Strategies to Develop Skills for Positive Training Transfer

Jane Northup

Abstract

Baldwin and Ford’s (1988) Model of the Transfer Process highlights training input and output
factors as affecting conditions of training. Training inputs, such as trainee characteristics
(personality and motivation), training design (principles of learning and training content), and
work environment (support and opportunity to use skill) effect training outputs (learning and
retention). Using adult learning principles in the classroom helps facilitate positive transfer of
training and includes learning that takes place in the context of realistic settings, called authentic
tasks (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989). Additionally, an instructor/trainer of adults must
understand that the adult learner is self-directed, has experiences to share, needs motivation to
learn, and has the need for problem-centered learning for learning and retention to take place
(Knowles, Holton III, & Swanson, 2005). Therefore, when the trainer understands what helps to
motivate the adult learner, this enables the trainer to help students make meaning from what is
learned, transfer their knowledge, and gain control from the instructor (Knowles et al., 2005).
The purpose of this review is to take a closer look at examples of training inputs that maximize
the transfer of training for positive learning and retention.

Keywords: Training Inputs, Training Outputs, Learning, Retention, Adult Learner

Strategies to Develop Skills for Positive Training Transfer

The law enforcement profession has seen many technological advancements in the last 100
years. Many are taken for granted, such as electronic tickets, video surveillance, and the simple
advent of the latex glove. However, a persistent challenge for the field of law enforcement is
keeping up with ever-changing technology and science (Byrne & Marx, 2011; Schiro, 2000). For
example, modern technology has significantly impacted how law enforcement officers (LEOs),
who are crime scene investigators, collect, document, and analyze evidence. Therefore, the need
for additional training in law enforcement has increased with the advancement of technologies
(Kerr, 2005). Koper, Taylor, and Kabu (2009), on behalf of the Police Executive Research
Forum, conducted a study on the effectiveness of technology, the prioritization of technologies,
and the barriers the law enforcement community faces when implementing advanced
technologies. Law enforcement agencies spend millions of dollars each year training officers.
However, there has been little research on the training programs and their effectiveness for
positive transfer of training to on-the-job performance (Community Oriented Policing Services,
2014; Williams, Ward, Knowles, & Smeeton, 2002).

Studies suggest there are several elements in a training program that will enhance learning and
retention and lead to improved skill development (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Klausmeier, 1985).
Baldwin and Ford (1988) created a training transfer model (see Figure 1), that identifies training
inputs as (1) trainee characteristics (ability, motivation), (2) training design (realistic training
environments, using adult learning principles), and (3) work environment (such as transfer
climate and support) which assist in positive training outputs. Training outputs (learning and
retention) are affected by the conditions of transfer which affect how a trainee’s skills are

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ultimately transferred to the job. In their work, Baldwin and Ford (1988) found that the
conditions of transfer (1) generalization (how close the training context is to the real world of
practice) and (2) maintenance (the timing of the training and its use in practice) are intricately
linked to trainee characteristics and the work environment for positive training outcomes. Given
the significance of training inputs in formal training programs for positive training outputs
(learning and retention), it is imperative that training inputs utilize best practices in adult learning
theory. The purpose of this review is to take a closer look at training inputs and what can be done
for positive learning and retention.

Figure 1. Training Transfer Model (Baldwin & Ford, 1988)

Trainee Characteristics
Trainee characteristics include the trainee’s intellectual ability, self-efficacy regarding their
training, motivation level, and personality traits (Burke & Hutchins, 2007). Trainee intellectual
ability may be the most influential predictor of training success and performance; it accounts for
16% of the variance in training effectiveness (Kanfer & Ackerman, 1989; Ree & Earles, 1991;
Robertson & Downs, 1979) though research has found trainee motivation is also influential in
learned skills transferring to the work environment (Noe, 1986; Tziner, Haccoun, & Kadish,
1991). Organizations may not be able to change the intellectual abilities of their trainees, but
some variables within trainee characteristics can be modified. For example, in their research,
Lim and Morris (2006) added job function, job position, years of related job experience, and
immediate training needs to the list of trainee characteristics. They found that a trainee’s job
function was a significant indication of their overall perceived learning application (Lim &
Morris, 2006). For example, different positions held within an organization will affect the
trainees’ perceived ability to apply their learning to the workplace.

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This is supported by Baldwin and Ford’s (1988) statement that “training research cannot
continue to ignore the job relevance of the training content as a critical factor affecting what is
learned, retained, and transferred to the work setting” (p. 99). Lim and Morris (2006) reported
the most influential trainee characteristic in their study was the need for trainees to use the
learned knowledge within six months of training. For example, if an employee’s job function
does not allow them to use their newly acquired skills, transfer will be limited or may not occur
at all. Knowles et al. (2005) found that adult learners need to connect learning to their existing
knowledge and experience base. Therefore, an employee with limited work experience may not
have the same conditions for positive transfer as a trainee with more experience in the skill being
learned.

Training Design

Including stakeholders (the trainee, trainer, and manager) in training design, one that aligns with
organizational goals, will help identify obstacles to positive transfer (Broad & Newstrom, 1992).
Also, for effective positive transfer, the training design should include achievable learning goals,
the use of relevant content, a program that gives practice and feedback, the use of over-learning
as a strategy for retention (continuing to repeat practice even when performance has been
established), and a design that includes active learning with behavioral modeling (Burke &
Hutchins, 2007). Knowles et al. (2005) suggested that for adult learners to develop, learn, and
retain their skill, training should be focused on their needs. Knowles et al. identified six
assumptions about adult learners. Adults learn best when they need to know the material, have
self-concept, have prior experience, exhibit a readiness to learn, are oriented to learn, and are
motivated to learn (Knowles et al., 2005). Adult learners will be more successful in their learning
if they see a direct correlation between what they are asked to learn and their job performance.

Knowles’s work adds to Morstain and Smart’s (1974) study on six motivational factors for adult
learners. Morstain and Smart found motivational factors that influence how adults transfer
training. They are (1) the need for social networks to exist, (2) the need to meet external
expectations, (3) the need to improve the social welfare of others, (4) the benefits of career and
professional advancement, (5) feeling stimulated with learning, and (6) having a cognitive
interest throughout pre-, during, and post-training for positive transfer (Morstain & Smart, 1974).
Therefore, a trainer must make connections so that training is aligned with what the trainee will
be doing in the “real world” for a positive influence on training effectiveness (Broad &
Newstrom, 1992).

Near and Far Transfer

Transfer of training can be near or far. Near transfer is when learning is applied to situations
similar to those in which initial learning has taken place, and far transfer is when learning is
applied to situations dissimilar to those of the original learning (Lim & Johnson, 2002). For
example, the more the training content and programs reflect workplace practices, when learning
takes place in realistic settings with authentic tasks and over-learning the task is used, near
transfer will occur (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Brown et al., 1989; Noe, 1986). Far transfer occurs
when trainees practice in different contexts that include unique practice exercises, and they
receive encouragement during training which stresses the application of what they are learning in
situations they are familiar with (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Noe, 1986).

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 Work Environment

As stated earlier, adult learners need early opportunities to apply what they have learned for
training outputs (learning and retention) to be positive. Burke and Hutchins (2008) reported
supervisory support that provides coaching and opportunities to practice new knowledge and
skills as best practice in training transfer. Linking training design and delivery with the work
environment, Burke and Hutchins (2007) found that a precursor to training is a needs assessment.
Trainers should first assess the cause of performance issues to ensure that the work environment
does not preclude learning and retention from unclear performance objectives and inadequate
resources and support (Burke & Hutchins, 2007).

Additionally, peer and supervisory support were found to boost training transfer once the trainee
is back on the job (Burke & Hutchins, 2008; Facteau, Dobbins, Russell, Ladd, & Kudisch, 1995).
Burke and Hutchins’s (2008) research with trainers found supervisory support as an essential
function of transfer. Supervisory support includes supervisory reinforcement, coaching and
opportunities to practice, the use of interactive activities to encourage participation, post-training
evaluation of skills, and making content relevant to actual job duties. Broad and Newstrom
(1992) included management support and prior- and post-training as enhancements to transfer of
training. As far as the role of supervisors is concerned, research has found that few supervisors
discuss training programs with the trainees other than to authorize time to attend the courses,
which leads to a lack of understanding by the trainee in how to implement training in the
workplace (Clarke, 2002). Therefore, when the trainee, trainer, and manager—what Broad and
Newstrom (1992) called a transfer partnership—are all involved in the training design and
delivery, they can each support one another for positive application of training by the trainee to
the workplace.

Conclusions

Building on Broad and Newstrom’s work, Lim and Morris (2006) conducted research that
integrates all three training inputs. Their resulting model (see Figure 2) shows a relationship
between the different types of variables: trainee characteristics, instructional factors, and
organizational factors and how they relate to one another for positive learning and transfer
outcomes.

Trainers must understand that the entire training and performance improvement process should
be comprehensive and focused on how to help trainees transfer their learning to the job
(Baldwin, Ford, & Blume, 2009). Trainer knowledge (expertise in their fields) and their use of
teaching principles (adult learning principles) have also been reported as assisting in positive
learning and retention (Burke & Hutchins, 2008). Burke and Hutchins’s (2008) review of
existing research found that other major transfer influences go beyond the traditional training
inputs. These researchers reported sub-categories that emerged as influences beyond Baldwin
and Ford’s traditional training inputs that help support transfer. They include trainer knowledge
(the trainer’s knowledge of subject matter and teaching principles), peer support (co-workers,
colleagues, and peers as the most heavily invested), and organizational support (organizational
culture supports transfer through a commitment to training transfer). As an example, they found
that support from peers more consistently influenced trainee transfer than supervisory support;

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this was supported by Facteau et al. (1995) who found that trainees’ support from peers had a
more significant positive effect in transfer that supervisory support (Burke & Hutchins, 2008).

Figure 2. Integrated Research Framework (Lim and Morris, 2006)

Mentorship, as part of training inputs, has been found to improve on-the-job performance.
Studies with pre-service teachers found mentoring activities between a trainer and trainee that
include scaffolding, feedback, and reflection, help trainees develop their skill to higher levels
(Silva Mangiante & Peno, 2016). Scaffolding is used to help a learner reach a higher level of
performance through modeling and observation (Peno & Silva Mangiante, 2012). Providing
feedback to the trainee allows for acknowledgment of strengths and weakness relative to their
performance (Baldwin & Ford, 1988) and provides an opportunity for them to examine their
actions and consider alternatives, with the assistance of a mentor (Peno & Silva Mangiante,
2012).

Training designs that incorporate Morstain and Smart’s (1974) six motivational factors for adult
learners may expect positive training transfer. Trainers who understand Knowles et al.’s (2005)
six assumptions of the adult learner and include activities such as mentorship and the use of the
motivational factors will help propel the learner from one who is learning to one who retains
learning. Moreover, a work environment that includes supervisory and peer support, transfer
partnerships between the trainee, trainer, and manager, and the opportunity for the trainee to use
their skills are all critical to enhancing transfer of training. Therefore, trainees that are motivated
to learn, a training design that accommodates trainees’ needs and helps make connections with
“real world” activities, and a work environment that enables the learner to use new skills
promptly are essential training inputs for positive learning and retention.

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Jane B. Northup is a doctoral student in Education at The University of Rhode Island/Rhode

Island College. She works as the Quality Assurance Officer at the Rhode Island State Crime
Laboratory and co-coordinates the two-semester Biomedical & Pharmaceutical Sciences 101/102
course in Criminal Investigation for law enforcement officers. Her area of expertise is skill
development in the adult learner.

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