4.1.

Preliminaries
Learning objectives
 To define a real valued function of 𝑛 independent variables.
 To study the level curves of a function of two variables and level surfaces of a
function of three variables.
 To define the domain and range of functions of two and three variables.
 To study the interior, boundary and boundedness of a given region.

AND

 To practice the related problems.

4.1. Preliminaries
In earlier classes we have studied the calculus of functions of a single real
variable. In day – to – day real – world applications we notice that a quantity
under investigation depends on two or more independent variables. For example
(𝑖) the temperature (𝑇) on earth’s surface depends on its latitude (𝑥) and
longitude 𝑦 (𝑖𝑖)the volume of a rectangular parallelepiped depends on its
length(𝑙), breadth (𝑏) and height(ℎ). Therefore, we need to extend the basic
ideas of the calculus of functions of a single real variable to functions of several
variables. The rules of this calculus broadly remain the same as the calculus of
functions of a single real variable and this calculus is rich in generalization and
elegance. The derivatives are more varies and interesting, since the variables can
interact in different ways. Their integrals lead to a greater variety of applications.
Various studies in probability, statistics, fluid dynamics, electricity and many more
lead in natural ways to functions of more than one variable.

𝒏– Dimensional Euclidean space

Let 𝑹 be the set of al real numbers. Then

𝑹𝟐 = 𝑹 × 𝑹 = 𝒙 = 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 | 𝑥𝑖 ∈ 𝑹 , 𝑖 = 1, 2

i.e., 𝑹𝟐 is the set of all ordered pairs whose components are from 𝑹.

𝑹𝟑 = 𝑹 × 𝑹 × 𝑹 = 𝒙 = 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 | 𝑥𝑖 ∈ 𝑹, 𝑖 = 1, 2, 3

i.e., 𝑹𝟑 is the set of all ordered triplets whose components are from 𝑹.

For a natural number 𝑛, we have

𝑹𝒏 = 𝑹 × 𝑹 × … × 𝑹 = 𝒙 = 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 |𝑥𝑖 ∈ 𝑹, 𝑖 = 1, 2, … , 𝑛

(𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠)

The elements of 𝑹𝒏 are called ordered n – tuplets.

(The elements of 𝑹𝒏 are called points or vectors, especially when 𝒏 > 1)

𝑹𝟏 = 𝑹 is the Real line

𝑹𝟐 is the plane (or the complex plane) and

𝑹𝟑 is the 𝟑 – dimensional Euclidean space.

Further, 𝑹𝒏 is called the 𝒏 – dimensional Euclidean space.

Distance between two points

Let 𝒙 = 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 , 𝒚 = 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , … , 𝑦𝑛 ∈ 𝑹𝒏 . Let 𝑃 𝒙 and 𝑄 𝒚 be any two
points in 𝑹𝒏 . Then the distance between 𝑃 and 𝑄 is denoted by 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) or
𝑑(𝒙, 𝒚) and is defined as

𝑑 𝑃, 𝑄 = 𝑑 𝒙, 𝒚 = 𝑥1 − 𝑦1 2 + 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 2

Neighborhood of a point
Let 𝒂 = 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 be a point P in 𝑹𝒏 and 𝛿 > 0. The 𝜹 − neighborhood of
the point 𝑃(𝒂) is denoted by 𝑁 𝛿 (𝒂) or 𝑁 𝛿 (𝑃) and is defined as

𝑁 𝛿 P = 𝑁 𝛿 𝒂 = 𝒙 = 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝑹𝒏 | 𝑑 𝒙, 𝒂 < 𝛿

 
  x1 ,x2 ,x3 ,...,xn   R n |   xi  ai    
n 2

 i 1 

The deleted 𝜹-neighborhood of the point 𝑃(𝒂) is denoted by 𝑁𝛿∗ (𝒂) or 𝑁𝛿∗ (𝑃) and
 
N   P   N   a    x1 ,x2 ,...,xn   R n | 0    xi  ai    
n 2

 i 1 

Function of 𝒏 Independent variables

Let 𝐷 be a set of 𝑛 - tuples of real numbers, 𝑖. 𝑒., 𝐷 ⊆ 𝑹𝒏. A real valued function 𝒇
on 𝑫 is a rule that assigns a unique real number 𝑤 to each element 𝒙 =
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝐷. Then we write 𝑓: 𝐷 ⟶ 𝑹 defined by

𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑤 for all 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝐷

The set 𝐷 for whose elements, 𝑓 is defined is called the domain of 𝑓 and the set
of 𝑤- values taken on by 𝑓 is called the range of 𝑓.
𝑖. 𝑒., 𝑓 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 | 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝐷 is the range of 𝑓. The symbol 𝑤 is the
dependent variable of 𝑓 and 𝑓 is said to be a function of 𝒏 independent
variables 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 . (We call the 𝑥𝑗 , 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛, the input variables of 𝑓 and 𝑤,
the output variable of 𝑓).

As usual, we evaluate functions defined by formulas by substituting the values of

the independent variables in the formula and calculate the corresponding value of
the dependent variable.

In defining a function of more than one variable, we follow the usual practice of
excluding inputs that lead to complex numbers or division by zero.

Functions of two variables

If 𝑓 is a function of two independent variables, we usually denote the independent
variables by 𝑥 and 𝑦 and the dependent variable by 𝑧.

We often write 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) to make explicit the value taken on by 𝑓 at the

general point (𝑥, 𝑦). A function of two variables is a function whose domain is a
subset of 𝑹𝟐 (i.e., a region in 𝑥𝑦 −plane) and whose range is a subset of 𝑹

Not all functions are given by explicit formulas.

Example 1: Find the domain and range of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2

Solution: The domain of 𝑓 is

𝐷= 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑹𝟐 | 9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ≥ 0 = 𝑥, 𝑦 | 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 9

It is the disk with center (0, 0) and radius 3. The range of 𝑓 is

𝑧 ∈ 𝑹| 𝑧 = 9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐷

Since 𝑧 is a positive square root; 𝑧 ≥ 0. Notice that

9 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 ≤ 9 ⟹ 9 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 ≤ 3

Therefore, the range is 𝑧| 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 3 = [0, 3]

Graph
A way of visualizing the behavior of a function of two variables is to consider its
graph.

If 𝑓 is a function of two variables with domain 𝐷, then the graph of 𝑓 is the set of
all points 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 in 𝑹𝟑 such that 𝑧 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 and (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐷

Just as the graph of a function 𝑓 of one variable is a curve 𝐶 with equation

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), the graph of a function 𝒇 of two variables is a surface 𝑺 with
equation 𝒛 = 𝒇 (𝒙, 𝒚). We can visualize the graph 𝑆 of 𝑓 as lying directly above
or below its domain in the 𝑥𝑦 – plane.

Example 2: Sketch the graph of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 9 − 𝑥2 − 𝑦2

Solution: The graph has equation 𝑧 = 9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 . on squaring both sides, we

get 𝑧 2 = 9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 or 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 9. It is the equation of the sphere with
center at the origin and radius 3. Since 𝑧 ≥ 0, the graph of 𝑓 is the top of their
sphere, i.e., the upper hemisphere of the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 9.
Note: An entire sphere can’t be represented by a single function of 𝑥 and 𝑦. The
lower hemisphere is represented by the function ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = − 9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 .

Level Curves
A method of visualizing functions is a contour map on which points of constant
elevation are joined to form Contour curves or level curves.

The level curves of a function 𝑓 of two variables are the curves with equations
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 is a constant in the range of 𝑓.

A level curve 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑘 is the set of all points in the domain of 𝑓 at which 𝑓

takes on a given value 𝑘. That is, it shows where the graph of 𝑓 has height 𝑘.

Example 3: Find the level curves of the function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , for

𝑘 = 0, 1, 2, 3 .

Solution: The level curves are 9 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 𝑘 or 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9 − 𝑘 2 . This is a

family of concentric circles, with center 0,0 and radius 9 − 𝑘 2 ≤ 3. The four
particular level curves with 𝑘 = 0, 1, 2 and 3 are 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 8,
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 5 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 0

Interior point
Let 𝑅 be a region 𝑠𝑒𝑡 in 𝑹𝟐 . A point P 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 in 𝑅 is an interior point of 𝑅 if it is
the center of a disk of positive radius that lies entirely in 𝑅 .
Boundary point
A point P 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 is a boundary point of 𝑅 if every disk centered at 𝑃 contains
points that lie outside of 𝑅 as well as points that are in 𝑅 (The boundary point
itself need not belong to 𝑅)

Open and closed regions

A region 𝑅 is said to be open if every point of 𝑅 is an interior point of 𝑅.

A region 𝑅 is said to be closed if 𝑅 contains all its boundary points.

Some regions in the plane are neither open nor closed. If you start with the open
disk and add to it some but not all of its boundary points, then the resulting set is
neither open nor closed.
Bounded and unbounded regions in the plane
A region in a plane is bounded if it lies inside a disk of fixed radius. A region is
unbounded if it is not bounded. Some examples of bounded sets in the plane:

Line segments, triangles, interiors of triangles, rectangles, circles and disks

Some examples of unbounded sets in the plane:

Lines, coordinate axes, quadrants, half planes and the plane itself.

Functions of three variables

If 𝑓 is a function of three independent variables, we usually call the independent
variables 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 and the domain is a region in the 3 – dimensional Euclidean
space.

Example 4: Find the domain of 𝑓 if 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , 𝑧 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑧 − 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑧

Solution: The expression for 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 is defined as long as 𝑧 − 𝑦 > 0. Therefore,
the domain D of 𝑓 is 𝐷 = 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑹3 : 𝑧 > 𝑦

This is a half space consisting of all points that lie above the plane 𝑧 = 𝑦.

It is very difficult to visualize a function 𝑓 of three variables by its graph, since that
would lie in a four-dimensional space. However, we do gain some insight into 𝑓 by
examining its level surfaces, which are the surfaces with equations 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑘,
where 𝑘 is a constant in the range of 𝑓. If the point 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 moves along a level
surface, the value of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 remains fixed.

Example 5: Find the level surfaces of the function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2

Solution: The level surfaces are 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 𝑘, where 𝑘 ≥ 0. These are a family
of concentric sphere with radius 𝑘. Thus, as 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 varies over any sphere with
center 0,0,0 , the value of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 remains fixed.
The definitions of interior, boundary, open, closed, bounded and unbounded for
regions in space are similar to those for regions in the plane. To accommodate the
extra dimension, we use solid balls instant of disks.

Let 𝑅 be a region (set) in 𝑹𝟑 . A point 𝑃 𝑥0 , 𝑦0, 𝑧0 in 𝑅 is an interior point of 𝑅 if it

is the center of a solid ball that lies entirely in 𝑅

A point 𝑃 𝑥0 , 𝑦0, 𝑧0 is boundary point of 𝑅 if every sphere centered at 𝑃 encloses

points that lie outside of 𝑅 as well as points that lie inside of 𝑅.

The set of interior points of 𝑅 is the interior of 𝑅. The set of boundary points of 𝑅
is the boundary of 𝑅. A region 𝑅 is said to be open if every point of 𝑅 is an interior
point of 𝑅. A region 𝑅 is said to be closed of 𝑅 contains all its boundary points.

Some examples of open sets in space

The interior of a sphere, the half space 𝑧 > 0, the first octant and the space itself.
Some examples of closed sets in space

Lines, planes, the closed half space 𝑧 ≥ 0, the first octant together with its
bounding planes and space itself.

A solid sphere with part of its boundary removed or a solid cube with a missing
face, edge or a corner point would be neither open nor closed.

Linear function
A function of the form 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 is called a linear function. The graph
of such a function has the equation 𝑧 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 or 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 − 𝑧 + 𝑐 = 0 and it
is a plane. The linear functions of two variables play a central role in multi- variable
calculus.
IP1:

Find the domain, range and level curves for following functions:

(a) , , = + + (b) , , =

Solution:

(a)

i) Notice that the domain of the function , , is

= , , ∈ | + + ≥0

That is, the domain is the entire space .

ii) The range of , , is ∈ | = + + , , , ∈

Since is a positive square root, ≥ 0. Therefore, Range of = !0, ∞

iii) The level surfaces of the function , , are the surfaces with
equations , , = #, where # is a constant in the range of .

i.e., + + =#⟹ + + = # , which is a sphere of radius #

centered at the origin.

(b)

i) Notice that the domain of the function % , , is = , , ∈ | > 0

That is, the domain is the upper half space > 0

ii) The range of % , is ∈ | = '( , , , ∈ = −∞, ∞

iii) The level surfaces of the function % , , are the surfaces with
equations % , , = #, where # is a constant in the range of %,
,
+ /
i.e., '( = # ⟹ =* -.
P1.

Find the domain, range and level curves for following functions:

(a) , = − (b) , =

Solution:

(a)

i) Notice that the domain of the function , is

= , ∈ | − ≥0 = , ∈ | ≥

ii) The range of , is ∈ | = − , , ∈

Since is a positive square root; ≥ 0. Therefore,

Range of = ∈ | ≥ 0 = [0, ∞

iii) The level curves of the function , are the curves with equations
, = , where is a constant in the range of .

i.e., − = ⟹ − = ⟹ = + , which is a parabola shifted

units upwards.

(b)

i) Notice that the domain of the function " , is = , ∈ | ≠0

That is, the whole of except the points on and axes

$
ii) The range of " , is ∈ | = , , ∈ = −∞, 0 ∪ 0, ∞
%&

iii) The level curves of the function " , are the curves with
equations " , = , where is a constant in the range of ".
$ $
i.e., = ⟹ = , which are Hyperbolas.
%& (
IP2:

If , = − then find the boundary of the domain of . Determine if

the domain of is an open region or closed region and decide if the domain of
is bounded or unbounded.

Solution: Notice that the domain of the function , is

= , ∈ | − ≥0 = , ∈ | ≥

i) Let be an arbitrary point on the line = . Then every disk centered at

contains the points , that lie outside of (i.e., < ) as well as the points
, that lie in (i.e., > ). Thus, is a boundary point of . Since is an
arbitrary point on the line = , every point on the line = is a boundary
point of . Thus,

= , ∈ | = = , ∈ | ∈

ii) Notice that ⊂ . Therefore, is closed.

iii) is unbounded, because we cannot enclose in a disk of finite radius.

P2.

If , = − then find the boundary of the domain of . Determine if the

domain of is an open region or closed region and decide if the domain of is
bounded or unbounded.

Solution: Notice that , = − is defined for all , ∈ . Therefore, the

domain of is the whole of .

i) Let be an arbitrary point in = . Then for any > 0, we have ⊂

. That is, is an interior point of . Since is arbitrary, every point of
= is an interior point of = . Thus, is open.

ii) Since every point of = is an interior point and there are no points
outside of , there are no boundary points.

Therefore, = , where denotes the boundary of . Clearly,

⊂ ⟹ is closed.

iii) is unbounded, since we cannot enclose in a disk of finite radius.

Note: is both open and closed and it is unbounded.

IP3:

If , = + then find the boundary of the domain of . Determine if

the domain of is an open region or closed region and decide if the domain of is
bounded or unbounded.

Solution: Notice that the domain of the function , is

= , ∈ | , ≠ 0, 0 = − 0, 0

i) Let be an arbitrary point in the domain = − 0, 0 . There exists > 0

such that ⊂ . Thus, every point in the domain is an interior point of .
Therefore, is open.

ii) Let be the point 0, 0 . Then every disk centered at contains points that lie
outside of (namely 0, 0 itself) as well as points inside . Therefore, 0,0 is
the only boundary point of

iii) is unbounded, because we cannot enclose in a disk of finite radius.

P3:

If , = then find the boundary of the domain of . Determine if the domain

of is an open region or closed region and decide if the domain of is bounded or
unbounded.

Solution: Notice that the domain of the function , is

= , ∈ | , ≠ 0,

That is, the domain is the whole of except the points on the -axis.

i) Let be an arbitrary point on the -axis. Then every disk centered at contains
the points , that lie outside of (i.e., the points on the diameter of the disk
along the -axis) as well as the points , that lie in . Thus, is a boundary
point of . Since is an arbitrary point on the -axis, every point on the -axis is a
boundary point of . Notice that is not a subset of . Therefore, is not
closed.

ii) Notice that every point in is an interior point. Therefore, is open.

iii) is unbounded, because we cannot enclose in a disk of finite radius.

IP4:

( x + y)
∞ n

Find the equation for the level surface of the function f ( x , y ,z ) = ∑

n= 0 n! z n
passes through the point , , .

( x + y)  x+ y 
∞ n
 
Solution: Given f ( x, y,z ) = ∑ =e  z 

n =0 n! z n

The level surfaces of a function , , of three variables are the surfaces with
equations , , = , where is a constant in the range of

 x+ y 
  x+ y
i.e., e z  =k⇒ = ln k
z
Since the level surfaces of , , passes through the point 2, 4, 3 ,

= ⟹ 8=3 ⟹ 8= ⟹ =2

Therefore, the required level surface is = 2

P4:

dt
Find an equation for the level curve of the function f ( x , y ) = ∫
y
that
x 1+ t 2

passes through the point −√ , √ .

dt y
Solution: Given f ( x, y ) = ∫
y
= tan −1 t  = tan −1 y − tan −1 x
x 1+ t2  x

The level curves of a function , of two variables are the curves with
equations , = where is a constant in the range of

i.e., − =

Since the level curve of , passes through the point −√2, √2 , we have

√2 − −√2 = ⟹2 √2 =

Therefore, the required level curve is − =2 √2

3.1. Preliminaries
EXERCISE
I. Find the domain ,range and level curves(surfaces) of the following functions

a) = b) , =4 +9 c) , =

d) , = 100 − − e) =

II. Find the boundary of the domain of . Determine if the domain of is an

open region or closed region and decide if the domain of is bounded or
unbounded

a) , = − b) , =

c) , = d) , = ! " #

III. Find an equation for the level curve of the following function $, % that
passes through the given point.
n
∞
 x
a) , =√ − 1, 1,0 b) f ( x, y ) = ∑   , 1,2
n=0  y 

IV. Find an equation for the level surfaces of the following function $, %, (
that passes through the given point.

a) , , = − −) , 3, −1,1
b) + , , = ln + + , −1,2,1

dθ
y z
dt
c) g ( x, y,z ) = ∫ + ∫ , "0, , 2#
x 1−θ 2 2 t t2 −1
ANSWERS
I.

a) Domain: Entire plane ; Range : /−1,10 ; Level curve is = sin 3

b) Domain: Entire plane ; Range : /0, 4∞ 4 ; Level curve: 4 + =3

c) Domain : Entire plane ; Range: −∞, ∞ ; Level curve: =3

d) Domain: Entire plane ; Range: /0,1000 ; Level curves: + = 100 − 3

e) Domain: , , ≠ 0,0,0 ; Range: 0, ∞ ; Level surface: + + =

7

II.

a) Domain: all points in plane ; No boundary points

Both open and closed ; Unbounded

b) Domain: All points , satisfying + < 16 ;

Boundary is the circle + = 16 ; Open ; Bounded

c) Domain: entire −plane ; No boundary points

Both open and closed ; Unbounded

d) Domain: entire −plane except = 0 ; Boundary is the line =0

Open ; Unbounded

III.

a) = 1 or = −1 b) =2

IV.
;
a) − −) =2 b) + + = 4 c) − + : =