RAILWAYS, HARBOURS, TUNNULLING & AIRPORT-18CV645

MODULE 2

RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE

CONSTRUCTION OF RAILWAY TRACK

The construction of new railway track can be studies in three stages as below
1. Earthwork – Formation and Consolidation
2. Plate Lying- laying of railway track
3. Laying of ballast on the track

Stage 1: Earthwork

Formation
• Earthwork consists of providing formation along the ground surface, in cutting, up the
embankment
• The naturally occurring soil is known as the subgrade and when it is prepared to receive the ballast
and track, it is called the formation.
• When the formation is raised on bank of earth, it is called an embankment.
• When it is made after cutting the ground below ground level, it is called in cutting.
• In case of cutting, the line is laid below ground level and hence, the required portion is to be
excavated.

Consolidation
• The purpose of consolidation is to pack the track so that larger quantities of stone ballast are not
lost by sinking into loose earth formation.
• It is usually done by addition of admixtures and finally compacting of embankments by vibratory
or impact method.
• After the completion of embankment, small earth walls usually 154cm high are built along and
cross the edges of formation at an interval of 3-4.5m. The rain water gets collected with in these
walls which further help in consolidation
• In such cases, the embankment should be left open for two monsoons before proceeding to second
stage of construction i.e plate laying

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Features of Railroad Bed Level

When the formation is to be made on embankment or cutting, various features should be carefully
considered:

1. Width of formation:
The width of formation will depend on:
• The number of tracks,
• Gauge of tracks,
• Centre to center distance between the tracks
• Width of ballast layer
• Width of trenches to drain off water.

The width of formation is normally kept sloping from the center for drainage purposes.
The minimum widths of formation recommended for different gauges are shown in table:
Minimum width of Minimum width

Gauge embankment of cutting Remarks

Single Double Single Double
Broad Gauge (BG) 610 cm 1082 cm 549 cm 1021 cm 122 cm extra width
is to be provided in case
Meter Gauge (MG) 488 cm 884 cm 427 cm 827 cm of the formation in

Narrow Gauge (N.G) 370 cm 732 cm 335 cm 701 cm cutting for the side
drains.

2. Slopes of sides:
• The stability of the earthwork depends mainly on two factors, namely, cohesion and
friction.
• For temporary stability, cohesion is useful and reliable, but permanent stability is achieved only
by friction which keeps the slopes at the natural angle of repose of the material.
• The slopes to be provided to the sides of the formation should be slightly flatter than the angle
of repose of the material.
• The slopes in cuttings vary from nearly vertical to 1.5 to 1 or steeper.

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3. Drains:
• The accumulation of water reduces the friction in all sorts of soils.
• In case of embankments, the rain water is easily drained off. But in case of cuttings, drains are
to be provided.
• The side drains are constructed along the track at a depth of about 1200 mm from the rail level.
• The size of drains will depend on the quantity of water to be drained.
• Sometimes, pipes of stoneware or concrete are laid in a trench with open or half open joints
and covered with porous material.

Requirements of a Good Track Drainage System

A good drainage system should satisfy the following requirements:
1. Surface water should not percolate to track: One of the basic requirements of a good track
drainage system is that surface water from rains and adjacent areas should not percolate and seep
into the formation of the track.
2. Effective side drains: The size of the side drains should be adequate with a proper slope, so that
they effectively carry all the surface water away.
3. Longitudinal drains to be saucer-shaped: The longitudinal drains provided between two tracks
should preferably have a saucer-shaped cross section so that they can collect water from both
sides.
4. Provision for clearing and inspection: The drains provided for drainage should be such that they
can be inspected and cleared periodically.
5. Drain top to be below cess level: Normally, the drain top should not be above the cess level
for the effective drainage of the ballast bed.
6. No erosion of banks: The flow of water along the slope and across the track should not cause
erosion of the banks or the slopes of the banks.
7. Formation to be of good soil: Ideally, the formation and subgrade should be made of a pervious,
coarse-textured soil. Such soils are more permeable, retain less capillary water, and respond more
favorably to a surface drainage system.
8. Proper sub-surface drainage: Arrangements should be made for a good subsurface drainage
system to drain off the water being retained is the track. This is more relevant in the case of
defective formations.
9. Proper outfall: Longitudinal drains should be designed so as to provide a proper outfall, from
where the water can eventually drain off.
10. Special arrangements for waterlogged areas and other difficult situations: A good track
drainage system should have special arrangements for the drainage of waterlogged areas and for
all other related perennial problems.
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Stabilization of track on poor soil:

Sometimes it becomes unavoidable to lay tracks on a very poor (or undesirable) soil. In such cases it
becomes necessary to improve and strengthen the nature of soil by some suitable methods. Under such
circumstances, the following methods are used.
1. Layer of Moorum
2. Cement Grouting
3. Sand Piles
4. Use of Chemicals

1. Layer of Moorum:
• In very poor soil such as black cotton soil which swells and shrinks considerably by contact with
moisture and by the loss of moisture to the extent of 20% to 30% of its volume, a layer of moorum
is provided under the ballast, as shown:

• The thickness of this layer varies from 300 mm to 600 mm.

• This layer distributes the pressure and it also prevents the ballast from being lost in the cracks of
the soil.
• Instead of moorum, ashes, rubble, slabs of concrete, unserviceable sleepers, etc. are also used and
they are found to be quite satisfactory.

2. Cement Grouting:
• In this method, steel tubes of 30mm in diameter and 1.5m long are driven into the formation at
every alternate sleeper and near their ends as shown in figure.

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• The tubes are driven into the foundation at an angle such that the end of tube is nearly under
the rail.
• The cement grout is forced under a pressure of 0.7 N/mm2 through these tubes. The proportion of
cement grout depends on the type and condition of formation.
• The concert grout spreads through the poor soil and consolidates it.
• The steel tubes are then gradually taken out.

3. Sand Piles:
• This method of strengthening the track laid on poor is most widely used in development countries
like America.
• In this method, a vertical bore about 300mm diameter is made in the ground by driving a wooden
pile.
• The wooden pile is then withdrawn, and the space is filled with sand and is well rammed.
• The sand piles are driven in the pattern as shown.

300 mm

• It is also arranged that cross sectional area of the sand piles is about 20% of the formation
area. Thus, the top section of the formation is covered with sand which makes the track stable on
poor soil.
• The functions performed by the sand piles are as follows:
a) They can function as timber piles.

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b) They provide an arrangement of vertical drainage

c) They provide good mechanical support.

4. Use of Chemicals:
• In this method, chemicals are used in place of cement grout to consolidate the soil.
• The silicate of soda followed by calcium chloride is effective for sandy soils containing less
than 25% of silt and clay.

Stage 2: Laying of Plates

• The operation of laying of the rails and sleepers over the ready formation is known as plate lying.
• The placing of ballast on the formation is not included in plate lying because the ballast, generally
is placed after two to three monsoons of plate lying

Methods of Plate Lying

The following are the three methods generally employed for laying of a new track:
1. Tram line Method of Construction
2. Telescopic Method of Construction
3. American/Mechanical Method

1. Tram Line Method of Construction

• This method is known as tramline method because a temporary tramline is laid by side of
proposed track for carrying materials. It is also known as side method as a new track for tramline
is laid by the side of proposed track.
• This method is suitable for laying track where the schemes for doubling the track is proposed.
So, the laying of another new track will be easier and economical by taking the advantage of
existing track for purpose of transportation of materials for another new track.
• If schemes for doubling tracks are not proposed then a road parallel to the proposed track may
be constructed for transporting the material
• Usually adopted for construction in flat countries
• The progress of work is slow, not more than 1.6km per day

2. Telescopic Method of Construction

• This method of plate lying is extensively used in India.
• In this method, material is transported in material trains to the farther point of new track and
unloaded.

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• These materials are then carried to the rail-head (where work is progress) and different
components of tracks are assembled there.

The following operations are involved in telescopic method

a) Collection and preparation of material depot: The various material required for plate lying are
collected at material depot provided at the junction of the existing railway and the ne line to be
constructed.
If the distance from the rail head is very large and material train is unable to make round trip from
depot to rail head on the same day, the second depot near the rail head is established to avoid
double handling.

b) Transportation of material from depot to work site: The prepared material at deport are then
transported to rail head. Up to a distance of 1.6km materials are transported by mean of trollies.
When lead exceeds 1.6km, train is employed to carrying the material

c) Unloading of material at worksite and carrying them to the rail head: The unloading of the material
at site is done with help of material gang. Once the track material is unloaded, the track is linked
with the help of linking gangs. Carrying rail is a very tedious job due to its heavy weight, requires
16 labors to carry one rail. Hence to save labor and have faster delivery of material Anderson’s
rail carrier is used.

d) Fixing the rails to sleepers and joining the two rails with fish plates: Once the track material is
unloaded, the track is linked with the help of linking gangs. The following procedure is normally
adopted for this purpose.
• A string is first stretched along the central line of the alignment and the sleepers are laid
with their centers on the string. The sleepers are laid roughly at the desired spacing,
keeping the total number of sleepers per rail intact.
• Each rail is marked with chalk to indicate the exact spacing of sleepers.
• Small fittings such as fish plates and bolts are kept near the joints. The fittings required for
each sleeper are kept near the ends of the sleepers.
• The rails are then placed on the sleepers and fixed with the help of fittings, which are
chosen depending upon the type of sleeper. For example, rail screws are used for fixing
rails to wooden sleepers. In the case of steel sleepers, rails are fixed with the help of keys.
• Bearing plates are also provided wherever required to maintain specified cant, as per the
prescribed track standards.
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• The rails are joined with each other after ensuring that there is sufficient gap between them.
The recommended expansion gaps are provided with the help of steel liners or shims of
appropriate thickness (1 mm to 4 mm), which are fixed between the two rail ends.

e) Packing of track for correct level and alignment: The track is then thoroughly packed with the help
of beaters by the Packing-in-gangs.
The following aspects should be examined during this process.
– The track should have a proper gradient.
– If the track is on a curve, it should have proper curvature.
– The cross levels should be even. If a track is to be provided with the recommended
superelevation, this can be achieved by raising the outer rail.
– The track should be thoroughly packed and should be free of hollow spaces.

4. American/ Mechanical Method

• In this method special track lying machines are used for laying of plates.
• This method is mostly employed in America and Britain.
• Two special types of machines are employing in track lying are
a) A truck mounted projected arm/jib: Used for laying the materials which have been received
at rail-head by material trains
b) A wagon mounted, cantilevered arm/jib: Used for placing the assembled panels (consisting
of pair of rails and appropriate number of sleepers required) of track bodily on the ballast
layer
• Use of cranes for track laying has become more popular due to economy.

Stage 3: Laying of Ballast

• The work of laying of ballast on new track is taken up after two three monsoons so that by that
time track gets settled due to rain and under traffic on line.
• The work of spreading the ballast is done by means of ballast train in either of following two ways
a) Ballast is loaded in wagons of the train and then unloaded at site into a number of heaps at
suitable interval of track. Then, the packing is done by workers by means of shovel
b) The spreading of ballast on track directly using ballast train

MATERIAL REQUIRED PER KM OF RAILWAY-TRACK

The quantity of material required for the proposed railway track is calculated as follows:
1. Rails

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1000
(i) Number of rails per km = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 ′𝑚 ′ ×2
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚
(ii) Wright of rails in tonnes per km = number 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚 ×
1000

2. Sleepers
1
Number of sleepers per km = 2 (𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚) × (𝑀 + 𝑥)

Where, M= length of rail in ‘m’

x = density factor
𝑀 + 𝑥 = Sleeper density
3. Fish Plates
Number of fish plates per km of track = 2 × number 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘
(𝑖. 𝑒 2 𝑓𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
4. Fish bolts
Number of fish bolts per km of track = 4 × number 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘
(𝑖. 𝑒 4 𝑓𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡)
5. Bearing plates- depends upon the design
Number of bearing plates per km of track is either,
= 2 × number 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘
Or
= 4 × number 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘
6. Dog spikes- For use of timber sleepers
Number of dog spikes per km of track = 4 × number 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘

Example:
1. Evaluate the quantity of material required to construct 1.5km long BG track. Density = (m+6),
length of rail = 13m
Solution:
1. Rails
1000
(i) Number of rails per km = 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 ′𝑚′ × 2

Given, for a BG track length of rail = 13m

1000
= × 2 = 153.8 ≈ 154
13

For 1.5 km track, number of rails required = 154 × 1.5 = 230.7 ≈ 𝟐𝟑𝟏 Nos.
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑖𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑚
(ii) Wright of rails in tonnes per km = number 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠 × 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑚 × 1000

Considering the rail section of weight 52kg/m

52
= 154 × 13 × 1000 = 104.1 tonnes

For 1.5 km track, weight of rails required = 104.1 × 1.5 = 1561.56 ≈ 𝟏𝟓𝟔 𝒕𝒐𝒏𝒏𝒆𝒔

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2. Sleepers
1
Number of sleepers per km = 2 (𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚) × (𝑀 + 𝑥)
1
= 2 (154) × (13 + 6)

= 1463
For 1.5 km track, number of sleepers required = 1463 × 1.5 = 2194.5 ≈ 𝟏𝟒𝟔𝟑 Nos.
3. Fish Plates
Number of fish plates required = 2 × number 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠
= 2 × 231 = 462 Nos.
4. Fish bolts
Number of fish bolts required = 4 × number 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠
= 4 × 231 = 924 Nos.
5. Bearing plates - depends upon the design
Number of bearing plates per km of track is either,
= 2 × number 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠
= 2 × 2195 = 4390 Nos.
Or
= 4 × number 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑠
= 4 × 231 = 𝟗𝟐𝟒 Nos.
6. Dog spikes- For use of timber sleepers
Number of dog spikes per km of track = 4 × number 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑘
= 4 × 2195 = 8780 𝐍𝐨𝐬.

MAINTENANCE OF RAILWAY TRACK

• The railway track should be maintained properly in order to enable trains to run safely at the
highest permissible speeds and to provide passengers a reasonable level of comfort during the ride.
• Railway tracks can be maintained either conventionally by manual labor or by the application of
modern methods of track maintenance such as mechanical tamping or measured shovel packing.
• A well-maintained track offers a safe and comfortable journey to passengers. If the track is not
maintained properly, it will cause discomfort to the passengers and in extreme cases may even
give rise to hazardous conditions that can lead to derailments and a consequential loss of life and
property.
Necessity and Advantages of Track Maintenance
Track maintenance becomes a necessity due to following reasons:

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a) Due to the constant movement of heavy and high-speed trains, the packing under the sleepers
becomes loose and track geometry gets disturbed.
b) The gauge, alignment, and longitudinal as well as cross levels of the track thus get affected
adversely and the safety of the track is jeopardized.
c) Due to the vibrations and impact of high-speed trains, the fittings of the track come undone and
there is heavy wear and tear of the track and its components.
d) The track and its components get worn out as a result of the weathering effect of rain, sun, and
sand.

Advantages of track maintenance

a) If the track is suitably maintained, the life of the track as well as that of the rolling stock increases
since there is lesser wear and tear of their components.
b) A well-maintained track imparts smooth riding quality surface for vehicle which results in comfort
to passengers and safety to goods
c) Regular track maintenance helps in reducing operating costs and fuel consumption.
d) Small maintenance jobs done at the appropriate time such as tightening a bolt or key, hammering
the dog spike, etc., helps in avoiding loss of the concerned fitting and thus saving on the associated
expenditure.
e) When track maintenance is neglected for a long time, it may render the track beyond repair, calling
for heavy track renewals that entail huge expenses.
f) Safety to passengers and goods encourages the use of railways and better earnings.

Methods of Track Maintenance

The maintenance of railway track can be carried out either manually or by use of mechanical appliances
or by combination of both. In India, conventional maintenance is carried out by means of manual labour
and hand tools.
The maintenance of track can be divided into two parts:
a) Daily maintenance
b) Periodic maintenance

Daily Maintenance
• Daily maintenance is carried out by full time staff i.e., maintenance gang maintained throughout
the year
• The railway track is divided into suitable section of 5-6km length.
• The daily maintenance of track includes:
1. To Check the bolts of fish plates and tighten if necessary

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2. To check the rail gauge

3. To check the joints
4. To check the fittings of sleepers and rails

Periodic maintenance
Periodic maintenance after an interval of is carried out after an interval of two to three years.
The maintenance of track includes the following items
1. Surface rails
2. Track alignment
3. Gauge
4. Proper drainage
5. Track component
6. Bridges and its approaches
7. Rolling stock
8. Points and crossings
9. Level crossings
10. Tunnels

Maintenance of Surface rails

The top surface should be kept in same plane or level, whether the track is on rising gradient or falling
gradient or on the level stretch. On curves- The outer rail should keep at prescribed height above the inner
rail, i.e., proper super elevation should be maintained.
Maintenance of surface rail involves the following operations:
1. Packing: It is the method of forcing and packing stone ballast below the sleepers by ramming with
beater/ pick axe. Due to heavy loads and the vibration caused by running trains, the ballast under
sleepers get loose and depressions are formed. These depressions further get aggregated sue to
non-uniform subgrade support. The ballast under the sleepers therefore, should be regularly
packed. Packing of ballast is achieved by following three methods:
a) Through packing b) Scissor packing c) Shovel Packing
a) Through packing: The process involves packing of ballast under the sleepers in required depth
and width. The operation involves following steps:
• The tack is opened out and ballast round the sleeper is pulled aside by means of ballast
fork/ shovel
• The fittings, rails and sleepers are examined and defects if any are rectified. Fittings if
missing are provided and bolts nuts etc. are tightened.
• Alignment of the track is corrected, if found disturbed.

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• The gauge of the track is checked and corrected as prescribed.

• The sleepers are squared and are bought to specified spacing at straight and on curves
• Ballast is packed under the sleepers by means of beaters, until the rail level is raised to
required height. Sleepers are raised to required height by means of crow bar and then
provide the ballast packing under the sleeper.
b) Scissor Packing: Packing diagonally under a rail seat is called scissor packing. In scissor
packing two gang man take the position back to back and pack the corners with beater/ pick axe
in the direction A-A. After several blows they take position B-B as shown in fig for packing

c) Shovel Packing: This method of packing is adopted for points and crossings where beaters for
packing become difficult due to closer spacing of sleepers. Track is lifted by means of jack and
required quantity of stone chippings are spread below the sleepers by shovel. Suitable for wooden
sleepers and unsuitable for steel or concrete sleepers.

2. Surfacing of track: The whole track is bought to a condition of vertical evenness. i.e. the rails
and track are kept at uniform level
3. Boxing and dressing the tack: In this process ballast will be filled between the sleepers and
beyond the sleepers to the required shape of ballast section and the track is dressed neatly
4. Levelling of the track: The process of bringing the rails to equal elevation transversely is known
as levelling of track.
5. Lifting of track: The dressed tack is lifted to the required height.
6. Surface defects and remedies:
High joint/ riding joint
• Top level of the joint is higher than the rail level.

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• Developed due to overpacking of sleepers at joint or due to sinking of sleepers between

the joints
• Rectified by lowering the joint sleeper or by raising the intermediate sleepers.
Blowing joints:
• Occurs when joint is situated on a loose and dusty ballast. When wheel load pass over the
sleeper resting on loose and dusty ballast, the sleepers sinks and when wheel loads are
relieved, the sleepers raises up
• Remedial measure is to clean the dirty ballast and thoroughly repack the joint with
additional ballast.
Pumping of joints:
• In rainy season, the blowing of joints gets affected by water and gets converted into
pumping joints. Pumping joints splashes mud all round the joint under moving load and
joint get deteriorate rapidly.
• Defect can be rectified by providing proper drainage.

Maintenance of Track alignment

If the track goes out of alignment i.e., shifts sideways on the straight or at curves, it may result in bad
riding and consequent derailments.
Causes:
• The increased hammering action of wheels on only one rail due to variation in cross level, in
adequate super elevation at curves, non-uniformity in gauge, improper ballast packing etc. may
displace the original alignment of track.
• Due to hammering action of wheel loads on the end of forward rail at the joint, the track pushed
forward and track go out of alignment
• Due to variation of centrifugal force by variable super-elevation, tilting of rails or spreading of
gauge on curves may take place and track go out of alignment
• Due to temperature variation, thermal stresses are developed which causes heavy creep in rails
which results in horizontal displacement of track.
Remedial measures:
• By use of crow bars: Realignment of straight track is done by pushing the track horizontally by
use of crow bars. Track is pushed to desirable amount by unpacking the ballast. After correcting
alignment to original position ballast is properly packed
• By use of track liners: When throw of track is considerable on straight track, the alignment can be
done efficiently and economically by means of track liners.

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Maintenance of Gauge
• Uniformity of the gauge throughout should be maintained properly as non-uniform gauge
adversely affect the riding quality
• Uniformity of the gauge can be maintained by tightening the track fittings (mainly sleeper fittings)
and proper maintenance of correct joints, creep, anchors, etc.

Maintenance of proper drainage

Drainage is most important to ensure smooth riding and longer life track. The proper drainage is
maintained by
• Cleaning of ballast: if water4vretains in ballast for long time it operculate into subgrade and may
results in many defects in track
• Cleaning of cess: The portion between toe of ballast and edge of formation known as cess should
slope outwards and should be free from turfing/ vegetation to prevent collection of water
• Surface drainage: Side drains should be of sufficient capacity and should be cleaned before
monsoon for effective drainage of water
• Underground drainage: Excessive moisture or water logging in the beds of embankment and
cutting can be prevented by providing underground drainage

Maintenance of track components

• Broken or cracked rails need to be replaced and if any kinks found should be rectified immediately
• If the real wear is found to be excessive on inner rail at curves, the inner check rails should be
immediately renewed
• If corrosion in rail is found, apply waste oil to the foot and web of the rails.
• Defective sleeper, spikes or fittings of sleepers are to be renewed.
• Track fittings such as fish plates and fish bolts should be lubricated periodically to facilitate turning
of bolts when necessary
• Tightening of fish bolts should be attended by keyman to avoid loosening.

Maintenance of bridges and its approaches

• Maintenance of bridges and its approaches is of great importance, if any accident occurs at such
spots, it is of serious nature and results in huge loss of lives and property
• Inspections of bridges and culverts is carried out by Permanent way inspectors and Bridge
engineers.

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Maintenance of rolling stock

• Rolling stock consists of locomotives, coaches and wagons, should be maintained in good working
condition.
• Lubrication of reciprocating parts and bearings with suitable lubricants should be done.
• Different parts of rolling stock should be cleaned every day
• The part of rolling stock which gets worn out should be immediately replaced
• The axles, locomotive boilers and passenger vehicle should be renewed after the completion of
service life.

Maintenance of points and crossings

• The points are regarded as weakest points of the track and derailments occurs at points and
crossings only and hence consistently watched and maintained.
• Wear of rails and pins, creep of tracks and poor maintenance leads points and crossings out of
adjustment.

Maintenance of Level crossings

• Rails and fittings should be tarred once a year by opening out the level crossing
• The approaches of level crossings should be inspected as sinking of approaches may lead to rough
riding and defects which need to be rectified
• On level crossing with high traffic, the area of crossing should be should have bituminous
surfacing, so that track is least disturbed.

Railway Stations and Yards

A railway station or a railroad station and often shortened to just station, is a railway facility where trains
regularly stop to load or unload passengers and/or freight A railway station is that place on a railway line
where traffic is booked and dealt with and where trains are given the authority to proceed forward.
Sometimes only one of these functions is carried out at a station and accordingly it is classified as a flag
station or a block station. In the case of a flag station, there are arrangements for dealing with traffic but
none for controlling the movement of the trains.

Requirements of a Passenger Station

The main requirements of a passenger yard are the following.
(a) It should be possible to lower the signals for the reception of trains from different directions at the
same time. This facility is particularly necessary at junction stations so that all the trains what are to be
connected with each other may be received at the same time.

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(b) Unless all trains are booked to stop at the station, it should be possible to run a train through the station
at a prescribed speed.
(c) In the case of an engine changing station, an engine coming from or going to a Should cause minimum
interference in the arrival and departure of trains.
(d) An adequate number of platforms should be provided so that all trains can be dealt with at the same
time.
(e) There should be convenient sidings where extra carriages can be stabled after having been
detached from trains or before their attachment to trains.
(f) There should be provision of facilities for dealing with special traffic such as pilgrim and tourist traffic,
parcels in wagon loads, livestock, and motor cars.
(g) Stabling lines, washing lines, sick lines, etc., should be provided as per requirement.

Purpose / Requirements of a Railway Station

A railway station is provided for one or more of the following purposes.
(a) To entrain or detrain passengers
(b) To load or unload goods or parcels
(c) To control the movement of trains
(d) To enable trains to cross each other in the case of a single-line section
(e) To enable faster trains to overtake slower ones
(f) To enable locomotives to refuel, whether it be diesel, water, or coal
(g) To attach or detach coaches or wagons to trains
(h) To collect food and water for passengers
(i) To provide facilities for change of engines and crew/staff
(j) To enable sorting out of wagons and bogies to form new trains
(k) To provide facilities and give shelter to passengers in the case of emergencies such as floods and
accidents, which disrupt traffic

Facilities Required at Railway Stations and amenities

Passenger requirements: This includes waiting rooms and retiring rooms, refreshment rooms and
tea stalls, enquiry and reservation offices, bathrooms and toilets, drinking water supply, platform and
platform sheds, and approach roads.
Traffic requirements: This includes goods sheds and platforms, station buildings, station master’s office
and other offices, signal and signal cabins, reception and departure lines and sidings, arrangements for
dealing with broken down trains, and station equipment. Locomotive, carriage, and wagon

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requirements: This includes the locomotive shed, watering or fuelling facilities, turntable, inspection
pits, ash pits, ashtrays, etc.

Staff requirements: This includes rest houses for officers and staff, running rooms for guards and drivers,
staff canteens, etc.

Classification of Stations
Stations can be classified on the basis of their operation as
1. Block stations-Class A, Class B and Class C
2. Non Block Stations-Class D stations or Flag stations
3. Special class stations.

Block Stations:
A block station is a station at which the driver has to obtain an ‘authority to proceed’ in order to enter the
next block section
This system ensures that a suitable ‘space interval’ is provided between running trains so that there are no
collisions and accidents. There are three types of block stations.
A class station: A class stations are normally provided on double-line sections. At such stations a ‘line
clear’ signal cannot be granted at the rear of a station unless the line on which a train is to be received is
clear and the facing points set and locked. No shunting can be done after line clear has been granted.

B class station: This is the most common type of station and is provided on single-line as well as double-
line sections. At a B class station, the line has to be clear up to an adequate distance beyond the outer

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signal before ‘permission to approach’ can be given to a train. The minimum signals required at a B class
station are as follows.

C class station: The C class station is only a block hut where no booking of passengers is done. It is
basically provided to split a long block section so that the interval between successive trains is
reduced. No train normally stops at these stations.

Non-block Stations or D Class Stations: D class or non-block stations are located between two block
stations and do not forms the boundary of any block section. No signals are provided at D class stations.

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Functional Classification of Stations: The layout of stations varies in size and importance according to
the type and volume of traffic handled and according to their locations with respect to cities or industrial
areas. Broadly speaking, the layouts required for passenger stations and their yards can be divided into
the following categories for the purpose of study. (a) Halts
(b) Flag stations
(c) Roadside or crossing stations
(d) Junction stations
(e) Terminal stations

Types of Yards
A yard is a system of tracks laid out to deal with the passenger as well as goods traffic being handled by
the railways. This includes receipt and dispatch of trains apart from stabling, sorting, marshalling, and
other such functions. Yards are normally classified into the following categories.

Coaching yard
The main function of a coaching yard is to deal with the reception and dispatch of passenger trains.
Depending upon the volume of traffic, this yard provides facilities such as watering and fuelling of
engines, washing of rakes, examination of coaches, charging of batteries, and trans-shipment of
passengers.

Goods yard
A goods yard provides facilities for the reception, stabling, loading, unloading, and dispatch of goods
wagons. Most goods yards deal with a full train load of wagons. No sorting, marshalling, and reforming
is done at goods yards except in the case of ‘sick’ wagons or a few wagons booked for that particular
station. Separate goods sidings are provided with the platforms for the loading and unloading of the goods
being handled at that station.

Marshalling yard
The marshalling yard is a yard where goods trains are received and sorted out, and new trains are formed
and finally dispatched to various destinations. This yard receives loaded as well as empty goods wagons
from different stations for further booking to different destinations. These wagons are separated, sorted
out, properly marshalled, and finally dispatched bearing full trainloads to various destinations. The
marshalling of trains is so done that the wagons can be conveniently detached without much shunting en
route at wayside stations.

Locomotive yard

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This is the yard which houses the locomotive. Facilities for watering, fuelling, examining locomotives,
repairing, etc., are provided in this yard. The yard layout is designed depending upon the number of
locomotives required to be housed in the locomotive shed. The facilities are so arranged that a requisite
number of locomotives are serviced simultaneously and are readily available for hauling the trains. Such
yards should have adequate space for storing fuel. The water supply should be adequate for washing the
locomotives and servicing them.

Passenger amenities
1. Neat and clean entrance with facilities to get down from city transport
2. Parking facility for two and four wheeler
3. Facility to buy ticket within reasonable time, display of the cost of ticket before a person decides to
buy
4. Display of train time-table and current running position
5. Waiting hall
6. Signage for easy identification and direction towards the facilities.
7. Catering & vending stalls, adequate parking and circulating area, train indication board, and public
address system etc.
8. Cyber Cafe, Food Plaza, At least one VIP lounge, Train coach indication system, CCTV
for announcement and security purpose, Coin operated ticket vending machine, Static mobile charging
facility.
9. Circulating area so as to ensure proper entry and exit of vehicles etc.
10. A lighting tower for proper illumination, Improved modern, cost effective lighting arrangements
at the platforms, concourse etc.
11. Improvement of booking and enquiry offices to give them a facelift, Lighting of booking office, the
queuing area in front of booking windows
12. Renovated water booths, modern, Pay & Use toilets, Good Waiting and Retiring Rooms with modern
furniture.

Urban Transport
The basic objective of urban transport is to provide residences with access to activity such as workplaces,
schools, shopping centres, etc. The different forms of urban transport in use in most cities of the world
are the following.

Motorbuses: This is the most convenient form of transport and is used extensively in metropolitan
cities. These buses run mostly on diesel oil and their exhaust emissions have an adverse effect on the

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environment. Moreover, these buses, though very convenient for transporting passengers, have very
limited seating capacity.

Trolley Buses: These are buses that derive their energy through overhead electric transmission. Trolley
buses are superior to motorbuses as they do not pollute the environment. On the other hand, huge
expenses are incurred in providing overhead traction for supplying power to these buses.

Tramways: Tramways require a track on which the trams can run and as such require the infrastructure
of a proper railway track. Their initial cost is quite high. They cause minimal air pollution; however, they
contribute significantly to noise pollution. Tramways are almost obsolete now and are used only in some
parts of the country such as in Kolkata.

Surface Railways: Surface railways are the cheapest and most extensively used form of railway service
in the world. In such a system, the track is laid on a ground that has a suitable embankment or cutting,
depending upon the topography of the area.

Underground Railways: In such a system, the railway line is constructed below the ground level. The
requisite construction work is done mostly by the ‘cut and cover method’. The area is excavated in the
shape of trenches and once the formation is ready, the track is laid, the necessary overhead structures are
provided, and finally the trenches are covered and the ground is restored to its original state.

Elevated Railways: This type of railway is provided at an elevation above the ground level. The track is
laid on a deck, which is supported by steel or RCC columns. The platforms and even the station building
are provided at an elevation for the convenience of passengers.
The main advantage of elevated railways is that they do not require any separate land. There is no
interference with road traffic as roads can be provided between the columns.

Monorail: The monorail is a form of elevated railway that is provided with only one rail on which trains
run. The trains can be suspended on the monorail as in Montreal, Canada, or can be mounted on pylons
as in Tokyo, Japan. The monorail system is recommended only in exceptional cases where operating the
conventional systems is difficult.
Tube Railways: In this rail system, the underground railways are generally provided at a depth of more
than 25 m. The railway line is constructed in a tunnel that is circular or tubular. The main reason for taking
the railway so deep into the ground is to avoid it interfering with the water supply mains, sewerage system,
telephone lines, gas lines, etc., which are normally located within 10 m of the natural ground.

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Underground Railways
In such a system, the railway line is constructed below the ground level. The requisite construction work
is done mostly by the 'cut and cover method'. The area is excavated in the shape of trenches and once the
formation is ready, the track is laid, the necessary overhead structures are provided, and finally the
trenches are covered and the ground is restored to its original state.
An underground railway system normally uses 'electric traction', as steam and diesel tractions
produce smoke and lead to the pollution of the environment, which in this case becomes particularly
hazardous since these railways are underground. Proper arrangements are also made for the drainage of
underground railways as the low-lying areas in which they are constructed are likely to get flooded during
the rains. Such underground railways have been constructed in Kolkata and Delhi and in other countries
around the world.

The main advantages and limitations of underground railways are as follows.

Advantages
(a) Trains can run fast and unobstructed in an underground railway system as there are no
road crossings or other similar problems.
(b) As the trains move at incredible speeds, underground railways can deal with a very high concentration
of human traffic.
(c) There is no wastage of land and a large area of the city, which would have otherwise been used for
surface railways, remains available for other utilities.
(d) Provides safety from aerial attacks, particularly during war.

Limitations
(a) The underground railway system is a very costly arrangement and a heavy financial
backing is required. The cost may vary anywhere from Rs 30 million to 100 million per km, depending
upon the geographical features and other conditions.
(b) Special attention needs to be given to the drainage as well as proper ventilation of underground
railways.
(c) During construction, the residents of the city are greatly inconvenienced as excavation work is
normally carried out throughout the city. The water supply, electricity supply,

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Typical cross section of an underground railway

Monorail
The monorail is a form of elevated railway that is provided with only one rail on which trains run. The
trains can be suspended on the monorail as in Montreal, Canada, or can be mounted on pylons as in Tokyo,
Japan. The monorail system is recommended only in exceptional cases where operating the conventional
systems is difficult.

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