Unit 3: Branches in Philosophy: Metaphysics & Epistemology

3.1 Introduction to Metaphysic

3.2 Introduction to Epistemology
Introduction
Welcome to Unit 3 of MPU3193/03 Philosophy and Current Issues. Unit 3 covers the branches in philosophy: metaphysic
and epistemology. The first part looks at metaphysic and its relationship with the knowledge of philosophy and religion.
You will also be introduced to the theory of Idealism and Materialism in the field of metaphysic. Metaphysic focuses on
the study of the reality which includes the physical and non-physical aspects. It also looks at the where religion is placed
in metaphysics.

Epistemology is also explored in this unit. In epistemology, the theory of knowledge is widely discussed. The rules on
deciding whether an idea or opinion is deemed as knowledge is explained. Besides that, the two main streams of
epistemology, namely Empirism and Rationalism are discussed in this unit. These two main streams have different
approaches in identifying the rules of knowledge. Discussion on the theories in justifying the rules of knowledge are
presented in this unit as well. You will also be exposed to the Islam and Western framework on epistemology. Finally, the
relationship between epistemology and the development of scientific revolution will be explained.
Unit Learning Outcome
Demonstrate knowledge of the meaning of metaphysic from the perspective of philosophy and religion.
Demonstrate understanding of the theory of idealism and materialism in the field of metaphysic.
Explain beliefs and relationship between man and God in relation to religion through metaphysic perspective.
Describe the mainstreams in epistemology.
Elaborate the theories about Truth.

What is metaphysic?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qKq0Afmsj-U
 3.1 Introduction to Metaphysic
The term ‘metaphysic’ is formed by two words – meta and physic. ‘Meta’ is a Greek word that means beyond while ‘physic’
refers to the material or physical realm. Hence, when combined, it means something that is beyond physics. In other
words, metaphysic can be interpreted as a field that discusses things that cannot be seen with naked eyes. According to
Aristotle, metaphysic is “the study of the first principles and causes of things”. The study of metaphysic is the second order
study. First order refers to material or physical realm while second order is beyond what is physical.
There are two main understanding of metaphysic:-
1. The first understanding is that metaphysic is philosophical in nature. It refers to the study on the most abstract stage
or most common about an incident, phenomenon or nature. For example, the cause and effect of something.
2. The second understanding is that metaphysic is related to religion. It speaks about phenomenon beyond what can be
seen. For example, life after death, heaven, hell or supernatural beings that cannot be proven with rational or empirical
senses.

For example, when we are thinking about an object such as a chair. The chair has colour and position in a space. It also
has its own scent that we can smell. We are able to feel whether the chair is soft or hard. All those are the specific
nature related to the chair. However, if we were to remove all those, what is left to the chair? Aristotle claims that what
is left is the substance which does not have a specific quality. Substance is deemed as the combination of mass and the
shape of the object.
In metaphysic, the observation is not on specific characteristics in the phenomena. Instead, more abstract
questions are asked. For example, what is the causal relationship in the phenomenon? What are the consequences
from the actions? Hence, the study is on the cause and effect in general and not referring to the any specific
phenomena.

The second understanding that metaphysic is related to religion and beliefs. It refers to the phenomenon beyond
the physical realm. For example, the existence of God, life after death, spiritual realm, the concept of heaven and
hell. All these are things that we are not able to verify with our senses. They cannot be proven whether they exist
or not. These things cannot be observed through space and time and there is no way to understand these
phenomena using the normal method. However, they can be verified through other ways such as divine revelation.
This is metaphysic.
There are four names related to this branch of philosophy which are:-
a) first philosophy
b) first science
c) wisdom
d) theology

Religion claims that reality is not just limited to those that has body and can be understood through rational and empirical
evidence. It can also be formed by something that does not have a body such as the soul in our body or the existence of
angels and genie. From the perspective of religion, reality is a combination of both material and spiritual beings. It involves
both body and spirit. It is clearly different from the view of materialists who rejects the spiritual reality or the mental
reality.
Field of discussion in metaphysics are as follows:-
(i) Ontology (theory about the nature of being)
(ii) Causality and cosmogony (the origins of cosmos or universe)
(iii) Cosmology (the nature of the universe)
(iv) Subject, predicate and taxo
(v) Necessity and contingency
(vi) Mind and matter
(vii) Free will and determinism

There are two theories in the study of metaphysics. Philosophers in metaphysics are not interested in the existence of
physical things as they exist in specific shapes and sizes. Instead, in metaphysics, the philosophers are more interested in
the meaning of the existence. The two theories, materialism and idealism, try to provide answers to the things that
exists in this universe.
Materialism Theory
According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, materialism means theories of beliefs that only material exists.
Encyclopedia Britanica defined materialism as the perspective that all facts or nature being including the ones related
to human thoughts, tendencies and causality of human history is dependent on a physical process or material. This
theory holds that anything that exist is material. For example, mountains, chair, trees are all material things and there
is no doubt about their existence. In another words, materialism is an understanding in philosophy that claims that
everything that exist has physical characteristics and are basic things from the nature. This theory claims that things
that are not material such as idea does not have its own reality but is dependent on something is physical. Ideas come
from the brain hence, there is still a connection to something that is physical which is the brain. In another words,
according to the materialism theory, everything that exist, including thoughts and inner conscience are the result of
the interaction of material things. Its believers also deny spiritual things or things that cannot be observed through
senses. Hence, this theory rejects religions.
Idealism theory
Idealism theory comes from the Greek word ‘idea’ which means something that appears in the mind. According to this
theory, behind the physical reality, there is something that cannot be seen. This theory opposes Materialism theory.
This theory believes in the existence of immaterial things. Ideas are seen as something that is not physical. It is a way to
interpret the existence of idea or the existence discussed in religion such as genie. It claims that reality is not material in
nature. It is a form of an idea or spiritual and mental in nature. In this theory, reality is not understood directly but is
understood through the sensation of the object. It claims that only the realm of mind exists and the physical realm
cannot be directly identified. This opens up space for spiritual beliefs such as soul.

What is the relationship between materialism, idealism and religion? Religion in reality is not limited to things that are
material or just an idea but is a combination of both. Furthermore, reality is not limited to things that are physical in
nature that can only be understood through rationalist or empiricist techniques but could also be made of something
that is spiritual in nature. For example, the soul in our body, or the existence of entities mentioned in religion such as
the existence of angels or supernatural beings such as genie are accepted from the perspective of religion. However,
these things do not have a body.
The elements in religion involves knowledge about supernatural things that are indeed beyond the ability of human
minds or senses to see. Our senses are unable to answer many questions about the reality of existence such as the
existence of God, universe and its creation. These questions involve the aspects of beliefs and religious faith. How do
we answer questions such as why does this universe exist? Or how does it exist? Who created it? How does this
universe function and who is managing it? These questions are difficult to be answered through thoughts alone so
religions are used to answer these questions through the discussion of metaphysic.

What is the relationship between metaphysics and religion? According to religious beliefs, reality is not limited to
physical things. It can also consist of something that is not physical such as our soul, the existence of angels and
supernatural beings. In religion, reality consists of both material and non-material things. It consists of both the
physical body and spiritual components. This is different from the view of materialists who deny the spiritual reality
or mental reality.

One of the discussions on metaphysics that is related to religious philosophy is the types of beliefs about God. Among
the beliefs that exists are Theism, Monotheism, Agnosticism, Atheism, Polytheism, Pantheism, and Deism. The
common question that is usually asked is, ‘Does God Exists?’
Theism
Theism comes from the Greek word ‘theos’ or ‘theoi’ which means God. This stream believes that God is the Creator and
sustainer of the universe. God is also the reason to everything that exists in the universe and everything happens
because of this reason. In general, theism refers to those who believe the existence of God. There are two streams of
Theism which are Monotheism and Polytheism.

Monotheism is the belief that there is only one God while polytheism believes that there are many Gods. There are
several monotheistic religions such as Islam, Christianity, Jewish. Polytheism, on the other hand, believes that there are
many Gods. It not only believes that there are many Gods but also believe the existence of deities with different roles.
There are several groups of polytheism. One of the groups believes that God is made up of different entities and are
separated such as Hinduism and Hellenisms while another one believes that deities are a big united body.

On the contrary, atheists believe that there is no God. Its believers opine that there is no evidence to suggest the notion
that there is a God. As God does not exist, the universe is only limited to the existence of things that can be seen such as
man, nature, physical objects and ideas. However, because God is something that cannot be seen, it does not exist.
Atheism also do not believe in the existence of supernatural realm. This belief is built on the foundation of complete
freedom from religion.
Agnosticism
Agnostic comes from Greek word “agnōstos” which means unknown or unknownable. This belief claims that man is unable
to know whether God exists or not or that man’s understanding about God is limited. The difference between Agnosticism
and Atheism is that Atheism denies the existence of God while Agnosticism claims that it is impossible for man to know
whether divine being truly exists. Agnostics do not completely deny the existence of God. Instead, they claim that the
existence of God is not known. They believe that the human mind is unable to provide adequate rational reason to admit or
deny the existence of God. This is because our ability to know the universe is also limited to what our senses can capture
and through our thinking which has limitations.
Deism
Deism is the belief in the existence of God solely based on rational thought and observation on the universe without
relying on revelation. Deism rejects supernatural incidences that involve revelation and miracles. Instead, they believe
that religious beliefs must be based on human mind and characteristics of the universe that can be studied. In short,
they believe in the existence of almighty God that controls the universe but they do not believe that those knowledge
needs revelation to be understood.
Learning Activity 3.1

Philosophical
(a)
understanding
Metaphysic
Religious
(b)
perspective

Click on the link to answer the following questions on metaphysics.

https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/62b2c008044521001d01bf46?source=quiz_page
Self-check 3.1
1. Using your own words, explain materialism and idealism theory in metaphysic.
2. Based on what you’ve learnt about the various beliefs and their view of God, describe your own belief.
3.2 Introduction to Epistemology
Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that studies the origin, nature, methods and limits of human knowledge. The
word epistemology comes from the Greek word “episteme” which means understanding or truth and “logos” which
means “knowledge or theory”. It is also known as theory of knowledge or theory of science. It deals with the matters
of the nature of knowledge, truth, the reliability of knowledge, and the truth of the wants and freedom of man in
knowledge. It is a rational ability to determine the cognitive value of human experience in their interactions with
themselves and the surrounding. It is a discipline of knowledge that is evaluative, normative and critical in debating
about the validity of knowledge.

Epistemology is a theoretical study of knowledge where the meaning and the rule of knowledge are examined. In
epistemology, knowledge is justified true belief. It encompasses the discussion of the nature of knowledge, how to
justify the knowledge obtained, evaluating the form of knowledge, the rule of acquiring knowledge, the limit of
knowledge and the limit of justifications that can be made. It answers the questions of: What is knowledge? What are
the criteria or nature of knowledge? How does someone know something? What is the source of knowledge? Is the
knowledge acquired relative or absolute? Is all the knowledge of the universe based on sense experience or is there
knowledge that is free sense experience?

Knowledge as justified true belief is a theory that is used as the basis to place the nature of knowledge as discussed by
Plato. In order to say that a person has the knowledge, three conditions must be met which are the person has a
belief, the belief is true and the person can justify the true belief. Belief is the first condition of knowledge. Believing
something is very important before claiming to know something.
Theory of Atom
The first condition; belief.
We must believe in what we believe as knowledge. Hence, we must believe in the theory of atom.

The second condition: it must be true.

If we believe in the theory of atom, it must be something we believe in and it must be true.
If it is untrue, then it cannot be accepted as knowledge.

However, just these two conditions are insufficient. A belief that is true is not sufficient to be claim as knowledge acquired
because it could just be a coincident that what we believe in is true and achieved through guess work. It is not a knowledge
that we possess.

Therefore, the third condition must present; possessing justifications or basis.

This third condition will strengthen the nature of knowledge. When we are able to justify our knowledge, then it is not
believing blindly but with justifications.
In short, Justified True Belief is explained as a belief that is true and can be justified. This belief can then be
accepted as knowledge acquired.

In the development of the history of Western epistemology, there are two main streams that tries to explain
the source and nature of knowledge: Empiricism and Rationalism. Empiricism focuses on the sense experience
as the source of knowledge and truth and rationalism emphasises on the belief that true knowledge stems
from rational thinking.

Watch the following video to understand more about Epistemology

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dyP2d3jhngs
Empiricism
According to empiricists such as Locke, Berkeley and Hume, true knowledge is acquired through our five senses:- touch,
sight, hearing, smell and taste. Empiricists believe that the source of true knowledge is none other than our senses. The
confirmation of the knowledge is also done by referring to the experiences we acquired through our senses. For example,
how would you know that it is currently raining out there when you are in the room? In order to know whether that
statement is true, we need to go out or look out the window to see if it is raining. If we see that the rain is pouring out
there, then the statement that it is raining is true. The empiricists emphasise the role of senses in generating and validating
knowledge or belief. Two famous British empiricists in the 18th century are John Locke and David Hume. They claim that
senses play a pivotal role in the development of knowledge. According to them, when babies are born, they are like an
empty sheet of paper, without any knowledge. It is the exposure to the outside world through their senses that babies
began to know the world. It is through this exposure, babies gain knowledge about the world around them.
Rationalism
Rationalists theorise that true knowledge comes not from the five senses but from the use of rational thinking. They
believe that man has inner strength to know about something with certainty. Rationalism models come from
philosophers such as Descartes, Leibniz and Spinoza. The models are developed from formal demonstration in logic and
mathematics without observation or experiment. Rationalism claims that true knowledge is acquired through rational
thinking. Rene Descartes (1596-1650M) used mind without relating senses in his effort to prove that knowledge happens
through thought processes. Rationalists deny the empiricists as they claim that our senses do not necessary shows the
reality. For example, a spoon that is inserted into a glass filled with water looks as though the spoon is bent. However, in
actual fact, it is not bent, just looks as though it is. This shows that senses do not necessary give the accurate
representation of the universe. This situation can be avoided or corrected using rational thinking. According to
rationalists, with rational thinking, we can acquire knowledge and truth. It is important to use rational thinking in
developing and validating the knowledge acquired. When we evaluate the errors in theories rationally, we will be able to
acquire the correct theories using rational arguments.

Watch the following video to understand more about Rationalism and Empiricism
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=30IQK0bdmDQ
Theories in Epistemology
For a knowledge to be deemed a knowledge, we must believe it, the knowledge must be true and there must be
justification or basis to it. Hence, it is not a blind belief but a belief that is based on truth and is grounded. The grounds
and justifications are based on three theories of truth which are the correspondence theory, coherence theory and
pragmatic theory.

In the correspondence theory, the truth or falsity of a statement is determined by how the statement relates to the
world and whether it is corresponds with or accurately describes the world. It is decided by whether the fact that is
observed in the world is the same as what is explained in the statement. A new idea is deemed to be true if it is
consistent and corresponds with an idea that has been accepted as the truth.

For example,
Statement: It is currently raining heavily outside the classroom.

This statement is deemed the truth if the fact is, it is currently raining heavily outside the classroom.
However, if it is not raining outside, then the statement is not the same as the fact. Then the statement is deemed to
be false. This means that the truth relies whether the statement or sentence is the same or compatible to the fact in
the world.

Coherence theory refers to the criteria that are used to determine whether a statement is true or false. In this
theory, it is crucial to find whether there is consistent or contradictory relationships between one statement to the
statements related to it. If the statements are consistent and has no contradiction to other statements, then this
statement can be deemed as true. Therefore, in coherence theory, the truth is determined by comparing the
statements to see if there are consistent relationships.

For example,
Statement: John is the culprit in this murder case.

To determine whether the truth or falsity of this statement, the criteria being used is to compare or relate this
statement to other statements to find if there is a consistent relationship.
Another statement that is linked to the first one is examined.
Statement 2: John’s finger print is found on the weapon used in this case.
Therefore, the statement that states that John is the culprit is accepted as true because the existing evidence shows
that the statements are consistent. There is no contradiction because if John is the culprit, surely his finger prints will
be on the weapon. Hence, the coherence theory of truth is established when the two statements are consistent.

A third statement is examined to confirms the truth of the statement.

Statement 3: John is the last person seen leaving the crime scene by credible witnesses.
If this third statement is true, it is consistent to the first statement which claims that John is the culprit. Hence, this
reinforces that the first statement is true.

Pragmatic theory emphasises on practical consequence or result that is useful or can be applied and can produce
satisfactory result. Therefore, ideas that can produce useful and beneficial practical result can be deemed as true idea
or true knowledge (Rescher, 2001). For example, the belief in God is an idea that enables man to acquire satisfaction
and benefits, then the idea of belief in God is a true belief or knowledge because it brings practical positive effects to
our lives such as emotional stability.
Learning Activity 3.2

*insert learning activity 3.2 from word file*

Self-check 3.2

Using your own words, explain the concept of “justified true belief”. Provide an example to support your
explanation.
Summary of Unit 3
This unit covers the two branches in philosophy: metaphysics and epistemology. The first part of this unit talks about
metaphysics. The two theories of metaphysics: Idealism and Materialism are explored in this unit. The relationship
between the knowledge of philosophy and religion is also discussed. The metaphysical discussion on the different types
of beliefs in God are also explored extensively in this unit.

In the second part of the unit, epistemology is introduced. The conditions for a knowledge to be deemed as true
knowledge are explained. The two main streams in epistemology namely Rationalism and Empiricism are also explored.
Finally, the three theories of truth: correspondence theory, coherence theory and pragmatic theory are discussed in this
unit.
Unit Learning Outcome
1. Demonstrate knowledge of the meaning of metaphysic from the perspective of philosophy and religion.
2.Demonstrate understanding of the theory of idealism and materialism in the field of metaphysic.
3.Explain beliefs and relationship between man and God in relation to religion through metaphysic perspective.
4.Describe the mainstreams in epistemology.
5. Elaborate the theories about Truth.
 Suggested answers to learning activities and self-checks

Learning Activity 3.1

Philosophical
(a)
understanding
Metaphysic
Religious
(b)
perspective

a. It refers to the study on the most abstract stage or most common about an incident, phenomenon or nature. For
example, the cause and effect of something.
b. It is a study of phenomenon beyond what can be seen. For example, life after death, heaven, hell or supernatural
beings that cannot be proven with rational or empirical senses.

Click on the following link to answer questions on metaphysic.

https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/62b2c008044521001d01bf46?source=quiz_page

Self-check 3.1
[Your answer will vary as you are required to explain this aspect in your own words]
[Submit your answer to your tutor for evaluation and comments.]
Learning activity 3.2
a) Combination of the Greek word “episteme” which means understanding or truth and
“logos” which means “knowledge or theory”. It is also defined as the theoretical study of
knowledge.
b) Empirical
c) Rational
d) Belief
e) The belief must be true
f) The belief has ground or justification.
g) Correspondence theory
h) Coherence theory
i) Pragmatic theory
j) They believe in knowledge acquired through the use of senses. Famous empiricists are
John Locke and David Hume.
k) Knowledge is acquired through rational thinking. Famous empiricist is Rene Descartes.

Self-check 3.2
[Submit your answer to your tutor for evaluation and comments.]
References/Glossary
Amran Muhammad. (2022). Modul Falsafah & Isu Semasa - Versi Nota Infografik. Kuala Lumpur:
Islamic and Strategic Studies Institute.
Mahadi Abu Hassan, Norliah Kudus, Ahmad Ridzwan Mohd Noor & Shahrulanuar. (2021). Modul
Falsafah dan Isu Semasa. Melaka:UTeM.
Nor Hanani Ismail, Rukhaiyah Abd. Wahab, Syahrina Abdullah, and Mohd Hazim Shah Abdul
Murad. (2021). Falsafah dan Isu Semasa. Kedah: UUM Press.