DEPARTMENT OF

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

ME 407 Mechatronics

Dr Pradeepmon T.G.
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
pradeepmontg@mgits.ac.in
• What is a mechanical system?

• How mechanical systems can be distinguished

from mechatronics systems?

• What is the necessity of adding “electronics” to

mechanical systems?
Fly ball watt governor mechanism
• Used to control the speed of a steam engine

In order to reduce/increase the speed of the steam engine

shaft, we need reduce/increase the supply of steam to the
engine by closing/opening the steam valve shown in the
operational diagram

• The watt governor senses the speed of the steam engine shaft and
regulates it.
• The position of balls gives an
indication of the speed of the
shaft.
• The position of the fly ball itself is
used to activate a series of
linkages which closes or opens the
valve. It is an example for a
mechanical governing mechanism

Observation
• Based on the speed of the shaft
we need to decide (linkage
mechanism decides), how much
to open/ close the valve by

• Actual job of moving it (opening

or closing the steam valve)
• In mechanical systems, the decision is coupled with actual job of
moving it. The same agent (i.e. linkage mechanism here) decides
how much to move by, also does the job of moving it .

• In this case, both the decision maker (brain of the system) and
actuation are done by the same set of linkage elements. It is
most common in almost all mechanical systems.

Mechatronics systems are characterised by separating these two

things where the decision making is separated from the
actuation.

In philosophy, human system works similar to a mechatronics

system..!!!!!
• Another example is electronically controlled fuel injector
replaces mechanically controlled carburettor in gasoline/petrol
engines

• In carburetor, the decision on how much fuel to take is coupled

with the process of actually taking the fuel

• In a fuel injection system, how much fuel to put inside is decided

by a computational devise and job of actually taking the fuel
inside is orchestrated by a solenoid controlled injector

• Fuel injector accurately meters the amount of fuel injected by

sensing the exhaust gases. The gases coming out of the exhaust
is sensed by Exhaust gas O2 sensor. It measures relative amount
of air/fuel that exists in the exhaust gas that comes out.

Air fuel mixture coming out of the engine must be close to

stoichiometric
• Another example is Automobile Steer-by-Wire. Unlike power
steering there is no mechanical interconnection between
hand wheels and road wheels.

In the job of steering a vehicle, there are two things involved

• The driver needs to communicate how much the wheels need

to move by (Decision making)
• Actually Moving the wheels (Actuation)

In mechanical only designs, both these things are linked. In a

steer by wire system, it is separated (mechanical complexity is
replaced with electronic means)
Limitations associated with mechanical only designs (mechanical
systems)
If you want the same mechanical element to different tasks, there
is a severe limitation in the computational complexity (decision
making) and flexibility (actuation)…!!!!!!

• Human brain (analogous

to computational element
in mechatronic system) is
responsible for decision
making
• Limbs are responsible for
actuation
• The nervous system
(analogous to
amplification in
mechatronic system) is
responsible to
communicate decisions
• Eye senses
• External food for energy
 Fundamentally the mechatronic design paradigm is the idea
behind mechatronic systems, beyond this, your
understanding of the physical system and technology
(understanding of electronics, your understanding of micro
controllers) to deal with it.

Objective of the course :

• Familiarise you the technology involved in separating the decision
making from actuation

Course Objectives:
• To introduce the features of various sensors used in CNC
machines and robots
• To study the fabrication and functioning of MEMS pressure
and inertial sensors
• To enable development of hydraulic/pneumatic circuit and
PLC programs for simple applications
Course & Instructor Policies
• Students are expected to attend all classes and
participate in all in-class discussions.
• Students are responsible to follow all verbal as well as
written instructions, which are provided during class
period regarding all examinations and possible quizzes.
Text Books:
1. Bolton W., Mechatronics: Electronic Control Systems in Mechanical and
Electrical Engineering, Person Education Limited, New Delhi, 2007
2. Ramachandran K. P., G. K. Vijayaraghavan, M. S. Balasundaram,
Mechatronics: Integrated Mechanical Electronic Systems, Wiley India
Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 2008.
3. Saeed B. Niku, Introduction to Robotics: Analysis, Systems, Applications,
Person Education, Inc., New Delhi, 2006.
References Books:
1. David G. Aldatore, Michael B. Histand, Introduction to Mechatronics
and Measurement Systems, McGraw-Hill Inc., USA, 2003.
2. Gordon M. Mair, Industrial Robotics, Prentice Hall International, UK,
1998.
3. HMT, Mechatronics, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Ltd., New
Delhi, 2004.
4. Vijay K. Varadan, K. J. Vinoy, S. Gopalakrishnan, Smart Material Systems
and MEMS: Design and Development Methodologies, John Wiley &
Sons Ltd., England, 2006
 Introduction to Mechatronics
• Coined by the Japanese
• Combination of ‘mecha’ from mechanisms and ‘tronics’ from
electronics
• Describes the integration of mechanical and electronics
engineering.
• Refers to a multidisciplinary approach to product and
manufacturing system design

Comprises a co-ordinated, and concurrently developed,

integration of mechanical engineering with electronics and
intelligent computer control in the design and manufacture of
products and processes
• As a discipline, mechatronics encompasses
– electronics enhancing mechanics (to provide high levels of
precision and reliability, e.g. N.C machine tools which cut
metal automatically, industrial robots, automatic bank tellers)
and
– electronics replacing mechanics (to provide new functions and
capabilities, e.g. digital watches and calculators ).

Mechatronics brings together areas of technology involving

sensors and measurement systems, drive and actuation
systems, and microprocessor systems, together with the
analysis of the behaviour of systems and control systems.
BASIC TERMINOLOGIES ASSOCIATED WITH MECHATRONICS
Systems
• A system can be thought of as a box or block diagram
which has an input and an output

We are concerned with the

relationship between input
and output..!!!!
Measurement System
• A measurement system can be thought of as a box or
block diagram which is used for making measurements

• It has as its input the quantity being measured and its

output the value of that quantity
Control System
• A control system can be thought of as a box or block
diagram which is used to control its output to some
particular value or particular sequence of values

• E.g. domestic central heating control system

– its input the temperature required in the house and its output
the house at that temperature
– i.e. you set the desired temperature on the thermostat or
controller and the heating furnace adjusts itself to pump water
through radiators and so produce the required temperature in
the house
• In designing mechatronic systems, one of the steps
involved is the creation of a model of the system so that
predictions can be made regarding its behaviour when
inputs occur.
• The term modelling is used when we represent the
behaviour of a real system by mathematical equations
• E.g. A spring can be considered as a system to have an
input of a force F and an output of an extension x
Measurement systems
• Measurement systems are made up of three basic elements

– A sensor responds to the quantity being measured by giving as its

output a signal which is related to the quantity. For example, a
thermocouple is a temperature sensor. The input to the sensor is a
temperature and the output is an e.m.f., which is related to the
temperature value.
– A signal conditioner takes the signal from the sensor and
manipulates it into a condition which is suitable for display. for
example, the output from a thermocouple is a rather small e.m.f.
and might be fed through an amplifier to obtain a bigger signal. The
amplifier is the signal conditioner.
– A display system displays the output from the signal conditioner.
This might, for example, be a pointer moving across a scale or a
digital readout.

Example of a measurement system

e.g. Digital thermometer
Control system
• A control system can be thought of as a system
which can be used to:
– control some variable to some particular value, e.g.
a central heating system where the temperature is
controlled to a particular value;

– control the sequence of events, e.g. a washing

machine where when the dials are set to, say, ‘white’
and the machine is then controlled to a particular
washing cycle, i.e. sequence of events, appropriate
to that type of clothing;

– control whether an event occurs or not, e.g. a safety

lock on a machine where it cannot be operated until
a guard is in position.
• The system has an input from sensors which tell it what the
temperature is and then compare this data with what the
temperature should be and provide the appropriate response in
order to obtain the required temperature. This is an example of
feedback control:
• Signals are fed back from the output, i.e. the actual temperature, in
order to modify the reaction of the body to enable it to restore the
temperature to the ‘normal’ value
Control system has a thermostat
or controller which automatically
switches the furnace on or off
according to the difference
between the set temperature and
the actual temperature

Control system is controlling the

positioning and
movement of your hand.
• Open and closed loop systems
– In an open loop control system, the output from the system
has no effect on the input signal
– In a closed loop control system, the output does have an
effect on the input signal, modifying it to maintain an output
signal at the required value
• Advantages of Open loop systems
– Relatively simple
– Low cost
– Reliable
• Advantages of closed loop systems
– Accurate (in matching actual to required values)
• Limitations of closed loop systems
– More complex, costly with greater chance of breakdown due
to greater number of components involved
Basic elements of a closed loop system

– Comparison element : compares the required or reference value

of the variable condition being controlled with the measured
value of what is being achieved and produces an error signal

Error signal = reference value signal - measured value signal

– Control element: decides what action to take when it receives

an error signal
Basic elements of a closed loop system-contd.
– Correction element: produces a change in the process to correct
or change the controlled condition
– Process element: what is being controlled
– Measurement element : The measurement element produces a
signal related to the variable condition of the process that is
being controlled
• With the closed-loop system for a person controlling the
temperature of a room, the various elements are:
– Controlled variable – the room temperature
– Reference value – the required room temperature
– Comparison element – the person comparing the measured value with the
required value of temperature
– Error signal – the difference between the measured and required
temperatures
– Control unit – the person
– Correction unit – the switch on the fire
– Process – the heating by the fire
– Measuring device – a thermometer
Few terminologies and nomenclatures connected with
mechatronics

• The term embedded system is used where microprocessors are

embedded into systems

• A microprocessor may be considered as being essentially a

collection of logic gates and memory elements that are not wired
up as individual components but whose logical functions are
implemented by means of software. e.g., AND gate, OR gate etc

• Microcontrollers are microprocessors with these extra facilities all

integrated together on a single chip
Sequential controllers and Microprocessor based
controllers ( Programmable logic controller )
• The term sequential control is used when control is such that
actions are strictly ordered in a time- or event-driven sequence.
• Such control could be obtained by an electric circuit with sets of
relays or cam-operated switches which are wired up in such a way
as to give the required sequence
• Example of sequential control is the domestic washing machine. A
number of operations have to be carried out in the correct
sequence. These may involve
– a pre-wash cycle when the clothes in the drum are given a wash in cold
water, followed by
– a main wash cycle when they are washed in hot water, then
– a rinse cycle when they are rinsed with cold water a number of times,
followed by
– spinning to remove water from the clothes.
In a microprocessor-controlled system, the sequencing being
controlled by means of a software program.

Programmable logic controller

• an embedded microcontroller, this being a microprocessor with

memory all integrated on one chip, which has been specifically
programmed for the task concerned
• This is a microprocessor-based controller which uses
programmable memory to store instructions and to implement
functions such as logic, sequence, timing, counting and
arithmetic to control events and can be readily reprogrammed
for different tasks.
• Programmable logic controllers are widely used in industry where
on/ off control is required.
Programmable logic controller-contd.
E.g. in process control where a tank of liquid is to be filled and
then heated to a specific temperature before being emptied.

• Switch on pump to move liquid into the tank.

• Switch off pump when a level detector gives the on signal, so indicating
that the liquid has reached the required level.

• Switch on heater.

• Switch off heater when a temperature sensor gives the on signal to

indicate the required temperature has been reached.

• Switch on pump to empty the liquid from the container.

• Switch off pump when a level detector gives an on signal to indicate

that the tank is empty.
 Examples of mechatronic systems
Self learning (SL1)
• The digital camera and autofocus
• The engine management system
• MEMS and the automobile airbag

REFERENCE
• Page 22-25, Bolton, William. Mechatronics:
electronic control systems in mechanical and
electrical engineering. Pearson Education, 2015.
Sensors
– an element which produces a signal relating to the quantity
being measured

• The term transducer is often used in place of the term

sensor. Transducers are defined as elements that when
subject to some physical change experience a related
change.

• The sensors are transducers

• A measurement system may use transducers, in addition

to the sensor, in other parts of the system to convert
signals in one form to another form.
Performance terminology
The following terms are used to define the performance of
transducers
Range and Span
• The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the
input can vary. The span is the maximum value of the input minus
the minimum value.
– for example, a load cell for the measurement of forces might have a range
of 0 to 50 kN and a span of 50 kN.
Error
• Error is the difference between the result of the measurement
and the true value of the quantity being measured:
Error = measured value - true value
– For example if a measurement system gives a temperature reading of 25°C
when the actual temperature is 24°C, then the error is +1°C.
Accuracy
• Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated by a
measurement system might be wrong. It is thus the summation of
all the possible errors that are likely to occur, as well as the
accuracy to which the transducer has been calibrated.
– for example, a temperature-measuring instrument might, be specified as
having an accuracy of +/- 2°C. This would mean that the reading given by
the instrument can be expected to lie within plus or minus 2°C of the true
value.

Sensitivity
• The sensitivity is the relationship indicating the value of output is
per unit input, i.e. output/input.
– For example, a resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5 V/°C.
Hysteresis error
• Transducers can give different outputs from the same value of
quantity being measured , according to whether that value has
been reached by a continuously increasing change or a
continuously decreasing change. This effect is called hysteresis.
Non-linearity error
• For many transducers a linear relationship between the input and
output is assumed over the working range (assumption of
linearity).
• Few transducers, however, have a truly linear relationship and
thus errors occur when compares with the assumption of linearity
• The error is defined as the maximum difference from the straight
line.
Repeatability/reproducibility
• The terms repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are
used to describe its ability to give the same output for repeated
applications of the same input value.
• It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output

Dead band/time
• The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input
values for which there is no output.
• The dead time is the length of time from the application of an
input until the output begins to respond and change.
Resolution
• The resolution is the smallest change in the input value that will
produce an observable change in the output.
• For a wire-wound potentiometer the resolution might be specified
as, say, 0.5°

Output impedance
• When a sensor giving an electrical output is interfaced with an
electronic circuit, it is necessary to know the output impedance
since this impedance is being connected in either series or parallel
with that circuit.
Stability
• The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output
when used to measure a constant input over a period of time.

• The term drift is often used to describe the change in output that
occurs over time (slow change in response of a gauge!!!). The drift
may be expressed as a percentage of the full range output.

• The term zero drift is used for the changes that occur in output when
there is zero input. (gradual change in scale zero of a measuring
instrument!!!!)
• To illustrate the performance terminology, consider the
significance of the terms in the following specification of
a strain gauge pressure transducer:
– Ranges: 70 to 1000 kPa, 2000 to 70 000 kPa
– Supply voltage: 10 V d.c. or a.c. r.m.s.
– Full range output: 40 mV
– Non-linearity and hysteresis: ±0.5% full range output
– Temperature range: -54°C to +120°C when operating
– Thermal zero shift: 0.030% full range output/°C
• The range indicates that the transducer can be used to
measure pressures between 70 and 1000 kPa or 2000
and 70 000 kPa.
• It requires a supply of 10 V d.c. or a.c. r.m.s. for its
operation
• It will give an output of 40 mV when the pressure on the lower
range is 1000 kPa and on the upper range 70 000 kPa.

• Non-linearity and hysteresis will lead to errors of ±0.5% of 1000, i.e.

±5 kPa on the lower range and ±0.5% of 70 000, namely ±350 kPa,
on the upper range.

• The transducer can be used between the temperatures of -54 and

+120°C.

• When the temperature changes by 1°C the output of the transducer

for zero input will change by 0.030% of 1000 = 0.3 kPa on the lower
range and 0.030% of 70 000 = 21 kPa on the upper range
• Static and dynamic characteristics
– The static characteristics are the values given when steady-
state conditions occur, i.e. the values given when the
transducer has settled down
– The dynamic characteristics refer to the behaviour between
the time that the input value changes and the time that the
value given by the transducer settles down to the steady-state
value.
– Dynamic characteristics are stated in terms of the response of
the transducer to inputs in particular forms.
• For example, this might be a step input when the input is suddenly
changed from zero to a constant value, or a ramp input when the input
is changed at a steady rate, or a sinusoidal input of a specified
frequency.
 Response time
• This is the time which elapses after a constant input, a step input,
is applied to the transducer up to the point at which the
transducer gives an output corresponding to some specified
percentage, e.g. 95%, of the value of the input

• For example, if a mercury-in-glass thermometer is put into a hot

liquid there can be quite an appreciable time lapse, perhaps as
much as 100 s or more, before the thermometer indicates 95% of
the actual temperature of the liquid.
 Time constant

• This is the 63.2% response time. A thermocouple in air might have

a time constant of perhaps 40 to 100 s. The time constant is a
measure of the inertia of the sensor and how fast it will react to
changes in its input

• The bigger the time constant, the slower the reaction to a

changing input signal.
 Rise time

• This is the time taken for the output to rise to some specified
percentage of the steady-state output.

• Often the rise time refers to the time taken for the output to rise
from 10% of the steady-state value to 90 or 95% of the steady-
state value.
Settling time

• This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some
percentage, e.g. 2%, of the steady-state value.
To illustrate the above, consider the following plot

which indicates how an instrument reading changed with time, being

obtained from a thermometer plunged into a liquid at time t = 0. The
steady-state value is 55°C and so, since 95% of 55°C is 52.25°C, the
95% response time is about 228 s.
 Classification of sensors
1. Based on the stimulus that is the response signal
No. Stimulus Example
1 Acoustic Wave (Amplitude, Phase, Polarization), Spectrum, Wave Velocity
2 Electric Charge, Current, Potential, Voltage, Electric field (amplitude, phase,
polarization & spectrum)
3 Magnetic Magnetic field (amplitude, phase, polarization & spectrum),
Magnetic flux, Permeability
4 Optical Wave (amplitude, phase polarization & spectrum), Wave velocity,
Refractive index, Emissivity, Reflectivity, Absorption
5 Thermal Temperature, Flux, Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity
6 Mechanical Position (Linear, Angular), Acceleration, Force, Stress, Pressure,
Strain, Mass, Density, Moment, Torque, Shape, Roughness,
Orientation, Stiffness, Compliance, Crystallinity, Structural
Classification of sensors
1. Based on the power requirement
a. Active and passive sensors
2. Based on the type of output signal
a. Analog and Digital sensors
3. Based on the conversion of parameter to electrical
parameter
a. Primary sensor and Secondary sensor
4. Based on the parameter measured
a. Displacement, pressure, velocity, temperature, light, Level,
flow, proximity
5. Contact Sensors
6. Non contact sensors
Potentiometer Sensor
• A potentiometer consists of a resistance element with a sliding
contact which can be moved over the length of the element

• The displacement being converted into a potential difference

Linear potentiometer

V=Ixrxl
• The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular wire-wound track or
a film of conductive plastic over which a rotatable sliding contact
can be rotated
The electrical resistance strain gauge
• The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal wire, metal foil strip
or a strip of semiconductor material which is wafer-like and can be
stuck onto surfaces like a postage stamp.

• When subject to strain, its resistance R changes, the fractional

change in resistance ΔR/R being proportional to the strain ε, i.e
ΔR/R =G ε where G, the constant of proportionality,
is termed the gauge factor
Qn) An electrical resistance strain gauge with a resistance of
100 Ω and a gauge factor of 2.0. What is the change in
resistance of the gauge when it is subject to a strain of
0.001?

Ans) Hint: The fractional change in resistance is equal to the

gauge factor multiplied by the strain

ΔR/R =G ε
Strain-gauged element
One form of displacement sensor has strain gauges
attached to flexible elements in the form of
cantilevers , rings or U-shapes
Strain-gauged element-contd.

• When the flexible element is bent or deformed as a result of forces

being applied, then the electrical resistance strain gauges mounted
on the element are strained and so give a resistance change which
can be monitored.

• The change in resistance is thus a measure of the displacement or

deformation of the flexible element.
Capacitive element
• Capacitive sensors is used for the measurement of linear
displacements

• Capacitive sensors works by detecting the change of capacitance

(is the ability to store charges)

• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by

C= εr*εo*A / d

where εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the

plates, εo ,a constant called the permittivity of free space, A the area
of overlap between the two plates and d the plate separation
• Different forms of capacitive sensors are

• (a) one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate
separation changes; in (b) the displacement causes the area of
overlap to change; in (c) the displacement causes the dielectric
between the plates to change

• For the displacement changing the plate separation (a), if the

separation d is increased by a displacement x then the capacitance
becomes C-ΔC = εr*εo*A / d+x
Hence the change in capacitance ΔC as a fraction of the initial
capacitance, C is given by

𝑥
ΔC 𝑑 ( )
𝑑
=- +1= 𝑥
𝐶 𝑑+𝑥 1+( )
𝑑
• There is thus a non-linear relationship between the change in
capacitance ΔC and the displacement x. This non-linearity can be
overcome by using what is termed a push–pull displacement
sensor • The displacement moves the
central plate between the two
other plates.

• for example, the central plate

moving downwards is to increase
the plate separation of the upper
capacitor and decrease the
separation of the lower capacitor
 C1= εr*εo*A / d+x
C2= εr*εo*A / d-x

• Push–pull displacement sensor is typically used for monitoring

displacements from a few millimetres to hundreds of millimetres.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
The e.m.f. induced in a
secondary coil by a changing
current i in the primary coil is
given by
di
E= M
dt

where M is the mutual

inductance, its value
depending on the number of
turns on the coils and the
ferromagnetic core.
 For a sinusoidal input current of i = I sin ωt in the primary coil,
the e.m.f.s induced in the two secondary coils 1 and 2 are
v1 = k1 sin(ωt - φ) and v2 = k2 sin(ωt - φ)
where the values of k1, k2 and φ depend on the degree of
coupling between the primary and secondary coils for a
particular core position. φ is the phase difference between the
primary and the secondary alternating voltages.
Because the two outputs are in series, their difference is the output:
output voltage = v1 - v2 = (k1 - k2) sin(ωt - φ)
When the core is equally in both coils, k1 equals k2 and so the
output voltage is zero.
When the core is more in 1 than in 2 we have k1 > k2 and
output voltage = (k1 - k2) sin(wt - φ)
When the core is more in 2 than in 1 we have k1 < k2. A consequence
of k1 being less than k2 is that there is a phase change of 180° in the
output. Thus
output voltage = -(k1 - k2) sin(ωt - φ) = (k2 - k1) sin[ωt + (π – φ)]
Eddy current proximity sensors
Inductive proximity switch

The detection coil located at the front end of the sensor produces a high-frequency
magnetic field
 Optical encoders
• Encoder is a device that provides a digital output
as a result of a linear or angular displacement.
Position encoders can be grouped into two
categories:
• Incremental encoders, which detect changes in
rotation from some datum position; and
• Absolute encoders, which give the actual angular
position.
Optical encoders
• Incremental encoder
 Optical encoders
• Absolute encoder
 Hall effect sensors
• When a beam of charged particles passes through
a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and
the beam is deflected from its straight line path.
• A current flowing in a conductor is like a beam of
moving charges and thus can be deflected by a
magnetic field.
• This effect was discovered by ER. Hall in 1879 and
is called the Hall effect.
 Hall effect sensors

where B is the magnetic flux density at right

Hall Voltage: angles to the plate,
I the current through it,
t the plate thickness and
KH a constant called the Hall coefficient.
 Two types of Hall effect sensors: Linear and Threshold

linear over the gives an output

range -40 to which switches
+40 mT (-400 from virtually zero
to +400 gauss) to about 145 mV
at about 10 mV when the
per mT (1 mV magnetic flux
per gauss) density is about 3
when there is a mT (30 gauss)
supply voltage
of 5 V

Hall effect sensor 634SS2 Threshold Hall effect sensor Allegro

UGN3132U
The Hall effect sensor
• is immune to environmental
contaminants and can be
used under severe service
conditions.
• can be used as position,
displacement and proximity
sensors if the object being
sensed is fitted with a small
permanent magnet.

Fluid-level detector
Temperature Sensors
• Bimetallic strips
 Resistance temperature detectors (RTDs)
The resistance of
metals increases, over
a limited temperature
range, in a reasonably
linear way with
temperature.
For such a linear relationship:
Rt = R0(1 + αt)
where Rt, is the resistance at a temperature t(°C),
R0 the resistance at 0°C and
α a constant for the metal termed the temperature
coefficient of resistance.
highly stable and give reproducible responses over long periods of time
Thermistors
• Small pieces of material made from mixtures of metal
oxides, such as those of chromium, cobalt, iron,
manganese and nickel which are semiconductors.
• Is formed into various forms of element, such as
beads, discs and rods.
➢ Are rugged and can be very small, enabling
temperatures to be monitored at virtually a point.
➢ Owing to small size, they respond very rapidly to
changes in temperature.
➢ Give very large changes in resistance per degree change
in temperature.
➢ Main disadvantage is non-linearity.
➢ Used with the electronic
systems for cars to monitor air
temperature and coolant air
temperature etc..
• Flow sensors
– Orifice flow sensor
– Turbine flow meter
Orifice plate
Turbine meter
 Measuring Fluid Pressure
• involve the monitoring of the elastic deformation of
diaphragms, capsules, bellows and tubes.
• Types of pressure measurements:
– absolute pressure where the pressure is measured relative to zero
pressure, i.e. a vacuum
– differential pressure where a pressure difference is measured and
– gauge pressure where the pressure is measured relative to the
barometric pressure.
Fluid pressure
Diaphragms
Corrugated for more
sensitivity
Diaphragms, capsules and
bellows are made from such
materials as stainless steel, Pressures in the
LVDT with bellows range of about
phosphor bronze and nickel,
with rubber and nylon also 103 to 108 Pa
being used for some can be
diaphragms. monitored
 Bourdon tube

The tubes are made from stainless steel and phosphor bronze and are
used for pressures in the range 103 to 108 Pa.
 Piezoelectric Sensors

Piezoelectric materials when stretched or compressed generate

electric charges with one face of the material becoming positively
charged and the opposite face negatively charged.

The net charge q on a surface is proportional to the amount x by Piezoelectricity

which the charges have been displaced, and since the
displacement is proportional to the applied force F:
q = kx = SF
where k is a constant and S a constant termed the charge
sensitivity

Material Quartz barium titanate lead zirconate-titanate

Charge Sensitivity 2.2 pC/N 130 pC/N 265 pC/N piezoelectric capacitor
 Piezoelectric Sensors
• Used for the measurement of pressure, force and acceleration.
• The applications have to be such that the charge produced by
the pressure does not have much time to leak off and thus
tends to be used mainly for transient rather than steady
pressures.
 Synchros and Resolvers
• Synchro
– a generic term for a family of transducing instruments, the members
of which can be connected together in various ways to form shaft
angle measurement and positioning systems.
– these devices work on the same principle as that of a rotating
transformer.
– magnitude of the magnetic coupling between the primary and
secondary varies according to the position of the rotating element.
This in turn varies the magnitude of the output voltage.
 Synchros and Resolvers
• Synchro

Internal structure of a synchro and its electrical representation External appearance of a synchro
 Synchros and Resolvers
• Resolvers
– A form of synchro in which the windings in the
stator and rotor are displaced mechanically by
90° to each other instead of 120° in synchros.
– Thus, exploits the sinusoidal relationship
between the shaft angle and the output
voltage
– In appearance, resolvers are similar to synchros Electrical representation
of simple resolver
 Acoustic Emission Sensors
• acoustic emission is a phenomenon of sound and ultrasound
wave generation by materials that undergo deformation and
fracture processes.
• Sound
– the only parameter measured directly in acoustics is the sound
pressure, and all other parameters like sound power, particle velocity,
reverberation time, and directivity are derived from pressure
measurements
 Acoustic Emission Sensors
• Sound
– Pressure measurements are performed with measurement
microphones in gaseous media and hydrophones in liquid media.
– The measurement microphones are all of the condenser type to
ensure precision, long-term stability, and sensitivity
– Hydrophones are usually made with a rubber coating over a sensitive
element of piezoelectric material
 Acoustic Emission Sensors
• Ultrasound
– Most ultrasound measurements are based on the generation of a
short ultrasound pulse that propagates in a specified direction and is
partly reflected wherever there is an abrupt change in the acoustic
properties of the medium and detection of the resulting echoes
(pulse-echo ultrasound)
– A change in properties can be due to a cyst in liver tissue, a crack in a
high-pressure pipe, or a reflection from layers in the sea bottom etc.
 Acoustic Emission Sensors
• Ultrasound
 Acoustic Emission Sensors
• Ultrasound

Simplified block diagram of a pulse-echo ultrasound system

 Vibration Sensors
• A device that measures the amount and frequency of vibration
in a given system, machine, or piece of equipment.
• Can be used to detect imbalances or other issues in the asset
and predict future breakdowns.
 Vibration Sensors
• Sensors used to measure vibration come in three basic types:
– displacement,
– velocity, and
– acceleration.
 Vibration Sensors
• Displacement Type
– Uses electromagnetic eddy current technology
• Velocity Type
– based on a coil moving around a magnet
• Acceleration Type
– Uses piezoelectricity and MEMS (microelectromechanical systems)
 Types of Vibration Sensors
• Accelerometer
– Devices that measure the vibration, or acceleration of motion of a
structure.
– Have a transducer that converts mechanical force caused by vibration
or a change in motion, into an electrical current using the
piezoelectric effect.
 Types of Vibration Sensors
• Strain Gauge
– Measures the strain on a machine component.
– A sensor whose resistance varies with applied force;
– It converts force, pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in
electrical resistance which can then be measured.
• Eddy-Current
– Eddy-Current or Capacitive Displacement sensor.
– are non-contact devices that measure the position and/or change of
position of a conductive component.
 Types of Vibration Sensors
• Laser displacement
– Like Eddy-Current sensors, these are non-contact sensors,
– Instead of using magnetic fields and electric currents, they use a laser
beam with triangulation.
– The beam is aimed at the asset and reflects back through a receiving
lens into a receiving element.
– Any changes in the object’s position will cause the beam to hit a
different part of the receiving element.
 Types of Vibration Sensors
• Gyroscopes
– A contact sensor that measures angular velocity, which is how quickly
something turns or rotates.
– Uses MEMS (microelectromechanical systems) technology, which
provides accurate measurements of how many degrees an object
rotates per second.
– Gyroscopes aren’t typically used on their own; they’re used to
supplement the data collected from an accelerometer with
orientation data.
 Types of Vibration Sensors
• Microphone sensors
– Vibrations create sound, and that sound is often beyond the range of
human hearing.
– Microphone sensors or acoustic pressure sensors provide some basic
information on changes that might occur in high-frequency vibrations
that equipment operators wouldn’t normally be able to detect.
– Highly cost effective, though the information they provide is fairly
limited.
 Module 1 Completed

Thank You…