move to that community where one is thinking of moving to check
how the experience might be.
 The older adults can find out about downsizing the space in the
current home. One can also reduce maintenance costs by carefully
thinking about what costs can be cut.
 Older adults can also plan to volunteer their time. People moving to
old age will have lots of skills which can be utilised by NGOs for
small businesses.

8.2 MARRIAGES IN LATE ADULTHOOD.

Relationships: old and new: in sickness and in health:
Manoj, 94, explains how he met his wife, Savita, 90. Manoj was posted in
Shimla in the state bank of India. He was feeling lonely. So, he went to a
book store on a busy street in Shimla. Manoj happens to reach for a book.
The same book was selected by Savita as well. That’s how they met. And
fell in love. Four months later, they got married. One year later, he got
transferred to Assam. She would write a letter to him every day. However,
Manoj was not a good writer. He wrote a letter to her only once, which she
used to read every day. The warmth and affection between Manoj and
Savita made their relationship strong. The relationship continues to bring
joy in their life.
What is the nature of the social world of people in late adulthood? To
answer the question, one has to consider the nature of marriage in old age.

Nature of marriages in late adulthood:

It seems to be a world of men, because a large proportion of men are
found who marry after the age of 65 compared to women. This might
have happened because 70% of women live longer than their husbands by
a few years. Because there are less men available, these women may be
unlikely to remarry.
The norms of the society suggest that women should marry men older than
themselves. This may be the reason why women remain single even in the
later years of life. However, this may allow men to remarry much easily
because many women might be available who can become eligible
partners. (Treas & Bengtson, 1987).
People who are married in later life say that they are satisfied with their
marriages. Their spouse provides companionship and emotional support.
In old age, both partners have been with each other for a long time. It also
gives them great insight about each other (Jose & Alfons,2007).

104
Developmental Psychology However, not all aspects of marriage are satisfactory. Married couples
may experience severe stress as one or both partners experience changes
in their lives. For example- retirement of one or both the partners can
bring a change in the nature of a couple’s relationship positively or
negatively (Henry, Miller &Giarrusso, 2005).
Divorce: for some couples, stress of the marriage is so high that one or the
other partner asks for divorce. The divorce rates have increased over the
last few years.
The causes for divorce are different at different phases of life. Women ask
for divorce as the spouse is abusive or alcoholic. Whereas, husbands seek
divorce because he has found a younger woman. Many times, divorce
happens immediately after retirement as men experience stress due to high
involvement in a career which is suddenly not there. They may end up
experiencing psychological disturbances because of sudden absence of
work (Solomon et al., 1998).
Divorce, late in life, sometimes, turns out to be very difficult to handle for
women because of lack of availability of a potential pool of eligible men.
This may lead to older divorced women not considering remarrying. For
many women, marriage has been the most important role which formed
the centre identity of their life. They may think of divorce as a major
failure. Due to this, the quality of life and happiness of divorced women
may suffer (Davis & Denton, 2002).
Sometimes, older men and women who are divorced or spouses have died
seek new relationships. Many strategies to find a new potential partner are
employed such as joining singles organisation or using the internet
account to seek company (Dupuis, 2009)
Those who have remained single their entire life may have less difficulties
transiting to late adulthood as they have been living alone since long.
Those who are never married have been living independently for a long
time. So, the transition to old age does not bring about many changes.
Never-married old people actually report feeling less lonely and greater
sense of independence (Newton & Keith, 1997)

Dealing With Retirement: Too Much Togetherness?:

When Mohan finally stopped working full time, his wife, Rina, found
some aspects of his increased presence at home troublesome. Their
marriage was strong. But his interference in her daily routine and his
constant questioning about whom she was talking on the phone with and
where she was going when she went out really irritated her. Finally, she
started to spend less time in the house. This was so paradoxical. She was
waiting to spend time with Mohan when he was about to retire. Now that
he was home all day long, she was not comfortable with him because of
his constant presence.
The life of Mohan and Rina was something found in most homes. For
many couples, retirement means relationships need to be redefined. As

105
sometimes retirement leads to spending more time together than at any Social And Personality
other point in marriage. Also, men have to share the burden of household Development In Late
chores which he might not have done before. Adulthood - Ii

In a study by Kulik (2002), it was found that role reversal takes place in
life after retirement. Wives wish for more companionship than husbands.
Power equation also changes. Men become more affectionate and women
become more assertive.

Caring For An Ageing Spouse:

Due to health reasons, sometimes, spouses have to take care of their
partner’s health in ways that they never imagined in late adulthood. This
can be frustrating or tiring.
For example: one woman commented- “I cry a lot because I never thought
that my life would be this way. I didn’t expect to be cleaning the bathroom,
changing his clothes, washing his clothes all the time. I took care of
children in my 20s and now I am taking care of my husband.” (Doress et
al., 1987, pp: 199-200).
Some people look at caring for an ill and dying spouse in a positive light.
They think of it as a final opportunity to show love and devotion. Some
caregivers say that they feel quite satisfied because of the responsibility
they have got to take care of the spouse. The emotional fatigue that they
experience decreases as they adjust to the stress of caregiving.
Yet giving care can be very difficult and can have harmful effects on a
spouse's physical and psychological health. Caregiving can be such a
difficult task, as the caregiver may not be in the best of physical health.
This can negatively impact their physical and psychological health.
Studies have shown that caregivers feel lower satisfaction with life
compared to non-caregivers (Davis et al., 2014).
In most cases, it is generally seen that the spouse who takes care- is the
wife. The first reason may be that men tend to die earlier than women and
therefore they may contract diseases leading to death earlier than women.
The second reason could be that women are considered as ‘natural’
caregivers due to society’s traditional gender roles. Consequently, health-
care providers suggest that a wife should take care of the husband than
that a husband should take care of the wife.

8.3 THE TYPICAL REACTIONS TO THE DEATH OF A

SPOUSE DURING LATE ADULTHOOD
Death of a Spouse: Becoming Widowed:
Death of the spouse can be a very painful event. Specifically, for those
who have been married young It can lead to severe feelings of loss and can
give rise to financial and social difficulties. If the marriage has been
fruitful, death of a spouse means loss of a friend or a companion or a
helper. Death of a spouse in late adulthood affects the person more than
106
Developmental Psychology the old age. Because one is less involved in work or social networking in
old age.
Once the partner dies, the spouse has to hold a new and unfamiliar role:
widowhood. They also lose the role they were most familiar with- that is
their role as a spouse. Society also looks at them not as couples but as
individuals. All this can bring about severe sadness and grief.
Widowhood can bring several new demands. There is no one to share the
whole day’s events. The surviving spouse has to do daily household tasks
now which may have been carried out by the dead spouse before. Initially,
family and friends provide support but soon widows have to adapt to being
single and on their own quickly. The widowed spouse has to learn to make
adjustments for cooking and other daily life activities or learn this skill so
that one can lead one's life smoothly even being single (Smith,2012).
Social lives of people also change significantly. Married couples tend to
socialise with other married couples but such friendships may fade out.
This may get replaced with forming new friendships with other single
people.
Economic issues are major problems in widowed people’s lives. Many
though have insurance, savings or pensions to provide economic security.
Some women still experience a decrease in their economic well- being
because of the death of their spouse. This can result in taking some
forceful financial decisions like selling the house in which both the
spouses lived so long.

The process of adjusting to widowhood involves three stages:

1. Preparation: in this phase, spouses prepare themselves for many
years for the eventual death of the partner. Basically, it includes
learning adaptive behaviour, developing skills and abilities, and
focusing on anticipatory behaviour like Purchase of life insurance,
preparation of a will, decision to have children to take care of in old
age. (Rock & Cherry, 2002).
2. Widowhood: grief and mourning are the immediate reactions to the
death of a spouse in this phase. It begins with shock and intense pain
of losing the partner. This continues as the survivor has to work
through the emotions the loss brings up. So, now grief plays a very
important role. Person has to seek support from a counsellor and
engage in grief work and reality testing. How much time a person
takes for grief work, depends on the degree of support received from
others and personality of the survivor. Sometimes, this phase can last
for months or years too.
3. Adaptation: This is the last stage of the adjustment. Here, widows
start a new life. This begins with acceptance of one’s loss and leads to
reorganisation of roles and forming new friendships. In this phase, a
new identity as ‘an unmarried person’ also develops.

107
The three-stage model of loss and change does not apply to everyone. The Social And Personality
timing of the stages also changes from person to person. Some people may Development In Late
experience ‘complicated grief’, where they may continue to mourn for Adulthood - Ii
months or years or find it very difficult to let go of the loved one and they
keep reliving the memories of the dead spouse that impairs normal
functioning. (Holland et al., 2009).
For most people, life returns to normal functioning after some time after
the death of the spouse. Death of the spouse can still be a very significant
event in late adulthood as it can remind the person of one's own mortal
nature.

8.4 THE NATURE OF RELATIONSHIPS IN LATE

ADULTHOOD.
The social networks of late adulthood:
Older adults enjoy friends like young adults do. Friendship plays a
significant role in late adulthood. Quality time spent with friends is really
considered important compared to time spent with family. Friends are
looked at as providers of support to them. According to a study conducted
by Ansberry (1997) people in late adulthood do engage in making new
friends and also engage in significant interactions with them.

Friendship: why friends matter in late adulthood:

Friendships are particularly important during this stage in comparison to
other relationships. One reason for the importance of friendship is the
element of control that is involved in it, which is not the case in family
relationships. At least in friendships, we can choose who we like and
whom we do not like. Individuals have control over the choice of friends
and this helps them psychologically to deal with the general lack of
control in other aspects of their life like health. (Singh & Srivastava, 2014)
Another reason why friendship becomes important is the flexibility of the
newer friendships that are formed which provides individuals in late
adulthood with the emotional support that they may no longer receive in
case of disturbed family relationships. There was a study done on 630
older adults aged 60 and above from the rural areas of Varanasi and Uttar
Pradesh. This Study suggested that being socially connected prevents
people from experiencing depression among elderly individuals living in
rural parts of India. (Singh, Singh & Arokiasamy, 2016)
Third reason why friendship becomes important during this stage is that
elderly individuals will be aware that the partner may die sooner or later.
There is an increased probability of having lost their spouse in old age.
Friendship helps them to cope with this loss and also provides them with
companionship which was initially provided by the dead spouse.
Only the spouses don’t die. Even friends do. They may also have to face
the death of their friends. Death of a close friend may be particularly
difficult. The way they look at friendship in old age will decide how
108
Developmental Psychology susceptible they will be to the death of the friend. However, if friendship
is defined as one of many friendships available, the death of one's other
friends may be handled by development of new friends.

Social Support- The Significance of Others:

Friends are a very important source of social support especially for
successful aging. Social support refers to the assistance, comfort and care
that are offered by caring and interested individuals. Technological
advancement has facilitated provision of social support through social
networking sites and also through social media. This has facilitated the
possibility of maintaining contact, development of new contacts, which
has in turn helped in reducing isolation (physical as well as emotional)
amongst individuals in late adulthood. These technological advancements
have enabled individuals in late adulthood to participate socially and have
also helped in building relationships across different generations. Thus,
social networking and social media may play a very important role in
improving the quality of life of elderly individuals.
There was a study conducted by Jaiswal, Pradeep, and Subramanyam
(2015). In this study 140 elderly individuals participated in staying in
Bangalore. 25 out of 140 individuals made use of social media. However,
115 out of 140 people did not use social media. The participants discussed
the importance of social media in enhancing their quality of life.
Social media can be useful in deriving multiple benefits. Social support
from others gives emotional strength to an individual through the care and
concern by others. Information from others about coping with the death of
the spouse, especially when it is offered by those who have gone through
it, may offer valuable informational support. Friends will be able to
understand one's concerns. Also, they will be able to provide helpful
suggestions to cope with the problems in life. These suggestions can be
more trustworthy than coming from family members.
Sometimes support may help in changing perspectives and evaluating
events more objectively. Yet others may even offer material help like
running errands for an elderly person. Also, the support from friends can
provide solutions for present problems like dealing with difficult
neighbours or repairing a broken appliance.
Social support helps not only the one who receives it, but also the
provider. People who offer support feel a great deal of usefulness and
increased self-esteem. That one is of help to others gives a feeling of
importance and enhances one's self-worth.
However, the important question is, what type of social support is most
effective? Things like preparing food, being with someone to go to a
movie, asking someone to come for dinner. Reciprocity is the expectation
that if positive support is provided to another person, ultimately the favour
done will be returned. The social support that works best are the ones that
are based on the possibility of returning the support. In western societies,

109
older adults value only those relationships where reciprocity is possible Social And Personality
(Becker, Beyene, & Newsom, 2003). Development In Late
Adulthood - Ii
When the support is one-sided or asymmetrical, relationships start
becoming burdensome. It is psychologically dissatisfying. This is more
likely to happen as the individuals age since they may not be able to
reciprocate the help, making the support psychologically burdensome.

8.5 AGEING AND FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS.

Family Relationships: The Ties That Bind:
Even if the spouse has died, most older individuals are part of a big family
unit. Relationships still exist with siblings, children and grandchildren.
These relationships offer a very important source of solace and comfort to
elderly individuals in their last phase of life.
The social relationship that is very important in the life of individuals in
late adulthood is that with their family. Within the family the individual
may have relationships with different family members and each
relationship has a different effect on the life of an elderly person.
One relationship which is very significant is – Sibling relationships. This
relationship is important since siblings have shared experiences which
date back to their childhood, making an elderly person more comfortable
with their siblings. Even when the childhood experiences are negative,
they may feel more comfortable due to the shared nature of their
experience.

Relationships With Children:

An adult’s relationship with children is a more important aspect of their
life than that with their siblings. Even if children are not living with their
parents, there are interactions between parents and children. Even in an
age where geographically it is possible to move from one location to
another, most parents and children stay close not just geographically as
well as psychologically. A research study showed that 75% of children
live within a 30-minute drive of their parents. Parents and children visit
and talk with one another often. Daughters tend to be in touch with their
parents more than sons. Children like to be in touch with mothers more
than fathers (Byrd-Craven et al., 2012).
Most of the elderly individuals have at least one child who stays close by,
family members still offer significant help to one another. Parents and
children have similar viewpoints towards how adult children should
behave with their parents. Parents expect that children should provide
emotional and economic support. They should talk to the parents about
their medical issues. (Funk, 2010).
The relationship between parents and children at this stage is likely to be
asymmetrical with parents desiring more interactions with their children.
Whereas, children want more independence and autonomy from their

110
Developmental Psychology parents. Although both of them agree that children should help parents in
matters concerning medical issues and offer emotional care, children may
prefer a more distant relationship in comparison to the parents. Since
parents have a greater developmental stake, they are more likely to
compromise and be engaged in relationships to the required level.
Parents will always be more interested and concerned about their
children. Relationships between the elderly parents and children may not
necessarily be one sided. Many adults may seek help from their elderly
parents in terms of advice, informational or perhaps even monetary and
other material help (Diamond, Fagundes & Butterworth, 2010).

Grandchildren and Great Grandchildren:

Grandparents differ in the extent to which they are involved with their
grandchildren. Even amongst those who are involved, they avoid
participation in direct care of the grandchildren. However, there are many
grandparents who participate in raising their grandchildren as a part of
their social network (Coall & Hertwig, 2010,2011).
The studies show that grandmothers tend to be more involved in bringing
up their grandchildren in comparison to grandfathers. There are gender
differences too in feelings grandchildren have about their grandparents.
Most young adult grandchildren feel closer to their grandmother,
especially maternal grandmother (Hayslip, Shore, & Hendsrson, 2000).
Apart from the gender differences, cultural differences also determine the
relationships with grandchildren. African American grandparents are
generally more involved with their grandchildren than white grandparents.
African American grandchildren feel emotionally closer to their
grandparents. Grandfathers play a crucial role in the lives of African
American children than in the lives of white children. These differences
could have arisen due to the existence of large multigenerational families
in African American families compared to Whites. In such families,
grandparents also play a major role in raising grandchildren (Gelman et
al., 2014).
Great-grandchildren play a less important role in the lives of both white
and African American great grandparents. Most great-grandparents do not
have close ties with their great-grandchildren. Warm and close
relationships happen only when great-grandchildren and great-
grandparents live geographically closer to each other (McConnell, 2012).
Comparatively, the relationships that an elderly person has with great
grandchildren are minimal. This is attributed to different reasons. Firstly,
by the time grandparents reach great-grandparenthood, older adults are so
old that they do not possess much physical or psychological energy to
invest in forming close relationships with their great-grandchildren.
Secondly, great grandchildren are generally more in number so it may be
very difficult to keep track of them to form close ties with them. Thirdly,
the ageing process reduces the physical and psychological resources in the
elderly person to maintain warm relationships with great-grandchildren.
111
Even though the relationships with great grandchildren are limited, it has Social And Personality
many benefits. It profits emotionally to the great-grandparents for having Development In Late
someone close by to share the joys and sorrows with. Having great- Adulthood - Ii
grandchildren is an indication to great-grandparents that their family is
continuing which is a real sign of longevity of the family members.
Further, as age increases, though physical health deteriorates, having
great-grandchildren helps the elderly person to contribute physically also
in the lives of great-grandchildren because of new advances in
technology.

8.6 CAUSES AND PREVENTION OF ELDER ABUSE

Elder Abuse: Relationships Gone Wrong:
Although we may think that cases of elderly abuse are rare, statistics
suggest that it is more common than what we may think. Nearly half of
elderly persons report personal experiences of abuse. Demographically,
those in the age group 60 to 69 and females are more likely to experience
abuse. (Help Age India Report, 2015)
This form of abuse may be understood in terms of 3 factors-
Characteristics of the abused, Characteristics of the abusing family and
social factors. Socio-demographic, those abused are the ones who are less
healthy, isolated and living in the care-givers’ house. The abuse is
commonly associated with emotional and economic dependence on the
caregiver. The factors pertaining to the family where abuse takes place
shows that abuse is associated with the economic, psychological and
social pressures on the caregivers, which makes them engage in abusive
behaviour. The HelpAge India Report has also considered the changing
ethos as a factor contributing to the elderly abuse.
Dealing with the abuse will then require you to pay attention to all the 3
contributing elements. Empowering adults is important. Another important
element is to introduce effective family interventions to help the family to
deal with the problems of late adulthood. Social agencies may be
established to offer necessary support to the family in taking care of the
elderly persons. For instance, providing volunteers to the family in taking
care of the elderly person while the family takes a break; may give
psychological relief to the family. Thus, holistic care will help in
preventing abuse.

Legal Provisions to Protect the Elderly Persons:

The Indian legal system has made some provisions for the protection of
the elderly individuals. Some important laws related to this are as follows-
1. Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act of 1956 stated that it will be
mandatory for children to take care of their elderly parents and
provide financial support for their maintenance. In case of an elderly
person suing their children for neglect, the law can compel children to
pay for the maintenance. The amount to be paid as maintenance is

112
Developmental Psychology decided on the basis of factors like satisfaction of reasonable desires,
their current living conditions, etc.
2. The section 125 of Criminal Procedure Code also provides for
maintenance from children up to Rs. 500 for those elderly parents
who are unable to take care of themselves. This law also ensures that
those who do not follow the act will be legally punished.
3. According to the Maintenance and Welfare of Parents and Senior
Citizens (MWPSC) Act, parents and grandparents who are unable to
take care of themselves may demand maintenance even up to
Rs.10,000/. This Act also provides for taking care of the elderly as a
responsibility of the children with a fine of Rs. 5000/ along with
imprisonment up to 3 months for abandonment of Parents.

8.7 SUMMARY
People may pass through stages, including a honeymoon period,
disenchantment, reorientation, retirement routine, and termination, as they
adjust to retirement.
People who retire must fill an increasingly longer span of leisure time.
Those who are most successful plan ahead and have varied interests.
People who retire often pass through stages, including a honeymoon
period, disenchantment, reorientation, a retirement routine stage, and
termination. Retirement often requires a reworking of power relationships
within the marriage.
Marriages in later life generally remain happy, although stresses brought
about by major life changes that accompany ageing can cause problems.
Divorce is usually harder on the woman than the man, partly because of
the continuing influence of the marriage stereotypes. Deterioration in the
health of a spouse can cause the other spouse- typically the wife- to
become a caregiver, which can bring both challenges and rewards.
The death of a spouse forces the survivor to assume a new societal role,
accommodate to the absence of a companion and work-sharer, create a
new social life, and resolve financial problems. Researchers have
identified three stages in adjusting to widowhood: preparation, grief,
mourning and adaptation. Some people never reach the adaptation stage.
Friendships are very important in later life, providing personal control,
social support and companionship from peers who are likely to understand
the older adults’ feelings and problems.
Family relationships provide a great deal of emotional support for people
in old age, especially relationships with siblings and children. Family
relationships are a continuing part of most older people's lives.
Elder abuse typically involves socially isolated elderly parents in poor
health and a caregiver who feels burdened by the parent. Parents who are
socially isolated and not in good health may be abused by children who

113
are forced to act as caregivers. The best way to prevent elder abuse is Social And Personality
prevention by ensuring that caregivers receive breaks and have access to Development In Late
social support. Adulthood - Ii

8.8 QUESTIONS
1. Summarise the positives and negatives of retiring as well as typical
stages retired people pass through.
2. Describe how marriages fare in late adulthood.
3. Describe the typical reactions to the death of a spouse during late
adulthood.
4. Discuss the nature of relationships in late adulthood.
5. Explain how ageing affects family relationships.
6. Discuss what causes elder abuse and how it can be prevented.

8.9 REFERENCES
• Feldman, R. S. (2014). Development across the Life Span. (7th Ed).
New Jersey: Pearson Education

*****

114