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SOCIAL ISSUES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable development: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Achieving sustainable growth and development
i) Using appropriate technology: Using appropriate technology is one
which is locally adaptable, environment and eco-friendly, pollution free can
help in making the development sustainable.
ii) Refuse, Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle approach: The 4-R approach
advocating refusal of non-renewable resource unless it is absolutely
essential, minimization of resource use, using them again and again
instead of passing it on to the waste stream and recycling the materials
can help in achieving the goals of sustainability. It reduces pressure on our
resources as well as reduces waste generation and pollution.
iii) Prompting environmental education and awareness: Making
environmental education the centre of all learning process will greatly help
in changing the thinking and attitude of people towards our earth and the
environment. Introducing the subject right from the school stage will
inculcate a feeling of belongingness to earth in the small children and will
help in transforming our life styles to sustainable ones.
iv) Consumption of renewable resources: It is very important to consume
the natural resources in such a way that the consumption should not
exceed regeneration capacity(over exploitation should be avoided)
v) Conservation of non renewable resources: Non renewable resources
should be conserved by recycling and reusing.
vi) Population control: Population explosion is the root cause of most of the
environmental problems. By controlling or slowing down population growth
sustainability can be achieved.
vii) Government Policies: Better protection of natural assets will require
coordinated efforts across all sections of governments, businesses, and
international institutions.

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URBAN PROBLEMS RELATED TO ENERGY

Cities are the main centers of economic growth, trade, education, innovations and
employment. In developing countries too urban growth is very fast and in most of
the cases it is uncontrollable and unplanned growth. The energy requirements of
urban population are much higher than that of rural ones. This is because urban
people have a higher standard of life and their life style demands more energy inputs
in every sphere of life.
Some of the major urban problems related to energy are as under:
a) Electricity
Electricity from various sources is a major requirement of expanding cities, towns
and villages. Housing gadgets like T.V., computer, music systems, geysers,fans,
lights, A.C.s, microwave, water lifting pump, warm blowers, coolers, etc. form the
essential components of a house. It is well known that major part of electricity is lost
in transmission and some part is stolen. The remainder is simply not enough to
support the majority of people in the city and that’s why the problem of electricity in
cities is on the rise. Buildings are constructed at a great rate but we don’t construct
dams, supplying electrical units, increasing in number at the same pace. Therefore,
what majority of the cities face today is a usual cut of electricity for a minimum of 6-8
hrs. This makes today’s urban life handicapped. Rich enjoy the resource benefit from
the rising generator and inverter culture but majority of the population don’t.
b) Fossil fuels (petroleum, natural gas and coal)
Fossil fuels have always been under a great threat from times immemorial. With rise
in technology man started generating power from nuclear sources, hydroelectric
power, wind power etc. But still these contribute a little. We still depend on thermal
power ( fuelled by coal) a lot.
i) Petrol and Diesel: Transport and communication has brought the
petroleum reserves of the world under a great threat. The rise in number of
vehicle per year is immense. Every day thousands of new vehicles hit the
road which causes demand for fuel and make lead to price hike.
ii) Natural Gas: The common usage of natural gas is in the form of Liquid
Petroleum Gas (LPG). There is a great rise in the usage of LPG driven

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household commodities with the expanding population. Earlier the LPG usage
was only limited to kitchen for cooking. Now many vechicles are powered by
LPG. The advent of technology introduced a numerous household items
making its use like gas geysers, gas heaters, gas fans, gas lanterns etc. In a
way it is serving as a substitute of electricity, which is other reason for
increasing pressure on oil wells/reserves.
iii) Coal: The world population has extracted and used coal reserves thinking
as if it is a never-ending commodity/resource. Later, its usage in the
railways became the chief cause of its rapid exhaustion. Coal reserves
may be over in another 150 years. It should be used judiciously and
economically.
c) Fuel wood: Fuel wood being used for the ignition of fire is chiefly responsible
for the deforestation. Most of the rural people still depend on firewood as their
primary fuel.

RAINWATER HARVESTING
Rainwater harvesting is a technique of increasing the recharge of ground water by
capturing and storing rainwater. This is done by constructing special water-
harvesting structures like dug wells, percolation pits, lagoons, check dams etc.
Rainwater, wherever it falls, is captured and pollution of this water is prevented.
Rainwater harvesting is not only proving useful for poor and scanty rainfall regions
but also for the rich ones.
OBJECTIVES:
Rainwater harvesting has the following objectives:
(i) to reduce run off loss
(ii) to avoid flooding of roads
(iii) to meet the increasing demands of water
(iv) to raise the water table by recharging ground water
(v) to reduce groundwater contamination
(vi) to supplement groundwater supplies during lean season

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TRADITIONAL RAIN WATER HARVESTING

In India, it is an old practice in high rainfall areas to collect rainwater from roof-tops
into storage tanks. In foot hills, water flowing from springs are collected by
embankment type water storage. In Himalayan foot-hills people use the hollow
bamboos as pipelines to transport the water of natural springs. Rajasthan is known
for its ‘tankas’ (under-ground tanks) and khadins (embankments) for harvesting
rainwater. In our ancient times we had adequate Talaabs, Baawaris, Johars, Hauz
etc. in every city and villages to collect rain-water.

RAIN WATER HARVESTING TECHNIQUES

There are two main techniques of rain water harvestings a) Storage of

rainwater on surface for future use b)Recharge to ground water.

a) Storage of rainwater on surface for future use

In this method rain water collected from the roof of the building is diverted to a
storage tank. The storage tank has to be designed according to the water
requirements, rainfall and catchment availability. Each drainpipe should have
mesh filter at mouth and first flush device followed by filtration system before
connecting to the storage tank. Water from storage tank can be used for
secondary purposes such as washing and gardening etc. This is the most
cost effective way of rainwater harvesting. The main advantage of collecting
and using the rainwater during rainy season is not only to save water from
conventional sources, but also to save energy incurred on transportation and
distribution of water at the doorstep.

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b) Recharge to ground water

Ground water aquifers can be recharged by various kinds of structures to

ensure percolation of rainwater in the ground instead of draining away from
the surface. Commonly used recharging methods are include Recharging of
bore wells, dug wells, recharge pits, trenches etc.

In roof top rainwater harvesting, which is a low cost and effective technique
for urban houses and buildings, the rain-water from the top of the roofs is can
be used to recharge underground aquifers by diverting the stored water to
some abandoned dug-well or by using a hand pump.

Advantages of Rainwater harvesting

Rainwater harvesting helps in
a) recharging the aquifers
b) improving groundwater quality
c) improving soil moisture content
d) reducing soil erosion by minimizing run-off water.

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WATERSHED MANAGEMENT
Watershed is defined as the land area from which water drains under gravity to a
common drainage channel. Watershed can range from a few square kilometres to
few thousand square kilometers in size.
Importance of watershed
The watershed comprises complex interactions of soil, landform, vegetation, land
use activities and water. People and animals are an integral part of a watershed
having mutual impacts on each other. A watershed affects us as it is directly involved
in sustained food production, water supply for irrigation, power generation,
transportation as well as for influencing sedimentation and erosion, vegetation
growth, floods and droughts.
Objectives of watershed management
(i) To rehabilitate the watershed through proper land use adopting
conservation strategies for minimizing soil erosion and moisture retention
so as to ensure good productivity of the land for the farmers.
(ii) To manage the watershed for beneficial developmental activities like
domestic water supply, irrigation, hydropower generation etc.
(iii)To minimize the risks of floods, droughts and landslides.
(iv)To develop rural areas in the region with clear plans for improving the
economy of the region.
Various measures taken up for management include the following:
(i) Water harvesting: Proper storage of water is done with provision for use
in dry seasons in low rainfall areas. It also helps in moderation of floods.
(ii) Afforestation and Agroforestry: In watershed development, afforestation
and crop plantation play a very important role. They help to prevent soil
erosion and retention of moisture. In high rainfall areas woody trees are
grown in between crops to substantially reduce the runoff and loss of
fertile soil. Trees like Eucalyptus and varities of grasses are grown along
with maize or wheat to achieve the above objectives. Woody trees like
teak are grown successfully in such agroforestry programmes in
watershed areas of river Yamuna.
(iii) Mechanical measures for reducing soil erosion and runoff losses:
Several mechanical measures like terracing, bunding, bench terracing, no-

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till farming, contour cropping, strip cropping etc. are used to minimize
runoff and soil erosion particularly on the slopes of watersheds.
(iv) Scientific mining and quarrying: Due to improper mining, the hills lose
stability and get disturbed resulting in landslides, rapid erosion etc.
Scientific mining and quarrying practises must be adopted to minimize the
destructive effects of mining in watershed areas.
(v) Public participation: People’s involvement including the farmers and
tribals is the key to the success of any watershed management
programme, particularly the soil and water conservation. People’s
cooperation as well as participation has to be ensured. Government and
NGO have a big role to play. Properly educating the people about the
campaign and its benefits or sometimes paying certain incentives to them
can help in effective public participation.

RESETTLEMENT AND REHABILITATION ISSUES

Developmental projects are planned to bring benefits to the society. However, in the
process of development, very often there is over-exploitation of natural resources
and degradation of the environment. Very often, the native people of the project site
are directly affected. These native people are generally the poorest of the poor,
underpriviledged tribal people and they have to undergo tremendous economic and
psychological distress.
(a) Displacement problems due to dams: The big river valley projects have
one of the most serious socio-economic impacts due to large scale
displacement of tribal people from their ancestral home and loss of their
traditional profession or occupation. In India, in the past 50 years more than
20 million people are estimated to have been directly or indirectly affected by
these dams. The Hirakud Dam has displaced more than 20,000 people re-
siding in about 250 villages.
(b) Displacement due to Mining: Mining is another developmental activity,
which causes displacement of the native people. Several thousands of
hectares of land area is covered in mining operation and the native people
are displaced.

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(c) Displacement due to Creation of National Parks: When some forest area
is covered under a National Park, it is a welcome step for conservation of the
natural resources. However, it also has a social aspect associated with it
which is often neglected. A major portion of the forest is declared as core-
area, where the entry of local dwellers or tribals is prohibited. When these
villagers are deprived of their ancestral right or access to the forests, they
usually retaliate by starting destructive activities. Providing these people
alternate means of livelihood is a necessity.

REHABILITATION PROBLEM
Some problems associated with rehabilitation are
i) Poverty: Tribals are usually the most affected amongst the displaced who
are already poor. Displacement further increases their poverty due to loss
of land, home, jobs, food insecurity, loss of access to common property
assets, increased morbidity and mortality and social isolation.
ii) Loss of cultural values: Most of the cultural activities are very closely
associated to their habitat. Marriages, social and cultural functions, their
folk-songs, dances and activities vanish with their displacement. Even
when they are resettled, it is individual-based resettlement, which totally
ignores communal settlement.
iii) Loss of heritage: The age-long indigenous knowledge, which has been
inherited and experienced by them about the flora, fauna, their uses etc.
gets lost.
iv) Ignorant of market trends: The tribals are not familiar with the market
policies and trends. Even if they get cash compensation, they get
alienated in the modern economic set-up.

ROLE OF NGO’S
NGO’s are nongovernmental organizations. These voluntary organizations can help
by advising the government about some local environmental issues and at the same
time interacting at the grass-root levels. They can act as an effective and viable link
between the two. They can act both as an ‘action group’ or a ‘pressure group’. They

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can be very effective in organizing public movements for the protection of

environment through creation of awareness.
Objectives of NGO’s
i) To describe and discuss the common characteristics of health system
functioning in the given socio - economic, socio- cultural, political and
ecological settings.
ii) The fundamental objective is to act as a catalyst in bringing about local
initiative and community participation in overall improvement in quality of
life.
Some of the activities taken up by NGO’s include – solid waste management, zero
waste management, afforestation, vegetable roof gardening, rainwater harvesting,
AIDS awareness, pollution control etc.
Greenpeace is a non-governmental environmental organization with offices in over
forty countries and with an international coordinating body in Amsterdam, the
Netherlands. Activities of Greenpeace have made huge impacts all over the globe.
The “Chipko Movement” for conservation of trees by Dasholi Gram Swarajya
Mandal or the “Narmada Bachao Andolan” organized by Kalpavriksh, are some of
the instances where NGO’s have played a landmark role in the society for
conservation of environment. The Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), the
World Wide Fund for Nature - India (WWF, India) Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad,
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) and many others are playing a significant
role in creating environmental awareness.
The total number of NGOs in our country is about 70,000. They have a great role in
creating environmental awareness, disseminating information and promoting
sustainable growth and development.

ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS—ISSUES AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS

Environmental ethics: A search for moral values and ethical principle in human
relations with the natural world.
If we think “Man is all powerful and the supreme creature on this earth and man is
the master of nature and can harness it at his will”, it reflects our human-centric
thinking.

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If we think “Nature has provided us with all the resources for leading a beautiful life
and she nourishes us like a mother, we should respect her and nurture her”, this is
an earth-centric thinking.
These two world-views are discussed here in relation to environ-mental protection:
(a) Anthropocentric Worldview: This view is guiding most industrial societies. It
puts human beings in the center giving them the highest status. Man is considered to
be most capable for managing the planet earth. The guiding principles of this view
are:
(i) Man is the planet’s most important species and is the in-charge of the rest of
nature.
(ii) Earth has an unlimited supply of resources and it all belongs to us.
(iii)Economic growth is very good and more the growth, the better it is, because it
raises our quality of life and the potential for economic growth is unlimited.
(iv) A healthy environment depends upon a healthy economy.
(v) The success of mankind depends upon how good managers we are for deriving
benefits for us from nature.
(b) Eco-centric Worldview: This is based on earth-wisdom. The basic beliefs are as
follows:
(i) Nature exists not for human beings alone, but for all the species.
(ii) The earth resources are limited and they do not belong only to human beings.
(iii)Economic growth is good till it encourages earth-sustaining development and
discourages earth-degrading development.
(iv) A healthy economy depends upon a healthy environment.
(v) The success of mankind depends upon how best we can cooperate with the rest
of the nature while trying to use the resources of nature for our benefit.

Some important ethical guidelines known as Earth ethics or Environmental Ethics

are as follows:
 You should love and honour the earth since it has blessed you with life and
governs your survival.
 You should keep each day sacred to earth and celebrate the turning of its
seasons.

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 You should not hold yourself above other living things and have no right to
drive them to extinction.
 You should be grateful to the plants and animals which nourish you by giving
you food.
 You should limit your offsprings because too many people will overburden the
earth.
 You should not waste your resources on destructive weapons.
 You should not run after gains at the cost of nature, rather should strive to
restore its damaged majesty.
 You should not conceal from others the effects you have caused by your
actions on earth.
 You should not steal from future generations their right to live in a clean and
safe planet by impoverishing or polluting it.
 You should consume the material goods in moderate amounts so that all may
share the earth’s precious treasure of resources.

CLIMATE CHANGE

Climate is the average weather of an area. It is the general weather conditions,

seasonal variations and extremes of weather in a region. Such conditions which
average over a long period- at least 30 years is called climate.
It is observed that earth’s temperature has changed considerably during the
geological times. The surface of the Earth has warmed, on average, 0.3 to 0.6 °C
since the late 19th century. In addition, most of the ill effects of climate change are
linked to extreme weather events, such as hot or cold spells of temperature, or wet
or dry spells of rainfall, or cyclones and floods.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT AND GLOBAL WARMING

Sun is the primary source of energy for earth. Nearly 30% of the solar radiation
falling on earth’s surface is reflected back to the space. The rest of the radiation is
trapped by earth’s atmosphere. The amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere

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depends mostly on the concentrations of heat trapping or green house gases and
the length of time they stay in the atmosphere. The major green house gases are
carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
and water vapour. As the effect is similar in nature to what happens in a botanical
greenhouse (the glass panes allows the light energy to enter inside but diminishes
the loss of heat), these gases are called greenhouse gases and the resultant
warming from their increase is called the greenhouse effect.
The average global temperature is 15°C. In the absence of green house gases this
temperature would have been -18°C. Therefore, Green House Effect contributes a
temperature rise to the tune of 33°C. Heat trapped by green house gases in the
atmosphere keeps the planet warm enough to allow us and other species to exist.

The concentration of CO2 in the Earth’s atmosphere was about 280 parts per million
by volume (ppmv) in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution began. By 1994 it was
358 ppmv and rising by about 1.5 ppmv per year. If emissions continue at current
rate, the concentration will be around 500 ppmv, nearly double the pre-industrial
level, by the end of the 21st century.

Global warming
Due to manmade activities the concentration of green house gases are increasing at
a fast rate. This causes the earth’s surface temperature to rise slowly. Deforestation,
use of fossil fuels, use of CFC’s are responsible for such a situation. In the past few
decades, earth’s temperature has increased by 2-3 degrees. This effect is known as
global warming. Greenhouse effect leads to global warming.

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Causes of green house effect

i) Deforestation: Due to deforestation, photosynthesis takes place to limited
extend, which increases CO2 content in the atmosphere leading to global
warming.
ii) Burning of fossil fuels: Large amount of greenhouse gases (CO2, NOx,
SOx etc) are released into the atmosphere due to the burning of fossil
fuels, oil, coal and gas.
iii) Electrical Appliances: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are widely used in
refrigerators as coolants, aerosol cans, foaming agents, fire extinguisher
chemicals, and cleaners used in the electronic industry. These gases
slowly make way into earth’s atmosphere resulting in global warming.
iv) Population explosion: Population growth increases CO2 level (by
respiration). With the increase in population, the needs and wants of
people increase leading to urbanization and industrialization resulting in
higher green house emission.
Consequences of Greenhouse Effect
i) Global temperature increase: It is estimated that the earth’s mean
temperature will rise between 1.5 to 5.5°C by 2050 if input of greenhouse
gases continues to rise at the present rate.
ii) Rise in Sea Level: With the increase in global temperature there will be
rise in sea water levels mainly due to melting of polar ice caps and
glaciers. An increase in the average atmospheric temperature of 3°C
would raise the average global sea level by 0.2-1.5 meters. One meter rise
in sea level will submerge low lying areas of cities like Shanghai, Cairo,
Bangkok, Sydney, Hamburg and Venice. Agricultural lowlands and deltas
in Egypt, Bangladesh, India, China and will be submerged in water. This
will also damage to lagoons, estuaries and coral reefs.
iii) Effects on Human Health: Global warming will lead to changes in the
rainfall pattern in many areas, thereby affecting the distribution of vector-
borne diseases like malaria, filariasis etc. Warmer temperature and more
water stagnation would favour the breeding of mosquitoes, snails and
some insects, which are the vectors of diseases like malaria, filariasis.

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iv) Effects on Agriculture: Global warming can lead to water scarcity and
may result in drought. Soil moisture will decrease and evapo-transpiration
will increase, which may drastically affect wheat and maize production in
tropical and subtropical regions. Increase in temperature and humidity will
increase pest growth like the growth of vectors for various diseases. Pests
will adapt to such changes better than the crops.
v) Natural disasters: The source of origin for many Indian rivers like
Brahmaputra, Ganges, Indus are The Himalayas. Melting of ice can lead
to frequent flooding. As the temperature of oceans rise, so will the
probability of more frequent and stronger hurricanes.
vi) Economic effects: Extreme weather might reduce global gross domestic
product by up to one percent, and that in a worst-case scenario global per
capita consumption could fall 20 percent.
vii) Ocean Acidification: Increased atmospheric CO2 increases the amount
of CO2 dissolved in the oceans. CO2 dissolved in the ocean reacts with
water to form carbonic acid, resulting in acidification

Control of Global Warming

To slow down global warming the following steps will be important:

(i) Cut down the current rate of use of CFCs and fossil fuels.
(ii) Use energy more efficiently.
(iii) Shift to renewable energy resources.
(iv) Increase Nuclear Power Plants for electricity production.
(v) Shift from coal to natural gas.
(vi) Trap and use methane as a fuel.
(vii) Adopt sustainable agriculture.
(viii) Stabilize population growth.
(ix) Control deforestation and plant more trees.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Ozone layer is a layer in earth's atmosphere containing relatively high
concentrations of ozone (O3). It is mainly found in the lower portion of the
stratosphere from approximately 20 to 30 kilometres above earth. The ozone layer is

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often referred to as the "umbrella of life" because it protects life on Earth from
harmful UV rays.
The Dobson Unit is the most common unit for measuring ozone concentration. One
Dobson Unit is the number of molecules of ozone that would be required to create a
layer of pure ozone 0.01 mm thick at a temperature of 0 C and a pressure of 1
atmosphere. Over the Earth’s surface, the ozone layer’s average thickness is about
300 Dobson Units or a layer that is 3 millimeters thick.
Formation and Function of ozone layer
Ultraviolet radiations less than 242 nm decompose molecular oxygen into atomic
oxygen (O) by photolytic decomposition.
O2 + hν → O+ O
The atomic oxygen rapidly reacts with molecular oxygen to form ozone.
O + O2 + M→ O3 +M
(M is a third body necessary to carry away the energy released in the reaction).
Ozone thus formed distributes itself in the stratosphere and absorbs harmful
ultraviolet radiations (200 to 320 nm) and is continuously being converted back to
molecular oxygen.

O3 + hv → O2 +O
Absorption of UV radiations results in heating of the stratosphere. Thus there is
equilibrium between the formation and destruction of ozone. This equilibrium is
disturbed by reactive atoms of chlorine, bromine etc. which destroy ozone molecules
and result is thinning of ozone layer generally called ozone hole.
Causes for ozone hole formation
Choloroflurocarbons: Major reason for the depletion of ozone layer is halogen
atoms (F, Cl, Br) which are formed by the photochemical decomposition of CFC’s.
CFC is an organic compound that contains only carbon, chlorine, hydrogen and
fluorine. CFC’s are widely used as coolants in refrigeration systems and air
conditioners, propellants for aerosols due to low boiling point. These slowly rise up
and reach stratosphere and cause depletion of ozone. The chemical reaction can be
represented as
CF2Cl2 +hv → CF2Cl +Cl
Cl + O3 → ClO + O2
ClO + O → Cl + O2

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In the second step, Cl is generated again which can cause the reaction to continue
like a chain reaction. One chlorine atom can thereby destroy thousands of ozone
molecules. Similarly other atoms present in CFC like Fluorine and Bromine can also
cause similar effect.
Effects of Ozone Depletion
Ozone depletion in the stratosphere will result in more UV radiation reaching the
earth especially UV-B (290-320 nm).
In humans
i) The UV-B radiations affect DNA. Any change in DNA can result in
mutation and cancer.
ii) Cases of skin cancer (basal and squamous cell carcinoma) which donot
cause death but cause disfigurement will increase.
iii) Easy absorption of UV rays by the lens and cornea of eye will result in
increase in incidents of cataract.
iv) Melanin producing cells of the epidermis (important for human immune
system) will be destroyed by UV-rays resulting in immuno-suppression.
Fair people (can’t produce enough melanin) will be at a greater risk of UV
exposure.
In plants and animals
i) Phytoplanktons are sensitive to UV exposure. Ozone depletion will result
in decrease in their population thereby affecting the population of
zooplankton, fish, marine animals, infact the whole aquatic food chain.
ii) Yield of vital crops like corn, rice, soybean, cotton, bean, pea and wheat
will decrease.
iii) The UV radiation enhances the rate of evaporation through stomata and
decreases the moisture content of the soil. This condition adversely affects
the growth and development of crop plants and reduces the crop yield.
Other implications
i) Degradation of paints, plastics and other polymer material will result in
economic loss due to effects of UV radiation resulting from ozone
depletion.
ii) It contributes in the Global Warming. If ozone depletion continues, the
temperature around the world may rise even up to 5 degrees.

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Control of ozone layer depletion

i) Reduce/replace the usage of CFC’s: One molecule of CFC destroys
more than few thousands of ozone molecules via chain reaction. So usage
of CFC’s has to be discouraged and kept minimum. Use of other
alternative coolants which are less damaging has to be promoted.
ii) Reduce the use of methyl bromide: Methyl bromide is an insecticide
used for fumigation of soils structures and storage. It is a source for
bromine atoms which can destroy ozone. Its use of has to be controlled.
iii) Control of deforestation: Check in deforestation will ensure slightly
higher percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere.
iv) Proper maintenance: Air conditioning and refrigerating units should
regularly be checked for leaks and corrected if any.

ACID RAIN
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic (pH
below 5.6). Natural rain water has a pH of 5.6 at 20°C because of formation of
carbonic acid due to dissolution of CO2 in water. Acid precipitation is a mixture of
strong mineral acids sulphuric acid (H2SO4), nitric acid (HNO3) and in some
locations, hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Acid rain literally means ‘the presence of excessive acids in rain waters’. Acid rain
can be wet or dry.
Causes:
i) Oxides of Nitrogen: Oxides of nitrogen, represented by NO x is mainly
responsible for acid rain. Automobile exhaust, factory emission contains
large amounts of NO2. It is also emitted by natural processes like lightning,
volcanic eruptions, forest fires, and action of bacteria in the soil.

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) reacts with water to form nitrous acid (HNO2) and
nitric acid (HNO3)
2NO2 + H2O -----> HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
ii) Oxides of sulphur: Oxides of Sulphur (SO2 and SO3 represented as
SOx) are produced when fossil fuels containing sulphur are burnt. Small

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amounts are found in automobile exhaust. Large amounts of these gases

are while processing of crude oil, in utility factories, and iron and steel
factories. SO2 is also produced naturally by volcanic activity.
Sulfur dioxide reacts with water to form sulfurous acid (H2SO3)
SO2 + H2O H2SO3(aq)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) can be oxidised gradually to sulfur trioxide (SO3)
2SO2 + O2 -----> 2SO3
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) reacts with water to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4):
SO3 + H2O -----> H2SO4(aq)

Effects of acid rain

On plant life:

i) Loss of waxy coating on leaves: Frequent acid rain dissolves the

waxy protective coating of the leaves. This makes the plant susceptible
to disease. When the leaves are damaged, the plant loses its ability to
produce sufficient amounts of nutrition for it to stay healthy.
ii) Root damage: Roots of plants are damaged by acid rain, causing the
growth of the plant to be stunted, or even in its death.
iii) Death of micro organisms: Useful micro organisms which release
nutrients from decaying organic matter, into the soil are killed off,
resulting in less nutrients being available for the plants.
iv) Loss of beneficial nutrients from the soil: Acid rain washes away
the beneficial minerals and nutrients in soil before the plants have a
chance of using them for their growth.

On animal life:

i) Heavy metal leaching: Acid rain causes harmful elements like mercury
and aluminium to be leached from the soil and rocks and it is then carried
into the lakes where aquatic life may be affected.
ii) Death of aquatic organisms: As the pH reaches 5.5, plankton, certain
insects and crustaceans begin to die. At a pH of around 5.0, the fish
population begin to die. Below pH 5.0, entire fish population may die.

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iii) Loss of fertility: It results in the fish's ability to maintain their calcium
levels. This impairs reproduction the ability of the fish, because the eggs
become too weak or brittle. This can result in killing of fish.
In humans
i) Respiratory problems: Acid rain can cause nose and eye irritation,
headache, asthma and dry coughs. Acid rain can aggravate asthma.
Buildings and monuments
i) Deterioration of buildings: It causes deterioration of buildings especially
made of marble e.g. monuments like Taj Mahal. It caused the tarnishing of
Taj Mahal (Dry acid deposition containing SO2 primarily from the exhaust
of Mathura refineries. Oil refineries in Mathura emit nearly 25 tonnes of
SO2 per day despite using low sulphur content coal).
ii) Deterioration of objects: Acid rain corrodes ceramic, textiles, paints, and
metals. Rubber and leather deteriorate if exposed to acid rain. It damages
metals and car finishes.
Control of acid rain
i) Use of low sulphur content coal: Coal with lower sulphur content is
desirable to use in thermal plants.
ii) Replacement of coal by natural gas: Replacement of coal by natural gas
would also reduce the problem substantially.
iii) Reduction of NOx and SOx emission: Emission of SO2 and NO2 from
industries and power plants should be reduced by using pollution control
equipments.
iv) Strict law enforcement: Strict laws must be brought for air pollution
reduction (especially CO2, NO2 and SO2). Heavy fine must be imposed if
accepted emission levels are crossed.
v) Use of renewable sources of energy: Use of alternate eco friendly
sources of energy can minimize pollutants and hence acid rain.
vi) Use of eco-friendly vehicles: Pollutants can be minimized by using
pollution control devices like catalytic converters in vehicles. Another
method is the usage of natural gas as fuel in automobiles.

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WASTE LAND RECLAMATION

Economically unproductive lands suffering from environmental deterioration are
known as wastelands. The wastelands include salt-affected lands, sandy areas,
gullied areas, snow covered areas, glacial areas, barren hill-ridge etc.
Characteristics features of wasteland can be summarized as under:
• The land becomes ecologically unstable and unproductive.
• Land that has nearly or completely lost its topsoil.
• Land that has developed toxicity in the zone of roots for the growth of most
plants.
National Wasteland Development Board (NWDB) aims at the reclamation and use of
waste lands.
Methods For Reclaiming Land
i) Land development and leaching: For reclamation of the salt affected
soil, it is necessary to remove the salts from the root-zone which is usually
achieved by leaching i.e. by applying excess amount of water to push
down the salts. Land after leveling and ploughing, the field is bunded in
small plots and leaching is done. Continuous leaching for few hours can
remove 90% of soluble salts.
ii) Reclamation of waterlogged land: Drainage is required for water-logged
land.
(a)Surface drainage: This is used in areas where water stands on the
fields after heavy rains by providing ditches to runoff the excess water.
(b)Sub-surface drainage: Horizontal sub-surface drainage is provided in
the form of perforated corrugated PVC pipes with an envelope of gravel 2-
3 m below the land surface. Chances of evaporation of water leading to
accumulation of salts almost become nil in this method.
iii) Irrigation Practices: Scientific irrigation practices can help in waste land
recovery. Over-irrigation may lead to water-logging while under-irrigation
may lead to desertification.
iv) Selection of tolerant crops and crop rotations: Tolerance of crops to
salts is found to range from sensitive, semi-tolerant, tolerant to highly
tolerant. Barley, sugar beet and date-palm are highly tolerant crops which
do not suffer from any reduction in crop yield even at a high salinity.

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Wheat, pearl millet, soyabean, mustard and coconut are salt-tolerant

crops. Rice, millets, maize, pulses, sunflower, sugarcane and many
vegetables like bottle gourd, brinjal etc. are semi-tolerant. These different
crop combinations can be grown on saline soils.
v) Gypsum amendment: Amendment of high sodium soils with gypsum is
recommended for reducing soil sodicity as calcium of gypsum replaces
sodium from the exchangeable sites.
vi) Green-manures, fertilizers and biofertilizers: Application of farm yard
manure or nitrogen fertilizers have been found to improve saline soils.
Blue green algae have been found to be quite promising as biofertilizers
for improving salt-affected soils.
vii) Afforestation Programmes: The National Commission on Agriculture
(NCA) launched several afforestation schemes to prevent the problem of
spreading wasteland. The National Wasteland Development Board, in the
Ministry of Environment and Forests has set a target of bringing 5 million
ha of wasteland annually under firewood and fodder plantation.
viii) Social Forestry Programmes: These programmes mostly involve strip
plantation on road, rail and canal-sides, rehabilitation of degraded forest
lands, farm-forestry, waste-land forest development etc.

CONSUMERISM AND WASTE PRODUCTS

Consumerism refers to the consumption of resources by the people. Two types of
conditions of population and consumerism exist.
(i) People over-population: It occurs when there are more people than
available supplies of food, water and other important resources in the
area. Excessive population pressure causes degradation of the limited
resources, and there is absolute poverty, under-nourishment and
premature deaths.This occurs in less developed countries (LDCs). Here
due to large number of people, adequate resources are not available for
all. So there is less per capita consumption although overall consumption
is high.
(ii) Consumption over-population: This occurs in the more developed
countries (MDCs). Here population size is smaller while resources are in

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abundance and due to luxurious life-style per capita consumption of

resources is very high. More the consumption of resources more is the
waste generation and greater is the degradation of the environment.
In LDC’s - No. of people is very high, but per capita use of resources and
waste generated are less.
In MDC’s - No. of people is low, but per capita use of resources and
wastes generated are very high.
On an average, a U.S. citizen consumes 50 times as much as anIndian.

The Environment Protection Act, 1986

The main aim of the act is to provide for the protection and improvement of
environment and for matters connected therewith. The Act clearly states and explain
each and every term very precisely like environment, environmental pollutants,
environmental pollution, handling, hazardous substance, prescribed.
General Powers of the Central Government
1. Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government shall have the
power to take all measures, as it deems necessary or expedient for the
purpose of protecting and improving the quality of the environment.
2. Planning and execution of a nationwide program for the prevention,
control and abatement of environmental pollution;
3. Laying down standards for the quality of environment in its various aspects;
4. Laying down standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants
from various sources.
5. Restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or
class of industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or
shall be carried out subject to certain safeguards;
6. Laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous
substances;
7. Examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as
are likely to cause environmental pollution;
8. Carrying out and sponsoring investigations and research relating to problems
of environmental pollution;

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9. Inspection of any premises, plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or

other processes, materials or substances and giving, by order, of such
directions touch authorities, officers or persons as if may consider necessary
to take steps for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental
pollution;
10. Preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control
and abatement of environmental pollution.

THE WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT,

1974

It provides for maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of water by preventing

and controlling its pollution. Pollution is defined as such contamination of water, or
such alteration of the physical, chemical or biological properties of water, or such
discharge as is likely to cause a nuisance or render the water harmful or injurious to
public health and safety or harmful for any other use or to aquatic plants and other
organisms or animal life.

The salient features and provisions of the Act are the following:
(i) It provides for maintenance and restoration of quality of all types of surface
and ground water.
(ii) It provides for the establishment of Central and State Boards for pollution
control.
(iii) It confers them with powers and functions to control pollution. The Central
and State Pollution Control Boards are widely represented and are given
comprehensive powers to advise, coordinate and provide technical
assistance for prevention and control of pollution of water.
(iv) The Act has provisions for funds, budgets, accounts and audit of the
Central and State Pollution Control Boards.
(v) The Act makes provisions for various penalties for the defaulters and
procedure for the same.
The main regulatory bodies are the Pollution Control Boards, which have been,
conferred the following duties and powers:

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Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

i) It advises the central government in matters related to prevention and
control of water pollution.
ii) Coordinates the activities of State Pollution Control Boards and provides
them technical assistance and guidance.
iii) Organizes training programs for prevention and control of pollution.
iv) Organizes comprehensive programs on pollution related issues through
mass media.
v) Collects, compiles and publishes technical and statistical data related to
pollution.
vi) Prepares manuals for treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents.
vii) Lays down standards for water quality parameters.
viii) Plans nation-wide programs for prevention, control or abatement of pollution.
ix) Establishes and recognizes laboratories for analysis of water, sewage or
trade effluent sample.
State Pollution Control Board:
i) The Board advises the state government with respect to the location of
any industry that might pollute a stream or a well.
ii) It lays down standards for effluents and is empowered to take samples
from any stream, well or trade effluent or sewage passing through an
industry.
iii) The State Board is empowered to take legal samples of trade effluent in
accordance with the procedure laid down in the Act. The sample taken in he
presence of the occupier or his agent is divided into two parts, sealed, signed
by both parties and sent for analysis to some recognized lab. If the samples
do not conform to the prescribed water quality standards (crossing maximum
permissible limits), then consent is refused to the unit.
iv) The Board suggests efficient methods for utilization, treatment and disposal
of trade effluents.
THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981
According to this act, air pollution has been defined as the presence of any solid,
liquid or gaseous substance (including noise) in the atmosphere in such

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concentration as may be or tend to be harmful to human beings or any other living

creatures or plants or property or environment.
The main objectives of the Act are as follows:
(a) To provide for the Prevention, Control and abatement of air pollution.
(b) To provide for the establishment of Central and State Boards with a view to
implement the Act.
(c) To confer on the Boards the powers to implement the provisions of the Act
and assign to the Boards functions relating to pollution.
The main regulatory bodies are the Pollution Control Boards, which have been,
conferred the following duties and powers:

Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):

a) It advises the central govt. in matters related to prevention and control of air
pollution.
b) Coordinates the activities of State Pollution Control Boards and provides
them technical assistance and guidance.
c) Organizes training programs for prevention and control of air pollution.
d) Organizes comprehensive programs on pollution related issues through
mass media.
e) Collects, compiles and publishes technical and statistical data related to
pollution.
f) Plans nation-wide programs for prevention, control or abatement of pollution.
State Pollution Control Boards (SPCB)
i) State govt. is empowered to issue instructions to the authority in charge of
registration of motor vehicles (under Motor Vehicles Act, 1939) that is
bound to comply with ensuring emission standards from automobiles.
ii) In consultation with the State Pollution Control Board, the state government
may declare an area within the state as “air pollution control area” and
can prohibit the use of any fuel other than approved fuel in the area causing
air pollution. No person shall, without prior consent of State Board operate or
establish any industrial unit in the air pollution control area.

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THE WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972

This Act passed in 1972, clearly states and explains each and every term very
precisely like animal, habitat, hunting, license, national park, sanctuary, wild animal,
wild life etc.
(i) It provides for the appointment of wildlife advisory Board, Wildlife warden,
their powers, duties etc.
(iii) Under the Act, comprehensive listing of endangered wild life species was
done for the first time and prohibition of hunting of the endangered
species was mentioned.
(iii) The Act provides for setting up of National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries etc.
(iv) The Act provides for the constitution of Central Zoo Authority.
(v) There is provision for trade and commerce in some wildlife species with
license for sale, possession, transfer etc.
(vi) The Act imposes a ban on the trade or commerce in scheduled animals.
(vii) It provides for legal powers to officers and punishment to offenders.
(viii) It provides for captive breeding program for endangered species.

Penalties
A person who breaks any of the conditions of any license or permit granted under
this Act shall be treated guilty. The offence is punishable with imprisonment for a
term which may extend to three years or with a fine of Rs 25,000 or with both. An
offence committed in relation to any animal specified in Schedule I, or Part II of
Schedule II, like the use of meat of any such animal, or animal articles like a trophy,
shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term not less than one year and may
extend to six years and a fine of Rs 25,000.

FOREST (CONSERVATION) ACT, 1980

The salient features of the Act are as follows:

(i) The State Government has been empowered under this Act to use the forests
only for forestry purposes. If at all it wants to use it in any other way,it has to
take prior approval of central Government, after which it can pass orders for
declaring some part of reserve forest for non-forest purposes (e.g mining) or

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for clearing naturally growing trees and replacing them by economically

important trees (reforestation).
(ii) It makes provision for conservation of all types of forests and for this purpose
there is an Advisory committee which recommends funding for it to the
Central Government.
(iii) Any illegal non-forest activity within a forest area can be immediately stopped
under this Act. Non-forest activities include clearing of forest land for
cultivation of any type of plants/crops or any other purpose (except re-
afforestation). However, some construction work in the forest for wildlife or
forest management is exempted from non-forest activity (e.g. fencing, making
water-holes, trench, pipelines, check posts, wireless communication etc.)

Penalties for offences in Reserved Forests: No person is allowed to make

clearings or set fire to a Reserved Forest. Cattle are not permitted to trespass into
the Reserved Forest. Felling, collecting of timber, bark or leaves, quarries or
collecting any forest product is punishable with imprisonment for a term of six
months, or with a fine which may extend to Rs.500, or both.

Penalties for offences in Protected Forests: A person who commits any of the
following offences like felling of trees, or strips off the bark or leaves from any tree or
sets fire to such forests, or kindles a fire without taking precautions to prevent its
spreading to any tree mentioned in the Act, whether standing or felled, or fells any
tree, drags timber, or permits cattle to damage any tree, shall be punishable with
imprisonment for a term which may extend to six month or with a fine which may
extend to Rs.500, or both.

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