DAVID LIVINGSTONE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

DEGREE BY DISTANCE EDUCATION

MODULE ONE

EDU 2110 SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Edition 2021 UNZA

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Acknowledgements

David Livingstone College of Education (DALICE) would like to thank the following for the
contributions they made to the production and development of this module:

Module Writers D. Muchimba - Course Coordinator

G.L.K. Sitali

Supporting partners University of Zambia

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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTON TO SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

CONTENTS

1.0.Introduction
2.0.Outcomes
3.0.Main Content
3.1.Origin of the subject of Sociology and Sociology of Education.
3.2.Meaning of Sociology
3.3.Functions of Sociology
3.4.Meaning of Education
4.0.Conclusion
5.0.Summary

1.0.Introduction

This unit presents the Fundaments of Sociology of Education, with emphasis on the meaning
of sociology, its functions, meaning of education and the relevance of sociology of education
to the teacher.

2.0. Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

(a) Discuss the origin of Sociology

(b) Define Sociology as a concept
(c) Discuss the scope/nature of Sociology
(d) Define Sociology of Education
(e) Discuss the functions of Sociology
(f) Explain the meaning of Education
(g) Explain the relevance of Sociology of Education to the Teacher

3.0.MAIN CONTENT

This unit looks at Sociology as the study of society and human social action. The term
sociology was coined by a Frenchman called Auguste Comte (1798-1857).Comte argued that
the term sociology is a combination of two words. The first part of the term is a Latin word
socius, which means society, association, togetherness or companionship. The other word is
logos, a Greek word which means study or science. Sociology concerns itself with the social
rules and processes that connect and separate people not only as individuals, but as members
of associations, groups, and institutions and includes the analysis of the organisation and
development of human social life.

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3.1. Origin of Sociology and Sociology of Education.

Origin of Sociology

The origin of Sociology can be traced from Europe especially France and Germany around
the 19th century. It then extended and grew faster in the United States of America. Sociology
became a subject of keen interest during the 19 th century when Western civilization was
undergoing vast social upheavals that accompanied the industrial revolution.

Let us look at the five factors that led to the development of Sociology.

1. Industrial Revolution
2. French Revolution of 1789
3. Travel
4. Success in Natural Sciences
5. Technology

1. Industrial Revolution

 Europe was changing from agriculture to factory production

 Hugh numbers of people moved to the cities in search of work
 In cities people met the challenges of poverty, filth and crowding
 The traditional order was challenged by the industrial revolution and this gave way to
democratic changes
 Social changes undermined the traditional explanations of human existence

2. The French Revolution

 The French Revolution took thousands of lives because of its bloodiest social
movement. It avoided the economic, political and social order of that time through
numerous riots and killings.
 The revolution made many social scientists to think about society. This included
looking in depth at people’s social behavior, causes and results of the revolution.

3. Travel

 The Europeans had been successful in getting colonies around the world
 The colonies they obtained exposed Europeans to totally different cultures; they
began asking questions why cultures differ

4. Success in natural sciences

 It seemed logical to discover the laws underlying social phenomena

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5. Technology

3.2. Meaning of Sociology

Sociology as a field of discipline is umbrella in nature because it deals with the totality of
human interaction. It is a systematic study of human groups and social behaviour. It tries to
find out the influence of social relationships on people’s behaviour and attitudes and also how
societies are established and changed. In simple terms sociology is the study of man’s
interaction within the society. But this definition is not adequate as sociology deals with the
organization and control of people’s behaviour and attitudes in the society.

Giddens (2015:4) defines Sociology as “the scientific of human life, social, whole and the
human world as such”. Sociology is extremely broad in perspective. Over the years, different
branches of sociology have been developed. Some of which include the following:

 Sociology of Religion
 Sociology of Education
 Sociology of Economics
 Sociology of Sports
 Sociology of Medicine

Sociology is concerned with social facts in the economy, family, religion, politics and so on.
The assessment of the social facts within society acts as a way to solve problems amongst the
people. Therefore, sociology as a field helps the members of any society to solve social or
behavioral problems in order to create a better society. Sociologist thus are people serving the
society in different capacities, such as teachers, lecturers, social workers, researchers,
administrators, town planners, and so forth. It is on this basis that basic knowledge of
sociology for teachers is important for a better understanding of society we live in.

3.3. Meaning of Education

Education can be defined depending on the purpose it is meant to serve and the discipline it is
looking at. In sociology, education can be explained as an activity which goes on in the
society where its methods and aims relay on the nature of the society in which it takes place.
In specific terms, education is a means of making people understand their society and its
structure. Education provides well behaved individuals have the ability to analyze ideas and
contribute meaningfully towards the development of the society.

Education in any society is there to transmit to the young the culture of that society. The
parents, teachers and other member of the society contribute greatly towards transmitting of
cultural ideas to the young. It therefore means that every member of the society has a duty to
transmit knowledge for the survival of individuals. That is why education is an important tool
for human growth and survival.

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3.4. Meaning of Sociology of Education

Sociology of Education is an applied form of sociology. It will allow you to study the process
of education as a tool for introducing learners into the way of life of a society. The following
are important areas of study of Sociology of Education.

1. The processes of education that have social relevance on the social life of a learner.
2. The concepts of education that are of social relevance, these are social groups and
associations within the school.
3. Social systems and institutions which are relevant to education.
4. A comparison of the systems of education in different parts of the world.

3.5. Functions of Sociology

Sociology performs a number of roles within the society. Some of the roles are as follows:

1. Sociology helps in the analysis of different types of relationships within the society. It
is the concern of sociology to identify why certain undesirable behaviors are present
in human beings. Such behaviors must be checked and changed. For instance, within
the society, there are young boys and girls who get initiated into unacceptable
behaviors due to ignorance or reason beyond the victims’ explanation. It is within the
interest of sociology to investigate into the causes of unacceptable behaviors. This can
be done through critical analysis of the problem and try to offer a solution.

2. Sociology exposes members of the society to how authority and power is acquired
within the society and why some customs, beliefs and practices cannot be done away
with. All human beings are the same when it comes to taste of power or privileged
positions. Authority and power are as sweet as honey.

3. Society attempts to explain the relationship between different social systems in

society. This can be between the educational system and the political system or the
relationship between the political system and the economic system. There is an inter
relationship among all the system in society. That is why there should be a health
relationship among sub systems in order to foster growth and development.

4. Sociology reveals to individuals that society is dynamic and stable in nature.

Individual become aware that the society is not static and therefore calls for dynamic
thought and actions. For instance, the technological worlds of computers, individuals
are expected to be computer literate in order to function effectively and be integrated
within the society.

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 5. Sociology examines different human backgrounds. This helps in tolerating and
accommodating individuals with differences in cultural background and orientation.

6. Sociology has a role of identifying various human needs in the society and explaining
how these needs are met and satisfied. Sociology teaches people to aspire to meet and
satisfy those needs that will assist them in living a meaningful life. For instance an
individual who is involved in stealing is regarded as an unacceptable member of the
society.
Self-Evaluation Exercise

1. Discuss the relevance of Sociology of Education to the teacher.

4.0. Conclusion

Sociology as a discipline is the scientific study of man in the society. The society does not
operate in a vacuum, it comprises of sub-systems in which man interacts for survival. There
are several functions which sociology stands to perform in the society. It stands as a link
between the different subsystems in the society. It analyses and clarifies the relationships
within the society. Education is the training of an individual in line with his culture and
innovations within it to become an acceptable in the society. It shapes character and
behaviour for positive contribution to the growth and development of such society.

5.0. SUMMARY

This unit looked at the meaning of Sociology as man’s interaction in the society. It also
brought out the functions of Sociology.

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UNIT 2: THEORIES IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

CONTENT

1.0. Introduction

2.0. Outcomes

3.0. Main Content

3.1 Micro Theories

3.1.1 Labeling theory

3.1.2 New Sociology of Education theory
3.1.3 Symbolic Interaction Theory

3.2 Macro Theories

3.2.1 Structural functionalist theory
3.2.2 Conflict Theory
3.2.3 Human Capital theory
3.2.4 Modernisation Theory

4.0. Conclusion

5.0. Summary

1.0. Introduction

This Unit is packaged to bring you closer to the theories in sociology of education. A theory
is a set of interrelated statements that gives an explanation for an event. It will put together a
multitude of facts so that we may understand them as a whole. It will let you see that the
relationships among events are not evident in isolated parts.

2.0. OUTCOMES:
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:

(a) Discuss Labeling theory

(b) Discuss New Sociology of education theory
(c) Discuss Symbolic Interaction Theory
(d) Discuss Structural Interaction Theory
(e) Discuss Conflict Theory
(f) Discuss Human Capital Theory
(g) Discuss Modernisation Theory

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3.0. MAIN CONTENT

There are three perspectives in Sociology: Functionalism, Conflict theory and Interactions
theory. For our study in this unit we have also included the labeling theory, Modernisation
theory and the Human Capital theory because of their great importance to education.

3.1.1 Labeling theory

The 1960s witnessed the emergence of the labeling theory in sociology as a theoretical
perspective of understanding social delinquency or deviance. Deviance means departing from
the norm. Sociologists argue that this is the bias towards the positive or negative. While there
are crimes that are certainly deviant because they are outside the norm (such as murder, rape,
etc.), there are also crimes that are not deviant. Take speeding for example. It isn't at all
unexpected to see someone speeding. From a sociological perspective, speeding would not be
considered deviant in most cities in the United States but in other Countries it may be a
crime.

Edwin Lemert is widely considered to be the producer of the original version of labeling
theory. The major concern of the labeling theory is with the process by which individuals in
the society are labeled as deviants, not the individuals themselves. In other words, the
labeling theory is concerned with the way one is treated rather than one’s character
(Stereotyping). For example in the case of a diploma holder teacher and a certificate holder
teacher, the difference between them is not in their titles, but in the way they are treated.

The central argument of the labeling theory is that, society creates deviants. It is society
which gives labels to certain individuals, and makes these labels permanent, making these
individuals deviants. One is not a thief until someone blows the whistle.

It is important to note that there is no clear consensus among those who label others about the
kind of behaviour or act which is deviant. One individual or one kind of behaviour may be
considered deviant by one person, but not so by another. It may depend on the kind of
relationship between the one who labels and the one who is labeled.

The labeling theory sees a deviant as a product of a process being caught, segregated against
and given a label. The reaction of society to one who has committed a crime reinforces
criminal behaviour, and makes that person a deviant.

Lermet (1951) describes the sequence of actions from primary to secondary deviation as
follows:

 First act of deviance (primary deviation).

 Society punishes the person for the first act.
 The punished reacts to the punishment by committing another act, (further primary
deviation).
 Society applies stronger punishment and shows rejection.
 The punished commits another act – further deviation which may be accompanied
with hatred to those who are punishing him/her.

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  The society shows no tolerance of such an individual now.
 Such individual now show stronger deviant behaviour of the penalties or punishments.
 Finally the person accepts the status, agrees that he/she is a deviant (criminal). This is
now secondary deviation.

Labeling theory: Its application to the classroom

Two major concerns will be dealt with here – The one who gives the label and the outcome of
the label on someone.

It is generally accepted that it is the teachers who label their pupils. It is teachers who call
their pupils dull, clever, or troublemaker. Teachers to a certain extent, determine whether a
pupil will pass or fail or is a bad pupil or a good pupil. Teachers sometimes act as judges.
They judge the pupils and try to convict them during the process of interaction.

During this process of interaction, the pupil comes to know what the teacher expects of him
or her, and knows the label. Pupils perform and behave according to the label the teacher has
placed on them. Therefore it is the teacher who decides the fate or who holds the future of the
pupil(s).

Teachers always have some form of ideas of the kind of pupils they are dealing with in terms
of their behaviour and performance. It does not take long for a teacher to form ideas or
opinions of the pupils in the classroom. It may take only a few days or weeks for teachers to
label their pupils. Sometimes teachers form certain views about pupils even before they meet
them in the classroom. These ideas are taken to class or school and this is how they perceive
the pupils.

However, sometimes pupils give labels to their teachers in form of names for a number of
reasons. A teacher may be brilliant, dull or boring, or may have certain mannerisms or
because of the nature of the subject or topic he/she is teaching. Some teachers react badly to
these names, and create problems for themselves. Teachers should remember that some of
these names are given to them as a way of helping the pupils to remember the material taught
by the teacher.

3.1.2 New Sociology of Education theory

The theory originated from Britain and France in the 1970s. Persons associated with the
theory are Basil Bernstein and Pierre Bourdieu. Their interest was to understand the
differential academic performance of students. For example how some students pass and
others fail.
The theory therefore, was concerned with the performance of students not their behavior.
Three important areas were looked at by this theory. These are

 Curriculum content
 Concepts which teachers use to describe or categorise the learners. Concepts such as
slow learner, high achiever or low achiever.

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  Teacher-pupil interaction in the classroom.

3.1.3 Symbolic Interactions theory

Symbolic Interactionism can be defined as a theoretical orientation which contains

assumptions proposing that the social world is made up of symbols which human beings use
as means of interaction.

The theory originated from Max Weber (1864-1920) whose works began by comparing the
human beings to actors on a play stage. People are actors; acting on a stage he called the
social world. Whatever each person is doing in society is likened to playing or performing a
role in a play scene on that stage.

Later, George Herbert Mead (1863-1931) came in and introduced a more focused dimension
to Weber’s idea by suggesting that human beings do not act individually on the social world
stage, but instead, they interact between each other, reacting to each other on that stage. Mead
is known as the father of symbolic interactionism (social behaviourism) even though he did
not coin the term. After Mead’s death in 1934, his students put together his class notes and
published mind, self and society. It was then that the term symbolic interactionism was
coined by his student Herbert Blumer.

Herbert Blumer in 1938 elaborated on this interaction phenomenon and actually termed it the
symbolic interactionism which was in honor of his teacher, George Herbert Mead. Other
proponents that are noted in having contributed meaningfully to this theory are Charles
Horton Cooley (1864-1929) who is recognized for his self-looking glass theory and Erving
Goffman for what he referred to as civil inattention and dramaturgical approaches to social
behaviour.

George Herbert Mead (1863 – 1931) is known as the father of symbolic interactionism (social
behaviourism) even though he did not coin the term. Mead focused on the analysis of
situations and small groups. He paid much attention to body language such as a nod and how
another person would respond to such a gesture.

After Mead’s death in 1934, his students put together his class notes and published mind,
self and society. It was then, that the term symbolic interactionism was coined by his student
Herbert Blumer.

This theory looks at individual and group meaning focusing on human action instead of large
scale social structure:

The theory:

 Have roots in Phenomenology which emphasizes the subjective meaning of reality.

 Proposes a social theory of self or a looking glass self.
 Studies, meaning and communication.

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3.2.0 Macro Theories

3.2.1 Structural Functionalist theory

This theory can be defined as a theoretical orientation which proposes that a human society is
like an organism because it is made up of structures called Social Institutions. These social
institutions are structured in a way that they perform different functions on behalf of the
society. The structure – functional approach is sometimes referred to as the consensus model.
The theory looks at society from a macro sociological point of view. The Structural –
functionalist or Functionalist perspective relies heavily on the ideas of the following:
 Emile Durkheim
 Herbert Spencer
 Auguste Comte
 Robert K. Merton
 Talcott Persons

Society as a social system

Functionalists argue that society is a system, a combination of parts that make a larger whole.
Functionalists attempt to do two things: first relate the parts of society to the whole and
second, relate one part to another.

Among the important parts of any society are institutions such as the family, education,
religion, the economy and the state. Functionalists identify the social functions performed by
each institution. For instance the family is said to focus mainly on reproduction, socialization
and maintenance of children. When change occurs in one institution it has implications for
other institutions and the society as a whole. For example if fewer children are born,
enrolment in schools will also be low.

The structural – functionalist theory on the other hand recognizes that there are inequalities in
society. These inequalities are regarded as necessary for the order and stability of the society.
Structural functionalists see inequality and stratification in education as coming from the
needs of a whole society and not just from the needs of individuals or special groups.

Functionalist view of Schooling

Structural Functionalism views that schooling is important for the following reasons:

 Schooling identifies above average students from the average and below average
students.
 Schooling makes sure that the talented students occupy high positions in society.

Reasons are that functionalists believe that those who have excelled in society are those who
have worked hard for the positions. Such people deserve the highest rewards. It is true to say

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society needs the best and the brightest to function at the highest levels. Functionalists
believe in the following specific purposes or functions of schooling:

The Intellectual purposes of schooling

 Teaching basic skills like reading, writing and mathematics.

 Transmitting specific knowledge in subjects like history, literature and sciences.
 Helping students acquire thinking skills such as analysis, evaluation and synthesis.

The political purposes of schooling

 Inculcating allegiance to the existing political order.

 Helping assimilate different cultural groups into a common political order.
 Teaching children the basic laws of the society.

The social purpose of schooling

 Socialization children into various roles, behaviours and values of the society.

The economic purposes of education

 Preparing students for their occupational roles.

 Selecting, training and allocating individuals into the division of labour.

3.2. 2 Conflict theory

Conflict theory draws much of its inspiration from the works of Karl Marx (1818 – 1883).
This theory stresses that change in society is brought by interaction with the environment.
The theory maintains that society is in a state of perpetual inequalities due to competition for
limited resources. The main characteristic of a society from a conflict perspective is
inequality. It is therefore argued that economic inequality is at the centre of any society. This
means that some people will have more money than they need while others will have less
money than they need.

In other words, conflicts exist between social classes. A social class comprise of the Upper or
Ruling class, Middle class and the lower or working class. Social classes are created based on
the following: Wealth, Occupation, Education, Sex, Family background, Religion and
Income

The theory views that human society is made up of a collection of competing interest groups,
individuals and structures, each with their own motive, expectations, goals etc. Individuals,
groups of people and structures in the human society are rarely in consensus but are
characterized by disagreements and constraints.

It further states that:

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  Society has classes, and there is a continuous struggle between the rich and the poor
 The struggle between the contending classes leads to inevitable conflict
 Change comes about as a result of the conflict

Karl Marx argues that conflict exists between:

 Workers and factory owners;

 Friends and workmates;
 Family members and relatives;
 Those with money and those without
 Law abiding citizens and law breakers.

Conflict theory has the following implications on Education:

 Conflict in other social institutions does exist in education: for example, conflict in
education may be due to pupil or student behaviour, drug abuse and academic
achievement which can breed conflict in other social institutions like the family.

 Education should take into consideration or accommodate the views of other interest
groups. This will assist in minimizing instances of disagreement and hence conflict
among all stakeholders.

 Dependence on academic examination, end of term and national examination is the

only recognized and accepted ways of assessing learners. Such practices encourage
and train learners to be competitive and not cooperative. Tracking which is also called
streaming is separating pupils by academic ability into groups for certain subject
within a school brings conflict. Competition of this nature is a source conflict.

 Performance and achievement of learners in schools differ because of unequal

allocation of resources. Differentiated academic provisions of teaching equipment,
funds, books and even teachers brings about poor performance among learners in
different.

3.2.3 Human Capital theory

The Human capital theory is a term popularized by Gary Becker, an economist and Jacob
Mincer that refers to the stock of knowledge, habits, social and personality attributes,
including creativity, embodied in the ability to perform work so as to produce economic
value. Labour is the human manpower that transforms the resource into consumer products,
and capitalism, the money or resources used to purchase both. Within all this is the important
economic concept of developing human labour, commonly referred to as human capital.

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Modern societies seem to concur that education and health care are the key to improving
human capital and ultimately increasing the economic outputs of the nation. (Becker 1993).

Human Capital Implications on Education

 Education of the workforce or teachers enhances their productivity.

 Investment in worker education helps society and its ability to improve the human
conditions.

 Investment in education of workers (teachers) will solve important social problems

e.g. fighting diseases.
 The worker’s attributes will be fully enhanced and valued on the labour market, and
social relations would improve.

 Investment in the work force (teachers) will reinforce and maintain the economic
status in the new global knowledge of our society.

 Education or training of workers enhances child rearing and health care which can
perform a dual economic function in production and perpetuation of the social order.

 Investment in the teachers brings division of labour and specialization in schools.

 Humans are motivated by self-interest and develop the human capital approach into a
general theory of determining the distribution of labour income.

 Schooling workers or teachers contribute to human welfare and reproduction of social

relations necessary to promote a disciplined and obedient workforce. (Bowles, 1975).

3.2.4 Modernization theory

Modernization theory is a theory used to explain the process of civilization and development
that a nation goes through as it transitions from a traditional society to a modern one.
Modernization is a process of socio-cultural transformation. The theory has not been
attributed to any one person; instead, its development has been linked to American social
scientists in the 1950s.There are many different versions of modernization theory.

This lesson will discuss the opposing views of the Marxist and capitalist versions, a Western
version, and a present-day version of modernization theory. Early theories were greatly
affected by the political climate between the United States and the Soviet Union. During the
Cold War era (1947 - 1991), two versions of modernization theory were prominent. These are
the Marxist and Capitalist versions.

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Marxist theory of Modernisation
The Marxist theory of modernization theorised that as nations developed, adopting a
communist approach to governing, such as eradicating private property, would end conflict,
exploitation, and inequality. Economic development and social change would lead
developing nations to change into a society much like that of the Soviet Union.
Capitalist version of Modernisation
The capitalist version of modernization theorised that as nations developed, economic
development and social change would lead to democracy. Many modernization theorists of
the time, such as Walt Whiteman Rostow (1960), The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-
Communist Manifesto argues that when societies change from traditional societies to
modern societies they would follow a similar path. They further argued that each developing
country could be placed into a category or stage of development.
Rostow's stages of development are:

 Traditional - an agricultural based society

 Pre-conditions for Take-off - characterized by an abundance of entrepreneurial
activity
 Take-off - a period of rapid economic growth
 Maturation - economic development slows to a more consistent rate
 Mass production or mass consumption - a period in which real income increases

Other Modernization Theorists, such as Samuel Huntington (1993), The Clash of

Civilisation argues that social mobilisation and economic development were driving forces
behind modernization. Increased social mobilization meant that individuals and societal
groups changed their aspirations. Increased economic development meant that the capabilities
of the newly modern society would change. Huntington maintains that these societal changes
would inevitably lead to democratisation.
Although the Marxist and capitalist versions of modernisation held opposing views, both
views held that in order for developing countries to modernize, the countries needed
assistance in economic development and social change.
Communism was deteriorating by the 1970s and democratization had failed to occur in many
nations struggling to develop. Many critics declared the Marxist and capitalist versions of
modernization to be void.

Western Version of Modernisation

This is another popular version of modernization formed during the height of the Cold War. It
theorized that underdeveloped nations were underdeveloped because they were a product of
unsound traditionalist, religious, and communal values that hindered progress. This version of
modernization further theorized that Western democracies, such as the United States,
dispelled underdeveloped nation’s backward notions by instilling modern values. This

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version of modernization was discredited in the 1970s and it was denounced as being
ethnocentric and pretentious.
EDUCATION AND MODERNIZATION

Education can be an important means of modernization. The importance of education can be

realized from the fact that all modernizing societies tend to emphasize on universalization of
education. Education supports modernisation in the following ways:

 Secular and scientific education act as important means of modernization.

 It helps in the diffusion of modern values of equality, freedom and humanism.
 The modern school system can inculcate achievement motivation.
 These values can form the basis of new relations in the society and growth of rationality
can enable the development of administrative system.
 Diffusion of values of equality, freedom and humanism can lay the foundations of a
democratic political system.
 The spread of modern education will led to the emergence of modern political elite who
will provide leadership.
 The diffusion of scientific and technical knowledge by modern educational institutions can
help in the creation of skilled manpower to play the occupational roles demanded by the
industrial economy.
 Other values like individualism and universalistic ethics etc. can also be inculcated
through education.

4.0. Conclusion

Sociology has developed approaches to the systematic study of society. Each of them
provides an important view of examining society, social phenomenon and human
interactions.

5.0. Summary

In this unit the contributions of the theories to sociology of education have been highlighted.

Labeling theory tells us that it is society that creates deviants.

Functionalist perspective takes the notion that the study of sociology of education helps us to
explain issues that we do not understand. It emphasizes the fact that institutions within
society, such as education, are made up of inter-dependent parts all working together.

Conflict perspective shares the view that social forces within a society make conflict
inevitable. Such conflict can be experienced at school that includes teachers and children
from different cultural groups.

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Symbolic interaction theory stresses that individuals interact with each other. If they share the
same culture, their interpretation of social situations will be similar. They will share common
norms that will guide their behavior.

Modernization theory is a theory used to explain the process of civilization and development
that a nation goes through as it transitions from a traditional society to a modern one.

The Human capital theory refers to the stock of knowledge, habits, social and personality
attributes, including creativity, embodied in the ability to perform work so as to produce
economic value.

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UNIT 3: SOCIAL FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

1.0. Introduction

2.0. Outcomes

3.0. Main Content

3.1.Manifest functions (Conservative, Innovative, Political, Economic, Selective and

allocative)
3.2.Latent Functions
3.3.Dysfunctions of Education
3.4.Consequences of School ( Norm of Independence, Achievement, Universalism)

4.0. Conclusion

5.0. Summary

1.0. Introduction

Educational social institutions: These institutions deal with the need for training individuals
in the values, roles, skills, attitude and knowledge needed to be a good citizen and
hardworking worker.

2.0.Outcomes

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

(a) Describe the Manifest functions of education.

(b) Identify the Latent functions of education.
(c) State the Dysfunctions of education.
(d) Explain the consequences of schooling.

3.0. MAIN CONTENT

Educational social institutions: These institutions deal with the need for training individuals
in the values, roles, skills, attitude and knowledge needed to be a good citizen and
hardworking worker.

Manifest functions

 Transmission of culture.
 Recruitment and preparation for various roles for example preparing students for a
future in the workforce.
 Cultural and social integration.
 Developing new knowledge.
 Screening, sorting and selecting talent.
 Creating an informed citizenry.

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Latent functions

 Schools reinforcing stratification system of classes.

 Schools performing custodial functions. For example marriage bureau where social
and romantic ties are created.
 School helping in forming youth sub – cultures.
 Delaying entry into workplace.
 Babysitting so that parents can go for work.
 Reproduction of social class.
 Teaching discipline and obedience.

Dysfunctions of Education

 Teachers strikes and “go slows”.

 Bureaucracy and student passivity.
 Unchallenged academic standards.
 Dropping out of school.
 The silent classroom.
 Discipline and violence.

Consequences of Schooling

There are both positive and negative effects of schooling on the society of having more
people seeking and achieving a higher educational level some of which are:
 It is a major route to higher social status. For a society, however, it may not be
universally positive.
 The economy may benefit, as there would be a greater number of capable individuals
available to assume highly skilled jobs such as those in high-tech industries.
 Greater innovation might be a result, also.
 But as the number of highly educated individuals’ increases, the competition within
the job market at the higher levels will grow as well.
 Furthermore, as individuals reach higher educational goals, they will become
reluctant to work at a lower tech or lower paying job.
 Particularly in a poor economy the number of jobs would be reduced.
 Unintended negative consequences on society of having more people pursuing a
higher education in the context in a poor economy.

4.0. Conclusion

This social institution deals with the need for training individuals in the values, roles, skills,
attitude and knowledge needed for the nation. Education is an important aspect of the society

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and if this institution is organized, Zambia can improve. As a citizen, it is our duty to respect
this social institution and its functions for a better nation.

5.0. Summary

Education has the following social functions:

 Manifest functions (Conservative, Innovative, Political, Economic, Selective and

allocative)
 Latent Functions. There are also Dysfunctions of Education.
 Though education is an important social institution, it also has positive and negative
Consequences (Norm of Independence, Achievement, and Universalism).

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UNIT 4: SOCIALIZATION

1.0. Introduction

2.0. Outcomes

3.0. Main Content

3.1.Concept of Socialization
3.2.Early Socialization
3.3. Agents of Socialization
 The Family
 The School
 The Peer Group
 Religion
 Mass Media

4.0. Conclusion

5.0. Summary

1.0. Introduction

This unit provides you the knowledge on socialization of a child and the agents through
which socialization will take place. It will bring out the meaning of socialization and other
aspects in socialisation of an individual.

2.0. Outcomes
By the end of this Unit, you should be able to:
(a) List and explain the agents of socialization.
(c) Explain the Concept of Socialisation.
(c) List and explain the types of Socialisation.
(d) Discuss the relationship between Education and socialisation.

3.0. MAIN CONTENT

3.1. Concept of Socialisation

Socialization may be defined as the totality of processes which a society uses to make young
and new members learn the language, norms, values and religion. Socialization can also be
defined as the process of learning the characteristics of the group one is associated with. It is
a process of making someone social and fully human. Socialization is also a process whereby
individuals learn and are trained in the basic norms, beliefs, values, attitudes, skills, and ways
of behaving as appropriate to a specific social group or society. Socialization is never an
ending process. It is on-going from birth to the grave.

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Socialization may be formal or informal. It is formal when it is conducted by social groups
and institutions that are formally organized. For example, schools, church centers, work
places, military training centers, initiation ceremony centers, etc.

It is informal when it is takes place through informal social interaction and relationships at
small scale levels. Informal socialization is evident through agents like, the family, peer
groups, neighbors and work mates. The influence is powerful as it can either be negative or
positive on one’s life. There are two patterns of socialization. These are Repressive and
Participatory socialization.

Repressive socialization: This is oriented towards gaining obedience. It involves the

following:

 Punishing a child’s wrong behavior

 Obedience of the child
 Non-verbal communication
 Communication as a command
 Parent centered socialization
 Child’s discernment of parents’ wishes
 Material reward and punishment.

Participatory socialization: This is oriented towards gaining the participation of the child. It
involves:

 Rewarding the child’s good behavior

 Autonomy of the child
 Verbal communication
 Communication as interaction
 Child-centered socialization
 Parents’ discernment of child’s needs
 Symbolic reward and punishment

3.2. The Goals of Socialization

The goal of socialization for individual persons is to equip him or her with the basic norms,
values and skills, so that the person will act and behave in the right manner in the social
group to which they belong. The following are some of the specific goals of socialization:

 To inculcate basic discipline in an adult or child by restraining him or her from

immediate gratification. Gratification is the pleasurable emotional reaction of
happiness in response to a fulfillment of a desire or goal. For example, an individual
who is well socialized will delay relieving him/herself or will delay to have sexual
intercourse until the right environment is created.

 To instill aspirations. Aspiration is a strong desire to achieve something.

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  To teach social roles. A social role is an expected patterned behavior of an individual
occupying a certain status position.
 To teach skills.
 To teach conformity to norms.
 To create acceptable personal identities.

3.3. Types of Socialisation

Primary or Childhood socialization

 This type of socialization is also called early or basic socialization. Most of the
personality make-up of a person is shaped at this period of life. The child at this stage
is changed into a social being. It is therefore important to appropriately socialize a
child from birth to about five years of age and beyond. A child, who does not get
appropriate primary socialization, will face challenges in his/her social, intellectual,
moral, and personality development. Such children grow up and develop anti-social
attitudes and practices.

Secondary or Adult Socialization

 Secondary socialization is evident when individuals take up new roles, reorienting

themselves according to the current social status or role, as in starting a marital life of
being a husband or wife. The process at this stage can be intense. Intense adult
socialization can also occur among people going to other countries or change places
as they have to learn the language, values, norms and customs of that country/place.

Re-socialization

 Re-socialization means an adult, adopting radically different norms and life styles that
are completely different from the previous norms and values. Re-socialization
signifies the rapid and more basic changes in adult life. The changes might demand
abandonment of one’s way of life with a new one, which is completely different and
incompatible with the former one.
 The changes can be for example, an offender going to prison to serve a jail term. The
person will serve the prison sentence in a total institution, which is isolated from the
community. The prison as a total institution will demand for a thorough de-
socialization of the new entrant before assuming full prison membership. The same
happens in total institutions like: military units, initiation ceremony units, seminaries
and mental hospitals. Re-socialization may also mean socializing an individual again
into former norms and values, after rejoining his/her former ways of life, having spent
a longer period of time in a total institution. This is because the person might have
forgotten the basic values and skills of the former society. This kind of re-
socialization is also regarded as reintegration, helping the ex-community member to
renew memories of his former knowledge and ways of life.

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De-socialization

 De-socialization happens before re-socialization. De-socialization refers to stripping

an individual of his/her former life style, beliefs and attitudes. The individual
abandons his/her former values. The person will then take up partially or totally new
life styles, attitudes and values in order to become part of the new social group.

Anticipatory Socialization

 This type of socialization refers to the process of adjustment and adaptation in which
the person tries to learn and internalize the roles, values, skills and attitudes of a social
status or occupation for which the individual is likely to take up in future. Individuals
do this in anticipating the forthcoming socialization. Anticipatory socialization
involves rehearsal and preparation in advance to have a feel of what the new role
would be like. However when the nature of life progression is complex, anticipatory
socialization may not be adequate. It might be difficult to anticipate what will happen.

Reverse Socialization

 Reverse socialization refers to the process of socialization whereby parents, happen to

being socialized by their children in roles, skills and attitudes which they lack in life.
Socialization is a two way process.

Developmental Socialization

 Developmental socialization is the process of learning behavior in a social institution

or developing your social skills.

3.4. Agents of Socialization

Agents of socialization are the people and groups that influence our self-concept, emotions,
attitudes and behavior.

(a) Family

This is a group of people who are related to each other, especially mother, father and their
children. The family is one of the many small face-to-face groups with the responsibility of
giving the children decent living. The family is expected to satisfy sexual needs
(reproduction), economic needs – feeding, clothing, shelter, medical provision, and so on. It
is also expected to transmit the cultural values and norms to the young generation in order to
fully be integrated into the society. The family is the foundation of socialization because it is
the first contact of the child.

The inculcation of basic social values, desirable character traits and norms are learnt first in
the family. The home assists in laying the foundation for personality and character

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development of a child. The success or failure of an individual depends on the type of social
take-off acquired in the family setting.

The child is trained in language, positive character, fundamental intellectual knowledge,

vocational skills and so on, through the initiation by the adult members of the family like
father, mother and other siblings at home. These people are expected to be role models
worthy of emulation in all ramifications as the younger generation look up to them as
examples for moral standard. The parents love for the child makes a deep impression on him.

(b)School

The school is another important agent of socialization. After the home, the child is exposed to
the school which socializes the child, gives him/her the opportunity to show his qualities,
potentialities, capabilities, instincts, drives and motives. For the child, the teacher’s
personality and character provide a mode which he strives to copy, thereby consciously
molding his personality.

Apart from the teacher, the child is also influenced by his school mates or groups. These
mates or groups play a significant role in determining the status and role the child will occupy
in the society later in life. During the process of education, the child’s personality develops
under the impact of the other personalities with whom he comes in contact. In the school, the
child is disciplined; becomes aware that disobedience brings child’s mental growth. Besides,
the cultural programme of the school, the school is also expected to transmit knowledge and
skills into the learners to be able to face life challenges and for sustenance.

(c)The peer group

The peer group is the child’s own friends and equals with similar drives, motives and
interests. The social world of the child has its own mode of interaction, its own values and
acceptable forms of behaviour, many of which adults cannot understand. It is a world in
which the child has
equal and at times superior status to others. Peer groups take shape early in the child’s life.

In the earlier years, these peer groups are relatively informal and transitory, adapted quickly
to changing circumstances in the child’s situation. Peer groups are play groups (siblings,
neighbours children, school-mates), the cliques and age mates. In later years, however they
become more formally organized groups like clubs, societies, fighting gangs, character-
building agencies like Boys Scouts, Girls Guides and so on. In short, peer groups are social
groups that influence the behaviour of their members. Peer groups can have either negative or
positive impact on a child’s life. A child has to exercise care in the choice of the peer groups
to belong.

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(d)Religion

Religion might be described as a reflection of man’s attempts to explain those aspects of his
environment which he cannot understand. It is one of the institutions of socialisation; In our
society, as in many others people’s religious beliefs are founded on the idea that God is the
supernatural power responsible for the creation of life. Thus, religious institutions help in the
socialization process of its members. The religious leaders are expected to demonstrate a high
level of morality to serve as role models to their followers. The following are some of the
values, which are emphasized in religion:

 Children are taught the values and attitudes which are expected of them by the
society, this is to shape their behavior, respect and love for God.
 There is a lot of emphasis on honesty, respect and sincerity when dealing with people.
People’s opinions and property should be protected. An individual is obliged to show
friendship as well as sympathy in what others do.
 Selfish tendencies are condemned and fair and firm dealings emphasized. When
trouble comes, it should be faced bravely and firmly.
 There is a need to dress and appear orderly as the occasion demands. We are advised
to be fair and to avoid roughness in the way we talk and walk.

(e) Mass Media

The mass media is made up of two types, namely print and electronic. The print is in the
group of magazines, newspapers, periodicals, textbooks, bill boards etc. while the electronics
are television, radio, projectors, video, social media etc.

Self-evaluation exercise

1. Discuss the agents of socialisation in the school.

2. List the forms of socialisation.

4.0. Conclusion

Socialization is the process by which an individual can learn how to behave depending on
their social environment. It focuses on the socialization of the child in the transmission of the
societal culture as a major part of education right from the family to the school. The family
and school gives a wide coverage of items to be learnt by the child in order to become an
acceptable member of the society. The socialization of the child is done through the family,
school, peer group, religious houses and mass.

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5.0. Summary

This unit embraced the meaning of socialization, types of socialization and agents of
socialization focusing centrally on upbringing of the child with the tenets and culture of his
environment. The child is expected to be nurtured in accordance with the needs, aspirations
and beliefs of the environment where they live to be able to participate actively in the social
processes of the environments.

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UNIT 5: SCHOOL ORGANISATION

Introduction

In order to understand the meaning of school as a social organization, we have to understand

the three terms, school, social and organization separately and then the meaning of all
integrated.

Meaning of School

A school is an institution where schooling is provided to the learners. It is a place for learning
and education.

Meaning of Organization

The term organization signifies technical arrangement of parts in a whole. It comprises

persons, material equipment, ideas, symbols, forms, rules, principles, schedules, playgrounds,
libraries, classrooms and other facilities at work.

Meaning of Social

The term social indicates the fact that individual and group relations are the outcome of social
processes.

The term social organization refers to the pattern of individual and group relations. Therefore,
one of sociology’s main concerns is to study and analyze the behavior of human society as it
appears in its structured and organized ways.

Characteristics of School Organization

 Simplicity: This means there should be clarity of roles, duties, responsibilities, and
power on the part of each person working in a school. This reduces chaos, leading to a
better organization of school activities.
 Stability: A school organization should be dynamic but this does not mean there
should be no standard rules or regulations.

 Dynamism or flexibility: An ideal school organization is one in which any kind of

change can take place without disturbing any other activity.

 Clarity about duties and power: There should be clear understanding of the powers
and duties of individuals working together in a school.

 Coordination: In an ideal school organization there should be coordination between

different activities and also coordination between physical resources and human
resources.

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  Acceptance of human elements: People should be free to express their feelings,
opinions and offer positive suggestions about changes in the school.

 Control: This is an element that puts a break to an activity and then evaluates the
results.
 Recruitment on the basis of qualification, promotion on the basis of merit and
seniority with long-term employment on fixed salaries
Recruitment and promotion on the basis of merit is designed to ensure that the most
qualified are chosen to fill a particular bureaucratic position. Long term employment
on fixed salaries ensures career stability and helps to reduce corruption.

 Separation of private and official income

The equipment used by the bureaucrat in the course of carrying out his/her official
duties belongs to the organization and not to the employee. In other words, the
bureaucratic staff does not own the tools which they use while carrying out their
duties.

Elements of School Organization

School organization is concerned with a wide range of tasks. The following are some of the
elements.

 Policy Making and Planning

Different types of decisions have to be made at institutional and classroom levels in
education. Policy issues are decided at the management level.

 Financial provisions
A school should enjoy financial security avoiding haphazard expenditures.

 Material Provisions
This involves provision of classrooms, furniture, playgrounds, laboratory etc.

 Provision of Personnel
This relates to the availability of trained teachers and other employees.

 Instructional Provisions
This element refers to preparation of timetables, recording the attendance of pupils,
maintaining discipline, actual classroom teaching and curriculum review.

 Provision of Co-curriculum Activities

Pupils must participate in co-curriculum activities to acquire different experiences.
This will help to develop the physical, mental, intellectual and moral development.

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  Records and Reports
The school must prepare and maintain all relevant records like, academic report
books, case studies, certificates, guidance and counseling records etc.

 Evaluation
The school administration has to conduct self-appraisal.

 Control and Co-ordination

School rules and regulations are important for learners, teaching staff and other
employees.

LEADERSHIP IN SCHOOLS

Leadership in the school system can be studied and interpreted in three major ways. These
are:

 Leadership as a Personality Gift

In the olden days, a leader was seen as someone with a special gift. The person
possessed unique physical, social and intellectual capabilities than any other person
around him/her. Even today people have a tendency to believe that a leader does not
only possess normal abilities but is given extraordinary powers by a ‘god’ or some
superior natural power.

 Leadership as a Status, Title or Position recognized in the school structure.

A leader has been looked at as a person established in a position of the school or
college structure. For example, a head-teacher of a primary school or a principal of a
teachers’ college are viewed as leaders.

 Leadership as a Social process and shared relationship

Leadership in this context is determined by the way the leader relates with his/her
subordinates and how he/she is able to satisfy the needs of the members he/she is
leading. Leadership is based on what the leader does to help the group define its
goals. The leader must provide proper guidance, motivation and help his/her staff. On
the other hand the head-teacher expects good quality work from the teachers.

Power and authority

Power

Power according to Max Weber is "the probability that one actor in a social relationship will
be in a position to carry out his will despite resistance, regardless of the basis on which this
probability rests".

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Power may be exercised in the following ways:

 Force: The police trying to control a riotous crowd.

 Religion: Convincing members that they must obey.
 Control of economic resources: People with an economic advantage will have
more access to sharing of the available resources.

Power is exercised in different institutions. Though it is prominent in government, it is also

exercised in the family, school, church, prison, bank, and so on. When you think of power
you will notice that it is exercised whenever it is possible to manipulate conditions that
people must obey.

Power on its own is usually resented and is an unstable base for administrators in a school or
college. For a head teacher to continue to be obeyed, his/her power must be legitimated and
become authority.

Authority

Authority according to Weber is the “probability that a certain command will be obeyed.”
The main point of authority is voluntary obedience because a person believes that the source
of the command is legitimate and the person commanding has the right to do so.

When you as a teacher accept authority, you suspend your own judgment about the order
because you agree that the person in authority has a right to give it.

The question we need to ask is why authority?

Authority exists because groups of teachers and pupils share certain beliefs. These beliefs
lead to the development of group norms for accepting commands from certain sources.

Obedience to commands is enforced by the group, be it teachers or pupils. Anyone who

wants to remain a member of the group must accept this authority.

An administrator with authority in a school has certain rights and responsibilities as do those
under it.

32
Types of leadership styles

In a school, there must be a force to direct financial resources, pupils, teaching/learning

material and teaching/non-teaching staff towards the school’s goals and standards. That force
is leadership.

Max Weber distinguished three types of authority. These are traditional, charismatic and
bureaucratic.

Traditional authority

 Obedience is based on the acceptance of custom

 It is legitimated by the sanctity of tradition
 Members hold the belief that the social order was created by god and that it is man’s
duty to conform. This is the basis of the divine right and authority of chiefs.
 Traditional power does grow and decline. Today the authority of chiefs in Zambia has
continued to diminish because the government does want challenges in trying to unite
its people.
 Traditional authority is not limited to chieftaincy but there are those who are able to
command because subordinates customarily accept their authority.

Charismatic leadership

The word charisma refers to mystical qualities of exceptional powers. In Greek it means
superhuman. A charismatic leader is usually admired and respected because of his/her
exceptional ability to express oneself in speech. Such a leader has a way of doing courageous
things. The behavior of this type of a leader captures the attention to what he/she does and
draws the people’s interest by convincing them to accept his/her leadership. It is important to
remember that leadership of this nature depends on the exceptional abilities and qualities that
an individual has. People believe beyond any reasonable doubt that such a leader has a
special duty to bring any revolutionary change.

Characteristics of a charismatic leader

 Automatic obedience
 High co-operation exists between members
 Unity of command where regulations are followed automatically
 Great respect for the leader who also possesses special abilities
 Work is done with minimum supervision

Bureaucratic authority (Rational – legal authority)

 Bureaucratic can be said to be the type of organization designed to accomplish large

scale administrative tasks by systematically coordinating the work of many
individuals

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  It involves the rationalization of administration to achieve the organizational goals.
What is rationalization? This is a process whereby thought and action motivated by
superstitions, emotions, tradition and respect for mysterious forces become replaced
by thought and action grounded in the logical assessment of the most efficient ways to
achieve a valued goal.

 Large numbers of workers are organized so that all the necessary tasks are done well
on time. Rationalization means “the calculated use of resources for the achievement
of a particular set of goals in the most economic way possible.”

 Bureaucratic authority is legitimate by law and obedience is owned not to the

individual but to the set of impersonal principles. For example the head teacher holds
the legal authority in the school. He/she is appointed by the appointing authority that
is legally constituted.

Bureaucratic organizations have a number of characteristics. Weber argued the following are
some of the characteristics of a bureaucracy:

 Each office or position (head teacher, deputy head, section head, and class teacher)
has clearly defined duties and responsibilities. This way all activities of the
organization are arranged within a clear cut division of labour.

 All offices are organized in a hierarchy authority that takes the shape of a pyramid.
Officials like the head teacher, deputy head teacher, section heads are held
accountable to their superiors for their subordinates’ actions and decisions.

 All activities are governed by a consistent system of rules and regulations. These rules
and regulations define the responsibilities of the various offices and the relationships
among them.

 All offices carry with them qualifications that are filled on the basis of technical
competence, not personal consideration. Competence is established by certification.
For example college diploma or teaching service examinations.
 Workers do not own their offices. Positions remain the property of the organization.
Office holders are supplied with the items they require to perform their work.

 Employment by the organization is defined as a career. Promotion is based on

seniority or merit or both. After the probation period, workers gain the security of
tenure and are protected against dismissal.

34
  Administrative decisions, rules, procedures and activities are recorded on written
documents, which are preserved in permanent files.

Laissez – Faire leadership

This is a French word meaning, “Let the people do what they want”. It simply means that in
a school where it is practiced, the head teacher does not supervise or direct the members of
staff. Workers end up doing whatever they want.

Characteristics of a Laissez-faire leader

 No rules but if there are any, they are few

 No respect for the leader and the leader is tolerant
 No definite code of regulations
 No definite code of regulations
 No hierarchy of authority. The system does not determine who is on top or bottom in
administration.

In your school have you noticed the following situations?

 Head teacher just watches what is going on in the school

 Teachers, pupils and the community fail to get any direction from the head teacher
 Head teacher feels it is his/her responsibility to just provide materials needed in the
school, collect school fees, get the school grant and spend it without consulting other
members of staff.

In such a school you find chaos. The school is always in a mess. The school
administration does not help teacher to share their responsibilities and duties. It is difficult
to tell who is right or wrong and worse still the head teacher is always absent attending to
personal business.

If you have noticed these situations, it means that the head teacher has a weak character.
Reasons are that:

 Teachers report and leave the school any time they want
 There is nobody to reprimand the teachers
 Parents interfere in the school affairs because there is no one to stop them.

In laissez-faire type of leadership teachers just volunteer to do something for the school when
they feel they can do something. This is a poor type of leadership.

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Democratic leadership

Democratic comes from the word democracy. This means that all the decisions and polices
made must be agreed upon by members of the group or representatives. Democratic system
does not allow people to do what they want without any guidance. It encourages meetings,
discussions and consultations.

Democratic leaders get their authority from the people they lead. They try as much as
possible to make each teacher feel important as a member of the organization.

A democratic leader does the following:

 Acts as a model in the way he/she behaves

 Cultivates interest and respect from the subordinates
 Creates a good climate for teachers to feel good and work together
 Uses members of staff by delegating them to do certain activities on his/her behalf
 A lot of consultation before making a final decision

Authoritarian leadership

Authoritarian or coercive type of leadership is in line with dictatorship. Coercive comes from
the word coerce which means doing things by force or threats. An authoritarian head teacher
can use this type of system on members of staff, pupils and parents. The teachers will also
use the same on the pupils and the result is that:

 No freedom of expression in the school. Teachers, pupils, parents and supporting staff
have no voice in anything that affects their lives.
 No creativity and initiative developed in the school
 Head teacher makes all decisions without consulting the teachers or pupils
 Pupils are not thought of as human beings but as objects whose needs can not be
adequately met.

Good Schools

Good schools can be created through good management. What is management? This is the
carrying out of organizational functions and tasks. A basic school is an organization. It is run
on clear and well defined principles, practices and theories that are applied to different
situations.

Good management therefore creates good schools by applying the following techniques:

 Having clear organizational aims and objectives

 Ensuring good public relations
 Assigning and sharing responsibilities and duties
 Ensuring correct and prompt communication

36
 Managing change
 Monitoring progress
 Ensuring accurate accountability
 Ensuring unity of direction
 Ensuring discipline at work.
 Ensuring proper budgeting
 Ensuring proper staffing
 Ensuring proper organization of activities
 Ensuring proper supervision
 Ensuring proper co-ordination

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UNIT 6: THE SCHOOL AND COMMUNITY RELATIONSHIP

What is a community?

A community can be described as an organization such as a village, a settlement, a city, a

tribe or even a school. A community must have the following:

a. Specific location in a geographical area. It is agreeable that members are born into
existing communities, live there till death or migrate to other communities.

b. Collective sentiment. Every community is socially independent in terms of values. A

community is strongly built on the beliefs and feelings of the members.

The basic input to any community is an individual’s social relationships found within the
community. This includes family, peer group, and means of livelihood.

School participation in the community

The school as an agent of socialization as well as a means of bringing change has the
following to offer to the community:

 Community service. The school has various activities in the community. Some of
these activities include:

 Paying school fees for poor children

 Carrying health or HIV/AIDS messages through songs and drama
 Participating in community celebrations and games

 Starting projects like planting trees and keep ‘household clean campaigns’ that will
improve livelihood of the people.
 Organizing music and drama activities to help change the minds of people for the
better.

 Involvement in public functions. For example pupils, teachers and other members of
staff may be involved in public functions such as funerals, traditional ceremonies and
weddings.

 Volunteering to help in religious activities of a good church.

 Participating in farming cooperatives and fund raising ventures.

 Leadership in community. The head teacher may be called upon to play a leadership
role in the community.

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Community participation in school activities

Communities co-exist with schools. Without the community, schools would not exist. In
Zambia the community is playing a very important role in strengthening the existence and
development of schools. Below are some of the activities done by a community in a school.

 Building: Parents participate in building teachers’ house and classroom. This is done
in form of providing labor or building materials such as stones, sand and gravel.

 Funding: The community funds a lot of activities. These funds come in the form of
Parents Teachers Association (PTA) contributions. The school head together with the
PTA executive committee plan and use the money in the most appropriate manner.

 Donating: Some parents from the community contribute to the development of the
school by giving money, material things or technical advice.

 Talks: Some parents may be asked to be resource persons in the school through
teaching or giving technical advice.

 Feeding: Schools, especially boarding schools, consume the food that the community
grows.

 PTA meetings: Parents contribute to the development of the school by giving

important suggestions, planning, and carrying out activities. Parents also elect an
executive committee to plan and carry out decisions on their behalf.

 Hosting functions: Parents and the community may use the school buildings for
religious activities.

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UNIT 7: SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

CONTENTS

1.0. Introduction

2.0. Outcomes

By the end of the Unit, you should be able to:

(a) Define Social Stratification

(b) Identify various types of social class in the society

(c) Agents of social stratification

(d) Identify the relevance of the knowledge of social stratification to societal growth.

3.0. Main Content

3.1. Meaning of Social Stratification

3.2. Agents of Social Stratification

o The Family
o The School
o Occupation

3.3. Educational Implication of Social Stratification

4.0. Conclusion

5.0. Summary

1.0. INTRODUCTION

This unit will give you the opportunity to have the grasp of ideas on education and social
stratification which describes agents of social stratification, educational implication of social
stratification, social class and educational attainment.

3.0. MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Social Stratification

Social stratification simply means the way the society is divided into social layers or social
strata. It also means social inequalities of wealth, power and prestige that result from social
rank. Social stratification can also be explained in terms of division of a population into
unequal layers or strata based on income, wealth, gender, ethnicity, power, status, age or
religion. Certain groups of people are socially superior to others. This could be related to the
classic parable by George Orwell which stipulates that “All Animals are equal but some are
more equal than the others”. This parable is a fitting introduction, which is centrally

40
concerned with the inequalities of privilege on the part of the constituent groups of society
which compares and ranks individuals and groups.

All societies differentiate their members in terms of roles. Some roles are regarded as more
important or socially more valuable than others and the persons who perform more highly
esteemed roles are rewarded more highly. Hence, the process by which individuals and
groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status is known as stratification.
The most important aspect of social stratification is the extremely important point of social
inequality. Some individuals and groups are rated higher than others and such differences in
rating reflect differences in opportunities and privileges.

It is not entirely clear on what bases these prestige ratings are made, but some of the
considerations are said to be the amount of training required and the degree of responsibility
for public welfare. For instance, income is a factor in occupational prestige but it is not the
only factor. The other factor used in prestige ratings are academic qualifications, cultural
positions like traditional rulers and chiefs, labor employment like industrialists, owners of
companies, public office holders like politicians, senators, ministers, commissioners,
counselors and other political appointees are also considered in prestige ratings.

Max Weber (1947) argues that Stratification has three separate elements which are: class,
status and power.

3.2. Agents of Social Stratification

The Family

The socio-economic inclination of the family is a significant variable that affects the
educational achievement of the child. This means that the higher the socio-economic status of
the child’s home, the higher his educational life chances. The parent’s economic position as
well as their attitude to education may determine the child’s chances of continuing in
education or otherwise.

The family plays the most significant role in the development of an individual. Sigmund
Freud believed that the impressions made upon the child’s personality as an adult by the
family is very crucial. There are also factors of social environment that may affect a child
which include the occupational status of his parents, the parents’ attitude towards their
children schooling and the expectations they have for their children. A child from a higher
socio-economic background has advantages over the child from the socio-economically lower
class. In a higher class, there may be a television set, radio, picture, reading and writing
materials all of which help to prepare a child for learning in school. It is hypothesized that
parents of upper socio-economic classes have more positive attitudes towards their children’s
schooling and have high expectations and standards for their children. The parent’s ability to
provide books and equipment for school, combined with a positive attitude, stimulate the
children to learn. Furthermore, the upper class child eats a balanced diet and thus has good
health. Again, the values he is exposed to at home are similar to what he finds in school and

41
therefore he is able to adjust easily to school life. A feeling of belonging to a comfortable
social school environment further helps him to show his best (Dubey1973).

A child from a lower class is handicapped in some ways because there are few facilities at
home to prepare him for school. He may suffer ill health and even finds it difficult to make
satisfactory adjustment at school. It follows logically that when one has a poor educational
background; he/she has limited chances of taking the very highly respected and well paid
jobs. The job in turn largely determines one’s social class. The educational system appears to
be a conscious attempt to perpetuate dominance by those who already have the greater
advantages in the society.

The School

Social stratification within the school, commonly known as streaming, refers to the division
of school children into age groups according to ability and intelligence. The brightest children
are made to form one class while those that follow in ability form another class. The children
are divided into groups, purely according to the merit of the individual. This type of grouping
has produced argument among experts in the educational field. Some favor streaming in that
a child can freely participate in a class of his own ability, they argue that putting bright and
backward ones together creates problems for both categories of children.

Dubey (1973) observes that the division of children into groups according to ability and
intelligence is sometimes the result of one intelligence test only, normally tending to be of
advantage to upper class children. This is not necessary because children from any one socio-
economic class are intelligent because intelligence test reflects the academic ability of the
child. The child from the more advantaged social environment therefore gets better marks due
to his earlier opportunities for learning. Hargreaves (1965) observes that big problems will
impact on children’s attitude, self-image and ultimately their performance. Teachers, too tend
to reinforce the particular status, image of the child, they tend to adjust their expectations
according to whether the child is in the “A” stream or the “B” stream. They come to
understand that rewards are associated with performance.

The status they will come to occupy is related to how well they perform tasks to which they
are assigned.

Occupation

In modern societies, roles have become very diverse and complex. Skills are learned through
formal education systems, and education has a lot to do with employment, the occupation one
follows is mostly related to the skills and knowledge which one has acquired. For example, a
person does not become a doctor unless he has undergone the training and has successfully
passed all the theoretical and practical tests and examinations. In the roles played within
society, therefore they are differences in rewards received by individuals playing these roles.

42
An individual’s role is determined by what work he does or by the position which he
occupies.

The basis of valuing professions and occupations differ from society to society. Some
professions and occupations are valued on a rational or logical basis. For example, the length
of time spent in training for a job may determine one’s reward, as in the case of medical
doctors who spend six years in training in the university; he generally receives a larger salary
than someone who has spent three years at university training for a job. Some professions and
occupations are valued on the basis of the role which one plays in the day-to-day human life
in a society. Those who work in departments considered as most essential to the society
receive greater reward in terms of salary, privileges and respect from the society. Some jobs
are valued purely on a historical basis. The position one holds or occupies in the society in
which one is engaged, the salary, the privileges and social prestige one receives all go to
sharpen the style of life of people according to the way they are classified or stratified.

3.3. Education Implication of Social Stratification

In analyzing educational issues, it is a known fact that there exist class and group structure,
where vital facts emerge regarding such concepts as power, status, prestige, life chances, life
styles, pattern of consumption, leisure activities and occupations. There are also closely
related issues of human development such as culture, education and socialization which have
implication for stratification. However, the fact remains that people can be classified
according to occupational prestige, income, education or other closely associated indicators
of social status and that such classification are not merely statistical categories but reflect
differences in values, goals, attitudes and behaviors within the educational realm.

The children in schools are not open to equal educational opportunity even with compulsory
and free education provided for them. Some children from low socio-economic class with
natural endowment do not have equal access to qualitative education but rural and ill
equipped schools. The public schools which are free are not properly funded to reflect the
right standard to deliver the right tutelage to the pupils. Many of the students from this low
social economic class are undermined with poor health and malformed physique due to poor
feeding, ignorance and carelessness which may invariably give rise to poor performance
academically. There are wide differences in performance between children. Within the
education system, there are different streams which can be followed leading to a variety of
qualifications and possible occupations. These streams may be officially equal but are
generally considered to be unequal. For example, in Zambia, technical education is generally
considered to be inferior to academic education. The lecturers in the universities feel better
laced than lecturers in Colleges of education.

Self-Evaluation exercise

1. Explain the cause of social stratification in our societies.

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4.0. CONCLUSION

In concluding unit seven the following were observed:

1. Meaning of social stratification: Social stratification is the process by which individuals

and groups are ranked in a more or less enduring hierarchy of status. This means that “all
animals are equal” but some are more equal than the others which signifies social inequality.

2. Agents of Social Stratification: The family, school and occupation as agents of social
stratification which reflect different categories of statuses and social class in family
background, school type and career choice of children. Children from solid socio-economic
background are likely to perform better than those from weak background, those who attend
standard schools are likely to be open to better learning environment than those in poorly
equipped schools while those who offer professional courses are likely to succeed better in
life than those with less prestigious courses.

3. Educational Implication of Social Stratification: It was concluded that power, status,

prestige, and life chances have educational implication for social stratification. This is
because the aforementioned factors determine the academic attainment of an individual.

5.0. SUMMARY

In this Unit, the meaning of social stratification, agents of social stratification and educational
implication of social stratification were discussed. It was discussed that social stratification is
social inequalities among members of any given society. There are people who occupy
different statues in the society performing various roles as politicians, teachers, and civil
servants and so on. The family, school and occupation as agents of social stratification were
also discussed as major avenues for societal hierarchical division to statuses. It was also
discussed that the educational statuses occupied by individuals in the society have implication
for social stratification and class distinction.

44
UNIT 8: TEACHING AS A PROFESSION

1.0. Introduction

2.0. Outcomes

This unit helps you to understand the concept of Teaching as a Profession

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

(a) Define the term Profession

(b) Identify the Characteristics of a Profession.
(c) Discuss whether teaching is a profession in Zambia
3.0 Main Content
4.1. Characteristics of a Profession

4.0. Conclusion

5.0. Summary

1.0. Introduction

Teachers, today aspire to be professionals with expert knowledge concerning the content and
methods of instruction on their particular field.

Whether teaching can be considered a profession in the fullest sense has been a great concern
to educators for decades. A number of educators and other scholars, have tried to identify the
ideal characteristic of professions and, by rating teachers on these items, determine whether
teaching is a profession

This unit, therefore, will assist you make a distinction between a profession and an
occupation, make a judgment whether teaching in Zambia is a profession or not and decide
on how best to improve teaching in Zambia

What is a Profession?

Characteristics of a Profession

For any employment or occupation to warrant the name of a profession, it must meet most of
the following characteristics

A well-defined body of knowledge: Professionals are assumed to have extensive theoretical

knowledge. A profession must have monopoly of knowledge to separate them from the
general public which allows them to control over the vocation e.g. lawyers have law, doctors
have medicine etc. Teachers on the other hand have no agreed upon body of knowledge
called teaching. The knowledge of teachers is borrowed from other fields like Sociology,

45
Psychology, Biology, Mathematics, etc. Worse off, a person who is not trained can still teach.
Professionals are said to poses” Esoteric” Knowledge.

Note: Look for the meaning of Esoteric Knowledge

A lengthy period of Specialized Training: Professionals are trained for a long period of
time e.g. more than three years. In this way, they master the subject matter adequately and
slowly without panicking. However, teacher training may be compressed in two to three
years. This is rather inadequate time as too much pressure is put on the candidates to master
the material meant for three years. This is at Diploma level. The phased out ZATEC
programme at Certificate level was compressed in nature and currently teachers are being
trained through the de lesser number of years.

Skill based on theoretical knowledge: (e.g. medicine, law, scripture or engineering) and to
possess skills based on that knowledge that they are able to apply in practice.

Professional association: Professions usually have professional bodies organized by their

members, which are intended to enhance the status of their members and have carefully
controlled entrance requirements.

Extensive period of education: The most prestigious professions usually require at least
three years at university. Undertaking doctoral research can add a further 4-5 years to this
period of education.

Testing of competence: Before being admitted to membership of a professional body, there

is a requirement to pass prescribed examinations that are based on mainly theoretical
knowledge.

Institutional training: In addition to examinations, there is usually a requirement for a long

period of institutionalized training where aspiring professionals acquire specified practical
experience in some sort of trainee role before being recognized as a full member of a
professional body. Continuous upgrading of skills through professional development is also
mandatory these days.

Licensed practitioners: Professions seek to establish a register or membership so that only

those individuals so licensed are recognized as bona fide.

Work autonomy: Professionals tend to retain control over their work, even when they are
employed outside the profession in commercial or public organizations. They have also
gained control over their own theoretical knowledge.

Code of professional conduct or ethics: Professional bodies usually have codes of conduct
or ethics for their members and disciplinary procedures for those who infringe the rules.

46
Self-regulation: Professional bodies tend to insist that they should be self-regulating and
independent from government. Professions tend to be policed and regulated by senior,
respected practitioners and the most highly qualified members of the profession.

Public service and altruism: The earning of fees for services rendered can be defended
because they are provided in the public interest, e.g. the work of doctors contributes to public
health.

Exclusion, monopoly and legal recognition: Professions tend to exclude those who have not
met their requirements and joined the appropriate professional body. This is often termed
professional closure, and seeks to bar entry for the unqualified and to sanction or expel
incompetent members.

Control of remuneration and advertising: Where levels of remuneration are determined by

government, professional bodies are active in negotiating (usually advantageous)
remuneration packages for their members. Some professions set standard scale fees, but
government advocacy of competition means that these are no longer generally enforced.

High status and rewards: The most successful professions achieve high status, public
prestige and rewards for their members. Some of the factors included in this list contribute to
such success.

1. Individual clients: Many professions have individual fee-paying clients. For

example, in accountancy; "the profession" usually refers to people with individual
and corporate clients, rather than individuals who are employees of organizations.
2. Middle-class occupations: Traditionally, many professions have been viewed as
'respectable' occupations for middle and upper classes.
3. Offer reassurance: Professionals are able to offer reassurance to their clients that
although there appear to be problems, everything is normal or being dealt with
properly, and this reassurance may be offered rather than solutions to particular
problems. For example, sick people may be reassured that they will probably get
better in a few days.

Ritual: Church ritual and the Court procedure are obviously ritualistic.

Legitimacy: Professions have clear legal authority over some activities (e.g. certifying the
insane) but are also seen as adding legitimacy to a wide range of related activities.

Inaccessible body of knowledge: In some professions, the body of knowledge is relatively

inaccessible to the uninitiated. Medicine and law are typically not school subjects and have
separate faculties and even separate libraries at universities.

Indeterminacy of knowledge: Professional knowledge contains elements that escape being

mastered and communicated in the form of rules and can only be acquired through
experience.

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Mobility: The skill knowledge and authority of professionals belongs to the professionals as
individuals, and not the organizations for which they work. Professionals are therefore
relatively mobile in employment opportunities as they can move to other employers and take
their talents with them. Standardization of professional training and procedures enhances this
mobility.

Self-Evaluation exercise

2. To what extent is teaching a profession in Zambia?

3. Suggest five ways of classifying an occupation as a profession.

4. Suggest four ways of improving teaching as a profession.

4.0. Conclusion

In this unit you learnt about, the reasons that make people join the teaching profession.
Evidently, very few people venture into the profession or dream about it in their days of
schooling but upon completion of their education many discover that circumstances don’t
allow them to enter their dream professions. Fate lands them into the teaching profession.
These factors range from academic qualifications, financial and social constraints.

o In addition this unit has also discussed the nature of people who join the teaching
profession. This implies that although people are forced to train as teachers there is
only a certain category of people in society who are forced to this pressure and these
people have specific personality traits that make them suitable for the profession.
o Lastly, an outline of things to be put in place by teachers themselves on one hand and
the other, in order to make the teaching profession grow into a fully-fledged
profession

5.0. Summary

The job of a teacher is demanding and challenging, which only those who are teachers can
enjoy. It is a job that requires utmost care and compassion and places a great responsibility
upon those found in it. It is very closely watched by the community. Teachers are always
blamed for the failures of the community; they are required to do what the community has
failed to do. Even parents who have failed to discipline their children would expect the
teachers to do what they have failed to do. It is always the teacher who catches the heat.

48
UNIT 9: ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF A TEACHER

The class teacher is responsible for the child’s learning and development. The teacher’s
functions are therefore unlimited in number. These can be discussed as follows:

 Planning
The teacher has to go about his/her work after thorough and careful planning. This
involves planning of lessons, weekly forecasts and schemes of work. He/she should
plan the use of teaching/learning aids, both audio and visual and test them in advance.

 Teaching
The teacher s primarily meant for teaching. In order to carry out this function, she/he
must:
 Possess thorough knowledge and masterly of the subject,
 Study and adopt the effective methods and techniques of teaching,
 Select relevant learning and teaching materials,
 Ensure discipline in the class, Motivate learners.

 Organization

The teacher has to look to the organization of the syllabus, classification of pupils,
and assignment of duties to colleagues and pupils. With the head-teacher at the helm
of school organization, the teacher has to extend cooperation in organizing and
maintaining the school campus, maintaining the equipment, paying attention to
cleanliness and sanitation of the school campus.

 Record Keeping
The teacher has to keep a number of records pertaining to learners such as:
 Your Section/classroom stock book,
 Section meeting file,
 Correspondence file,
 Clubs and societies file,
 Observation file,
 Section library records,
 Progress records of learners,
 CPD activities,
 Timetable.

 Evaluation
The teacher has to frequently carry out evaluation of the learners’ progress. This helps
to discover the teachers and students deficiencies, difficulties and possibilities.

49
  Maintaining Relations
The teacher should not think of working in isolation. His/her role in maintaining a
healthy relationship with the people in the school and community is very important.

 Guidance
The learners need the guidance of the teacher in a number of situations and matters.
They go through different emotional and adjustment problems. The teacher is there to
help them.

 Supervision
The teacher supervises the work of learners and ensures regular class attendance,
accuracy in learners’ class work and homework. He/she also supervises progress and
behavior of learners.

 Other roles and functions of the teacher include:

 Professional growth
 Membership and active participation in professional organization.
 Leadership role in the community.
 Social service in the community.
 Healthy cooperation with superiors.
 Participation in state functions and programs in line with the education
policy.

The teacher’s role in the school

 Has responsibility for the education of all children within the class.
 Teaches according to the guidelines of the National Curriculum.
 Plans and prepares lessons.
 Maintains good order and discipline among the children.
 Safeguards the health and safety of pupils.
 Assesses records and reports on the developmental progress attainment of all learners.
 Promotes the wellbeing of individual learners.
 Parent substitute
 Someone who can be confided in.

The teacher’s role in the community

 A community leader
 An expert
 A model of good behavior
 A responsible adult
 A parent figure

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Teacher’s Role Conflict
Pupils, the head teacher, politicians and parents have different expectations from the teacher.
These expectations can bring opposing pressures on the teacher, resulting in role conflicts.
As a teacher, you will face a number of conflicting roles that are affected by:

 Outside pressure which affects your teaching.

 Your values as a teacher that may not be supported by the wider society, such as
morality, honesty, tolerance, and truthfulness.
 Different expectations from the head teacher, colleagues, pupils and parents.

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UNIT 10: STATUS OF TEACHERS IN ZAMBIA

1.0. Introduction

2.0. Outcomes

3.0. Main Content

3.1. Definition of status

3.2. Factors affecting teacher status.

4.0. Conclusion

5.0. Summary

1.0. Introduction

This unit will look at the factors affecting the status of teachers in Zambia. Social status is the
position that a person, family or social group occupies in a social system.

The following factors influence social status:

 How much one earns
 General working conditions
 Academic/professional qualifications and experience.
 Social influence exerted by members of the occupation as an organized group.
 Historical factors
 Importance attached to a role measured by the amount of money the government
spends on it.

2.0. Outcomes
By the end of the Unit, you should be able to:

(a) Define Social Status.

(b) Explain the factors affecting the status of teachers in Zambia.

3.0. MAIN CONTENT

3.1. Factors affecting the status of teachers in Zambia

There are a number of factor which have affected the status of teachers in Zambia. Some of
these factors are as follows:

The nature of the teaching “profession”

 Established professions enjoy and maintain high status, because they have managed to
close off those who do not meet the required qualifications. This is not the case with

52
 teaching. Grade 12 school leavers in most parts of Zambia serve as community
teachers and are later employed on permanent and pensionable basis, something that
is unheard of in other professions.

 The teacher profession in Zambia is not protected from the intrusion of the
unqualified persons. Teachers do not have control over who comes in and who should
go out. They do not have control over most aspects of their work. Teachers can be
compared to factory workers.

 In Zambia, today, teaching has become the only hope for those who cannot enroll in
their dream profession or occupation. Teaching may remain the hope of all sorts of
characters, as long as a larger population of children needs to be educated.

 The working environment of the teacher is nothing to be proud of. Of course, you will
find him/her in a large public staff room, which is open to almost everyone. Unlike
the private offices of fellow graduates in other professions.

Spread of Knowledge

 The days when the teacher was “everything” are gone. He/she was consulted on
almost everything. He/she was a “letter writer”, a “doctor”, an “agriculturist” and so
on. But not today.

 The teaching “profession” has no body of complex knowledge, teachers can boast
about. A medical doctor can transplant the heart from one person to the other and a
scientist can travel to the moon and back. What about a teacher? What complex body
of knowledge does he/she possess?

Educational regulations

 In schools no teacher, is allowed to punish a pupil without the knowledge of the head-
teacher. Canning as a form of punishment does not even exist.
 Suspension or expulsion of a pupil can only be done by a higher authority at the
provincial office.
 Schools are no longer run by head-teachers and their teachers alone. Schools boards
are legal entities of schools in terms of the law.

The economic factor

 Economically, the teacher has gained very little. He/she gets less than other workers
who may be of similar qualifications, but work for private organizations or even
government.

53
  These own private vehicles in addition to company ones, they have built luxury
houses and get allowances in addition to their monthly salary.

The behavior of teachers

o To a certain extent teachers have contributed to the loss of their own status. The
behavior of teachers is not exemplary to the community. For Example:
o Alcohol drinking
o Intimate relationships with learners
o Impregnating learners
All these activities are condemned by the community.

Lack of access to political power and influence

o Many people in Zambia have been raised to positions of power that affect the lives of
citizens, but the teacher has remained without power and prestige. The teacher is only
a “somebody” to the learners who give him/her all sorts of names to the community
he/she is just a common person.

Self-Evaluation exercise
1. What is social status?
2. State and explain the factors which have affected the status of teachers in Zambia.

4.0. Conclusion
This unit looked at Social Status and some of factors which have affected the status of
teachers in Zambia.

5.0. Summary
The factors which have affected the status of teachers in Zambia are:
o The nature of the teaching “profession”.
o Spread of Knowledge.
o Educational regulations.
o Educational regulations.
o The economic factor.
o The behavior of teachers.
o Lack of access to political power and influence.

54
UNIT 11: CURRENT ISSUES IN SOCIOLOGY OF EDUCATION

Public schools versus Private schools

Advantages of government schools

 Children get to school with other children and friends that live in their neighborhood

 The schools are funded by your tax, so you do not have to pay as much money to
enroll your children in school

 Government schools admit all children

 Diversity of pupil background helps pupils become familiar with other cultures

 Offers a general program designed for all children

 Teachers are required to be state certified

Disadvantages of government schools

 Class size is usually larger

 Children do not get as much one on one attention

 Government schools usually pass pupils onto the next grade regardless of being able
to read do math or not

 Course work is generalized and not specialized. This might limit a pupil who is
interested in learning more about certain subjects

 Usually does not have as much money to spend on extra curricular activities

Advantages of Private schools

 Provide smaller class sizes and able to offer more one on one teaching

 Teachers are able to focus more attention on individual pupils and have more time to
get to know pupils better
 Classmate also get the chance to form more intimate bonds

 Fewer disciplinary problems, because teachers and other staff know the pupils better
and are able to take appropriate measures applicable to particular pupils

55
  Private schools have the option of expulsion, this makes pupils less likely to fight or
miss classes

 When parents pay for their children they have a say in how things are done

 Have a small community atmosphere that allows for a lower pupil to teacher ratio

 Higher academic standards – most private schools require certain scores to be able to
attend their school

 Have a lower drop out rate for pupils

 Offers more specialized programs for pupils who want to study a certain subject

 More money available for high teach equipment, extra curricular activities, well
maintained campus, and excellent books

Disadvantages of Private schools

 Cost – they tend to be expensive

 Teachers do not have to be state certified to teach the children

 Do not have to follow government education guidelines

 May not be located close to your home

School Uniforms

Advantages

 School uniforms maintain a level of social equality among the pupils. This will help
avoid silly psychological issues. Pupils will not be known by what they wear but by
how they perform academically

 A School uniform makes it easier for the school authorities to recognize pupils
belonging to their school

 A School uniform saves the school administration from having to police what the
pupils wear

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  A School uniform saves pupils from putting their fashion tastes before their learning
requirements

 School uniforms simplify the morning routine for pupils and parents. Pupils spend
less time deciding on what to wear because of the limited amount of choices available

 Wearing uniforms reduces peer pressure, incidents of bullying and theft

 School uniforms cramp the style of gang members. Pupils recognize each other by
name and face instead of T – shirts or jeans with obscene messages

 A school uniform instills a sense of discipline and community feeling. This reduces
incidents of violence. Pupils can go to school without worrying about personal safety

 School uniforms build a sense of team spirit in the pupils

 School uniforms eliminate the temptation to spend large amounts of money on name-
brand clothes

Disadvantages

 Lack of freedom of expression: Clothes are said to be mode of expressing one self.
School uniforms remove a pupil’s right to choose his own attire causing him to feel
restrained

 Promotes cocoon like environment: School uniforms promote a false sense of security
 Wearing school uniforms can get boring. The absence of different types of clothes and
colors in the surrounding can prove to be depressing for some pupils

 Lowered scope for personality development and self discovery. In order for a pupil to
know his place in society, he needs to find how he fits in it. School uniforms can be a
hurdle to this self discovery

 For children whose attire reflects worship of God, school uniform, interfere with its
expression. Under such circumstance pupils may feel forced to make a choice
between education and their religious beliefs

 The fabric of the school uniform may feel stiff and uncomfortable for some children,
causing them to scratch

 This interferes with attentiveness during class as the child repeatedly tries to adjust
and readjust her clothing for comfort

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Teacher Unions

Zambia National Union of Teachers (ZNUT) represents teachers to earn better working
conditions and pay. The unions make sure the school administration conducts itself according
to the current contract that the teachers are working under. Each school’s union is connected
to a larger union that either operates on a district level or on a national level.

What’s good about Teachers’ Unions?

 Improve terms and conditions of employment

 Protect teachers against unjust treatment

 Ensure that the work place is safe

 Provide legal advice to teachers

 Secure rights of teachers

 Unite the teachers by celebrating teachers’ day

 See to it that qualified teachers are employed

 Education and training

 Financial assistance – individuals can get loans from unions

What’s bad about Teacher’s Unions

 Unions do not care if they protect a good teacher or a bad teacher. Union will protect
a good teacher who’s being fired for no reason and a child molester just the same.

 Many teachers do not like their unions as they are forced pay union dues every
month.

 Union ideas of a closed shop is a place where all teachers are required to belong to a
trade union

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Militant Functions

When unions fail to secure better working conditions for workers through collective
bargaining and negotiations, they adopt an approach to put up a fight with employers in form
of go-slow, strike or boycott. These functions of a trade union are known as militant or
fighting functions.

Human Rights and Education

Introduction

Human rights have become an important issue for teachers in Zambia. It is the teacher who is
expected to provide this information to the pupils.

You as a teacher are responsible for addressing human rights in your school. You should be
aware of the many human rights organizations operating in Zambia. These organizations act
as watchdogs over any violations of human rights.

The Concept of Human Rights

The following are examples of human rights:

 Respect for the existence and needs of each person

 Fairness and equal opportunity expectations
 Freedom of association
 Elimination of discrimination on account of gender, race or creed
 The right to live
 Recognition of the rights of the child and women
 Democratic values

Human Rights Violation

Publicity concerning the violation of human rights has led to issue receiving a lot of attention.
This has led to have an impact on education. Certain groups of people including teachers and
pupils want their rights to be recognized. However as a teacher you should be aware that
rights go hand in hand with responsibilities. It is important to also realize that everyone has
rights no matter what their positions are.

Implications of Human Rights Violations

You as a teacher should know how to handle children without violating their rights. The
pupils in your class have the right to be taught to the best of your ability. They also have a
right to be protected by you when you stand in place of their parents. It therefore means, you

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cannot insult them or beat them. If you do not observe the rights of children, you may commit
a criminal offence or an act of misconduct.

For example, if you beat a pupil, you can be arrested by the police and be charged with
assault. For this you can be made to pay a fine or go to jail. The Ministry of Education can in
turn charge you with unprofessional behavior and penalize you for the offence. If the assault
was severe you can lose you job. The pupil’s parents may also seek compensation in a court
of law for the injury you cause to their child. The Ministry of Education may too be sued as a
result of your unprofessional behaviour.

Coping with Human Rights Violations

The only way to ensure that you do not violate human rights as a teacher is to know the
regulations that govern you. These regulations come in different forms. Some are produced
statutory instruments and are available at Government printers. The word ‘Statutory’ means
legal; therefore all statutory or legal documents must be obeyed by all civil servants.

You may also be informed about human rights issues by circulars from the Ministry of
Education. As an individual you must obtain these documents and read them carefully. As a
member of the school, you can organize staff development workshops to discuss issues of
human rights.

Remember that human rights regulations are intended to protect us all, not just our pupils.
You too have rights and should make every effort to ensure that your rights are not abused.

Gender issues in Education

Introduction

Education managers are expected to be proactive in the area of gender issues in education.
The education system in Zambia has favored boys, not intentionally of course. The system
views the learner as an individual, who has time to study because his work at home is not
essential to the household; who is not culturally, physically or spiritually endangered in the
school setting and who is not expected to marry early or get pregnant. That learner is a boy.
The education system in Zambia is now focused on reversing the above trend and has begun
to address the needs of the girls in education. The topic is intended to familiarize teachers
with the practices in the area of gender as it relates to education. A number of issues will be
discussed:

 Manifestation of gender problems in education

 Causes of gender problems in education
 Strategies for dealing with gender problems

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Objectives

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

1. Define the concept of gender issues in education

2. Discuss the manifestations of gender problems
3. Identify the causes of gender problems in education
4. Suggest strategies for dealing with gender problems in education

Definition of Gender in Education

Gender pertains to the differentiation of human being on the basis of masculinity and
femininity. It also implies a role, position or status in society based on being male or female.
In recent years the term has come to refer to issues that affect both females and males in
society.

Manifestation of Gender Problems

In early childhood, children become aware of the differences in the way parents and other
relatives react to girls and boys. Later, when children go to school, they become aware of the
ways in which teachers respond to the two sexes. Some of these differences in reaction and
behavior affect the developing child’s sense of esteem and experience of education itself. The
following are examples of gender differences in schools.

 Stereotyping male and female roles. Stereotyping manifests itself clearly in

textbooks. The girls are shown doing tasks which are undemanding, whereas boys do
tasks which call for superior mental or physical skills.

 Gender-oriented subjects. Subjects such as home economics and needlework are

reserved for girls while boys are expected to take metal work, mathematics and
science classes.

 Teaching practice. This manifests itself as a bias in the assessment of students’ work.
Boys are expected to do better than girls.

 Classroom practice. In some schools, the class registers contain separate lists for
boys and girls, there are different seating arrangements for boys and girls and
uniforms are different too.

 Sporting activities. Frequently, boys are expected to undertake most strenuous

games, such as football than netball.

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  School drop-out rate. Girls tend to have higher drop-out rates, either because of
pregnancies or because parents withdraw their daughters from school due to the belief
that girls should prepare for household work and marriage.

Self-Assessment

Based on your experience as a teacher, discuss ways in which gender problems can manifest
themselves in a school setting.

Causes of Gender Problems

The causes of gender problems in education are many and varied. It is important to
understand these causes so that you can design strategies for dealing with gender-related
problems.

Some of the causes of gender related problems in education include the following:

 The exploitation of the biological differences between females and males;

 Cultural and traditional practices, such as initiation ceremonies that result in certain
roles being assigned to girls and boys;

 Social factors, such as home chores, which may make it difficult for girls to find
enough time to study at home;

 Male dominance;

 Gender insensitivity;
 Institutional factors such as long distances from school, resulting in students dropping
out, or the high cost of education, which causes parents to send boys to school instead
of girls;

 Personal factors, such as girls having low self-esteem;

 Hostile school environment in which girls feel physically, culturally or spiritually

endangered in an institution which has little respect for their intellectual abilities;

 Parental attitudes, such as inability to see the relationship between education and
advantages in later life for both boys and girls;

 Textbooks and instructional materials that convey negative messages about girls; and

 Teaching practices that tend to discriminate against girls.

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Self-Assessment

Image you are the District Education Board Secretary and you have a number of schools
under your charge in which girls experience gender-related problems. What do you think are
the major causes of such problems?

Strategies for Dealing with Gender Problems

Gender problems in education can no longer be ignored, because they affect a significant
number of learners. The problems of women and girls must be confronted and resolved.

The following are a few strategies teachers can use to address gender-related problems in
education:

 Sensitize all stakeholders to gender-related issues and ask them to commit to

resolving these issues.

 Use the media and meetings for advocacy purposes in order to raise awareness about
gender inequities.

 Create role models by appointing qualified female senior staff.

 Revise instructional materials, such as textbooks, displays and examination questions,

and refuse to purchase materials that do not have a gender balance.

 Review teaching strategies to ensure that they are gender sensitive and encourage
pupils to sit and work in mixed gender groups.

 Discourage gender-oriented courses and subject offerings. Make all courses available
to both girls and boys.

 Change the school organization by ‘de-sexing’ the school registers and ‘uni-sexing’
the school uniform.

 Design initiatives that target girls. For instance, provide science instruction for girls
during school holidays.

 Create an enabling environment that allows girls to realize their full potential.

 Develop a legal framework to facilitate the enforcement of the ‘equal opportunities’

concept.

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  Encourage wider career aspirations by inviting female holders of non-traditional jobs
into the school.

 Servicing and trainer teachers to facilitate awareness in resolving gender-related

problems.

Mainstreaming is the practice of placing physically, emotionally, or mentally challenged

students in a regular classroom instead of a special education classroom. Educators continue
to debate the merits and problems of mainstreaming. In general, the practice seems to work
best for students who can still keep pace with their peers in the classroom, and less well for
students with more severe challenges. Experts note that exceptions do occur on both accounts
and recommend careful consideration on a case‐by‐case basis.

Bilingual education, which means offering instruction in a language other than English,
constitutes another attempt to equalize education for minority students. Bilingual education
has generated considerable debate. Supporters argue that students whose first language is not
English deserve an equal educational opportunity unavailable to them unless they can receive
instruction in their first language. Opponents counter that students not taught in English will
lack the fluency needed to function in daily life. Numerous studies support conclusions on
both sides of the issue, and, as funding becomes scarce, the debate will intensify.

Social Promotion

Social promotion is another issue identified by sociologists. This is the concept of passing
students to the next grade regardless of their meeting standards for that grade. Critics of this
practice argue that students should never move to the next grade if they have not mastered the
skills required to “graduate” from the previous grade. Proponents of the practice question
what a school is to do with a student who is three to four years older than other students in his
or her grade, saying this creates more issues than the practice of social promotion.

Schools and Inequality

Schools differ greatly in their funding, their conditions, and other aspects. In some instances
schools are literally falling apart. The physical plant was decrepit, with plaster falling off the
walls and bathrooms and other facilities substandard. Classes were large, and the school was
so overcrowded. Schools in the urban areas are overcrowded with teachers while the rural
areas had few teachers and pupils go unattended.

Self-Assessment

A gender committee has been formed by the Ministry of Education District office. The
committee has been tasked to identify problems related to gender at the classroom level in

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your school and offer solutions to these problems. As the chairperson of the committee,
discuss five gender-related problems that can be found at classroom level.

Summary

The topic has introduced you to gender issues in education, including the following:
Manifestation of gender problems in Education, Causes of gender problems and Strategies for
dealing with gender problems in education.

As teacher, you are now ready to redress the problems of gender biases and imbalances in
education.

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Prescribed Readings

Banks, O. (1968), The Sociology of Education. London: BT. Batesford Ltd.

Datta, A. (1988), Education and Society: with Special Reference to Africa.

London: Macmillan.

Ezewu, E. (1983), The Sociology of Education. Lagos: Longman.

Giddens, A. (2008), Sociology. Malden: Polity press.

Kirby, M. (2000), Sociology in Perspective: AQA Edition. Oxford: Heinemann.

Musgrave, P.W. (1965), Sociology of Education. London: Methuen and Co Ltd.

Swift, D.F. (1969), The Sociology of Education: An introductory Analytic

Perspective. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.

Zanden, J.W.V. (1988), The Sociology Experience: An Introduction to

Sociology. New York: Random House.

Recommended Readings

Ballantine, J. H. (1993), The Sociology of Education: A Systematic Analysis (3rd ed.),

Englewood cliff, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Brown, R. (1973), Knowledge, Education and Cultural Change.

London: John Brown Limited.

Farrant, J. S. (1991), Principles and Practice of Education. London: Longman.

Horton, P. B. and Hunt, C. L. (1984), Sociology: Social and Cultural Change (6thed).
London: Longman Group.
Sidhu, K.S. (1996), School Organization and Administration. New Delhi: Sterling
Publishers Private Limited.
Swift, D.F. (1969), The Sociology of Education: An introductory Analytic

Perspective. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul Ltd.

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