VPE 321veterinary Epidemiology and Zoonosis

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in
SYLLABUS THEORY
Definitions and aims of epidemiology. Factors influencing occurrence of livestock diseases and
production. Ecological basis and natural history of diseases. Sources, Storage, retrieval and
representation of disease information/data. Epidemiological hypothesis. Epidemiological methods:
descriptive, analytical (observational), experimental, theoretical (modeling), serological and molecular.
Survey of animal diseases. Surveillance and monitoring of livestock diseases. Animal disease forecasting.
Strategies of disease management: prevention, control and eradication. Economics of animal diseases.
National and International regulations on livestock diseases. Role of OIE and laws on international trade
on animals and animal products. Definition, history and socio-economic impact of zoonotic diseases.
Classification of zoonoses and approaches to their management. New, emerging, re-emerging and
occupational zoonoses. Role of domestic, wild, pet and laboratory animals and birds in transmission of
zoonoses. Zoonotic pathogens as agents of bio-terrorism. Reservoirs, clinical manifestations in animals
and humans, and the management of the following zoonoses: rabies, Japanese encephalitis, Kyasanur
forest disease, influenza, anthrax, brucellosis, tuberculosis, leptospirosis, listeriosis, plague, rickettsiosis,
chlamydiosis and dermatatophytosis. Food borne zoonoses: salmonellosis, staphylococcosis, clostridial
food poisoning, campylobacteriosis, helminthosis, toxoplasmosis and sarcocystosis. Veterinary Public
Health Administration. PRACTICAL Collection of epidemiological samples. Measurement of disease:
determination of morbidity and mortality rates/ratios. Generation of epidemiological protocols and
reports. Demonstration of selected software programmes/models e.g. EPIZOO, HandiSTATUS and India-
Admas-EPITRAK. Evaluation of vaccines and diagnostic tests. Determination of Associations and risks:
relative risk, Odd’s ratio and attributable risk. Survey of an animal disease on a farm. Field survey of
zoonotic diseases. Concurrent isolation and identification of important pathogens of zoonotic important
from animal and human sources including foods of animal origin and their interpretation. Study of rural
environment and health status of rural community. Visit to primary health centre/human hospital and
study of the common diseases affecting rural/urban population, and probable relationships of these
human disease conditions with animal diseases present in the area.
MODULE-1: DEFINITIONS AND AIMS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
Learning objectives
 To learn about,
o Introduction to epidemiology and its meaning in veterinary context
o Aims of epidemiology
o Objectives of epidemiology
INTRODUCTION
 Epidemiology is a very old science, but it has gained importance only after “germ
theory” of disease causation was established in 1800.
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 Then epidemiology has become a more holistic discipline, and many factors in
addition to the specific agent are being investigated to determine their role as
potential causes of disease.
 Epidemiology is the study of how often diseases occur in different groups of people
and why.
 Like the clinical findings and pathology, the epidemiology of a disease is an integral
part of its basic description.
 Clinical observations determine decisions about individuals. Epidemiological
observations may also guide decisions about individuals, but they relate primarily to
groups of people.
 The unit of concern in epidemiologic studies is not the individuals but rather groups
or categories of individuals such as pen, herd or flock.
 It gives information about what animals are affected and where and when a disease
occurs - often suggestive of the cause of disease.
 Subsequently it will be necessary to identify the determinants (cause) of the disease
(i.e., to explain why the disease occurs - with the objective to reduce the severity or
frequency of occurrence).
 Epidemiology has its special techniques of data collection and interpretation, and its
necessary jargon for technical terms.
 A key feature of epidemiology is the measurement of disease outcomes in relation to
a population at risk.
 The population at risk is the group of people, healthy or sick, who would be counted
as cases if they had the disease being studied.
 Epidemiological information is used to plan and evaluate strategies to prevent illness
and as a guide to the management of patients in whom disease has already
developed.
 Veterinary epidemiology additionally includes investigation and assessment of other
health related events particularly productivity. Epidemiology thrives on
heterogeneity
EPIDEMIOLOGY - DEFINITION
Literal Translation
 The word "epidemiology" is derived from Greek

 Epi = upon; Demos = people; Logos = Study = Discussing, is the ‘study of
that which is upon the people’.
Definitions
 Study of the patterns of disease under field conditions.

 Is the study of the frequency, distribution and determinants of health and
disease in populations.
 Is the study of disease in populations and of factors that determine its occurrence.
 Is the study of health status of the population (Schwabe et al., 1977).
 Nothing more than ecology with a medical and mathematical favour.
 A population analogue to pathogenesis of disease in individuals.
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 Epidemiology is the study of how often diseases occur in different groups of people
and why.
 The study of disease as a mass phenomenon (Greenwood, 1934).
 The study of ecology of infectious diseases (Gorden, 1963).
 A method of reasoning about disease that deals with biological inferences derived
from observations of disease phenomena in population groups (Linlienfeld, 1978).
 Quantitative analysis of circumstances under which disease processes including
trauma occur in population groups, the factors affecting their incidence, distribution
and host responses and use of this knowledge in prevention and control (Evans,
1979).
 The investigation of diseases, other health related events and production in animal
population and making inferences from the investigation in an attempt to improve
the health and productivity of populations (Thrushfield, 1986).
EPIDEMIOLOGY - AIMS
 To minimize or eradicate the disease or health problems and their consequences

 To minimize the chances of disease occurrence in future
 To define the magnitude and occurrence of disease conditions in animals
 To identify the etiological factors responsible for the disease conditions
 To provide data necessary for planning, implementation and evaluation of
programmes aimed at preventing, controlling and treating the diseases.
MODULE-2: FACTORS INFLUENCING OCCURRENCE OF

LIVESTOCK DISEASES AND PRODUCTION
Learning objectives
 To learn elaborately about,

o What factors affect the occurrence of diseases in livestock?
o What is a determinant?
o Different types of determinants
 Agent determinants
 Host determinants
 Environmental determinants
o Interaction of host, agent and environment in the occurrence of disease
INTRODUCTION
 The disease is caused by multiple factors. The factors are determinants of

disease.
 Determinant is any factor that when altered produces a change in the frequency or
characteristics of disease.
 A determinant is any character that affects the health of the population.
o Example: Diet is a determinant of bovine hypomagnesaemia.
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 Knowledge of determinants helps in the identification of categories of animal that

are at particular risk of developing disease.
 It is therefore prerequisite for disease prevention and is an aid to differential
diagnosis.
CLASSIFICATION OF DETERMINANTS
Determinants are described as,
 Primary and secondary

 Intrinsic and extrinsic
 Associated with host, agent and environment
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DETERMINANTS
Primary determinants
 Factors whose variations exert a major effect in inducing diseases.

 Frequently, primary determinants are necessary causes.
o Eamples: Exposure of dogs to distemper virus is a primary determinant of
canine distemper.
Intrinsic Extrinsic determinants

determinants
Genetic Animate Inanimate

constitution Endoparasitic Ectoparasitic Physical Chemical Allergic
Metabolism Viruses Arthropods Trauma Excesses Allergens
Behaviour Bacteria Climate Deficiency
Fungi Radiation Imbalance
Protozoa Stressors Poisons
Metazoa Photosensitizers
Secondary determinants
 Determinants correspond to predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors.

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o Examples: Sex is the secondary determinant of canine heart valve

incompetence; Male dogs are more likely to develop incompetence than
females.
 Season is the secondary determinant in clostridial infections. Monsoon season
favours clostridial infections.
Intrinsic determinants Extrinsic determinants
Genetic constitution (breed, sex, Location

species.)
Climate
Age
Husbandry (Housing, diet, general
Size and conformation
management, animal use)
Hormonal status
Trauma
Nutritional status
Concurrent disease
Immunological status
Vaccination status
Functional status (e.g. pregnancy,
lactation) Stressors
Behaviour
INTRINSIC AND EXINTRISIC DETERMINANTS
 Some determinants both primary and secondary are internal to the host.
o Examples: Genetic constitution, including aberrant genes (which are primary
causes of genetic disorders), species, breed and sex.
 These determinants are intrinsic, also termed endogenous.
 In contrast some determinants are external to the host; for instance, transportation,
which may result in physical trauma, producing bruising of carcasses. Such
determinants are extrinsic, also termed as exogenous.
Intrinsic and extrinsic determinants
Intrinsic Extrinsic
Species Hereditary Sex Age Physiological Animal use Level of

state husbandry
Breed Defects
Physical Resistance
type
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ASSOCIATED WITH HOST, AGENT AND

ENVIRONMENT
 These three groups of factors are sometimes called the "epidemiological triad".
 In some diseases an infectious agent is the main determinant and host and
environmental factors are of relatively minor importance. Such diseases are 'simple’.
E.g. foot-and mouth disease and rinderpest.
 In other disease termed 'complex', their multifactorial nature predominates and a
clear interaction between host, agent and environment can be identified.
 Thus, 'environmental' mastitis involves an interaction between Escherichia coli (the
agent), milking machine faults, and poor hygiene resulting from inadequate bedding,
drainage and cleaning of passage ways (the environment). In addition, cows (the
hosts) are most susceptible in early lactation.
HOST DETERMINANTS
 Genotype
 Age
 Sex
 Species and Breed
 Coat colour
 Physiological status
 Size and confrontation
Genotype
 Genotype is the genetic constitution of a host.

 Gene alterations are considered to be the major cause for genetic diseases.
 This altered gene structure may be inherited by succeeding generations.
 Example: Haemophilia A and B in dogs.
o Genetic diseases belong to one of the following three categories.
 Chromosomal disorders
 Mendalian disorders
 Multifactorial disorders
o Example: Hip displasia in dogs due to genetic weakness of muscle supporting
the hip joint and condition in early life favours separation of joint.
o Multifactorial disorders occur when factors pass beyond a threshold level or
value beyond which disease occurs.
o Although an individual is inherited with right number and combination of
genes, when exposed to environmental determinants to pass beyond a
threshold level beyond which the disease occurs.
o Example: Congenital heart defects -Patent ductus arteriosus.
Age
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 In general young animals are more likely to be affected by many bacterial and viral
diseases.
 This is because of an absence of acquired immunity (maternally derived antibodies)
(Example: Parvoviral infection in young pups)
o Low non-immunological host resistance.
o In contrast many protozoan and rickettsial infections induce milder response
in young than old.
Sex
 It includes
o Hormonal determinants
o Occupational determinants
o Social and ethological determinants
o Genetic determinants
 Hormonal determinants
o Bitches are more likely to develop signs of diabetes mellitus after oestrus,
possibly more than male dogs, due to increased insulin requirement during
oestrus.
o Less incidence of mammary carcinoma in neutralized bitches.
 Occupational determinants
o Increased risk of heartworm infection in male dogs, resulting from increased
occupational exposure of male dogs during hunting (mosquitoes are vectors).
 Social and ethological determinants (Behavioral patterns)
o Example: Competition between male dogs for breeding with females
resulting in transmission of rabies due to bite wounds.
 Genetic determinants
o Inherited either by sex linked, sex limited or sex influenced.
o Example: Haemophilia A and B, which associated with ’X’ chromosomes and
are inherited recessively, the defects being predominant in males.
Species and breed
 They vary in their susceptibility and responses to different infectious agents.

 Example: In Rottweilers and Doberman dog breeds, parvoviral enteritis is more
common and severe. In Boxers, mycotic diseases (Coccidiodomycosis) are more
common.
Coat colour
 White cat prone for cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma, which is related to lack of
pigmentation.
Physiological status
 Metabolic diseases immediately after calving due to physiological stress.

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o Example: Downer cow syndrome and milk fever.
Size and confrontation
 Cows with small pelvic outlet relative to their size - predisposed to dystocia.
o Example: Hip dysplasia and osteosarcoma are common in larger breeds
than smaller breeds.
AGENT DETERMINANTS
Virulence and pathogenecity
 Infectious agents vary in their ability to infect and to induce disease in animals.
 Ability to infect depends upon the susceptibility of the host and also the immune
status of the host.
 Ability to induce disease is expressed in terms of virulence and pathogenecity.
Virulence
 Virulence is the ability of an infectious agent to cause disease in a particular host in

terms of severity.
 Highly virulent organisms are often associated with high case fatality rate.
Pathogenecity
 It refers to the quality of disease induction. Pathogenecity can also be defined as the
ratio of number of individuals developing clinical illness to the numbers exposed to
infection.
 A highly pathogenic organism induces clinical disease in large proportions of
animals.
 Virulence and pathogenecity are commonly intrinsic characters of an infectious
agent.
 Pathogenecity is sometimes used as a synonym for virulence.
 Virulence and pathogenecity are either phenotypically or genotypically conditioned.
 Phenotypic changes are transient and are lost in the succeeding generations.
 Genotypic changes result from a change in DNA and RNA of the microbial genome.
 Genotypic changes in an infectious agent can result from mutation, recombination,
conjugation, transduction and transformation.
Mutation
 It is an alteration in the sequence of nucleic acids in the genome of a cell or virus

particle.
 There may be either point mutation of one base or deletion mutation where
segments of genome are removed.
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Recombination
 It is the reassortment of segments of a genome that occurs when two microbes

exchange genetic material.
 Major changes are referred to as 'antigenic shift' and minor changes as 'antigenic
drift'.
 Conjugation involves transmission of genetic material from one bacterium to another
by conjugal mechanism (i.e. by touch) through a sex pilus.
 This is common in E.coli, Salmonella, Proteus, Shigella and Pasteurella species.
Transduction
 It is the transfer of small portion genome from one bacterium to another by a

bactriophage.
 It occurs in Shigella, Pseudomonas and Proteus spp.
Transformation
 It is transmission of naked nucleic acid between bacteria without contact.
ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINANTS
Location
 Local geological formations, vegetations and climate affect the spatial distribution of
both animals and diseases.
o Example: Jaw tumors in sheep are associated with the distribution of bracken
fern.
 Noise is also associated with location.
 The temporal distribution - disease is also associated with location because of
seasonal effect of climate.
Climate
 Two types
o Macroclimate
o Microclimate
 Macroclimate
o Comprises of normal components of weather to which the animals are
exposed: Rain fall, temperature, solar radiation, humidity and wind velocity.
o Temperature: Newborn animals are more prone to hypothermia.
o Wind and rain increases heat loss from animals.
o Cold stress predisposes animals to diseases.
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o Wind can also carry infectious agents (like FMD virus) and arthropod vectors
(Culicoides spp. with bluetongue virus)
o Solar radiation - primary determinant for the
carcinogenic effect.Example: Cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma
o Stratospheric ozone depletion - increases ultra violet radiation
o Humidity: In low humidity, IBRT virus survives well and in high humidity,
rhinovirus survives well.
o Climatic impact can be measured in several ways. A common method is to
calculate the Wind-chill index. This combines the effects of temperature and
wind speed and especially important at temperatures below freezing.
 Microclimate
o A microclimate is a climate that occurs in a small-defined space. This may be
as small as within a few millimeters of a plant or animal’s surface (Terrestrial
or Biological) or as large as a piggery or a calf house.
o Terrestrial microclimate (over the surface of leaves) affects the development
of arthropods and helminths.
o Biological microclimate (over the surface of the host’s body) can change
during the course of a disease, assisting its spread. Example: Sweating during
parasitaemic phase in human malaria, increases the humidity of body surface
and attracts mosquitoes.
Husbandry
 Housing: Well-designed, non-slippery floors and well-ventilated houses are

important.
 Diet: Diet has obvious effects in diseases caused by energy, protein, vitamin and
mineral deficiencies. Increased level of biotin reduces the incidence of foot lesions in
sows.
 Management: Management determines the stocking density and production policy.
Increased densities increase the challenge of microbial pathogens. Internal
replacement policy i.e. maintaining a closed population is likely to induce diseases.
 Stress and stressors
o Stress: Stress is the sum of the biological reactions to any adverse physical,
mental and emotional stimulus that tends to disturb homeostasis.
o Stressors: The factors that produce the stress are known as 'stressors'.
Example: Climatic extremes and trauma.
 Selye's hypothesis:
o Selye in 1936 described the effect of stress in the laboratory animal, which
was, known as 'Selye's hypothesis’. Later on it is known as 'General adaptation
syndrome'.
o There are 3 phases in this syndrome,
 General alarm reaction: occurs within 6-48 hours after exposure to a
stressor. The size of various organs as spleen, lymph node, liver etc,
will be decreased.
 The phase of resistance: It begins after 48 hours wherein there will be
release of corticosteroids and the thyrotrophic hormones.
 The phase of reaction: Here it may end in death.
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MODULE-2: FACTORS INFLUENCING OCCURRENCE OF

LIVESTOCK DISEASES AND PRODUCTION
Learning objectives
 To learn elaborately about,

o What factors affect the occurrence of diseases in livestock?
o What is a determinant?
o Different types of determinants
 Agent determinants
 Host determinants
 Environmental determinants
o Interaction of host, agent and environment in the occurrence of disease
INTRODUCTION
 The disease is caused by multiple factors. The factors are determinants of

disease.
 Determinant is any factor that when altered produces a change in the frequency or
characteristics of disease.
 A determinant is any character that affects the health of the population.
o Example: Diet is a determinant of bovine hypomagnesaemia.
 Knowledge of determinants helps in the identification of categories of animal that
are at particular risk of developing disease.
 It is therefore prerequisite for disease prevention and is an aid to differential
diagnosis.
CLASSIFICATION OF DETERMINANTS
Determinants are described as,
 Primary and secondary

 Intrinsic and extrinsic
 Associated with host, agent and environment
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DETERMINANTS
 Factors whose variations exert a major effect in inducing diseases.

 Frequently, primary determinants are necessary causes.
o Eamples: Exposure of dogs to distemper virus is a primary determinant of
canine distemper.
www.drvet.in
Intrinsic Extrinsic determinants

determinants
Genetic Animate Inanimate

constitution Endoparasitic Ectoparasitic Physical Chemical Allergic
Metabolism Viruses Arthropods Trauma Excesses Allergens
Behaviour Bacteria Climate Deficiency
Fungi Radiation Imbalance
Protozoa Stressors Poisons
Metazoa Photosensitizers
 Determinants correspond to predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors.

o Examples: Sex is the secondary determinant of canine heart valve
incompetence; Male dogs are more likely to develop incompetence than
females.
 Season is the secondary determinant in clostridial infections. Monsoon season
favours clostridial infections.
Intrinsic determinants Extrinsic determinants

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Genetic constitution (breed, sex, Location

species.)
Climate
Age
Husbandry (Housing, diet, general
Size and conformation
management, animal use)
Hormonal status
Trauma
Nutritional status
Concurrent disease
Immunological status
Vaccination status
Functional status (e.g. pregnancy,
lactation) Stressors
Behaviour
Intrinsic Extrinsic

state husbandry
Breed Defects
Physical Resistance
type
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Intrinsic Extrinsic

state husbandry
Breed Defects
Physical Resistance
type
HOST DETERMINANTS
 Genotype
 Age
 Sex
 Species and Breed
 Coat colour
 Physiological status
 Size and confrontation
Genotype
 Genotype is the genetic constitution of a host.

 Gene alterations are considered to be the major cause for genetic diseases.
 This altered gene structure may be inherited by succeeding generations.
 Example: Haemophilia A and B in dogs.
o Genetic diseases belong to one of the following three categories.
 Chromosomal disorders
 Mendalian disorders
 Multifactorial disorders
o Example: Hip displasia in dogs due to genetic weakness of muscle supporting
the hip joint and condition in early life favours separation of joint.
o Multifactorial disorders occur when factors pass beyond a threshold level or
value beyond which disease occurs.
o Although an individual is inherited with right number and combination of
genes, when exposed to environmental determinants to pass beyond a
threshold level beyond which the disease occurs.
o Example: Congenital heart defects -Patent ductus arteriosus.
Age
 In general young animals are more likely to be affected by many bacterial and viral
diseases.
 This is because of an absence of acquired immunity (maternally derived antibodies)
(Example: Parvoviral infection in young pups)
o Low non-immunological host resistance.
www.drvet.in
o In contrast many protozoan and rickettsial infections induce milder response

in young than old.
Sex
 It includes
o Hormonal determinants
o Occupational determinants
o Social and ethological determinants
o Genetic determinants
 Hormonal determinants
o Bitches are more likely to develop signs of diabetes mellitus after oestrus,
possibly more than male dogs, due to increased insulin requirement during
oestrus.
o Less incidence of mammary carcinoma in neutralized bitches.
 Occupational determinants
o Increased risk of heartworm infection in male dogs, resulting from increased
occupational exposure of male dogs during hunting (mosquitoes are vectors).
 Social and ethological determinants (Behavioral patterns)
o Example: Competition between male dogs for breeding with females
resulting in transmission of rabies due to bite wounds.
 Genetic determinants
o Inherited either by sex linked, sex limited or sex influenced.
o Example: Haemophilia A and B, which associated with ’X’ chromosomes and
are inherited recessively, the defects being predominant in males.
Species and breed
 They vary in their susceptibility and responses to different infectious agents.

 Example: In Rottweilers and Doberman dog breeds, parvoviral enteritis is more
common and severe. In Boxers, mycotic diseases (Coccidiodomycosis) are more
common.
Coat colour
 White cat prone for cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma, which is related to lack of
pigmentation.
Physiological status
 Metabolic diseases immediately after calving due to physiological stress.

o Example: Downer cow syndrome and milk fever.
Size and confrontation

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 Cows with small pelvic outlet relative to their size - predisposed to dystocia.
o Example: Hip dysplasia and osteosarcoma are common in larger breeds
than smaller breeds.
AGENT DETERMINANTS
status of the host.
Virulence

terms of severity.
Pathogenecity
infection.
animals.
agent.
Mutation

particle.
Recombination

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drift'.
Transduction

bactriophage.
Transformation
AGENT DETERMINANTS
status of the host.
Virulence

terms of severity.
Pathogenecity
infection.
animals.
agent.
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Mutation

particle.
Recombination

drift'.
Transduction

bactriophage.
Transformation
MODULE-3: ECOLOGICAL BASIS AND NATURAL HISTORY OF

DISEASES
Learning objectives
 To know in detail about,

o Basic concepts of ecology
o Distribution of population
o Types of ecosystem
o Landscape epidemiology
ECOLOGY OF DISEASE
 The study of disease in populations requires an understanding of the relationship

between hosts and agents and their environment.
 The study of animals and plants in relation to their habits and habitation is ecology
(Greek: oikos -house; logos - discussing).
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 Ecology developed as a discipline relating to animals and plants, but has been
extended to include microorganisms.
 The scale of ecology therefore ranges from an investigation of leptospires in the
environment of the renal tubules to the distribution of sylvatic hosts of FMD in the
African savannahs.
 The study of disease’s ecology (natural history) is a part of epidemiological
investigation.
 It has two objectives
o (i). An increase in understanding of the pathogenesis, maintenance and
transmission of infectious agents of disease.
o (ii). The use of knowledge of a disease’s ecology to predict when and where a
disease may occur, and to enable the development of suitable control
measures.
BASIC ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS
 Two major factors that determine the occurrence of disease are

o Distribution
o Size of the animal population
 The distribution of animal population depends on the distribution of suitable food
and the size of the population depends on the availability of food, mates and the
species’ breeding potential.
DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION
Vegetational zones
 Botanists were the first to note the division of earth into different vegetational zones.
 Early 18th century naturalists suggested that the world was divided into discrete
formations of vegetations such as tundra, savannah and desert. These apparent neat
formations were first explained by de Candole (1874) who argued that climate
particularly temperature dictated vegetation. He drew the first vegetational map
based on isotherms.
 At the beginning of the 20th century Koppen used de Candole’s classification as the
basis for modern system, which provides good correlation between climatic and
vegetational regions.
Biomes
 Zoologists attempted to classify different areas of the world according to types of

animals and plants that were present because distribution of animals appeared to be
related to vegetation.
 Merriam (1893) defined life zones in North America after studying the distribution of
animals and plants at various altitudes on North American mountains.
 Merriam like de Candole thought that temperature governed the distribution of
animals.
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 These life zones are now commonly called biomes. Example: Tropical rain forest,
savannah, tundra each with its own particular range of plants and animals.
 Distribution of infectious agents and their vectors and the disease may be limited by
the environmental conditions of the biomes. E.g. Fungus Coccidioides
immitis limited to areas characterized by hot summers, mild winter, and alkaline pH
soil. Rift valley fever in West African ecological zones (Mosquito vectors in these
zones)
REGULATION OF POPULATION SIZE
Balance of Nature
 Stability of animals and plant populations.

 Populations growth reach a certain size and then stop growing.
 The population becomes stable and balanced with the rate of reproduction equaling
the death rate.
Control of population size by competition
 The populations are brought into balance by competition for the resources of the
habitat especially food.
 Competition therefore is density dependent. Example: Reproduction
of Ascaris species is density dependent.
Dispersal
 In some parts of the world, there may be dramatic variations in climate.

 An Australian species of grasshopper overwinters in its egg. The warmth of spring
causes the eggs to hatch. The adults that develop then lay eggs as long as the weather
is wet. A drought kills all of the adults. This is not density dependent. It occurs long
before the competition occurs. Such insects survive only by dispersal over large areas
to different climates so that at least some are in an area that are wet.
Predation
 Predation has a role in controlling the size of the population. This is particularly true
in the case of small animals.
 Small predators notably insects are efficient controllers of population.
 Predators have been used to control insect pests. Example: Lady birds used to
control cotton cushony-scale insects.
Infectious disease
 Infectious diseases are determining and regulating the size of the population.
Example: Epidemics.
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 Infectious agents can be divided into two groups according to generation dynamics,
as Microparasites and Macroparasites.
o Microparasites: Multiply directly when inside the host increasing the level of
parasitism. Example: Viruses, bacteria and protozoa.
o Macroparasites: Do not increase the level of parasitism, grow in the host but
multiply by producing infective stages which are released from the host to
infect new hosts. Example: Helminths and arthropods.
Home range
 Certain animals have natural restriction to the area over which they roam, i.e. is their
home range.
 This may control the population and has implications for the transmission of
infectious diseases.
 Infected animals may transmit infections over their home range but no further.
Example: Scrub typhus.
 The small home range of rats (maintenance host) results in mite’s (vectors) life cycle
restricted to small area called 'mite islands'. When mites are infected with this
rickettsial disease, localized endemic areas of scrub typhus associated with mite
islands occur.
Territoriality
 The part of an animal’s home range that defends aggressively from invaders is the
animal’s territory. This behavioral response is territoriality.
 Territoriality may control the population.
 The size of the territories varies for the same and for different species.
Social dominance
 In the 1920's, a social hierarchy called the 'peck order' was discovered among birds.
 Some gregarious species especially rodents inhabit at favourable places.
 When crowding occurs, socially weaker sections are forced out. This may be a
population control mechanism.
The “Wynne – Edwards” hypothesis
 The population control consequence of territoriality, social hierarchy and behaviour

may be just a side effect.
 The Aberdeen zoologist, Wynne - Edwards suggested that population control was the
main purpose of group behaviour, which sometimes caused physiological stress.
 The crowding of rats results in associated fighting, cannibalism and reduced
fecundity.
DISTRIBUTION AND CONTROL OF POPULATIONS

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 The distribution, the home range of animals and other behavioural activities of the
hosts of the infectious agents affect the transmission of infectious agents.
Example: The vulpine rabies.
 The maintenance host, fox’s behaviour alters the association between foxes.
 The animals may be solitary, paired or part of the family unit.
 Increased home range may also increase the spread of infection.
Niche
 Logistic equation for each species to find the relative size of each population
produces pairs of equations that were derived independently in US by Lotka (1925)
and in Italy by Volterra (1931). These equations are therefore called Lotka-Volterra
equations. They can be derived for varying degree of competition. The conclusion
drawn from these equations is of fundamental importance in ecology.
 It is that the coexistence of two strongly competing species is impossible. Coexistence
is possible if the competition is weak. This led to the principle of competitive
exclusion. That the competition will exclude all but one species from a particular
position defined by an animal’s feeding habits, physiology, mechanical habits and
behaviour. This position is 'animal’s niche'. The principle of competitive exclusion
can be summarized as “one species, one niche”.
Some examples of niche relating to disease
 Louse infestation
o Lice tend to be host specific. Pig lice do not live on man or dog or vice versa.
By being host specific, species of lice avoid competition, i.e, they have their
own niche.
o Two types of lice live on man; the head louse and the body louse each
parasitizising the two different parts of the body.
 Intracellular parasites occupy a niche in the cells
o They include all viruses, bacteria, and some protozoa.
o There are several advantages to this type of existence such as safety from
humoral antibodies and extra cellular agents.
 Epidemiological interference
o Studies in India have shown that the presence in a human community of one
type of respiratory adenovirus prevents infection with other types even
though the latter are common in surrounding communities.
o This is because the first type occupies a niche (the lower respiratory tract),
which therefore cannot be filled by other agents. This phenomenon is caled
'epidemiological interference'.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT TYPES OF ANIMALS

AND PLANTS
 A particular biome consists of different types of animals and plants. Some are
common and others are scarce; Some are large, others are small.
 Reasons for these variations have been suggested by ecological studies.
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Food chains
 Charles Elton noted what foxes ate in the summer and winter. In summer the foxes
ate birds. The birds ate berries, tundra leaves and insects.
 The insects also ate leaves. Thus Elton noted that there was a food chain: tundra-
insects-birds-foxes.
 In the winter there was a different food chain: marine animal- seal-polar bear-fox.
 Therefore in animal communities, a complex system has evolved with food chains
linking animals.
The size of the animal and food chains
 Elton observed that animals fed at different levels in the food chains. These levels he
termed as 'Trophic levels'.
 He also noticed that animals occupying different trophic levels generally were of
different sizes.
 The foxes were the largest and the birds were smaller (one level down). Similarly
further down the pyramid, the insects were even smaller.
The significance of food web to disease transmission
 The food web of an animal can determine the transmition of infectious agents. An
animal acts as host and to which food poisoning toxin is risk.
 Helminthic parasites for which there are definitive and intermediate hosts, are
frequently transmitted by food webs. E.g. Echinococcus granulosus. Eating sheep
offal infects dogs.
 Salmon poisoning: Rickettsia parasitizes a fluke that in turn parasitizes a snail that
in turn releases infected miracidia, which parasitizes the salmon. Feeding salmon to
dogs transmits the rickettsia.
ECOSYSTEMS
 Areas characterized by animals and plants that occupy them and by their physical
and climatic features pose a unique interacting complex. This is called as ecosystems.
 An ecosystem is an ecological unit consisting of both biotic and abiotic factors of
environment.
Components of ecosystem
Biotope
 It is the smallest spatial unit providing uniform conditions for life.

 An organism’s biotope therefore describes its location whereas a niche describes the
functional position of an organism in a community.
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 A biotope can vary in size. Example: Caeca of a chicken for Coccidia or an area of
poorly drained land for Fasciola infection in cattle.
Biocenosis
 Biocenosis is the collection of living organisms in a biotope.

 The organisms include plants, animals and the microorganisms in the biotope.
 Sometimes-biotic community is used synonymously with biotope. On other
occasions biotic community refers to a large biocenosis.
 Major biotic communities are biomes.
Trophic levels in ecosystem
 Each successive level of nourishment as represented by links of food chain is known

as trophic level.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
 The different modes of nutrition that are found in animals occupying different
trophic levels can be illustrated by constructing ecological pyramids.
 There are three types of pyramids
o Pyramid of numbers
o Pyramid of energy
o Pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of numbers
 This was first proposed by Charles Elton (1927). This illustrates the population
density relationships within and between trophic levels.
 The number of individuals decreased at each trophic level due to differences in
population growth and also due to predation.
Pyramid of energy
 Here there is relationship between energy available between different trophic levels.
Pyramid of biomass
 Biomass means total amount of living material.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM
 Three types of ecosystem can be identified according to their origin.

o Autochthonous ecosystem
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o Anthropurgic ecosystem
o Synanthropic ecosystem
Autochthonous ecosystem
 Autochthonous ecosystem is one coming from land itself. Example: Tropical

rainforest deserts.
Anthropurgic ecosystem
 Anthropurgic ecosystem is one created by man. Example: Cultivated forests and

town.
Synanthropic ecosystem
 Synanthropic ecosystem is one that is in contact with man. This facilitates

transmission of zoonotic infections. Example: Rats inhabitated in rubbish dumps
infected with leptospira may be a source of infection to humans.
ECOLOGICAL CLIMAX, ECOLOGICAL INTERFACES AND

ECOLOGICAL MOSAICS
Ecological climax
 When plants, animals, microbes, soil and macroclimate have evolved to a stable,
balanced relationship, an ecological climax traditionally is said to have occurred.
 When infections are present, they too are stable and therefore are usually
endemic. Also, the balance between host and parasite usually results in inapparent
infections. Such stable situations can be disrupted frequently by man resulting in
epidemics. Example: Bluetongue, a viral disease of sheep, was recognized only after
the importation of European breeds of sheep into South Africa towards the end of the
19th century. The virus, however, was present in indigenous sheep before that time,
but was part of an ecological climax.
 The importation of exotic sheep represented a disturbance of stable climax.
 A climax involving endemic infectious agents indicates that all factors for
maintenance and transmission of the agent are present.
 Sometimes changes in local ecology may tip the balance in favour of disease
incidence. Example: The seasonal periodicity of FMD in South America may be as a
result of seasonal increases in the size of susceptible cattle population when animals
are brought into endemic area for fattening.
Ecological interfaces
 An ecological interface is a junction of two ecosystems.

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 Infectious diseases can be transmitted across the interfaces.

o Example is the transmission of yellow fever, an arbovirus disease of man. The
virus is maintained in apes in Africa in autochthonous ecosystem in the
forest. The mosquito,Aedes Africans transmits the virus between apes.
 The mosquito Aedes simpsoni, bridges the interface between the autochthonous
forest ecosystem and the anthropurgic-cultivated areas.
 The mosquito therefore maintains a plantation cycle in which man and apes may be
infected.
 Finally the urban mosquito Aedes aegypti can maintain an urban cycle in man.
Ecological mosaics
 An ecological mosaic is a modified patch of vegetation created by man, within a

biome that has reached a climax.
 Infection may spread from wild animals to man in such circumstances.
o Example: Clearing of the forest encourages a close cover of weeds on the
ground creating conditions that are favourable for the incursion of field rats
with mites infected with scrub typhus which form mite islands and that local
areas become endemic for scrub typhus.
LANDSCAPE EPIDEMIOLOGY
 The study of diseases in relation to the ecosystems in which they are found, is
landscape epidemiology.
 Medical ecology, horizontal epidemiology and medical geography also convey the
same meaning.
 Investigations are frequently qualitative, involving the study of the ecological factors
that affect the occurrence, maintenance and in the case of infectious agents,
transmission of disease.
 This contrasts with the quantitative associations between specific diseases and the
hypothesized factors - sometimes termed 'Vertical epidemiology'.
 Landscape epidemiology was developed by Russian Pavlovsky (1964), and later
expanded by Audy (1962) and Galuzo (1975).
Nidality
 Russian steppe biome was the home of the great plagues such as Rinderpest.
 Many arthropod-transmitted infections present in the steppes were also limited to
distinct geographical areas. These foci were natural homes of these diseases and were
called nidi (Latin; nidus - nest).
 The presence of a nidus depends on its limitation to particular ecosystems.
Objectives of landscape epidemiology
 Landscape epidemiology is founded on the concept that if the nidality of diseases is

based on ecological factors then a study of ecosystems enables predictions to be
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made about the occurrence of disease and facilitates the development of appropriate
control strategies.
o Example: Kyasanur forest disease. It is caused by an arbovirus. It is
apparently restricted to an area 600 miles square in Mysore. The virus
endemically and inapparently infects some small mammals, including rats in
the local rain forest. The virus is transmitted by several species of ticks of
which only Haemaphysalis spinigera infest man. When man creates
ecological mosaics by cultivating areas for rice, his cattle roam into the
surrounding rain forest and may become infested with virus-infected
ticks. Dense population of ticks therefore build up around villages and when
infected, these ticks can transmit the infection to man.
MODULE-4: SOURCES, STORAGE, RETRIEVAL AND

REPRESENTATION OF DISEASE INFORMATION/DATA
Learning objectives

o Sources of data collection
o Geographic information system (GIS)
o Representation of data
SOURCE OF VETERINARY EPIDEMIOLOGICAL DATA
 The data related to disease and the associated factors are utilized for epidemiological
investigations.
 The collection of data always involves a cost, which includes postal charges for
questionnaire and laboratory examination charges.
 It is very important to note that knowledge regarding the suitable sources for
particular disease is very much essential before collection of data.
 The data from certain sources may be unsuitable and may not serve any purpose.
 The objective of Epidemiological investigation is very clear to the suppliers of data
and only then they co-operate.
 The questionnaire must be so designed that it should not be complex and time
consuming, and should be easily understandable.
 Generally the government provides funds fore collection of information on those
diseases that are of a economic important to that particular state of country.
 Poor laboratory diagnostic facility and insufficient manpower may hinder in
collection of data.
 Its always better to study number of diseases at a time so that repeated visit to the
same place can be avoided.
 Due to well developed veterinary infra structure and disease recording system in
developed countries, the data obtained from majority of the sources are actual.
 However this is not so with developing countries where the diagnostic infrastructure
is lacking.
 Therefore, all the sources may not be able to provide the desired epidemiological
data.
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DIFFERENT SOURCES OF DATA COLLECTION
The different sources from where the data can be collected are as follows,
Government veterinary hospitals
 These organizations are responsible for investigating diseases (both infectious and
non- infectious) in different species of livestock.
 Besides this, the Government has also set up various diagnostic laboratories where
the specimens / samples received from the field are examined, thus helping in
disease diagnosis.
 The Government Veterinary Hospitals are the major source of data collection.
Government organized farms
 There are organized farms manned by State Governments.

o Examples in Tamil Nadu District Livestock farm (DLF), Udhagamandalam,
Hosur and Orathanad, Tamil Nadu Veterinary and Animal Sciences
University farms. These farms constitute the good source of data collection for
retrospective studies as these data are recorded and stored routinely. These
organizations can also help for prospective study as it is easy to collect
information / random samples.
Central government institutes
 There are certain institutes / farms that are under direct control of ICAR / Central
Government. In Tamil Nadu, Southern Regional Research Centre, Kodaikannal,
Nuclear Jersey Farms, Udhagamandalam and other private farms. Besides these
there are various research institutes in other States too. All these institutes are
recording and storing data in relation to diseases and production events regularly.
Private livestock farms
 Nowadays organized livestock farms are coming up in private sector also.

 The data related to milk production, type of feed used, AI practices, vaccination,
number of deaths, disease occurrence, therapeutic measures followed, etc., are
recorded routinely such information is very useful for knowing the patterns of
diseases and its association with management / environmental factors in a particular
area.
Slaughter houses
 In India, large numbers of animal (cattle, sheep, goat, pigs, etc.,) are slaughtered
daily for human consumption generally apparently healthy animals are slaughtered,
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therefore majority of the diseases are diagnosed at meat inspection are subclinical or
inapparent.
 The data related to the parasitic diseases like Taeniosis, Gastrointestinal
nematodiosis and chronic diseases like TB, JD could be better obtained from these
sources.
 During meat inspection it is possible to conduct auxiliary investigation of blood,
sputum, lymph nodes and other tissues for specific studies for specific studies
example examination of cysticercosis, echinococcosis, etc., these slaughter houses
are primary sources of data for disease surveillance for conditions for which other
diagnostic methods are not appropriate. Since the animals arriving at abattoir are
from different places, it is possible to trace back the origin of infection.
 These sources have been used for Epidemiology surveys. Example: surveys of
reasons for condemnation of sheep at Scottish abattoir.
 Abattoir investigation can also be used to indicate fault in husbandry practices.
Veterinary colleges
 All the Veterinary Colleges have Veterinary clinics where individual cases related to
surgery, Gynaecology and Veterinary Medicine are treated. Thus the clinics provides
useful data related to these disciplines.
Poultry farms
 There has been phenomenal growth of poultry industry in India during the last two
decades.
 The data related to poultry diseases can be obtained from various broiler farms and
layer farms and hatcheries.
 We can come to know the emergence of new diseases as well as reemergence of
diseases if data are collected regularly.
 This in-turn helps in the understanding the disease patterns and association of
various casual factors with these diseases.
Vaccine institutes
 These can provide information regarding type of vaccines produced, total doses
produced and sold in a particular area / region / State.
 The vaccines for various diseases of livestock and poultry are being produced for
both under government and private sectors.
 The total vaccine consumption in an area will indirectly help in knowing the disease
status, and awareness among masses regarding the disease problems.
Feed manufacturers
 Feed manufacturers (both under government and private sectors) can provide
information about type of ingredients used in a mixed feed.
 We can also know the trend of ingredients used in a particular area.
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 Further, if a disease is related to deficiency or excess of particular ingredient(s),

increased incidence of that disease problem can be linked with that ingredient(s).
o Example: Increased incidence of aflatoxicosis in poultry will indicate the use
of contaminated ingredients like groundnut or corn in mixed feeds.
Pharmaceutical companies
 The sale records of pharmaceutical companies provide an indirect means of

assessing the extent of disease in a particular area.
o Examples: The sale of trypanocidal drugs will provide a rough estimate of the
prevalence of the disease in livestock although the estimates may be
inaccurate.
Private pet clinics
 Data related to health of pet animals particularly dogs, cats, lovebirds provide
information regarding disease prevalence.
Government bulletins
 An international bulletin on animal diseases covering the member countries of the

world is published by OIE (World Organisation for Animal Health) provides
information related to disease prevalence, incidence, epidemics and pandemics in a
population. Also other non governmental organizations, poultry packing plants, pet
food manufacturers, zoological gardens, breed societies and Kennel clubs provide
information on various diseases in animal population.
Knackers' yards
 The premises other than the slaughter houses where ill or dead animals, which are
unfit for human consumption, are sent for slaughtering are referred as knacker
yards.
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)
 Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are computerized systems for collecting,

storing, managing, interrogating and displaying spatial data.
 Now a days, GIS has crept out of obscurity to become a major industry concerned
with processing geographically based data.
 It incorporates various categories of data, all of which are geographically referenced
into a single manipulative information system. Data can be cartographic data
or attribute data.
 It can do graphical analysis based on geographic distribution, statistical analysis and
modeling.
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 Geographical Information Systems have the ability to graphically overlay data from
various sources on the same map.
Applications of GIS
 Cartography: Maps can be produced and updated very quickly.

 Neighborhood analysis: It can identify the livestock units adjacent to the
affected them.
 Overlay analysis: The maps on different data sets can be superimposed on each
other.
 Buffer generation: can provide information about the material/animal at risk of
infection within a given distance of an infected farm or along a road that has been
used by infected animals.
 Network analysis: Permits optimal routing along networks of linear features.
 Three-dimensional surface modeling: Creation of isoplethic maps.
 The geographic information system has the ability to link and correlate graphic and
non-graphic data, which helps in spatial distribution of disease and related factors.
 Now a days, these systems are used for disease control in Veterinary science as they
form integral part of veterinary decision support systems.
REPRESENTATION OF DISEASE INFORMATION
 'Results' of various findings are usually presented in various forms.

 The choice of the most appropriate form of presentation depends upon the type of
data and the investigator.
 The presentation should be self-explanatory and comprehensive.
 The data related to morbidity and mortality, and demographic data are generally
represented and it should be displayed in such a way that the information conveyed
can be understood easily. There are different methods of representation the data.
o Table
o Bar chart
o Line Diagram
o Pie Chart
o Time Trend Graph
o Box and Whisker Plot
o Shewhart Chart
o Cusum Chart
o Mapping
TABLE
 'Tabulation' is the simplest method of displaying numerical data.

 The numerical data is listed in columns and rows.
 The table should summarize the important features of the data and should have few
figures and should be compatible with the objective. If the table comprises figures
like percentages, which are derived by calculation from the original observations,
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these should be accompanied by sufficient data to enable recalculation of the original

numbers.
 In table, the variation in a character may not be understood easily.
o Example: Season wise mortality percentage in poultry based on post-mortem
examination (1988 – 1997) from Avian Disease Diagnostic Laboratory,
Namakkal, Tamilnadu, India.
Representation of data as "TABLE"
Condition Summer Winter Monsoon

(%) (%) (%)
Gout 35.04 36.59 28.37
Fatty liver haemorrhagic syndrome 24.27 65.05 8.74
Deficiency diseases 26.96 47.15 25.89
Heat stoke 95.58 4.42 p> 0.00
Egg peritonitis 26.97 42.03 31.00
Non-specific enteritis 24.48 39.67 35.85
Non-specific hepatitis 20.00 47.69 32.22
Toxicity 12.73 37.52 49.75
BAR CHART
 Vertical bars display the variables and height of the bars is proportional to the
number of occurrences of the variable.
 The bar chart is used to display those variables whose counts comprise of whole
numbers (Example: Number of cases of a disease and mortality).
 If the bars touch each other, then it is known as Histogram. In this, the variations in
a character can be understood easily.
Representation of data as "BAR CHART"

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LINE DIAGRAM
 The frequency of a continuous or discrete variable is presented by a point at a height

above the horizontal axis.
 The points are joined by straight lines.
 In line diagrams, it is essential for the scale of vertical axis to begin at zero.
 If the range of values on this axis is so large that it cannot be fitted onto a scale.
Which begins at zero, the axis is interrupted by a space so that reader’s attention is
drawn to this fact.
 Extension of the line beyond the two extreme points at either end is known as
extrapolation and it should not be done.
 It is the simplest and most frequently used method of displaying the epidemiology
data.
Representation of data as "LINE DIAGRAM"
PIE CHART
 A pie is a circle in which individual characters (diseases / conditions) are represented

as slices.
 The angle of each slice is proportional to the frequency of then character.
 It is the common way of displaying numerical data and the variations (by seeing the
angle of the character) can be understood easily.
 Pie charts are easy to comprehend and are useful when numerical data are being are
presented to audiences unaccustomed in interpreting scientific results.
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Representation of data as "PIE CHART"

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BOX AND WHISKER PLOT, SHEWHART CHART AND CUSUM

CHART
Box and Whisker plot
 The frequency distributions (variations in a variable in different groups) can be

compared by constructing Box and Whisker plots.
 The central horizontal line indicates the median.
 The upper and lower extremities of the vertical lines are known as Whiskers and
these indicate maximum and minimum values of the data.
 The horizontal sides of the large rectangle that form the box are called Quartiles.
 Box and Whisker plots can detect any significant negative or undesirable deviations
in the values from the standard / accepted values thus, enabling to take appropriate
control measures.
 The numerical data can be displayed by this method.
Shewhart charts
 These charts can monitor any variation in a parameter over a period of time by
plotting values graphically with time as the horizontal axis. In these charts, a
standard / reference value is added as a horizontal line.
 Decision boundaries are the interference levels are also drawn on the chart.
 Remedial action are taken if the values of a variable crosses these boundaries.
 The decision boundary can be derived mathematically and is based on estimated
standard error of Mean.
 These charts are effective in detecting large and abrupt changes in the values of a
variable.
Cusum charts
 The cumulative sum technique is a sensitive method to detect small changes in a

variable.
 There can be slight shift or drift away from the reference or standard value over a
period of time. Such changes are detected when compared with control charts. This
technique is known as Cusum charts.
 The technique is useful in detecting changes in average levels, determining the point
of onset of these changes, obtaining reliable estimates of current average values and
making short term predictions of future average levels.
MAPPING
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 Mapping out the distribution of a disease or variable is a fascinating task. Maps can
very well display the spatial distribution of a disease and the associated factors. It is
also known as cartography.
 Besides knowing the areas where the disease is present it also helps in understanding
the mode and direction of transmission of an infectious disease.
 Maps can also suggest the possible causes of diseases of unknown etiology.
 The maps can be qualitative or quantitative.
 In the former type, the location of present/absence of disease is indicated. However,
no information can be obtained regarding the amount of disease.
 In the later type, the amount of a disease in a particular area is displayed.
 Maps can either be constructed according to shape of a district, state or country
(called as geographic base maps) or according to size of population concerned (called
as demographic / isodemographic base maps).
 In demographic type, the morbidity and mortality values are presented in relation to
the size of population.
 Therefore, accurate information on morbidity, mortality and population are required
for these maps.
 These are not commonly used in Veterinary practice.
 Generally, geographic base maps are used and most of the atlases consist of these
maps.
 There are several types of geographic base maps:
Point (dot or location) map
 Show the location of a disease in a political map.

 Locate by dot or circle, area can also be named.
Distribution map
 Shows the area in which the disease occurs.

 Example: Area endemic to disease, area sporadic to disease and area free from the
disease are shown under different markings or shade.
Choloroplethic map
 Display of quantitative information.

 Example: Areas with <25% prevalence, 26%-50% prevalence, 51%-75% prevalence
and >75% prevalence of helminthes in a particular district (political map) are shown
in different shades / markings.
 Mapping according to administrative region is not a true boundary for incidence.
Isoplethic map
 True boundary of disease is depicted in a geographic map, not region-wise as in a

political map.
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Demographic map
 Presenting mortality and morbidity information in relation to population size.

 Ratios or rates are presented in these types of maps.
 Less useful in veterinary practice since it is difficult to get accurate information.
MODULE-5: EPIDEMIOLOGICAL HYPOTHESIS
Learning objectives

o How to form a causal hypothesis?
o Different methods of testing a causal hypothesis
FORMULATING A CAUSAL HYPOTHESIS
 A proposition that can be tested formally and then the hypothesis may be supported
or rejected.
Formulating a causal hypothesis
 The first step in any epidemiological investigation of cause is descriptive. Initially

description of time, place and population is useful.
Time
 Association with year, season, month, day or even hour may provide information on
climatic influence, incubation period and source of infection.
 For example, an outbreak of salmonellosis in a group of cattle may be associated with
the introduction of infected cattle feed.
Place
 The geographical distribution of a disease may indicate an association with local

geological, management or ecological factors, for example nutritionally deficient soil
or arthropod transmitters of infection.
Population
 The type of animal that is affected is often of considerable importance. Hereford

cattle are more susceptible to squamous cell carcinoma of the eye than other
suggesting that the cause may be partly genetic.
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 When the major facts have been established, alternative causal hypotheses can be
formulated.
METHODS OF HYPOTHESIS
Four major methods of arriving at a hypothesis
 Method of difference
 Method of agreement
 Method of concomitant variation
 Method of analogy
Method of difference
 If the frequency of a disease is different in two different circumstances, and a factor

is present in one circumstance but is absent from the other, then the factor may be
suspected of being causal.
 For instance, BSE occurred more frequently in places where meat and bone meal is
mostly used in feed than in places where it is not. A defect of a hypothesis based on
the method of difference is that several different factors may be considered as
possible causes.
 The value of a hypothesis generated by this method is reduced if many alternative
hypotheses can be formulated.
Method of agreement
 If a factor is common to a number of different circumstances in which a disease is

present then the factor may be the cause of the disease. Thus, if a batch of meat and
bone meal was associated with salmonellosis on widely different types of pig farms,
and this was the only circumstance in common, then the causal hypothesis, that the
disease was caused by contamination of that batch is strengthened.
Method of concomitant variation
 This method involves a search for a factor, the frequency or strength of which varies
continuously with the frequency of the disease in different situations. Thus, the
distance over which cattle are transported before slaughter appears to be related to
the occurrence of bruises in their carcasses.
Method of analogy
 This method of reasoning involves comparison of the pattern of the disease under
study with that of a disease that is already understood, because the cause of a disease
that is understood may also be the cause of another poorly understood disease with a
similar pattern.
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o Example: Some mammary tumours of mice are known to be caused by a

virus, therefore some mammary tumours of dogs may have a viral cause.
Evidence by analogy is not evidence of fact.
 It can point to probabilities and confirm conclusions that may be reached by other
means but can be dangerously misleading.
 When attempting to establish a causal association, five principles should be
considered
o The time sequence of the events
o The strength of the association
o Biological gradient
o Consistency
o Compatibility with existing knowledge
Time sequence
 Cause must precede effect.
Strength of association
 If a factor is causal, then there will be a strong positive statistical association between
the factor and the disease.
Biological gradient
 If a dose-response relationship can be found between a factor and a disease, the

plausibility of a factor being causal is increased. This is the basis of reasoning
method of concomitant variation.
Consistency
 If an association exists in a number of different circumstances, then a causal

relationship is probable. This is the basis of reasoning by the method of agreement.
Compatibility with existing knowledge
 It is more reasonable to infer that a factor causes a disease if a plausible biological

mechanism has been identified than if such a mechanism is not known. Thus,
smoking suggested as a likely cause of lung cancer because chemical and
environmental pollutants are known to have carcinogenic effect on laboratory
animals.
MODULE-6: EPIDEMIOLOGICAL METHODS
Learning objectives
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o Different types of epidemiology
o Descriptive and analytical epidemiology
o Case control and cohort studies
o Experimental epidemiology
o Theoretical epidemiology
o Molecular epidemiology
TYPES OF EPIDEMIOLOGY
 There are four approaches to epidemiological investigations and these are

traditionally called as types of epidemiology.
 They are,
o Descriptive epidemiology
o Analytical epidemiology
o Experimental epidemiology
o Theoretical epidemiology
DESCRIPTIVE EPIDEMIOLOGY
 It is the first part of any investigation.

 It involves observing and recording the disease and possible causal factors.
 The observations sometimes may be partially subjective and later on hypothesis will
be generated and will be rigorously tested later on.
Procedure
 Defining the population to be studied.

 Defining the disease under study.
 Describing the disease; by time, place and person.
 Measurement of diseases.
 Comparing with the known indices.
 Formulation of an etiological hypothesis.
 Here after defining the things properly, the data are collected and analyzed to arrive
at an etiological hypothesis.
 An epidemiological hypothesis should specify the following:
o Population
o Specific cause
o Expected outcome
o Dose-response relationship: The amount of the cause needed to produce the
effect.
o Time-response relationship: The period of exposure to the cause and effect.
Uses of descriptive epidemiology

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 It gives lot of information regarding the magnitude of a disease and the types of
disease problems existing in a community or a population.
 It gives clue to the disease: Etiology and later on help in formulation of an etiological
hypothesis.
 It helps in planning and undertaking of therapeutic, preventive and control regimen.
CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDIES (PREVALENCE, SURVEY)
 It is the simplest form of an observational study.

 It is based on the single examination of a cross section of population at one point in
time and these things can be applied to the entire population. This study is more
useful in chronic cases than short-lived cases.
 It is also known as prevalence study because prevalence can be obtained through this
study. But this study does not give much information about the natural history of a
disease and also incidence rate.
 This study investigates relationship between disease (or other associated health-
related factors) and hypothesized causal factors in a specified population during a
specified period of time.
 Animals are categorized according to the presence or absence of disease and
hypothesized causal factors.
 Inference can be made about the association between the disease and the
hypothesized causal factors.
o Example: Heart valve incompetence (disease) and breed (factor).
 Technically cross-sectional studies provide a snap shot of events at a particular time.
 The point of time may range from instant to longer periods although all are treated
as static point in time events.
 For the purpose of causal interpretation, cross-sectional studies are best suited to
study the permanent factors such as breed, sex or blood type.
o Example: Questioner based surveys. Studies relating to ancillary data to the
results of immunologic, bacteriologic or toxicologic and slaughter house
surveys.
Advantages
 Disease prevalence and proportions in the exposed and unexposed populations can
be estimated.
 Relatively quick to mount and conduct.
 Inexpensive.
 Current records can be used occasionally.
 No risk to subjects.
 Allow study of multiple potential cause of disease.
Disadvantages
 Unsuited for the study of rare diseases.

 Unsuited for the study of diseases of short duration.
 Control of extraneous variables may be incomplete.
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 Incidence in exposed and unexposed cannot be estimated.

 Temporal sequence of cause and effect cannot be determined.
ANALYTICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
 It is the analysis of observations by using the suitable diagnosis and statistical tests.
Observational studies
 It is similar to experimental study. Animals are allotted to groups with respect to

certain characteristics they possess (trait, disease, etc).
 However it is not possible to assign animals to groups randomly because the
investigator has little control over factors that are being studied, as the
characteristics are inherent (Examples are sex, weight and diet).
 Usually the occurrence of a disease is known by estimating the morbidity and
mortality rates.
 The estimation of mortality is straightforward whereas the morbidity rate is
expressed as prevalence and incidence rate.
 To know these things two types of observational studies are undertaken. They are,
o Cross sectional study
o Longitudinal study
LONGITUDINAL STUDIES
 Longitudinal studies are two types, which are

o Case control study
o Cohort study
 In longitudinal studies, the observations are repeated in the same populations over
prolonged period of time. It is useful to
o Know the natural history of the disease and its future outcome.
o To identify the risk factors involved.
o To know the incidence rate.
 Longitudinal studies are difficult to organize, expensive and time consuming.
CASE-CONTROL STUDY
 Case-control study is also referred to as case-comparison study, retrospective

study and case history.
 Case-control study is an observational study, that means looking backwards.
 Compares a group of diseased animals with a group of healthy animals with respect
to exposure to hypothesized causal factors.
o Example: Occurrence of Fascioliosis with respect to exposure.
 Comparing individuals having the disease (cases) and those not having the disease
(controls) for identifying the suspected cases or factors from the past records.
 It may be conducted with new cases or existing cases (incidence or prevalence).
 There are three important features of this study
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o The exposures to a factor or factors and outcome (disease) have occurred

before the start of this study.
o The study proceeds backwards from effect to cause.
o It helps to know the incidence rate.
Basic steps
 The four basic steps in the conduct of case-control study are,

o Selection of cases and control
o Matching
o Measurement of exposure
o Analysis and interpretation
 Selection of cases and control
o As per the design of the case-control study the cases and controls are properly
selected from the population by using hospital data and also from the general
population.
 Matching
o It means the individuals or animals in the case group and the control group
should be almost identical regarding the age, sex, breed etc. and the only
difference is that the case group contains the individuals suffering from the
disease and the control group contains individuals not suffering from the
disease.
o The number of individuals in the control group must be at least or more than
one per case group.
 Measurement of exposure
o Usually this information is obtained by interviews, questionnaire and
studying the past records.
 Analysis and interpretation
o Analysis of data is made to know
o Exposure rates among the cases and controls to a suspected factor
o Estimation of disease associated with exposure (odds ratio)
Advantages
 Limited amount of effort.

 Limited time involvement.
 Inexpensive.
 Useful for identifying the suspected cases and for the formation of hypothesis and its
testing.
 Useful for studying chronic or rare cases.
 No risk to the subject.
Disadvantages
 Past events may not be available.

 Biased report due to incorrect diagnosis.
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 Incomplete information to some variables.

 Incidence rate cannot be calculated due to non-availability of population at risk.
 Exposed and unexposed populations in target populations cannot be estimated.
 Selection of an appropriate control group may be difficult.
 Not suited for the evaluation of therapy or prophylaxis of disease.
COHORT STUDY
 Cohort study is also referred to as follow-up study, prospective study and

incidence.
 Cohort study means looking backwards.
 A group exposed to factors is compared with a group not exposed to factors with
respect to the development of a disease.
 It is then possible to calculate the level of risk of developing disease in relation to
exposure to the hypothesized causal factor.
 It is then possible to calculate the incidence rate.
 In this study, characteristics or factors used to define a population are called
maneuver, those possessing them are called cohorts (those who share a common
characteristic).
 This study is usually undertaken to either accept or reject a hypothesis. Here the
hypothesis formulated by the cross- sectional or the case-control study is tested as
additional evidence.
 The important features of this study are,
o The cohorts are identified prior to the appearance of disease under
investigation.
o The study group i.e. the case cohorts and control cohorts are observed over a
period of time to determine the frequency of a disease among them.
o The study proceeds forward from cause to effect.
Indications for cohort study
 When there is good evidence of an association between exposure and the disease,
this is evidenced by cross sectional and case control studies.
 When exposure is rare and incidence is high among exposed.
 When ample funds are available.
The following facts should be considered while selecting cohorts
 The cohort must be free from disease when the study is undertaken.
 Both groups should be susceptible to the disease.
o Example: Persons of 35 and above years of age should be selected for lung
cancer study.
 Both groups should be comparable.
 The diagnostic criteria to be used must be well defined.
Types of cohort study

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 Prospective study (most commonly used)

 Retrospective study
 Combination of both
Elements of cohort study
 Selection of study subjects

 Obtaining data on exposure
 Selection of comparison groups
 Follw up
 Analysis
Advantages
 No biased information.
 Incidence rate can be calculated.
 Other associated problems can be studied simultaneously.
 It provides direct estimate of relative risk.
 Dose-response relationship can also be calculated.
Disadvantages
 Long, expensive and large-scale undertaking.

 Cohorts may vary. So should be properly designed.
 Administrative problems with long-term study.
 Follow up is difficult.
 Exposed and unexposed proportions in target population cannot be estimated.
 Large number of subjects are required to study rare diseases.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CASE-CONTROL AND COHORT STUDY

S.No Case-control study Cohort study
1 Proceeds from effect to cause Proceeds from cause to effect
Starts with individuals exposed to

2 Starts with the disease
risk factor or suspected cases
Tests whether suspected cause

Tests whether disease occurs more
occurs more frequently in those
3 frequently in those exposed than
with the disease than among those
in those not similarly exposed.
without the disease.
Usually the first approach to the

Reserved for testing of precisely
4 testing of hypothesis, but also
formulated hypothesis
useful for exploratory study
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5 Involves fewer numbers of subjects Involves large number of subjects
6 Usually quick results are obtained Requires long period of time
7 Suitable for study of rare diseases It does not matter
Generally yields estimate of Yields incidence rate, relative risk,

8
relative risk only (Odds ratio) and attributable risk
9 Relatively inexpensive Expensive
EXPERIMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
 The experimental epidemiologist will observe and analyze data by conducting

experiments.
 The epidemiologist will allot animals into different groups and can alter the factors
associated with the groups (epidemiologist is having control over the groups).
 Most of the research activities in Veterinary field deal with experimental
observations compared to the descriptive observations made in natural cases in
human medicine.
 Experimental or intervention studies are similar in approach to cohort studies
excepting that the conditions in which study is carried out are under the direct
control of the investigator.
 The aim of experimental studies is to provide scientific proof of etiological factors
and provide a method of measuring the effectiveness and efficiency of health services
for the prevention, control and treatment of disease.
 Experimental studies are of two types,
o Randomized controlled trials
o Non randomized trials
RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIALS AND NON RANDOMIZED

TRIALS
Randomized controlled trials
 It involves a process of random allocation.

 The basic steps in conducting a randomized controlled trials include the
following,
o Drawing up a protocol
o Selecting reference and experimental populations
o Randomization
o Manipulation or intervention
o Follow up
o Assessment of outcome
 The protocol
o One of the essential features of a randomized controlled trial is that the
study is conducted under a strict protocol.
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o The protocol specifies the aims and objectives of the study, questions to be
answered, criteria for the selection of study and control groups, size of the
sample, etc.
 Selecting reference and experimental populations
o Reference or target population: It is the population to which the findings
of the trial, if found successful, are expected to be applicable.
o Experimental or study population: The study population is derived from
the reference population.
o It is the actual population that participates in the experimental study.
 Randomization
o Randomization is a statistical procedure by which the participants are
allocated into groups usually called 'study and control groups', to receive
or not to receive an experimental preventive or therapeutic procedure, or
intervention.
 Manipulation
o Having formed the study and control groups, the next step is to intervene
or manipulate the study and group by the deliberate application or
withdrawal or reduction of the suspected causal factor.
 Follow up
o This implies examination of the experimental and control group subjects
at defined intervals of time, in a standard manner, with equal intensity,
under the same given circumstances , in the same time frame till final
assessment of outcome.
 Assessment
o The final step is assessment of the outcome of the trial in terms of positive
results and negative results.
o Randomized controlled trials require follow up of thousands of cases for a
decade or more.
o The cost and logistics are often prohibitive.
o These trials are rare.
Non-randomized trials
o The approach is sophisticated in randomized controlled trials, it is rather

crude in non-randomized trails.
o As there is no randomization in non-experimental trials, the degree of
comparability will be low and the chances of a spurious result higher than
where randomization had taken place.
THEORETICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR

EPIDEMIOLOGY
Theoretical epidemiology
 Mathematical models are used to study the disease and these models attempt to
simulate natural patterns of disease occurrences.
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Molecular epidemiology
 Molecular epidemiology has recently been defined as "a science that focuses on the
contribution of potential genetic and environmental risk factors, identified at the
molecular level, to the etiology, distribution and prevention of disease within
herd/flock and across populations".
 It is one of the most exciting and important areas of research leading into the 21st
century and has a direct impact on infectious disease research at all levels such
as outbreak investigation, surveillance and intervention strategies involving
clinicians, laboratory technicians, microbiologists, immunologists and health
workers.
 Its ultimate purpose is to prevent morbidity and mortality.
Objectives of molecular epidemiology
 The objectives of molecular epidemiology are quite broad and include,

o Descriptive and analytical studies to evaluate host/environmental
interactions in disease.
o The development of prevention strategies for the control of bacterial, parasitic
and viral diseases through molecular diagnosis.
o The prevention of non-infectious diseases and genetic disorders by assessing
risk and identifying susceptible individuals through genetic screening.
MODULE-7: SURVEY OF ANIMAL DISEASE
Learning objectives

o What is survey?
o How survey is conducted?
o Different types of surveys?
o Different types of sampling techniques?
o How to calculate the sample size?
INTRODUCTION
 Sampling is done by surveys, in which information on diseases in the population and

associated events such as productivity can be obtained.
 It involves counting members of an aggregate of units and measuring their
characteristics.
 It is conducted to estimate either a continuous variable(s) (Examples: milk yield,
weight etc.) or discrete event(s) (Examples: diseased animals).
 The main application of survey is the estimation of the prevalence of clinical disease,
infection and seropositivity in animal populations.
 The sample survey involves,
o Single sample to determine the prevalence
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o Two samples to compare prevalence
CENSUS Vs SAMPLE SURVEY AND CONCEPTS OF SAMPLING
Census Vs sample survey
 If all animals in a population are investigated, the survey is a census.

 Census is the only means of measuring exactly the distribution of a variable in a
population. But it is very difficult and impossible to conduct. So sample survey is
designed well then a reasonably accurate and acceptable estimate of a variable can be
made by examining some of the animals in the relevant population i.e. a sample.
Concepts of sampling
 The validity of sampling theory is based on the assumption that an aggregate of units
can be divided into representative subunits and that characteristics of the aggregate
can be estimated from the subunits.
TERMS USED IN SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Target population
 It is the total population (i.e., population at risk) about which information is

required.
Study population
 It is the population from which a sample is drawn.

 Example: If an investigation of parvoviral enteritis in Pommeranian is undertaken,
then ideally all Pommeranian animals (the target population) should be sampled,
although it may only be possible to investigate in that particular breed at dog shows
or attending veterinary hospitals (the study population).
Elementary units
 Each unit in the study population is the elementary unit, which cannot be divided
further.
Stratum
 A collection of elementary units grouped according to a common characteristic

feature. Example: A dairy farm is a stratum comprising cows.
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Sampling frame
 Before a sample is taken, members of the study population must be identified by

constructing a list (i.e. sampling frame).
Sampling unit
 Each member of the sampling frame is a sampling unit.
Sampling fraction
 It is the ratio of sample size to study population size.

 If 10 animals were chosen from 1000 animal population, the sampling fraction would
be 1%.
 Veterinary sampling frames include lists of abattoirs, farms, veterinary hospitals, etc.
OBJECTIVES OF SAMPLING AND NATURE OF SAMPLING UNITS
Objectives of sampling
 It is to provide an unbiased estimate of the variables that is being measured in the

population.
 Biased estimates would be produced when list of members of the frame are
incomplete, information is obsolescent, segments of the frame are untraceable, there
is a lack of co-operation by some members of the frame and sampling procedures are
not random.
 The sources of bias are non-compensatory errors because they cannot be reduced by
increasing the size of the sample.
Nature of sampling units
 It may be individual animals or aggregates such as herd, farm.
TYPES OF SAMPLING
The types of sampling are,
 Non-probability sampling
 Probability sampling
Non-probability sampling
 In which the choice of the sample is left to the investigator.

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 Convenience sampling
o It is the collection of easily accessible sampling units.
o Example: If we want to collect faecal samples in the forest to screen the wild
animals to know the status / prevalence of parasitic diseases, collecting
samples near by entrance area (not sampling around the forest area).
 Selecting first 15 animals (sampling units) from the study population
(or list of 150 animals in the study population).
 Purposive or Judgmental sampling
o It is the choice of a sample, the averages of whose quantitative characteristics
(example body weight) or distribution of whose qualitative characteristics
(examples are sex and breed) are similar to that of the target population.
o The objective is to select a sample where characteristics are balanced with
those of the target population.
Disadvantages
 Sampling by convenience
 Sample is not a true representative
 Biased estimates
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
 Probability sampling in which the selection of the sample is made using a deliberate,
unbiased process so that each sampling unit in a group has an equal probability or
chance of being selected. This is the basis of random sampling.
 The following are the probability sampling methods
o Simple random sampling (like lottery method)
o Systematic sampling
o Stratified random sampling
o Cluster sampling
 One-stage cluster sampling
 Two-stage cluster sampling
 Multistage cluster sampling
SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING AND SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Simple random sampling
 Selection of sample is by drawing up from a list of animals in the study population

(in which each sample is having equal chance of being selected by luck).
o Eample: If 20 cows to be selected to analyse the quantity and quality of milk
production in a herd of 200 cows (study population).
 Code for every cow would be written on the identical sheet and then picking up a
sample (cow) randomly.
Systematic sampling
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 The first animal is being selected randomly from the proportionate level of the study
population and then selection of sampling units at equal intervals.
o Example: If one animal in every 10 animals is required, then the first animal
would be selected randomly from the first 10.
 If it is 4th animal, then the samples would be 14, 24, 34, 44 and so on.
S.No Simple Systematic
1 It requires total knowledge Only for the proportionate size

about the study population of the study population to
select the first sample
randomly
2 All the animals in the study Not necessary to identify all the
population should be animals
identified
3 Samples drawn may not be Evenly spread in the study

evenly spread population
4 Comparatively difficult Relatively easy method

method
STRATIFIED RANDOM SAMPLING
 It is an accurate method because either over or under representation sampling is

avoided.
 First the study population is divided into strata, then sample is obtained from all of
the individual strata.
 'Proportional allocation' is the method practiced for the stratified random sampling,
where the number of sampling units selected is proportional to the number of each
stratum.
o Example: If 10% of animals from 10,000 animals in different strata (in five
districts of Tamil Nadu) to be collected, as per the table it is to be followed.
S.No Strata (region) No. of animals No. sampled (10%)
1. Pudkkottai 3,000 3000x0.1 = 300
2 Namakkal 2,000 2000x0.1 = 200
3. Thiruchirapalli 2,500 2500x0.1 = 250
4. Krishnagiri 500 500x0.1 = 50
5. Thanjavur 2,000 2000x0.1 = 200
Total 10,000 1,000

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CLUSTER SAMPLING
 Sometimes, strata are defined by geographical locations such as countries, states,

districts, taluks, and villages, veterinary hospitals, veterinary dispensaries or periods
of time during which samples are selected. The strata are then termed as 'clusters'.
 It is time consuming and costly method.
 This can be overcome by selecting few clusters, then sampling from few elected
clusters is called cluster sampling.
 There are several procedures.
One-stage cluster sampling
 In which selecting all animals in each selected clusters.
Two- stage cluster sampling
 It means selection of sample in more than one stage.

 The samples (all animals) of clusters selected first, followed by sub-sampling of some
animals in the clusters.
 In which, clusters are primary units and selected members of the sub-samples are
the secondary units.
Multistage cluster sampling
 It is progressively higher levels of sub-sampling.

 First, sampling from the region
 Second, sampling dairy farms in each selected region
 Third, sampling cows on each selected farms
 It is usually a simple random sampling. Sampling can be done even if there is an
incomplete list of all members of a population.
 It is a most convenient and inexpensive method. But, information is less precise (for
example, contagious disease prevalence tends to be more variable between groups
than within them).
 Sometimes impossible if there is no reliable demographic data. In that case, clusters
can be defined by map grid.
SAMPLE SIZE
 Sample size depends on,

o Non-statistical consideration
o Statistical consideration
Non-statistical consideration
 Availability of manpower and sampling frame

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Statistical consideration
 Precision of the estimate of prevalence

o The ability of an estimator to determine the true population value of a
variable. i.e. the estimator's precision.
o It is expressed in terms of the bound on the error of estimation that can be
tolerated.
o The error is defined either 'absolute' or 'relative'.
o Example
 Absolute acceptable error: If it is 2% means, a prevalence of 40%
represents 38-42%.
 Relative acceptable error: If it is 2% means, it represents 2% of 40%
i.e. range of 39.2-40.8% (2% of 40% = 0.8%).
 Expected frequency of the disease
o It is not readily available. However, assumption can be made based upon the
previous history, incidence and other associated epidemiological parameters
MODULE-8: SURVEILLANCE AND MONITORING OF LIVESTOCK

DISEASES
Learning objectives
 To learn about,
o Goal of surveillance
o Types of surveillance
INTRODUCTION
Surveillance
 An essential part of disease control is the ability to document the occurrence of

disease with the goal of developing effective control and eradication strategies.
 Surveillance was originally applied to individuals / primarily to contacts of serious
communicable diseases (example pneumonic plague), who were closely watched for
the development of the first signs of illness.
 Gradually, it was broadened to include diseases and related factors, such that there is
no standard definition.
 Is the more intensive form of data recording than monitoring and has three distinct
elements.
o Gathering, recording and analysis of data
o Dissemination of information to interested parties, so that action can be taken
to control diseases
 “Surveillance is the continuous investigation of a given population to detect the
occurrence of disease for control purposes, which may involve testing of part of a
population” (Office internationale des epizooties, 2002)
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Monitoring
 Routine collection of information on disease, productivity and other characteristics

possibly related to them in a population.
GOAL OF SURVEILLANCE
 The broad aims of veterinary surveillance follow the roles of Veterinary Medicine in
general, namely, maintenance of high standards of animal health and welfare and the
protection of public health.
 Several specific objectives can be identified
o Rapid detection of disease outbreaks
o Early identification of disease problems (endemic and non-endemic diseases)
o Assessment of health status of a defined population
o Definition of priorities for a disease control and prevention
o Identification of new and emerging diseases
o Evaluation of disease control programmes
o Provision of information to plan and conduct research
o Confirmation of options of a specific disease
TYPES OF SURVEILLANCE
 There are several types of surveillance, defined by function and methods.

o Sentinel surveillance
o Serological surveillance (Sero-surveillance)
o Passive surveillance
o Active surveillance
o Targeted surveillance
o Scanning surveillance
SENTINEL SURVEILLANCE
 Surveillance can include entire national herd.

o Example: Testing of bovine tuberculosis.
 Alternatively, a few farms, abattoirs, veterinary practices or laboratories may be
selected; these are then referred to as sentinel units, because they are designed to
keep watch on disease. Thus, sentinel equine premises can be used to investigate
persistence of vesicular stomatitis virus, using previous history of the disease as
the selection criterion.
 Alternatively, attention may be focused on a species in general. Thus, horses can
be used as sentinels for Venezuelan equine encephalitis infection and stray dogs
can be sentinels for canine parvo virus infection, the infection being identified
serologically.
 Domestic animals also can be used as sentinels of human environmental health
hazards such as carcinogens and insecticides.
o Example: Eastern equine encephalitis infects horses and other vertebrates,
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including man, but has a reservoir in birds.

 Surveillance of this infection therefore includes regular serological testing of
sentinel flocks of chickens or pheasants kept outdoors in association with the
result of virus culture on captured mosquitoes, and veterinary surveillance in
Eastern equine encephalitis illness in horses.
Last modified: Friday, 23 September 2011, 02:12 PM
PASSIVE AND ACTIVE SURVEILLANCE
Passive surveillance
 Passive surveillance has been described as the continuous monitoring of the existing
disease status of the populations that are survived, using routinely collected data to
produce outputs which inturn can feed into policy decisions.
o Examples include reports of laboratory diagnosis, routine meat inspection
findings and statutory notification of disease.
 Passive surveillance therefore essentially monitoring with the intention of acting on
its findings.
 Passive surveillance uses the data that may be biased, frequently lacking
denominator values, and so can not give unbiased estimates of disease frequency.
Active surveillance
 It involves the committed efforts of veterinary authorities to collect information

commonly by undertaking surveys of specific diseases.
 Active surveillance based on well designed surveys, can produce the unbiased
estimate.
TARGETED AND SCANNING SURVEILLANCE
Targeted surveillance
 Collects specific information about a defined disease so that its’ level in a defined
population can be measured and its options monitored.
 It is often planned using appropriate statistical sampling theory and commonly
focuses on populations that are at increased risk of being affected there by increasing
the efficiency of detection.
o Example: Targeting of fallen stock for surveillance of BSE.
Scanning surveillance
 Maintains a continuous watch over endemic disease. Here unexpected changes can
be recognized.
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 If scanning surveillance identifies an unusual high frequency of similar, undiagnosed

cases, it may trigger a more detailed investigation to explore the likelihood of a new
disease occurring,This is syndromic surveillance.
MODULE-9: ANIMAL DISEASE FORECASTING
Learning objectives

o How to forecast disease occurence?
o Explanatory and Monte Carlo models
EMPIRICAL SIMULATION MODELING
 Simulation models can be used to forecast disease incidence accurately.

 These forecasts are of value in selecting suitable prophylactic measures,
o Empirical model utilize indicators that are obtained by analyzing the
relationship between morbidity and any associated variables.
o Frequently used variables are those relating to climate.
o These models are not strictly mathematical models because they do not
attempt to analyze the dynamics of agent’s life cycles, but simply quantify
associated phenomena.
o They are sometimes refers to as “black-box’ models because the relationship
between data that are fed into the model and the results that are generated
cannot be satisfactorily explained.
Example: Forecasting the incidence of Fascioliosis
 The lifecycle of Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica is complex, involved in

stages inside a final and intermediate host and on herbage.
 Two important meteorological factors in the development of a parasite are
temperature above 10˚C and the presence of free water. This is the basis of the ‘Mt’
forecasting system for fascioliosis.
 ‘Mt’ is a monthly index of witness given by,
‘Mt’ = (R-p+5) n
 R - Rainfall in inches
 p - Potential transpiration
 n - Number of rain days
 Seasonal summation of ‘Mt’ indices (Σ Mt) can be calculated by adding the ‘Mt’
values for the six months period.
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 This sum simulates the progression of the disease in relation to changing

meteorological conditions and so can be used to predict losses owing to Fascioliasis,
so that suitable prophylactic measures can be undertaken.
EXPLANATORY MODELS
 Mathematical models that describe the dynamics (i.e.biological processes) of parasite

and host populations have been formulated.
 These more refined techniques allow the course of a disease to be simulated.
 They include models for forecasting fluke morbidity, the air borne spread of foot and
mouth disease and the occurrence of clinical Ostertagiosis.
Example: Bovine Ostertagiosis
 The level of pasture contamination by infective Ostertagia ostertagi larva can be

predicted by simulating the course of events experienced by cohorts of parasite eggs
deposited on pasture.
 This involves estimating the proportion of eggs that proceed to the first, second and
third larval stages using development fractions, which quantify the rate of
development of the parasite from one stage to next stage according to the
temperatures that it experiences.
 In addition parameters associated with infectivity, fecundity and migratory
behaviour of the larvae must be included.
A = (K-Ao) (1-e-αL) + Ao
 A= Number of adult worms expected in the abomasum of

that calf after 21 days of infection
 Ao = Number of adult worms already in the abomasum
 The parameters K and α control the rate of establishment so
that the proportion established is high for low levels of
challenge and low for high levels of challenge.
 The number of eggs, E produced after 21 days is estimated from empirical data
relating to egg output to adult worm burden. These eggs undergo development.
 The time to the appearance of infective larvae is estimated by calculating from daily
temperatures, the fraction of development to take place each day and summing these
fractions until allow development has occurred ‘n’ days later.
1/D1+1/D2+….1/Dn = 1
 Where the ‘Ds’ are the number of days that would be required to complete
development under conditions of constant temperature.
 Adding ‘n’ to 22 day gives the earliest day on which the infective larvae can appear.
 Not all developing eggs and larvae survive and so the number of eggs that avoid
mortality is the proportion, ‘pn’ of the egg output on 22nd day.
 The parameter ‘p’ is an estimate of the daily survival rate.
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 If the values of ‘n’ and ‘pn’ are determined for each day during which the calf grazes,
then it is possible to estimate the expected totals of infective larvae on pasture and
number of adult worms infecting the calf.
 A prediction of herbage infective larval burdens using this type of simulation model
can facilitate optimum use of anthelmintics and movement of animals to safe pasture
before challenge large number of infective larvae, thereby preventing clinical
Ostertagiosis.
MONTE CARLO METHODS
 In many cases deterministic and stochastic models can be formulated for which no
analytical solution is known. Alternatively finding the solution may be extremely
difficult or tedious.In such circumstances simulation methods can be undertaken.
Since simulation studies attempt to mimic the physical process being modeled, they
can be very informative and therefore are often preferred.
 In these methods, random process is simulated using random numbers in order to
decide whether or not an event takes place.
 This is somewhat akin to gambling; hence the name Monte Carlo simulation.
MODULE-10: STRATEGIES OF DISEASE MANAGEMENT
Learning objectives

o How to control a disease?
o How to prevent the disease?
o Primary, secondary and tertiary prevention strategies
o Eradication of disease
PREVENTION
 Prevention of disease in an epidemiological sense means all measures to exclude

disease from an unaffected population of animals. It includes,
o Measures for the exclusion of an infectious organism from a geographic area
in which it is now absent. Usual method is quarantine.
o Measures to protect a given population from diseases that already occur in its
geographic area.
o Usual method is mass immunization, mass prophylactic treatment and
environmental control.
 There are three types of prevention
o Primary prevention
o Secondary prevention
o Tertiary prevention
Primary prevention
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 Includes those activities directed towards preventing exposure to causal factors.

o Example: Quarantine and vaccination.
Secondary prevention
 Includes those activities designed to detect disease process as early as possible before
clinical disease occurs.
o Examples
 Screening test to detect TB, Brucellosis
 Somatic cell count to detect mastitis
 Regular examination of postpartum cow and metabolic profiles
Tertiary prevention
 Prevention by treatment.
CONTROL
 Control defined as all measures used to reduce the frequency of illness already
present in a population, by reducing or eliminating causes of illness, ultimately to
levels of little or no consequences.
 Normally the control programmes follow the prevention.
 Control is the reduction of the morbidity and mortality from disease, and is a general
term embracing all measures intended to interfere with the unrestrained occurrence
of disease, whatever may be its cause.
 It can be achieved by treating diseased animals, which therefore reduces disease
prevalence and by preventing disease, which therefore reduces both incidence and
prevalence.
ERADICATION
 Defined as a bolder directed action in which the object is the extinction of a species
of infectious microorganism.
 The term 'eradication' can be expressed in four senses
o The extinction of an infectious agent. Example, human smallpox
o Reduction of infectious disease prevalence in a specified area to a level at
which transmission does not occur.
o The reduction of infectious disease prevalence to a level at which the disease
ceases to be a major health problem, although some transmission may still
take place
o Regional extinction of an infectious organism (in Veterinary medicine).
Example, eradication of FMD in U.K.
 Eradication involves a time-limited campaign.
STRATEGIES OF DISEASE CONTROL AND ERADICATION

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 Strategies used to control and eradicate disease are

o Selective slaughter
o Depopulation
o Quarantine
o Mass treatment
o Mass immunization
o Movement of the host
o Alternate and sequential grazing
o Control of vectors
o Disinfection of fomites
o Niche filling
o Improvement in environment, husbandry and feeding
o Genetic improvement
o Minimal disease methods
Selective slaughter
 The deliberate killing of a minority of infected animals to protect the well majority of
healthy population.
 The selective slaughter of diseased animals or reactors is to be found at by
immunodiagnostic screening test.
Depopulation
 When there is difficulty in application of diagnostic techniques to diagnose the

diseases in the population in order to carry out selective slaughter, complete
depopulation of an affected restricted population carried out to protect the species at
large.
o Example: FMD in deer population in Stanislans National Forest in California
in 1924 there was no alternative, but to deer depopulation (22,214 deer killed)
Quarantine
 Quarantine implies the enforced physical separation from the healthy population of
infected or potentially infected individuals, their products or items, they may have
contaminated. Such measures may be applied at national, regional or herd level and
they may be voluntary or required by legislation.
 It is applied at the international level to prevent transmission of infectious or vectors
from one country to another.
 The Office International Des Epizootics was established in Paris 1924 to standardize
the Veterinary Quarantine procedures and regulations throughout the world.
o Example: Imported cattle are usually placed in quarantine stations for
designed period (usually maximum incubation period) prior to being
transferred to the property of the purchasers to ensure (by clinical and for
serologic monitoring) that they are not infected with undesirable agent such
as the virus of FMD.
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 Similarly, dogs are quarantined for a period to ensure they are free of rabies, before
admitting them to rabies-free countries.
Mass treatment
 The mass treatment approach to disease control depends upon the availability of safe
and cheap therapeutic agents.
 Antibiotics, Anthelmintic and other drugs like hyper immune serum are used
(therapeutically) to treat diseases, and are administered (prophylactically) at times of
high risk to prevent disease and thus to increase productivity.
o Example: Sulfonamides in drinking water for coccidiosis in chickens.
Mass immunization
 Mass immunization has been one of the most effective forms of directed action
against diseases undertaken in veterinary medicine.
 The interesting areas for future development of mass immunization as a disease
control tool are methods for mass administration of vaccines that dispense with
problems of needle hygiene (such as use of jet injection guns) or that eliminate the
need to handle animal individually.
o Example: Stable vaccines incorporated in water or feed and vaccines
administered by mucosal route as aerosols.
Movement of the host
 Animals can be removed from high risk areas where infections are endemic.
 This control strategy is implemented in tropical countries where hosts are seasonally
migrated from areas in which biological vectors are active.
Alternate and sequential grazing
 The mixed grazing of susceptible animals with stock that are genetically or
immunologically resistant to helminths reduces pasture contamination to an
acceptable level.
 The alternative grazing of a pasture with different species of livestock again
reduces pasture contamination.
 The sequential grazing at different times of resistant and susceptible animals of
the same species reduces pasture contamination.
Control of vectors
 Biological vectors: Infectious diseases transmitted by biological vectors can be

controlled removing the vectors. Insect vectors can be killed with insecticides.
 Control of mechanical vectors: Living organisms that mechanically transmit
infectious agents can be controlled by destruction and disinfection.
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Disinfection of fomites
 Fomites can be disinfected to prevent the transmission of infectious agents.

 Fomites include farm equipment, surgical instruments and sometimes drugs
themselves.
 Food is heat-treated (Example: Pasteurization of milk) to destroy microbes and their
heat-sensitive toxins to prevent food borne infections.
Niche filling
 The presence of one organism within a niche can prevent its occupation by another
organism.
 This is epidemiological interference, and has been investigated, experimentally in the
poultry industry where suspensions of endogenous intestinal microbes have been fed
to one-day-old chicks to prevent colonization of their digestive tract by
virulent Salmonella spp., Campylobactor jejuni and E.coli.
 This technique of control has the advantage over prophylactic antibiotic
chemotherapy that antibiotic resistance is not encouraged.
Improvement in environment, husbandry and feeding
 The diseases of intensively produced animals, particularly cattle and pigs are major
contemporary problems which can be controlled only when epidemiological
investigations have identified the 'determinants associated with inadequate
management.
 Poor hygiene has been incrirninated as the most important environmental cause. All
necessary steps should be taken to maintain and improve the environment and
management, so as to reduce and eradicate the diseases.
Genetic improvement
 Many diseases of both agricultural and companion animals have a variable heritable
components.
 The disease may be determined predominantly by genetic screening to identify
disease animals by screening either the total population at risk or the part that is
mainly responsible for the maintenance of a particular disease.
 The latter techniques are commonly applied in veterinary medicine, because animals
of superior germ plasm are concentrated in pedigree nuclei that are used for
breeding.
 The incidence of some infectious disease can be reduced by selective breeding.
Minimal disease methods
 Disease can be reduced in intensively reared livestock by disinfecting infected

premises and by treating infected animals or removing them from the animal unit.
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 Uninfected animals can be produced by caesarean section and by hatching

uninfected eggs from poultry.
 These combined techniques are termed minimal disease methods.
FACTORS INOLVED IN DISEASE CONTROL AND ERADICAITON

PROGRAMME
 Before either a control or an eradication campaign can be undertaken, several factors

must be considered and these include, the level of knowledge about the cause of the
disease and, if infectious, also about its transmission and maintenance, including
host range and nature of host/parasite relationship.
Veterinary infrastructure
 Veterinary services must be capable of implementing control and eradication

campaigns.
 There are three main requirements.
o A mobile field service, comprising adequately trained veterinarians and
veterinary auxiliaries
o Adequate diagnostic facilities
o Adequate research facilities
Diagnostic feasibility
 Control and eradication can be carried out successfully only if disease can be
recognized.
 The main techniques of recognition are by,
o Clinical signs
o Pathological changes
o Isolation of causal agents
o Determination of an immune, allergic or biochemical responses
o Epidemiological identification of changes of a variable in a population.
Adequate surveillance
 Control and eradication programmes require effective surveillance.

 When national or international disease control policies are formulated; options for
surveillance may need to be reassessed.
Availability of replacement stock
 If a control or eradication campaign involves the slaughter of many animals,

sufficient replacement stock should be available in the livestock industry to minimize
disruption to production.
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Producers opinion and co-operation
 The opinion of animal producers can affect the success of control and eradication
campaigns.
 The producers opinion and degree of their co-operation are influenced by
understanding of the control campaign and important preliminary step is a detailed
explanation of its rationale to the farmers.
Public opinion
 The opinion of society may be an important consideration in a possible control or

eradication scheme.
 Education of the public plays an important part in influencing attitudes.
Public health considerations
 Over 70% of the known pathogen is infectious to both man and other animals.
 Many of these-the zoonoses is naturally transmissible between man and animals.
 The control of zoonotic diseases is the main concern of veterinary public health
authorities.
Requirements for legislation and compensation
 Control and eradication programmes are more effective when supported by

legislation, sometimes accompanied by penalties when the legislation is contravened.
Ecological consequences
 It is argued that control and, particularly, eradication of an infectious gent may

disturb the 'balance of nature' in an ecosystem.
 The elimination of an infectious may free a niche that could be occupied by more
virulent organism.
Financial support
 Control and eradication campaign require financial support.

 The control of companion animal diseases readily draws financial support of the
owners, canine, equine and feline vaccination programmes are examples; in all cases
of financial support, the use of control has to be weighed against the cost of disease.
MODULE-11: ECONOMICS OF ANIMAL DISEASE
Learning objectives
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 To learn about,
o Disease as an economic process
o Economic costs of disease
INTRODUCTION
 Animal health economics deals with the following aspects are

o Quantifying the economic effects of animal disease
o Developing methods for optimizing decisions when individual animals, herds
or populations are affected
o Determining the profitability of specific disease control and health
management programmes and procedures.
 Economics is a science, which illuminates how people exercise choice in the
allocation of scarce resources for production, in the distribution and consumption of
products and in the consequences of those decisions for individual and social benefit.
Animal disease therefore has economic, as well as biological impacts because it
affects the well-being of people.
 Economic analysis is frequently concerned with identification of the optimum level
of output in relation to total resource use, and the most efficient combination of
resources with in that total.
 The criteria for efficiency are both economic and technical.
 Generally, disease in domesticated (and sometimes undomesticated) livestock
populations reduces the quantity and quality of livestock products available for
human consumption (i.e., benefit).
 Examples of such products range from meat and milk to pony rides and the
companionship of pets.
 Disease increases costs in two ways, are:
o First, because resources are being used inefficiently, the products actually
obtained are for an unnecessarily high resource cost, in the absence of
disease, the same (or more) output could be obtained for a smaller (or the
same) expenditure of resources.
o Secondly, there is a cost to people, who are deprived because they have fewer,
or lower quality products to consume: that is, they obtain lower benefits.
o In summary, disease increases expenditures (production costs) and decreases
output (consumer benefits).
PRODUCTION FUNCTIONS
 The relationship between the resources that provide the inputs to production and the
goods, and services that comprise the output is called a 'production function'.
 Production function resources may be
o Natural (examples are land and mineral deposits)
o Man-made (examples are buildings and machinery)
 Frequently, these undergo physical transformation (for example, iron ore into steel,
animal feed into body protein ) or else facilitate a physical transformation process
(for example, manpower and managerial expertise).
 Empirical evidence shows that this relationship is typically non-linear because
certain inputs are typically fixed, and so beyond a certain point an increase in
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variable input is associated with a less than proportionate increase in output-

the “law of diminishing returns”.
Disease is an economic process
 Livestock production is a specific example of a physical transformation process.

 Disease impairs this process ( i.e., reduces output ) and sometimes results in death.
 Thus, there is a loss of efficiency which poses both technical and economic problems
 If restoration of technical efficiency is the goal, the corresponding economic objective
is to find the least-cost method to restore health and productivity.
ASSESSING THE ECONOMIC COSTS OF DISEASE
 The total economic cost of disease can be measured as the sum of output losses and
control expenditures.
 A reduction in output is a loss because it is a benefit that is either taken away (e.g.,
when milk containing antibiotic residues is compulsorily discarded) or unrealized
(e.g., decreased milk yield).
 Expenditures, in contrast are increases in input, and are usually associated with
disease control.
 Examples of control expenditures are veterinary intervention which may be used
either therapeutically or prophylactically and increased use of agricultural labour.
OPTIMUM CONTROL STRATEGIES
 The basic economic model of a production function is to illustrate the implications of

disease and its control for technical and economic efficiency.
 A related approach is to explore the general relationship between control
expenditures and output losses.
 An example of identifying an optimum control strategy: Bovine sub-clinical mastitis
 Bovine mastitis is considered to be the most important disease affecting dairy cattle.
 Cost of control measures include,
o Teat dip and spraying
o Dry cow therapy
o Annual testing of milking machines
 The losses due to sub-clinical mastitis include,
o Decreased milk yield
o Changed milk consumption
o Decreased milk quality
o Accelerated replacement of diary cows
COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF DISEASE CONTROL
 The costs and benefits of disease control campaigns can be assessed using several
methods including gross margin analysis and partial budgeting.
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Partial farm budgets
 Partial farm budgets have been used to assess the suitability of control strategies
(notably against endemic diseases such as mastitis and internal parasitism) on
individual farms.
 A partial budget is a simple description of the financial consequences of particular
changes in farm management procedures, of which disease control programmes are
a part. ‘Partial’ indicates that assessment is restricted to the factors that are likely to
change as a result of the procedural changes.
Social cost-benefit analysis (CBA)
 Social cost-benefit analysis is developed as a means of assessing large-scale

investment policies.
 It has been used widely in veterinary medicine to assess national animal disease
control campaigns against epidemic and sporadic diseases.
‘Internal’ and ‘external’ costs and benefits
 Internalities (private costs and benefits) are those that accrue directly to an
investment project. Costs and benefits accrue to others are termed externalities.
 Example 1: farm mastitis control campaign
o Internalities
 Dry-cow antibiotic therapy (a cost)
 Increased milk yield (a benefit)
o Externalities
 Antibiotic residues in milk may have undesirable side effects on
unknowing consumers
 Example 2: FMD control campaign
 Internalities - Loss of animals
 Externalities - Inconvenience of restriction on movement and access.
Discounting
 Control campaigns may operate over several years.

 The value of a sum of money now is greater than the same sum of money at a later
date because it could be invested now to produce a larger sum in the future as
interest accrues.
 If cost and benefits, spread over several years are to be compared, then must be
adjusted to calculate their value now.
 The process of adjustment, which is the opposite of compounding is called
discounting.
Shadow prices
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 The social value of a benefit may not always be the market price. For example, a liter
of milk is valued at its market price by the farmer. However, the lower value may be
due to surplus milk production.
 A national disease control campaign that resulted in increased milk production
would therefore use the value of the milk, termed a shadow price, in economic
evaluation.
MODULE-12: NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS

ON LIVESTOCK DISEASE
Learning objectives

o National and international regulations on livestock diseases
o Acts for prevention of diseases
o International organizations regulating emerging and spreading diseases of
animals and birds
o What is OIE?
o Functions of OIE
o OIE classification of animal diseases
o Regulations controlling handling, import and export of biomaterials
NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

REGULATING ANIMAL DISEASES
National organizations (India)
 High Security Animal Disease Laboratory (HSADL)

o This is a branch of Indian Veterinary Research Institute and is located in
Bhopal. It was started with the assistance of UNDP/FAO. The following are its
main works.
 Diagnosis, differential diagnosis and control of emerging and exotic
diseases in the country
 Developing screening tests for animals and animal byproducts against
exotic diseases
 Creating database on exotic and emerging diseases situation in India
and neighbouring countries
 Development of consultancy services
 Training Veterinarians in these aspects
 Animal Disease Monitoring and Surveillanc (ADMAS)
o Started by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi in 1987 and
is located in 4 places in India. Mainly working on the epidemiological aspects
of various diseases of domestic animals like Brucellosis, Leptospirosis,
Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, PPR, etc.
 ADMAS at IVRI campus, Hebbal, Bangalore.
 ADMAS at Veterinary Biological Institute, Hydrabad.
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 ADMAS at Bharathiya Agro Industries Foundation, Pune.

 ADMAS at GADVASU, Ludhiana.
 Center for Animal Disease Research and Diagnosis (CADRAD)
 National Animal Production and Health Information System (NAPHIS)
 National Project on Rinderpest Eradication (NPRE)
o Started by the Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying, Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India.
 National Informatics Centre (NIC)
o This agency collects data of diseases from all States of our country and
supplies this information to the concerned people as animal disease
surveillance bulletin every month.
o It is a premier organization in the field of information technology and
provides state of art solutions to the information management and decision
support requirements of the government and the cooperative sector.
o With its, nation wide network of state of art technology computers,
communication equipments and expert IT specialists is well rooted and
functioning in all Districts, States / Union territories capitals and New Delhi
helping informatory exchange of vital nature.
o It has established 1400 micro earth stations nodes in all state capitals, district
head quarters and selected commercial centers.
o Connections to over 200 international networks in 160 countries through
GPSS, dedicated internet access to SPRINTNET etc.
o General Information Services Terminal (GIST) of NIC provides information
on the statistical profile of India, traditional sciences and technologies of
India, rural technologies data base, agricultural information, industries
information etc.from dedicated booths at Bangalore and the district computer
centers of NIC.
o Geographical Information System (GISNIC) services provide digitized maps
along with thematic mapping, line and point buffering for planning.
International organizations
 World Organisation for Animal Health (Office Internationale des epizooties -

OIE)
 Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)
 World Health Organization (WHO)
o There are 4 sub-centers located at London, Wey Bridge, Copenhagen
and Amsterdam.
WORLD ORGANISATION FOR ANIMAL HEALTH (OIE)
Introduction
 OIE is an intergovernmental organization created by the International Agreement of

25 January 1924 signed by 28 countries.
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 Its headquarters is in Paris, France. Incursions of rinderpest into Europe and most
notably the epizootic which occurred in Belgium in 1920 led to the creation of the
Office Internationale des Epizooties in 1924.
 As on 2010, OIE totaled 176 Member Countries.
 OIE maintains permanent relations with more than 20 other international
organizations.
 The office is placed under the authority and control of an International committee
consisting of Delegates designed by the governments of member countries. The office
has appointed regional coordinators on all 5 continents.
 A Central Bureau headed by a Director General who is appointed by an International
committee conducting the activities of the organization.
 The OIE has 5 regional commissions covering to promote co-operations, study
problems encountered by Veterinary Services and organize cooperation activities on
a regional level.
 Each commission promotes regional co-operation in animal disease control, mainly
by holding conferences, on an average once in two years.
 The proceedings of these conferences at which several topics of general interests are
discussed and published. There are 4 specialist commissions and they are
o Foot and Mouth disease commission
o The Norms commission (concerned with standards for diagnostic methods
and vaccine production)
o International Zoo-sanitary code commission (provides recommendations on
the import/export of animals and animal products)
o Fish disease commission
o Administrative commission
Financial Resources
 The financial resources of the OIE are derived mainly from regular annual
contributions and exceptional contributions from member countries.
International relations
 OIE has permanent working relations with over 20 other International organizations
including FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization), WHO (World Health
Organization), WTO (World Trade Organization), IICA (Inter-American Institute for
Co-operation of Agriculture), PAHO (Pan American Health Organization).
Strategic Plan of OIE, 2010
 The Delegates of the 176 OIE Members adopted the 5th Strategic Plan which sets a
roadmap for OIE global missions in animal health and welfare over the years 2011-
2015.
 The Plan sets new fields of action for the organization:
o More activities directed to food security, poverty alleviation and animal health
and veterinary public health;
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o More focus on the “One Health” concept and other matters of cooperation
with partner organizations;
o The impact of climate and environmental changes on animal disease
emergence and occurrence as well as the impact of animal production on
climate change.
o The Plan also provides for a continuation of priorities emphasized in the
previous Plans, in particular the 4th Strategic Plan (2006-2010).
World Veterinary Year
 OIE announced year 2011 as “World Veterinary Year”
OBJECTIVES OF OIE
1. To guarantee the transparency of animal disease status worldwide

(Transparency)
 Each Member Country undertakes to report the animal diseases that it detects on its
territory.
 The OIE then disseminates the information to other countries, which can take the
necessary preventive action.
 This information also includes diseases transmissible to humans.
 Information is sent out immediately or periodically depending on the seriousness of
the disease.
 Dissemination is via the OIE Web site, e-mail and the following periodicals
o Disease Information, published weekly,
o OIE Bulletin published every two months
o Annual compilation - World Animal Health.
2. To collect, analyse and disseminate veterinary scientific information

(Scientific information)
 The OIE collects and analyses the latest scientific information on animal disease
control.
 This information is then made available to the Member Countries to help them to
improve the methods used to control and eradicate these diseases.
 Scientific information is also disseminated through various works and periodicals
published by the OIE, notably the Scientific and Technical Review (3 issues a year).
3. To provide expertise and promote international solidarity for the control of

animal diseases (International solidarity)
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 The OIE provides technical support to Member Countries requesting assistance with
animal disease control and eradication operations, including diseases transmissible
to humans.
 The OIE notably offers expertise to the poorest countries to help them control animal
diseases that cause livestock losses, present a risk to public health and threaten other
Member Countries.
4. To guarantee the sanitary safety of world trade by developing sanitary rules

for international trade in animals and animal products (Sanitary safety)
 The OIE develops normative documents relating to rules that Member Countries can
use to protect themselves from diseases, without setting up unjustified sanitary
barriers.
 The main normative works produced by the OIE are
o International Animal Health Code,
o Manual of Standards for Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines
o International Aquatic Animal Health Code
o Diagnostic Manual for Aquatic Animal Diseases.
5. To improve the legal framework and resources of national Veterinary

Services (Promotion of Veterinary Services)
 The Veterinary Services and laboratories of developing and transition countries are
in urgent need of support to provide them with the necessary infrastructures,
resources and capacities that will enable their countries to benefit more full from the
WIO Sanitary and Phytosanitary Agreement (SPS Agreement) while at the same time
providing greater protection for animal health and public health and reducing the
threat for other countries which are free of diseases.
 The OIE considers the Veterinary Services as a Global Public Good and their bringing
into line with international standards (structure, organization, resources, capacities,
role of paraprofessionals) as a public investment priority.
6. To provide a better guarantee of the safety of food of animal origin and to

promote animal welfare through science based approach (New mandate for
animal production food safety and animal welfare )
 The OIE Member Countries have decided to provide a better guarantee of the safety
of food of animal origin by creating greater synergy between the activities of the OIE
and those of the Codex Alimentarius Commission.
 The OIE's standard-setting activities in this field focus on eliminating potential
hazards existing prior to the slaughter of animals or the primary processing of their
products (meat, milk, eggs, etc.) that could be a source of risk for consumers.
 Since it was created, the OIE has played a key role in its capacity as the sole
international reference organization for animal health, enjoying established
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international recognition and benefiting from direct collaboration with the

Veterinary Services of all its Member Countries.
 As a mark of the close relationship between animal health and animal welfare, the
OIE has become, at the request of its Member Countries, the leading international
organization for animal welfare.
OIE LISTED DISEASES
Multiple species diseases
 Anthrax
 Aujeszky's disease
 Bluetongue
 Brucellosis (Brucella abortus)
 Brucellosis (Brucella melitensis)
 Brucellosis (Brucella suis)
 Crimean Congo haemorrhagic fever
 Echinococcosis/hydatidosis
 Epizootic haemorrhagic disease
 Equine encephalomyelitis (Eastern)
 Foot and mouth disease
 Heartwater
 Japanese encephalitis
 Leptospirosis
 New world screwworm (Cochliomyia hominivorax)
 Old world screwworm (Chrysomya bezziana)
 Paratuberculosis
 Q fever
 Rabies
 Rift Valley fever
 Rinderpest
 Surra (Trypanosoma evansi)
 Trichinellosis
 Tularemia
 Vesicular stomatitis
 West Nile fever
Cattle diseases
 Bovine anaplasmosis
 Bovine babesiosis
 Bovine genital campylobacteriosis
 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy
 Bovine tuberculosis
 Bovine viral diarrhoea
 Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia
 Enzootic bovine leukosis
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 Haemorrhagic septicaemia
 Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis/infectious pustular vulvovaginitis
 Lumpky skin disease
 Theileriosis
 Trichomonosis
 Trypanosomosis (tsetse-transmitted)
Sheep and goat diseases
 Caprine arthritis/encephalitis
 Contagious agalactia
 Contagious caprine pleuropneumonia
 Enzootic abortion of ewes (ovine chlamydiosis)
 Maedi-visna
 Nairobi sheep disease
 Ovine epididymitis (Brucella ovis)
 Peste des petits ruminants
 Salmonellosis (S. abortusovis)
 Scrapie
 Sheep pox and goat pox
Swine diseases
 African swine fever

 Classical swine fever
 Nipah virus encephalitis
 Porcine cysticercosis
 Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome
 Swine vesicular disease
 Transmissible gastroenteritis
Equine diseases
 African horse sickness

 Contagious equine metritis
 Dourine
 Equine encephalomyelitis (Western)
 Equine infectious anaemia
 Equine influenza
 Equine piroplasmosis
 Equine rhinopneumonitis
 Equine viral arteritis
 Glanders
 Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis
Avian diseases
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 Avian chlamydiosis
 Avian infectious bronchitis
 Avian infectious laryngotracheitis
 Avian mycoplasmosis (M. gallisepticum)
 Avian mycoplasmosis (M. synoviae)
 Duck virus hepatitis
 Fowl cholera
 Fowl typhoid
 Highly pathogenic avian influenza and low pathogenic avian influenza in poultry
 Infectious bursal disease (Gumboro disease)
 Marek's disease
 Newcastle disease
 Pullorum disease
 Turkey rhinotracheitis
Other diseases
 Camelpox
 Leishmaniosis
REPORTING OF ANIMAL DISEASES BY OIE
 All OIE Member Countries have the obligation to report the occurrence of all
OIE listed diseases
 There are three different types of reports
o Emergency reports
 Countries must notify the OIE Central Bureau within 24 hours of
the occurrence of a significant epidemiological event.
 Thereafter, they must provide progress reports on a weekly basis
until such time as the situation becomes stable or the disease
concerned has been eradicated.
 The sending of weekly reports should stop once a disease has
become enzootic.
 The form can also be used to report the lifting of sanitary measures
when it is considered that all the recorded outbreaks have been
eliminated.
 The central bureau immediately sends a summary of the warning
message by e-mail to member countries.
 In addition, the OIE publishes a weekly disease information leaflet
that is sent to all member countries and is also available online.
o Monthly reports
 Countries need to provide information on the absence or presence
of OIE listed diseases and, where appropriate, a compilation of data
relating to diseases not on this list that have been the subject of
emergency or follow-up reports during the month in question.
o Yearly report
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 Once a year, member countries submit a written report

summarizing the most important information on their disease
control efforts as a complete report on the occurrence of OIE listed
diseases in their territories.
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ANIMAL WELFARE ACTS
Anmal welfare Acts at national level
 Livestock Importation Act, 1898

o Import of animals is regulated according to the Livestock Importation Act
(1898) as amended by the Livestock Importation Act (1953).
o Model Livestock Importation Rules (1961), have been framed under this Act
by the central Government, in consultation with the Union Ministry of Law,
and circulated to the States for, adoption under Section 4 of this Act.
 The Glanders and Farcy Act, 1899
o The Glanders and Farcy Act (1899) was the first Central Act dealing with
animal diseases.
o This Act was primarily meant for control and prevention of two dreaded
diseases of horses namely farcy and glanders, control of which was very
important at that time from defense as well as law and order point of view, as
a large contingent of horses was maintained by the Army and the Police.
o This act relating to horses shall apply to camels, asses and mules also.
 Section 1: This Act may be called the Glanders and Farcy Act (1899).
 Section 12: Whoever being appointed as inspector under this act
vexatiously or unnecessarily enters or searches any field, buildings or
other places or seizes or detains any horse under the pretence that it is
diseased shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term, which may
extend to 6 months or a fine up to 500 rupees or with both.
 Section 13: Penalty. Who ever refuses to or neglects to comply with any
notice issued by the inspector shall be punishable with imprisonment
for a term, which may extend to 1 month or a fine up to 50 rupees or
with both.
 Dourine Act, 1910
o The Act was the next in series, with its jurisdiction extending all over except
part 'B' States.
o This Acts provides for the prevention and control of dourine by empowering
the Inspectors / Veterinary Practitioners appointed under this act, to castrate
an entire horse or an ass or to destroy a mare suffering from dourine, for
searching infected premises, their disinfections, etc; for determining
compensation to the owner according to procedure laid down in this Act to
the extent of Rs. 250 and for prohibiting the use of an affected animal for
breeding; and for imposing fines in the case of default.
 Model Byelaws
o For prohibiting the throwing of dead bodies of animals in the rivers under
section 298 (2)- List I-I (H) of the U.P.
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o Municipalities Act1916. No person shall throw the dead body of any animals
in any river within limits of Municipalities.
o In exercise of the power conferred by section 299 (I) of the Act, and with the
sanction of the State Government, the Board hereby directs that a breach of
byelaw no. I shall be punishable with fine, which may end to five hundred
rupees.
 Livestock Quarantine Rules (1961)
o Schedule i, ii and iii.
 Cattle Trespass (Amendment Act), 1921
o This act extends to the whole of India, except Part B states and Presidency
towns such local areas as the State.
o This deals with the problems of stray cattle and wild cattle.
 Drugs and Cosmetic Rules (1945)
o This Act deals with the manufacturing and selling of vaccines, antisera and
selling of diagnostic agents.
Anmal welfare Acts at State level
 Madras Cattle Disease Act (1866).

 Madras Rinderpest Act (1940).
 Anthrax (Prevention and Control) Rules (1940).
 Tamil Nadu Animals and Birds in Urban areas (Control and Regulations) Act.
 Tamil Nadu Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (1950): Banned killing of animals
and birds in temples or their premises.
 The Mysore Sheep and Sheep Development Act (1973): In addition to various aspects
of development of sheep and sheep products, it also deals with the control of sheep
diseases.
 Rajasthan Livestock Improvement Act.
 Mysore Livestock Improvement Act.
ANIMAL PROTECTION ACTS
Mischief
 Mischief is punishable under the sections 428 and 429 I.P.C. Section 428 I.P.C.
Whoever commits mischief by killing, poisoning, maiming or rendering useless any
animal or animal of the value of ten rupees or upwards, shall be punishable with
imprisonment for wither description for a term, which may extend to two years or
with fine or with both.
 Section 429 I.P.C. Whoever commits mischief by killing, poisoning, maiming or
rendering useless any elephant, camel, horses, mule, buffalo, bull, cow or ox of the
value of fifty rupees or upwards shall be punished with imprisonment of wither
description for a term of which may extend to five years or with fine or both.
Bestiality
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 Bestiality is punishable under Section 377 I.P.C. Bestiality means carnal intercourse
with man, woman or animal against the order of nature.
 This type of crime is quite frequently found in India due to the following reasons:
 The common belief of illiterate people that intercourse with she-donkey is a remedy
for gonorrhea.
 Excessive sexual desire with little opportunity for natural intercourse. Young
villagers who go out to graze cattle in fields far away fro: human eyes are incited,
owing to loneliness and the proximity of animals, to commit this crime.
 People having some mental abnormalities.
 The human male is generally the active agent and the passive agent is a goat, donkey,
mare, cow, or even hen.
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act (Central Act), 1960
 With the object of preventing infliction of unnecessary pain or sufferings on animals,

the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, was originally passed in 1890, and was
replaced by the Act in 1960.
Phooka or doom dev
 Includes any process of introducing air or any substance into the female organ of a
milch animal with the object of drawing off from the animal any secretion of milk.
Cruelty to Animals (Section 11)
 Beats, kicks, over-drives, over-loads, tortures or otherwise treats any animal so as to

subject it to unnecessary pain or suffering or causes or being the owner, permits any
animal to be so treated; or
 Employes in any work or labour any animal which by reason of any disease,
infirmity, wound, sore, or other cause, is unfit to be so employed, or being the owner,
permits any such unfit animal to be employed.
 Maiming means marking an animal permanently useless by the use of violence. This
type of offence is also common and its aim is to harm the owner when his animal
damages the crop or other property.
 The common forms of hurting animals and rendering, them useless are,
o Fracture of bone
o Cutting tendons of legs and neck
o Injury to udder in milch animals
o Tearing of the vagina or rectum by introducing sharp or blunt object
o Punctured wounds etc
INDIAN VETERINARY COUNCIL ACT (1984)
 The Indian Veterinary Council Act presented by the Ministry of Law, and Company
Affairs was approved by the president of India on 18th August 1984, after which it is
known as 'The Indian Veterinary Council Act' 1984.
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 Object of lVC Act: This Act came into force with the object to regulate veterinary
practice and to establish the Veterinary Council of India, State Veterinary Councils
which will maintain the registered veterinary practitioners and will regulate all other
matters related to them.
 This Act will be adopted by other states of the Indian Union once it is passed by the
respective House of the Legislatures of the States i.e. Vidhan Sabha.
 This Act was passed by Mathya Pradesh Vidhan Sabha on 4th July 1985 in exercise of
powers under Section 252 (I) of the constitution of India.
 By a similar procedure, it was adopted by the states of Haryana, Orissa, Himalchal
Pradesh, Rajasthan and other States in India.
HANDLING OF BIOMATERIAL
 Bio - living; Materials - things / substances / beings

 Biomaterials can be living substances like animals and animal byproducts, vaccines,
diagnostic, sera, superior germplasms, etc.
 For handling of biomaterials the type of laboratories is prescribed by the WHO in a
laboratory biosafety manual 1989, and has suggested the requirement of biosafety.
S. No Risk group Laboratory classification

Low individual risk and low Basic
1
Community risk
Moderate individual risk and Basic with biosafety cabinet
2
Related community risk
High individual and Low Containment
3
community risk
High individual and High Maximum containment
4
community risk
 While dispatching samples triple layer containers have to be used to prevent leakage
of materials.
 All the rules and regulations prescribed by the international postal agencies,
international insurance agencies, sender’s country and the recipient’s country have
to be followed.
 Before submitting the samples to the international agencies prior contact with that
particular organization is essential.
 After mailing the samples the concerned persons of that country should be informed
to receive the samples for processing and forwarding the results.
HANDLING OF BIOMATERIAL
 Bio - living; Materials - things / substances / beings

 Biomaterials can be living substances like animals and animal byproducts, vaccines,
diagnostic, sera, superior germplasms, etc.
 For handling of biomaterials the type of laboratories is prescribed by the WHO in a
laboratory biosafety manual 1989, and has suggested the requirement of biosafety.
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S. No Risk group Laboratory classification

Low individual risk and low Basic
1
Community risk
Moderate individual risk and Basic with biosafety cabinet
2
Related community risk
High individual and Low Containment
3
community risk
High individual and High Maximum containment
4
community risk
 While dispatching samples triple layer containers have to be used to prevent leakage
of materials.
 All the rules and regulations prescribed by the international postal agencies,
international insurance agencies, sender’s country and the recipient’s country have
to be followed.
 Before submitting the samples to the international agencies prior contact with that
particular organization is essential.
 After mailing the samples the concerned persons of that country should be informed
to receive the samples for processing and forwarding the results.
INTRODUCTION
 The widely accepted definition of health given by World Health Organization

(WHO) is “health is a stage of complete physical, mental and social well-
being and not merely an absence of disease”. Health is the solid foundation
on which man’s happiness rests and health is man’s most precious possession.
 Approximately four-fifths of infections of man are shared in nature by
other vertebrate animals. These shared infections are called zoonoses.
 In recent years, zoonoses and communicable diseases common to man and animals
have gained increasing attention worldwide, that have their origins in infected
animals, such as rabies or influenza or tuberculosis, have high attention and need for
a better understanding of animal diseases in terms of their epidemiology, mechanism
of transmission to man, diagnosis, prevention and control.
 As a result of dynamic of human population, change of life style, ecological
encroachment for agricultural activities and subsequent exposure to little known
flora and fauna, animal migration and trade, etc. have increased the possibility
transmission and pose a threat to human population.
 Zoonoses research strengthened the concept of “one medicine” by the way
of microbiological revolution of the late 19th century and in development of
epidemiology as medical ecology.
 A biological pathogen has to be a chronic infection or follow different strategies to
survive either in the environment or in the animal and/or human beings or stay alive
in the host for long periods or have a non-human reservoir in which to live while
waiting for new hosts to pass by. In fact, for many human diseases, the human is
actually an accidental victim and a dead-end host.
 It is very important to know,
o What is the status of zoonoses worldwide
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o Why does it occur?

o When does it occur?
o How does it occur?
o Where it occurs?
o Who are the victims?
 These questions initiate to study about the zoonotic diseases with following
objectives,
o Understanding the meaning of zoonoses?
o How zoonotic diseases are classified and defined?
o What are the sources of zoonotic diseases and how they spread and are
transmitted?
o Understanding and recognizing the different types of zoonotic diseases
o To know the interaction between agent, host and environment in the process
of spread of zoonotic diseases
o To recognize, identify and molecular characterize the causal agents
o To know the epidemiological features and its distribution around the world
o To know and understand the spectrum of host specificity as primary host,
reservoir host, accidental host etc.
o To understand pathogenicity, morbidity and mortality of the zoonotic disease
o To analyze the socio-economic implications
o To reduce the loss of man-hours or man-days
o To diagnose zoonotic diseases as early as possible in order to recommend
correct therapy to minimize the illness and risk of spread of infection
o To apply prevention, control and eradication of zoonotic diseases
o To help international organizations like WHO, FAO, etc. on monitoring and
surveillance of zoonoses throughout the world
o To impart health education and awareness about the zoonotic diseases and
their public health significance to the public
ZOONOSES
 The word 'zoonoses' (zoonosis, singular) was coined by a German physician Rudolf
Virchow in 1885.
 World Health Organization's Committee defined zoonoses as "those diseases and
infections which are naturally transmitted between vertebrate animals
and man". Veterinary epidemiologists and public health authorities modified the
definition as those infections and infestations shared in nature by man and lower
vertebrate animals because that the word 'natural transmission' was ambiguous.
o Examples: Rabies, Anthrax, Leptospirosis
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Interaction between animals and human beings in the environment
SYLVATIC ZOONOSES
 Zoonotic diseases that having reservoirs among the wild or feral animals, free living
and captive animals, and transmission of those diseases to the human population are
referred to as sylvatic zoonoses.
o Examples: Rabies, Kyasanur forest disease
Direction of spread of sylvatic zoonotic diseases
REVERSE ZOONOSES
 Infectious diseases of people which are occasionally transferred to animals

and transferred back to people are referred to as reverse zoonoses.
o Example: Tuberculosis
Table: Examples of reverse zoonotic diseases

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Agent Animal Animal Human disease

disease
Mycobacterium Deer, dogs, Tuberculosis Tuberculosis
tuberculosis elephants
Staphylococcus aureus Cattle Mastitis Furunculosis
Corynebacterium Cattle Mastitis Diphtheria
diphtheriae
Streptococcus pyogenes Cattle Mastitis Pharyngitis, Scarlet
fever
Mumps virus Dogs Parotiditis Mumps
XENOZOONOSES
 Infections that are transmitted by xenotransplantation are called xenozoonotic

diseases.
 Xenotransplantation means transplantation, implantation, infusion or ex
vivo perfusion into a human recipient, by either live cells, tissues or organs from
non-human animal donors; or human body fluids, cells, tissues or organs that have
had ex vivo contact with live, non-human animal cell, tissues or organs.
 Xenotransplantation have been done from a variety of animals including
chimpanzees, baboons, rabbits, pigs, cows, sheep and goats.
o Examples: Mycobacterium tuberculosis, rabies virus
SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES
Introduction
 Socioeconomic conditions have long been known to influence human health. For the
majority of the people, health status is determined primarily by their level of
socioeconomic development, such as:
o Income and economic status
o Education
o Nutrition
o Employment
o Housing
o Political system of the country
Economic status
 The per capita GNP is the most widely accepted measure of general economic
performance.
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 There can be no doubt that in many developing countries, the economic progress has
been the major factor in reducing morbidity of zoonotic diseases, increasing life
expectancy and improving the quality of life.
 The economic status determines the family size, standard of living,
quality of life, purchasing power and the pattern of disease.
 It is also an important factor in seeking health care.
Education
 Education is a another major factor influencing health status of human

population (especially female education).
 The illiteracy closely coincides with poverty, malnutrition, illhealth, high
infant and child mortality rates.
 For example, the small State in India, Kerala has lowest estimated infant mortality
rate when compared to other States in India. A major factor in the low infant
mortality of Kerala is its highest female literacy rate.
Occupation
 Employment promotes health, because the unemployed usually show a higher

incidence of illhealth and death.
 For many, loss of work may mean loss of income and status.
 It can cause psychological and social damage.
Political system
 Health is also related to the country’s political system.

 Often the main obstacles to the implementation of health technologies are not
technical, but rather political.
 Decisions concerning resource allocation, manpower policy, choice of technology and
the degree to which health services are made available and accessible to different
segments of the society are examples of the manner in which the political system can
shape community health services.
 The percentage of GNP spent on health is quantitative indicator of
political commitment.
 To achieve the goal of health for all, WHO has set the target of at least 5 per
cent expenditure on each country’s GNP on health care.
 What is needed is political commitment and leadership which is oriented towards
social development, and not merely economic development.
 If poor health patterns are to be changed, then changes must be made in
the entire sociopolitical system in any given community.
 Social, economic and political actions are required to eliminate health
hazards in people’s working and living environments.
The negative effects of zoonoses

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 Loss of man-hour and man-day

 Loss of labour productivity
 Monetary loss
 Adverse effect on morale of personnel
 Unfavourable publicity
 Medicolegal implications
 Reduced travel and tourism to the affected areas
 Reduced livestock and food production
 Death and destruction of affected animals
 Restriction on and reduction in international trade of animals
 Loss of country’s economy
Social and economical features in developing countries
 Most people in the developing countries live in rural areas and semi-urban areas
 The joint family set up, is a strong binding force
 People depend mainly on agriculture and there is a lack of alternative employment
opportunities
 The low production and consumption per capita among rural people
 The economic potential of the rural community is not fully realized
 Problem of unemployment
 Exploitation of natural resources and soil fertility
 Partial and/or non application of science and technology in rural areas
 Low level of literacy
 Poor quality of life due to scarcity of essential goods, facilities and money
 Poor communications and transport facilities isolates rural human community from
urban
 Unfavourable environment in rural areas predisposing to communicable diseases
and malnutrition
 The medical services provided by the State has not been fully utilized by the rural
community
Social and economical features in developed countries
 Urban life style with most residents

 Impersonal urban life, that differs from rural/village life
 Women are economically employed
 Agriculture is second to industry
 High standard of living and quality of life
 The adult literacy is almost universal
MODULE-14: CLASSIFICATION OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES AND

APPROACHES TO THEIR MANAGEMENT
Learning objectives
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To learn about
 Classification of zoonotic diseases based on

o Direction of spread
o Reservoirs / life cycle
o Etiology
o Occupation
o Food products of animal origin, etc.
INTRODUCTION
 Beyond the fact that zoonoses infect both man and lower vertebrates, they are a
biologically heterogeneous group of infections.
 Consider, as examples, two cestodal zoonoses, taeniosis and dipylidiosis.
o In Taenia saginata infection, a vertebrate, the cow, fills approximately the
same biological role as an invertebrate, the flea, does in Dipylidium
caninum infection.
o Man’s involvement in the two life cycles also is completely different.
o In the epidemiology of taeniosis, man and the other vertebrate are both
essential, while in dipylidiosis, man’s participation is not required and human
infection is sporadic and usually confined to one particular age group.
o Thus, T.saginata depends upon man for survival as a species
while D.caninum does not.
 To create awareness among public regarding zoonoses, it is vital to classify zoonotic
diseases shared in nature between human beings and animals.
CLASSIFICATION OF ZOONOSES BASED ON NATURE

OF RESERVOIRS
Anthropozoonoses
 Zoonotic diseases primarily transmitted from the lower vertebrate animals to

human beings are called anthropozoonotic diseases.
o Examples: Rabies (Lyssa virus), Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis),
Brucellosis - Malta fever (Brucella abortus), Undulant fever or
Mediterranean fever (Brucella melitensis).
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Figure 1: Direction of spread of anthropozoonotic diseases
Zooanthroponoses
 Zoonotic diseases transmitted from human beings to the lower vertebrate

animals are called zooanthroponotic diseases.
o Examples: Amoebiosis (Entamoeba histolytica), Diphtheria infection
Figure 2: Direction of spread of zooanthroponotic diseases
Amphixenoses
 Zoonotic diseases which may be transmitted in either direction, i.e., human

beings to animals or animals to human beings called amphixenotic diseases.
o Examples: Staphylococcal infection, Streptococcal infection
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Figure 3: Direction of spread of amphixenotic diseases
CLASSIFICATION OF ZOONOSES BASED ON EPIDEMIOLOGICAL

FEATURES
(LIFE CYCLE / MAINTENANCE / MODE OF TRANSMISSION)
1. Direct zoonoses
 Zoonotic diseases transmitted directly from the infected to the susceptible

host by contact, vehicle or mechanically by a vector, without undergoing any
development or propagation in the course of transmission are classified under direct
zoonoses.
 A zoonotic pathogen requires only single vertebrate host species for their
completion of life cycle.
o Examples: Bovine and ovine brucellosis by contact, Anthrax by contact and
touch, Rabies by bite, Ringworm by touch, Salmonellosis by vehicle
Figure 1: Direction of spread of direct zoonotic diseases
 Direct zoonoses can be any one of the following type

o Direct-anthropozoonoses
o Direct-zooanthroponoses
o Direct-amphixenoses
 (a). Direct-anthropozoonoses
o The lower vertebrates (domestic and wild animals) are the reservoir hosts for
many infectious zoonotic pathogens and these reservoirs transmit infections
to the human beings by accidental exposures or direct contact with infected
population or contaminated materials.
 Examples: Rabies, Brucellosis
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Figure 2: Direction of spread of direct-anthropozoonotic diseases
Top
 (b). Direct-zooanthroponoses
o Zoonotic diseases transmitted from human beings to the lower vertebrate
animals by direct contact with infected person or contaminated materials.
 Examples: Diphtheria, Tuberculosis
Figure 3: Direction of spread of direct-zooanthroponotic diseases
 (c). Direct-amphixenoses
o Zoonotic diseases maintained in nature either in animal population or in
human population are transmitted in both directions by direct contact with
infected population or contaminated materials.
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 Examples: Streptococcosis, Staphylococcosis
Figure 4: Direction of spread of direct-amphixenotic diseases
Top
2. Cyclozoonoses
 The disease requires more than one vertebrate host to complete the life
cycle, but invertebrate host is not involved. Depending upon the involvement of
human being it may be obligatory cyclozoonoses or non-obligatory
cyclozoonoses.
o Examples: Japanese encephalitis (Flavivirus of Family Flaviviridae),
Hydatidosis, Bovine cysticercosis, Trypanosomiosis (tse-tse-borne), Nairobi
sheep disease (Bunyaviridae), Leishmaniosis.
 (a). Obligatory cyclozoonoses
o In obligatory cyclozoonoses, agents require essentially a human being
for completion of their life cycle.
 Example: Taeniosis (Taenia saginata and T.solium) – measly beef
and measly pork
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Figure 5: Direction of spread of obligatory cyclozoonotic diseases
 (b). Non-obligatory cyclozoonoses

o In non-obligatory cyclozoonoses, agents require man's involvement as
accidental or not essential for completion of their life cycle.
 Example: Hydatidosis (Echinococcus granulosus).
Figure 6: Direction of spread of non-obligatory cyclozoonotic diseases
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3. Metazoonoses
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 Those diseases that are transmitted by the invertebrate hosts (biological

vectors) in which the causative agent multiplies (propagative) or develops
(developmental) or both (cyclopropagative).
 It requires both vertebrate and invertebrate hosts for their completion of
life cycle.
o Examples: Arborial infections, Schistosomiosis, Fascioliosis (sapro-meta-
zoonosis), Plaque, Trypanosomiosis, Filariosis, Trichinellosis (Trichinella
spiralis).
 Depending upon the number of hosts required for the completion of life cycle there
are four subclasses of metazoonoses.
o Metazoonoses subtype I
o Metazoonoses subtype II
o Metazoonoses subtype III
o Metazoonoses subtype IV
Table 1: Sub-classes of metazoonoses
Subclass Number of hosts required Examples of zoonoses

Vertebrates Invertebrates
I 1 1 Japanese encephalitis (Culex tritaeniorhynchus),
Yellow fever (Juncle cycle and urban cycle, Aedes
aegypti)
II 1 2 Paragonimiosis
III 2 1 Eastern equine encephalitis, Clonorchiosis
IV 1 Transovarian Tick-borne encephalitis, Kyasanur forest disease
transmission of agent in
ticks
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 (a). Metazoonoses subtype I

o It requires one vertebrate and one invertebrate host for the
completion of an etiology’s life cycle.
 Example: Yellow fever, in which juncle cycle or sylvatic cycle and
urban cycle requires a monkey or a man and a mosquito Aedes
aegypti.
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Figure 7: Direction of spread of metazoonotic (subtype I) diseases
 (b). Metazoonoses subtype II

o It requires one vertebrate and two invertebrate hosts for the
 Example: Paragonimiosis
Figure 8: Direction of spread of metazoonotic (subtype II) diseases
Top
 (c).Metazoonoses subtype III

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o It requires two vertebrate and one invertebrate hosts for the

 Example: Eastern equine encephalitis
Figure 9: Direction of spread of metazoonotic (subtype III) diseases
 (d). Metazoonoses subtype IV

o It is the type of transovarian life cycle of zoonotic pathogen in
ticks and transmission to human beings.
 Example: Tick-borne encephalitis
Figure 10: Direction of spread of metazoonotic (subtype IV) diseases
Top
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4. Saprozoonoses
 The diseases which require a non-animal objects like soil, plants, organic
matter, water, foods, etc. to serve as a true reservoir of infection or as site for an
essential phase of development.
 The etiological agent may develop (Histoplasmosis) or propagate (Ancylostoma
brazilliense) or develop and propagate (cyclopropagative - Fascioliasis) in the
inanimate (fomites) objects.
 The agent can occur in both saprophytic and parasitic phase in cyclic order.
o Examples: Visceral larval migrans, cutaneous larval migrans, fascioliosis,
mycosis of various forms, botulism, coccidiomycosis, histoplasmosis, etc.
 Based on the direction of spread it may be classified into three sub-classes, such as
o Sapro-anthropozoonoses
o Sapro-amphixenoses
o Sapro-meta-anthrapozoonoses.
Table 2: Sub-classes of saprozoonoses
Sub-class Agent in inanimate host Examples of zoonoses

I Propagative Histoplasmosis
II Development only Ancylostoma brazilliense
III Both propagative and development Fascioliosis (sapro-meta-zoonosis)
 (a). Sapro-anthropozoonoses
o Zoonotic infections are normally transmitted between lower vertebrates and
fomites and involvement of human population is only accidental.
 Example: Erysipeloid
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Figure 11: Direction of spread of sapro-anthropozoonotic diseases
 (b). Sapro-amphixenoses
o Man and lower vertebrates are equally susceptible hosts and infection can
persist in the absence of one or another host.
 Example: Histoplasmosis
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Figure 12: Direction of spread of sapro-amphixenotic diseases
 (c). Sapro-meta-anthrapozoonoses
o It requires both non-animate, invertebrate host and vertebrate host in its life
cycle.
 Example: Fasciliosis
Figure 13: Direction of spread of sapro-meta-anthrapozoonotic diseases
CLASSIFICATION OF ZOONOSES BASED ON ANIMALS

INVOLVED
Wild animal zoonoses
 Infections transmitted from wild animals like elephants, non-human primates, fox,
wild boar to human beings.
o Examples: Kyasanur forest disease (KFD), Rabies
Pet animal zoonoses
 Infections transmitted from pet animals like dogs, cats, love birds to human beings.
o Examples: Toxoplasmosis, Ringworm infection, Psittacosis/Ornithosis
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Lab animal zoonoses
 Infections transmitted from lab animals like guinea pigs, rats, mice rabbits to human
beings.
o Example: Lymphocytic choriomeningitis
Fish-borne zoonoses
 Infections transmitted from fish and processed fish products to human beings.
o Examples: Salmon poisoning, Pernicious anemia
CLASSIFICATION OF ZOONOSES BASED ON PHYSICAL

CONDITION
Urban zoonoses
 Infections which are commonly prevalent in urban areas and transmitted from
animals to human beings.
o Examples: Rabies, Abattoir's infections, Anthrax, Leptospirosis,
Tuberculosis
Rural zoonoses
 Infections which are commonly prevalent in rural areas and transmitted from
o Examples: Brucellosis, Schistosomiosis, Rabies, Worm infestations
Occupational zoonoses
 Infections which are transmitted from animals to human beings by nature of their
occupation.
o Examples: Wool sorter's disease, Sugarcane worker's disease, Rice field
worker’s disease
CLASSIFICATION OF ZOONOSES BASED ON TYPE OF

TRANSMISSION
Skin, hide and hair-borne zoonoses
 Infections which are transmitted by contact with skin, hide and hair of infected
o Example: Anthrax
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Meat-borne zoonoses
 Infections which are transmitted by contact or consumption of meat and meat

products from infected animals to human beings.
o Examples: Tuberculosis, Trichinellosis, Leptospirosis
Milk-borne zoonoses
 Infections which are transmitted through consumption of milk and milk products
from infected animals to human beings.
o Examples: Tuberculosis, Brucellosis, Campylobacteriosis
Food-borne zoonoses
 Infections which are transmitted through consumption of foods of animal origin or

foods of plant origin contaminated with the secretions and or excretion of infected
o Examples: Salmonellosis, Streptococcosis, Staphylococcosis, Colibacillosis,
Anthrax
Vector-borne zoonoses
 Mechanical
o Infectious pathogens are carried mechanically by invertebrate host and
transmitted to the human beings.
o Examples: Anthrax, Colibacillosis
 Biological
o Infectious pathogen undergoes some biological transformation before
infecting the human.
 Developmental: If essential development of the agent takes place in
or on the vector. Example is Dirofilaria immitis in mosquitoes.
 Propagative: If the agent multiplies in the vector before being
injected into the host. Examples are plague, yellow fever.
 Cyclo-propagative: If the agent undergoes development and
multiplication in the vector before being injected into the host.
Example is Trypanosoma cruzi in bugs.
 Trans-ovarian
o The infection may be transmitted in vectors vertically from one generation to
the next generation before being injected into the host.
o Examples: Rift valley fever, West Nile fever, Russian spring summer
encephalitis
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 Trans-stadial
o The infection may be transmitted in vectors from stage to stage before being
injected into the host.
CLASSIFICATION OF ZOONOSES BASED ON ETIOLOGY
Viral zoonoses
 Transmission of viral diseases from animals to human beings.

 Examples: Rabies, Milker’s nodules, Ranikhet disease viral conjunctivitis, etc.
Bacterial zoonoses
 Transmission of bacterial diseases from animals to human beings.

 Examples: Anthrax, Tuberculosis, Brucellosis
Parasitic zoonoses
 Transmission of parasitic diseases from animals to human beings.

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 Examples: Trichinellosis, Visceral larval migrans, Cutaneous larval migrans,

Hydatidosis
Mycotic/Fungal zoonoses
 Transmission of fungal diseases from animals to human beings.

 Examples: Tinea/ringworm infection, Aspergillosis
Rickettsial zoonoses
 Transmission of rickettsial diseases from animals to human beings.

 Example: Q-Fever, Epidemic typhus, Scrub typhus, Rocky mountain spotted fever
Protozoan zoonoses
 Transmission of protozoal diseases from animals to human beings.

 Examples: Trypanosomiasis, Leishmaniasis
Table: Classes of important zoonotic diseases
S.No Disease Based on reservoir Based on mechanism

AZ ZAZ AmZ D C M S
1 Anthrax + - - + - - +
2 Tetanus + - - - - - +
3 Staphylococcosis + + + + - - +
4 Streptococcosis + + + + - - +
5 Erysipeloids + - - + - - -
6 Listeriosis + - - + - - -
7 Mycobacterium avium + - - + - - -
8 M.bovis, M.tuberculosis + + - + - - -
9 Brucellosis + - - + - - -
10 Colibacillosis + + + + - - -
11 Pasteurellosis + - - + - - -
12 Glanders + - - + - - -
13 Salmonellosis + + + + - - +
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14 Tularemia + - - + + + -
15 Yersiniosis + - - + - + -
16 Ps. pseudomallei + - - + - + +
17 Leptospirosis + - - + - - +
18 Psittacosis - + - + - - +
19 Q-Fever - + - + - - -
20 Rocky mountain spotted fever - + - - - + -
Note
 AZ - Anthropozoonosis
 ZAZ - Zooanthroponosis
 AmZ - Amphixenosis
 D - Direct zoonosis
 C - Cyclozoonosis
 M - Metazoonosis
 S - Saprozoonosis
MODULE-15: MODE OF TRANSMISSION OF ZOONOTIC

DISEASES
Learning objectives
To know about
 Different modes of transmission of zoonotic diseases
INTRODUCTION
 Human population encounter animals with varying frequency depending on their

occupation, geographical location and the prevailing culture of the country. Whether
living in an urban or rural environment, animals are constantly present and humans
may have close contact with them on their farms (food-producing animals), in their
homes (dogs, cats, caged birds), through leisure activities (horses, wildlife) or by
virtue of their occupation as veterinarians or animal handlers.
 Apart from their obvious benefits as a source of food, draught power, transportation
and companionship, animals may occasionally have negative impact on the human
population through pollution of the environment, as a cause of traffic accidents,
injury to humans through bite wounds and attacks on other susceptible species (dogs
attacking sheep).
 Health hazards associated with animals are related to communicable diseases.
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 There are multiple pathways of transmission which enhance the chances of

survival of the infectious agents.
 Transmission of disease may be direct simply by contact with an animal or
indirect, through, food, non-edible products and secretions or
excretions.
 Apart from food-borne zoonoses the importance of particular zoonotic diseases often
varies with a person’s occupation, the nature and type of animals
present and the diseases prevalent in the animal population in a particular
geographical region.
 The more frequent and direct the contact with animals, the greater the
risk of acquiring a zoonotic infection.
 Farmers, owners of companion animals, workers in slaughterhouses or
by-product processing plants, veterinarians and laboratory staff dealing
with infectious material, workers in zoos and circuses and personnel
engaged in servicing sanitary services are more likely to acquire zoonotic
diseases than workers who have infrequent contact with animals.
SOURCES AND RESERVOIRS
 Sources (infected animals or contaminated materials) from which the zoonotic

diseases are transmitted to the susceptible hosts (human beings).
 The term ‘source’ refers to the immediate source of infection and may or may not be
a part of reservoir.
 In case of reservoirs, the niche (infected persons or animals, arthropods,
contaminated soil or substances) that zoonotic pathogens usually inhabit in such a
manner that can be transmitted to a susceptible hosts (human beings).
 The reservoir may be a primary or secondary host. It may be clinical or subclinical or
carrier or latent infection.
 Carrier means an infected host that harbors a pathogen without showing clinical
signs, but releasing the infectious pathogen in the secretions and excretions either
for short period of time (temporary carriers) or for long period of time (chronic
carriers).
 Example:
o In case of tetanus, the source and the reservoir are the same that is soil.
o But, in the case of typhoid, the source of the infection may be faeces or urine
of the infected patients or contaminated food, milk or water and reservoir
may be a case or carrier.
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Transmission link between infected and susceptible hosts
MODE OF TRANSMISSION
 Transmission of zoonotic pathogens is broadly classified into

o Horizontal or lateral
o Vertical transmission
Diagrammatic representation of direct and indirect transmission
HORIZONTAL OR LATERAL TRANSMISSION
 Transmission of zoonotic pathogen from infected population (animals) to the

susceptible population (human beings) or cross-sectional spread of
diseases among members of same group or different groups of the same
generation. It may be
o Direct transmission
o Indirect transmission
 Examples are rabies, brucellosis, anthrax
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Diagrammatic representation of horizontal transmission
Direct transmission
 Transfer of infectious agents from the infected animals to the susceptible human
population by direct contact without involvement of intermediate vectors.
o Examples are rabies, brucellosis
 Direct physical contact with infected animals and their discharges
o Physical touch and sexual contact lead to the transmission pathogen.
o Examples are brucellosis, leptospirosis, vibriosis, anthrax, foot and mouth
diseases, cow pox, orf
 Direct air-borne transmission
o Droplets and or droplet nuclei which carry the infectious pathogen in the
environment leads to the spread of zoonotic diseases.
o While sneezing or coughing or breathing infectious pathogens are
sprayed with droplets and or droplet nuclei in the air which in turn inhaled
or contacted with visible mucus membrane of immediately surrounding
susceptible population.
o Epidemiologists do not consider the spread as a true air-borne transmission;
they regard it as a form of direct-contact transmission.
o The close-proximity, over-crowding and poor ventilation enhance the
chances of spread of infectious pathogens by this mode.
o Examples are New castle disease virus conjunctivitis, tuberculosis
 Contact with contaminated soil (saprophytic transmission)
o Contact with fomites or saprophytes results in disease transmission.
o Examples are anthrax, cutaneous larva migrans, visceral larva migrans
 Bite or scratches by infected animals
o Animal bites or scratches by infected animals transmit some zoonotic
diseases.
o Examples are rabies, cat-scratch fever
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Indirect transmission
 Transmission of infectious pathogens from the infected host to the susceptible host
by an intermediate vector either animate or inanimate.
o Examples are anthrax, tuberculosis
 Fomite-borne transmission
o Infections are transmitted through the inanimate objects (contaminated soil,
cloths, utensils, surgical instruments, feeders, waterers, syringe and needles,
milking machines, farm equipment).
o Examples are anthrax, foot and mouth disease
 Air-borne transmission
o Transmission of infectious pathogens between infected and susceptible host
through droplets and droplet nuclei in the air.
o Examples are avian influenza, foot and mouth disease, tuberculosis
 Vehicle-borne transmission
o Transmission of infectious pathogens between infected and susceptible host
through non-living things or substance (food, water, blood, body fluids,
serum, plasma, tissues, organs).
 Mechanical transmission: Mechanical transmission of pathogens.
Example is hepatitis from serum.
 Developmental transmission: If essential development takes
place in the vehicle without multiplication. Example is
ancylostomiasis.
 Propagative transmission: If the agent multiplies in the vehicle
before being injected into the host. Examples are milk-borne
streptococcosis, staphylococcosis, food poisoning (salmonellosis).
 Cyclo-propagative transmission: If the agent undergoes
development and multiplication in the vehicle before being injected
into the host. Example is strongyloidosis.
 Vector-borne transmission
o An invertebrate host usually an arthropod is responsible for the transmission
of an infectious agent from the infected host to the susceptible host.
 Mechanical transmission: Mechanical transmission of pathogens.
Examples are anthrax, salmonellosis
 Biological transmission: It involves ingestion of infective materials
from the infected population resulting in development or
multiplication or both of an etiological agent in the biological vectors
(ticks, flies, mosquitoes) before being transmitted to the human
population.
 The time period between ingestion of infectious agents and availability
of infective agents after essential development or multiplication or
both in the vector is referred to as‘extrinsic incubation period’.
 Developmental transmission: If essential development takes
place in or on the vector without multiplication. Example is Dirofilaria
immitis in mosquitoes.
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 Propagative transmission: If the agent multiplies in or on the

vector before being injected into the host. Example is plague.
 Cyclo-propagative transmission: If the agent undergoes
development and multiplication in the vector before being injected
into the host. Example is Trypanosoma cruzi in bugs.
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Transmission of zoonotic pathogens associated with ticks and flies
 Trans-ovarian transmission
o The infection may be transmitted in vectors vertically from one generation to
the next generation before being injected into the host.
o Examples are Rift valley fever, West Nile fever, Russian spring summer
encephalitis
 Trans-stadial transmission
o The infection may be transmitted in vectors from stage to stage before being
injected into the host.
o Example is Kyasanur forest disease.
 Salivarian transmission
o If an infectious agent undergoes development in the midgut of the vector and
transformed into infective stage in the salivary gland of that vector, from
which the infective form of the agent is released into the host by biting by the
vector is referred to as salivarian transmission.
o Example if African trypanosomiasis by the vector Glossina.
 Stercorarian transmission
o If an infectious agent undergoes development in the midgut of the vector and
transformed into infective stage in the hindgut of that vector, from which the
infective form of the agent is excreted through its faeces leads to infection of
the host by faecal contamination is referred to as stercorarian transmission.
o Example is Chaga’s disease (Trypanosoma cruzi) in man by bugs.
VERTICAL TRANSMISSION
 Transmission of an infectious agent from the infected mother to their

offspring (from one generation to the next generation) by hereditary,
acquired or congenital at birth or infection of the ovum / embryo or foetus itself in
vivo.
 Vertical transmission is of no significance in the transmission of zoonotic diseases.
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Diagrammatic representation of vertical transmission
ROUTES OF TRANSMISSION
Ingestion
 Entry of infectious agents by ingestion via contaminated food, water, soil, etc.
 Infectious agents excreted in the faeces of an affected individual usually ingested due
to unhygienic hands is referred to as ‘faecal-oral-transmission’ cycle.
 Examples are colibacillosis, salmonellosis.
Inhalation
 It is an air-borne transmission of an infectious agent via droplets or droplet nuclei in

the contaminated environment.
 Examples are avian influenza, tuberculosis, histoplasmosis.
Contact
 Transmission of an infectious agent from the infected animals to man by direct or

indirect contact with the infected animals or infective contaminated materials
without involvement of an intermediate vectors; or bite or scratch by the infected
animals leads to the production of disease.
 Examples are brucellosis, rabies, cat-scratch fever.
Inoculation
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 Infectious agents are introduced into the body of the susceptible host through bite
wound or scratches of the skin and subsequent inoculation of infective materials into
the body wound or needle-prick or biting by arthropod vectors.
 Examples are yellow fever, rabies.
Iatrogenic transmission
 Doctor-induced infection through unhygienic surgical and / or medical practices.

The word ‘Iatrogenic’ literally means ‘created by a doctor’.
 Examples are tetanus, rabies due to corneal transplantation (xenozoonosis).
Coitus
 Introduction of infectious pathogens into the susceptible host from the infected host
during coitus.
 Example is brucellosis.
MODULE-16: PRINCIPLES OF PREVENTION, CONTROL AND

ERADICATION
Learning objectives
To know about
 Strategies of prevention, control and eradication of zoonotic diseases
INTRODUCTION
Principles of prevention, control and eradication
 The fundamental concept in prevention, control and eradication of zoonotic diseases

is focused upon ‘breaking the chain of transmission at its epidemiologically
weakest link’ in the infection cycle viz., controlling the reservoirs (animals),
breaking the routes of transmission and immunization of susceptible hosts (human
beings).
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Epidemiologically weakest link in the transmission pathway
CONTROL OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES IN ANIMAL RESERVOIRS
 Early diagnosis, isolation and treatment of affected animals

 Monitoring and reporting of animal diseases of zoonotic importance
 Control of animal movement to minimize the spread of infection
 Reduction of susceptible animal population by prevention (immunoprophylaxis,
chemoprophylaxis, genetic resistance, niche filling) and control (environmental
hygiene, hygienic animal husbandry practices, restricted animal movement, minimal
disease method)
o Mass immunization to increase the immune population, that means "animal
reservoirs/susceptible animal population/immune animal population".
Examples: Rabies, FMD.
o Mass chemotherapy to prevent developmnt of clinical infection even if there is
exposure to infectious pathogens. Examples: Doxycycline for leptospirosis,
diethyl carbomicin for filariosis.
o Genetic resistance: Natural resistance against diseases. Example: Algerian
sheep are genetically against anthrax.
o Niche filling: Competitive exclusion theory. Example: Salmonellosis in
poultry.
o Environmental hygiene and hygienic animal husbandry practices. Example:
Control of colibacillosis and milk-borne streptococcosis and staphylococcosis
by clean milk production.
o Controlling the spread of disease-producing agents by restricted movement of
animals. Examples: FMD, brucellosis.
 Notification and reporting disease and outbreaks in animal population.
 Quarantine of all imported animals and products of animal origin.
 Disinfection and sanitation
 Public health awareness/health education
BLOCKING OF CHANNEL OF TRANSMISSION OF ZOONOTIC

DISEASES
Reducing the contact potential
 Avoid physical contact with infected animals and/or infective biological materials,
fomites, excreta.
 Avoid sleeping with pets.
 Take care of wound, injury, scratches. when ever we have possibilities of close-
proximity to animals
Breaking the link between vectors and susceptible human beings

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 Environmental disinfection and sanitation destroy the zoonotic pathogens in the

environment.
 Biological control, such as sterile male technique, physical and chemical control of
vectors.
 Use of mosquito repellant, mosquito net. prevent from mosquito bites
Blocking the air-borne spread
 Good ventilation minimizes the spread of zoonotic pathogens

 Use of face mask prevents inhalation of droplets and/or droplet nuclei of zoonotic
importance
 Avoid visiting polluted areas
 Physical isolation of highly susceptible individuals
Blocking the vehicle-borne spread
 Avoid contact with contaminated fomites

 Protect wound, injury and scratches over the skin
 Use protective clothing such as gloves, gumboots, apron, face mask, eye glass.
 Hygienic method of slaughter to avoid contact transmission
 Safe disposal of wastes and disinfection
 Safe handling, processing and storage of foods of animal origin
PREVENTION OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES IN HUMAN

POPULATION
 High risk group population must be protected from occupational zoonotic diseases.
o Examples: Anthrax, Leptospirosis.
 It can be achieved through following measures
o Health education
o Personal hygiene
o Protective clothing
o Immunization
o Regular testing
o Reducing the contact potential
o Improving social customs, norms, condition of life style.
o Early diagnosis, isolation and therapy
o Keeping the environment hygiene
o Regular ante mortem inspection animals at slaughter houses following
consumer protection strategies (HACCP - Hazard Analysis Critical Control
Point).
o Coordination between medical, veterinary and public health personnel.
o Notification and reporting disease and outbreaks.
o Disinfection and sanitation.
o Public health awareness.
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PREVENTION, CONTROL AND ERADICATION OF ZOONOTIC

DISEASES
Prevention
 Prevention means inhibiting the introduction of a disease-producing agent into an

area and a specific population group or an individual. It may be,
o Primary prevention: Quarantine and vaccination
o Secondary prevention: Test and slaughter and depopulation
o Tertiary prevention: Treatment
Quarantine
 The limitation of freedom of movement persons or animals exposed to

communicable disease for a period of time not longer than the usual incubation
period of the disease, in such manner as to prevent effective contact with those not so
exposed.
 It is a prevention action related to separation of healthy population from the
apparently healthy population but suspected to be exposed to an infection.
 A period of 14 days, in certain cases 90 days or more, is considered adequate
quarantine period.
 Exhibit animals particularly carnivores and omnivores should be quarantined for a
minimum of 180 days.
 Dogs on import should be quarantined for 4 months (anti-rabies vaccinated dogs) or
6 months (anti-rabies unvaccinated dogs) and 90th day of quarantine one dose of
rabies vaccination should be given.
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Diagrammatic representation of application of preventive measures
Control
 Control means steps taken to reduce a disease problem to a tolerable level and
maintain it at that level.
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Eradication
 Eradication means elimination of disease-producing agent from a defined population

or geographical area. It may be,
o Total eradication: Complete removal of the agent. Example: Small pox
from the world.
o Practical eradication: Elimination of infectious agents from the reservoirs
of importance to humans or their domestic animals in defined geographical
area and making‘disease free zone’, rather than total eradication from the
region. Example: Eradication of canine rabies, where eradication of rabies
from wildlife reservoirs may not be possible.
Reservoir neutralization
 Isolation: Separation, for the period of communicability of infected persons or

animals from others in such places and under such conditions, as to prevent or limit
the direct or indirect transmission of the infectious agent from those infected to
those who are susceptible or who may spread the agent to others.
 Test and slaughter: Deliberate killing of minority infected animals with test-
positive from the majority non-infected animal population.
 Depopulation or ‘stamping out policy’: Deliberate killing of all the animals in
the population from a defined geographical area without conducting laboratory
diagnosis, if the disease-producing agent is highly contagious and/or spreading
rapidly among animals in the population.
 Mass therapy: Immunization of at least 80 per cent of the population to maintain
herd immunity or immune belt. This can be achieved by ‘ring vaccination
programme or frontier vaccination programme’.
Reducing contact potential
 Increasing the herd immunity

 Disinfection and sanitation
 Niche filling: The concept is based on ‘epidemiological interference’. The presence of
one organism within the niche can prevent its occupation by another organism. It
has been experimentally investigated in poultry industry, the suspension of
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endogenous intestinal microbes have been fed to day-old chicks to prevent

colonization of virulent Salmonella spp.
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Increasing host resistance
 Genetic selection
 Stress reduction
 Chemoprophylaxis
 Immunization
Consumer protection strategies
 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)
Animal identification
 Identification and isolation of sick animals
Health maintenance
 Immunization
 Animal birth control programme
 Deworming
 Regular certification
Communication/liaison
 Notification and reporting to the local, regional, national and international

authorities
Education
 Public health awareness
An effective preventive and control programme requires,
 Sound epidemiological knowledge of the disease: etiology, sources and reservoirs,

magnitude, spatial and temporal distribution and dynamics of transmission
 Laboratory facilities for early diagnosis
 Community participation
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 Financial resources
 Health care services
 Political support
 Active and passive surveillance
 Regular monitoring and notification
 Coordination between Medical-Veterinary-Public Health Departments
 Regular immunization programme and keeping the population with adequate herd
immunity (about 80% of population should be protective), referred to as ‘immune
belt’
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MODULE-17: TRANSMISSION OF ZOONOSES
Learning objectives
To know about
 Emerging and re-emerging zoonoses

 Role of different species of animals in transmission of zoonotic diseases
 Occupational zoonoses
NEW, EMERGING AND RE-EMERGING ZOONOSES
 Emerging zoonoses are defined as “zoonotic diseases caused either by

apparently new etiological agents or by previously known agents
appearing in places or in species in which the disease was previously
unknown”, but shows an increase in incidence or expansion in geographical, host
or vector range.
 Emergence and re-emergence of zoonotic diseases may be any one of the following
categories
o a known agent appearing in a new geographic area.
o a known agent appearing in a unsusceptible species.
o a previously unknown agent detected for the first time.
 New animal diseases with an unknown host spectrum are also emerging zoonotic
diseases.
 Natural animal reservoirs are more frequently playing role as a source of new agents
than the sudden appearance of a completely new agent in the human
population are considered as new and emerging zoonotic diseases.
 Emerging zoonoses are usually complex, involving mechanisms at the molecular
level, such as antigenic drift or shift, and changes in the immunological
status.
 Social and ecological conditions influencing population growth and movement,
food habits, the environment and many other factors may play a more important role
very frequently in the emergence of zoonotic diseases in human population.
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o Examples: Avian influenza, Bovine Spongiform Encephalitis (BSE), Rift

Valley fever, Alveolar Echinococcosis, Severe acute respiratory syndrome
(SARS), Monkeypox, Nipah virus, Orphan viruses such as Enteroviruses,
Myxoviruses, Herpesviruses, Nontyphoid strains of Salmonella, Borrelia
burgdorferi (Lyme borreliosis), Ehrlichia and Anaplasma
spp. (Ehrlichiosis), Mycobacteria paratuberculosis (Johne’s/Chronne’s
disease), Francisella tularensis (Tularemia), Bartonella spp. (Bartonellosis),
EnterohemorrhagicEscherichia coli ( Bloody diarrhoea), Campylobacter spp.
Figure: Factors influencing emergence of zoonotic diseases
Factors determining disease emergence
 There is no way to predict when or where the next important new zoonotic pathogen
will emerge.
 There are several factors which contribute to the emergence of a new zoonotic
disease, such as:
o Environmental determinants (ecologic and climatologic influences)
o Agent determinants (mutation, natural selection and evolutionary
progression – antigenic drif or shift)
o Host determinants (acquired immunity and physiologic factors)
o Host population determinants (host behavioral characteristics,
societal, transport, commercial and iatrogenic factors)
o Human and animal demography and changes in farming practice.
o Social and cultural factors such as food habits and religious beliefs play a
role.
o Urbanization, globalization, population movement (refugees) and
increased air travel.
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o Microbial adaptation such as anti-microbial resistance and breakdown in

public health or control measures as well as breakdown in the host’s
defenses.
o Increasing global human and livestock animal populations results in close
contact between animals and human population.
o Increasing bioterroristic activities.
Example 1: Yellow fever
 Emergence of yellow fever when humans entered the Central American jungle to
build the Panama Canal. Deforestation and settlement of new tropical forest and
farm margins have exposed farmers and domestic animals to new arthropods.
Example 2: Japanese encephalitis
 Ecologic factors pertaining to uncontrolled urbanization and environmental

pollution are contributing to many emergent disease episodes. Arthropod vectors
breeding in accumulations of water (e.g., tin cans, old tires) and sewage-laden water
are a problem worldwide. Environmental chemical toxicants (herbicides, pesticides,
residues) can also affect vector-virus relationships directly or indirectly. Ecologic
factors related to expanding primitive irrigation systems are becoming important in
virus disease emergence, as exemplified by the emergence of Japanese encephalitis
in newly developed rice-growing areas of southern Asia.
Example 4: Bovine spongiform encephalopathy epidemic in cattle and new-

variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans
 Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) in the United Kingdom may provide more
lessons than any other recent emergent zoonotic disease episode. The disease was
first diagnosed in the United Kingdom in 1986. More than 1,70,000 cattle had been
reported as infected, roughly half of which entered the human food chain in the
United Kingdom. In 1995, the BSE agent was reported to be the cause of a new
human zoonotic disease, new-variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease.
Table: Factors associated with the emergence of zoonotic diseases
Determinants Examples of zoonoses

Ecological factors: Construction of dams, changes in Rift Valley fever (dams, irrigation), Argentine
water ecosystems, deforestation/reforestation, haemorrhagic fever, Hanta or Korean
agriculture,flood/drought, famine, climate change haemorrhagic fever (agriculture)
Human demography: Urbanization, globalization, Spread of human immunodeficiency virus and
migration, war or civil conflict, economic impoverishment, other sexually transmitted diseases, Dengue
commercial sex trade, intravenous drug use, outdoor fever(urbanisation)
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recreation, use of childcare facilities

International travel by air and ship: Worldwide Dissemination of human immunodeficiency virus,
movement of goods and people mosquito vectors such as Aedes albopictus (Asian
tiger mosquito), rat-borne hantaviruses,
introduction of cholera into South America
Technology and industry: Food production and Escherichia coli strains from cattle contaminating
processing, globalisation of food supplies, changes in food meat and other food products), bovine
processing and packaging spongiform encephalopathy, Nipah virus (pigs),
avian influenza
Health care: New medical devices, organ or tissue Ebola and human immunodeficiency virus (health
transplantation, immunosuppressive drugs, widespread use care and medical technology, contaminated
of antibiotics injection equipment), Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
from contaminated batches of human growth
hormone
Microbial adaptation and evolution ‘Antigenic drift’ in influenza virus, development of
multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis, chloroquine-
resistant malaria
Breakdown of the host’s defenses:Immunosuppression Emergence of M.bovis and L. monocytogenes in
and imunnodieficiency humans
Lack of public health awareness or control Resurgence of tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria
measures
OCCUPATIONAL ZOONOSES
 Infections which are transmitted from animals to human beings by nature of their
occupation are described as occupational zoonotic diseases.
o Examples: Wool sorter's disease, Sugarcane worker's disease, Rice field
worker’s disease.
 Based on occupation and demography, it may be classified as either urban zoonoses
or rural zoonoses
Urban zoonoses
 Infections which are commonly prevalent in urban areas and transmitted from
o Examples: Rabies, Abattoir's infections, Anthrax, Leptospirosis,
Tuberculosis.
Rural zoonoses
 Infections which are commonly prevalent in rural areas and transmitted from
o Examples: Brucellosis, Schistosomiosis, Rabies, Worm infestations.
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ROLE OF DOMESTICATED PETS/COMPANION ANIMALS

IN TRANSMISSION OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES
 Our cave dwelling ancestors used dogs as the co-partner in hunting job.
Subsequently, in all civilization dogs were used as guards, companions and hunters
and in times of war. So, first pet animal of man was dogs, then cats, horses and some
birds. Pet animals kept for pleasures and companionship are usually domesticated
and selectively bred for coexistence with human beings, besides their value as pets,
pets serve utilitarian purposes protecting homes and property, destroying vermin
and providing means of transport.
 At least 40 different diseases can be transmitted from pets to people. They may be
acquired from direct contact with infected animals or from the animal’s excreta.
Sometimes just breathing the air in the vicinity of man, infected pet can cause illness.
 ‘We are so fond of one another, because our ailments are the same’. There is close
association between domestic animals and human population (rural, urban,
agricultural workers, veterinarians, butchers) which leads to transmission of
zoonotic diseases from animals to human beings.
 Two third of the domestic animals are reservoirs for many zoonotic diseases. The
incidences of zoonotic diseases depend on, the number of infected animals, route of
transmission, level of interaction between man and animals and existing preventive
and control measures.
Protection from zoonotic diseases of pets
 Acquire pets only from a reliable dealer who practices good sanitations.
 Do not attempt to take wild or sick animals or monkeys as pets.
 Keep your pets clean and properly housed.
 Practice good hygiene.
 Wash hands thoroughly after playing with or handling your pets.
 Wash hands after cleaning the cage or aquarium as well as after handling an animal
or pet treats and before handling food or eating.
 Pregnant women should avoid cleaning of cats (carriers for toxoplasmosis) and its
faeces and cages to avoid contacting of toxoplasmosis. Toxoplasmosis causes
abortion in pregnant women.
 Do not let it lick your face.
 Keep pet's utensils separate.
 Keep pets out of people’s bed.
 Health education to the public should be given highest priority.
 The high risk group should be protected by administration of specific immunization.
 Infected pets and the areas where the pets commonly reside should be treated with
appropriate insecticides for fleas, ticks, mites and their larvae.
 Have a ‘veterinarian check’ over a new pet and provide needed immunizations.
Table: Examples of diseases transmitted from different species of

domestic/companion animals to man
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Domestic / Examples of zoonoses

companion
animals
Dogs Hydatidosis, Visceral larva migrans (VLM), Cutaneous larva migrans
(CLM), Rabies, Leptospirosis
Cats Rabies, Toxoplasmosis
Love birds Psittacosis/Ornithosis
Ornamental Erysipelas
fishes
Equines Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE), Western equine encephalitis (WEE),
Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE), Glanders
Cattle Foot and mouth disease (FMD), Rabies, Cow pox, Milker’s nodules, Bovine
spongiform encephalopathy (Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease), rucellosis,
Leptospirosis, Campylobacteriosis, Anthrax
Sheep Q-fever, Leptospirosis, Listeriosis, Brucellosis, Anthrax
Goats Orf, Brucellosis, Leptospirosis, Anthrax
Pigs Trichinosis, Erysipelosis, Salmonellosis, Anthrax, Swine influenza, Japanese
encephalitis
Poultry Avian influenza, Newcastle disease virus conjunctivitis,
Listeriosis,Mycobacterium avium, Toxoplasmosis
ROLE OF WILD ANIMALS IN THE TRANSMISSION

OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES
 Wild animals are the known host to the wide range of different microorganisms.
 Wild animal diseases may be expressed as frank diseases or silent infection. But,
many infections of man and domestic animals exist silently in wild animal species as
infections which are not apparent.
 Many emerging and sylvatic zoonoses are being reported with increasing frequency
in man and animals like the orphan viruses (enterovirus, myxovirus, herpesvirus).
 Infections present in wildlife form ‘enzootic foci’.
 Alteration in the environment for the human welfare such as construction of dams,
canals, deforestation and tilling of the grass lands for agricultural development may
enhance the chances of human contact with the foci of infection.
 Rats, mice, monkeys, bats, foxes, wolves, skunks, migratory water fowls, ducks
involve with epidemiology of zoonotic diseases.
o Examples
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 Monkeys: Deforestation in Shimoga district near Mysore

(Karnataka), India resulted in the outbreaks of Kyasanur forest disease
(KFD) in humans due to migration of carrier monkeys through an
epidemiological cycle of ‘Monkey-Tick (Haemophilus spinigera)-
Migratory birds’.
 Arthropod-borne/tick-borne zoonoses: Monkeys are the
reservoirs for yellow fever in humans, tick typhus (boutonneuse fever),
Crimean haemorrhagic fever, Q-fever, tularaemia.
 Migratory birds: Avian influenza, West Nile virus, EEE, WEE
 Skunks, ferrets, bats, foxes, wild dogs and cats: Rabies
ROLE OF COLD-BLOODED ANIMALS AND NON-HUMAN

PRIMATES IN TRANSMISSION OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES
Role of cold-blooded animals in transmission of zoonotic diseases
 Zoonotic diseases which are transmitted from cold-blooded animals called

as poikilothermic zoonoses.
 Cold-blooded animals like fishes, lizard, snakes, tortoise, turtle, toad and frog which
are associated with human population act as reservoir hosts for many zoonotic
diseases.
 Aquatic animals live within an environment of potential pathogens. In closed
systems, however, the concentration of microorganisms may be amplified increasing
the risk of human infection. Aquatic microorganisms associated with zoonotic
infections are Aeromonas hydrophila, Atypical Mycobacteria (M. fortuitum, M.
marinum, M. chelonian), Campylobacter spp., Edwardsiella tarda,
Enteropathogenic E.coli, Enterotoxic E.coli, Erysipelothrix spp., Legionella
pneumophila, Pseudomonas spp., Salmonella spp., Vibrio parahaemolyticus, Vibrio
vulnificus, Vibrio fluvialis, Yersinia enterocolitica.
 To avoid contraction of poikilothermic zoonotic diseases, the following measues
should be followed
o Practice of proper hygiene.
o Hands should always be washed with an antimicrobial soap after handling
cold-blooded animals or working in their environment.
o Any open wounds should be covered to prevent entry of pathogens.
o Immunosuppressed individuals should avoid exposure to potential
pathogens.
o Person with ill health should not handle animals or their environment.
o If an injury does occur while handling an animal or working in its
environment, proper first aid must be applied.
Table: Diseases transmitted from cold-blooded animals to man
blooded Examples of zoonoses

nimal
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Bacterial diseases: Erysipelothrix insidiosa , Salmonella, Closdtridium botulinum type E, Mycobacterium

balnei(swimming pool granuloma), Mycobacterium xenopei, Mycobacterium platypoecilus, Listeria
monocytogenes
Parasitic disease: Diphyllobothrium latum
e and Bacterial diseases: Salmonellosis, yersiniosis, leptospirosis, Francisella tularensis, Brucella abortus
ise
es Bacterial diseases: Brucella abortus, salmonellosis, yersiniosis, Leptospira ballum (snake as hibernating h
Viral diseases: Togaviridae (snake as over-wintering host), WEE
Parasitic disease: Pentastomiosis
d Bacterial diseases: Salmonellosis, yersiniosis, Brucella abortus
Protozoal diseases: Histoplasmosis, Leishmania adleri (by lizard inhabiting gerbils burrow)
Parasitic disease: Trichinella spiralis
s and Bacterial disease: Brucella abortus
Parasitic disease: Histoplasmosis
Role of non-human primates in transmission of zoonotic diseases
 Gorillas, orangutons, macaques and colobus are playing major role in transmission
of zoonotic diseases.
o Examples: Poliomyelitis, simian malaria, monkey pox and herpes virus from
monkeys is closely associated with human varicella zoster virus.
ROLE OF BIRDS IN TRANSMISSION OF ZOONOTIC DISEASES
 A poultry farm worker who works on a farm where domestic fowl are bred and raised
for eggs and/or meat.
o Poultry Farm Workers may contract, from the fowl in their care, infectious
diseases that are common to fowl and man.
o The atmosphere in poultry farms usually contains significant levels of
agricultural dust and toxic gases, which put the workers at a health risk.
o Some chemicals used at poultry farms (for disinfection) may cause harm to
workers' health.
o The Poultry Farm Worker's work is often physically difficult and involves
handling heavy loads, uncomfortable postures and movements. This may
cause traumas (including falls), back, arms and hands pains.
Preventive measures
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 Wear safety shoes with non-skid soles

 Wear appropriate eye protection; consult a safety supervisor or a supplier
 Protect hands with chemical-resistant gloves; if impractical, use a barrier cream
 Install effective exhaust ventilation and air conditioning to prevent air contamination
and heat or cold stress
 Wear a respirator to avoid inhalation of dust or aerosols
 Replace formaldehyde as a disinfectant with less harmful substitutes available on the
market
 Maintain a high level of personal hygiene. At the end of work, shower and change
clothes
 Do not take work-soiled clothing home
 Learn and use safe lifting and moving techniques for heavy or awkward loads; use
mechanical aids to assist in lifting
MODULE-18: ZOONOTIC PATHOGENS AS AGENTS OF BIO-

TERRORISM
Learning objectives
To know about
 How zoonotic pathogens are used as bioterrorism?
BIOTERRORISM
 Bioterrorism means a deliberate use of bioweapons viz., viruses, bacteria, other

microgerms and toxins (highly contagious microorganisms which cause outbreaks
and subsequent mass destruction of human population) to attack humans and
animals or plants. It is an emerging potential threat to human population. A 100 kg
of viable anthrax spores can kill 1 to 3 million peoples. So, it is as deadly as nuclear
weapons with cheaper investment.
 Francisella tularensis is a highly infectious aerosolizable intracellular pathogen that
is capable of causing a debilitating or fatal disease with doses as low as 25 colony-
forming units.
 Biological agents can be spread through the air or through water or in food.
Bioweapons can be disseminated by aerosol over the larger geographical areas
through helicopter or airplane, bomb or missile system, deliberately infected vectors
or insects, through water supplies and through parcel by postal.
Categorization of bioweapons based on the risk and public health impact
 Based on potential to pose threat to public health and safety, the type of bioweapons
are categorized in to A, B and C by Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, USA.
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 Category A: If the biological agents pose a high risk to national security and have
potential major public health impact, easily disseminated and high mortality in the
target population and require special action for public health preparedness
o Tularemia (Francisella tularensis )
o Anthrax (Bacillus anthracis spores)
o Smallpox
o Botulinum toxin (Clostridium botulnum)
o Bubonic plague (Yersinia pestis )
o Viral haemorrhagic fever (Ebola virus and Marburg virus)
 Category B: Moderately easy to disseminate and have low mortality rates in the
target population
o Brucellosis (Brucella spp.)
o Epsilon toxin (Clostridium perfringens)
o Salmonellosis
o E.coli O157:H7
o Shigellosis (Shigella dysenteriae)
o Staphylococcus aureus
o Glanders (Burkholderia mallei)
o Melioidoisis (Burkholderia pseudomallei)
o Psittacosis (Chlamydiophia psittaci)
o Q fever (Coxiella burnetii)
o Ricin toxin (Ricinus communis) - castor beans
o Abrin toxin (Abrus precatorius) - Rosary peas
o Staphylococcal enterotoxin B
o Typhus (Rickettsia prowazekii)
o Viral encephalitis (Alphaviruses - Venezuelan equine encephalitis, eastern
equine encephalitis, western equine encephalitis)
o Cholera (Vibrio cholera)
o Cryptosporidiosis (Cryptosporidium parvum)
 Category C: Biological agents might be genetically engineered for mass
dissemination and high mortality in the target population. Newly emerging
pathogens
o Nipah virus
o Hantavius
o H1N1
List of bioweapons based on etiology
 Bacterial bioweapons: Staphylococcal enterotoxin-B, Anthrax spores, Botulinum

toxin, Zoonotic Brucella spp., Yersinia pestis (Bubonic plague), Vibrio
cholera (Cholera),Burkholderia mallei (Pseudomonas mallei) (Glanders),
Zoonotic Mycobacterium spp. (Tuberculosis), shigella, Burkholderia
pseudomallei (Pseudomonas pseudomallei) (Melioidosis), Fusarium
oxysporum and Francisella tularensis (Tularaemia).
 Viral bioweapons: Ebola virus, Marburg virus, Smallpox virus, Influenza virus,
Hanta virus.
 Rickettsial bioweapons: Coxiella burnetii (Q fever), Rickettsia rickettsii (Rocky
Mountain spotted fever).
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 Fungal bioweapons: Trichothecene mycotoxin (T-2 mycotoxin), Coccidiodes

immitis (Coccidioidomycosis).
MODULE-19: ZOONOTIC DISEASE - RABIES
Learning objectives
To know about
 reservoirs, clinical manifestations in animals and humans, and the management

of Rabies
RABIES
Synonyms
 In humans: Hydrophobia, 'Verinoiy’ (Tamil)

 In animals: Mad dog, Lyssa
Type of zoonosis
 Direct anthropozoonosis
Definition
 It is an acute almost invariably fatal disease in man and other warm blooded animals
characterized by signs of abnormal behaviour, nervous disturbances such as motor
nerve irritability, mania, an attacking complex, inability to swallow, excessive
salivation, impairement of consciousness, progressive ascending paralysis and death
due to respiratory paralysis.
Etiology
 Lyssa virus (Family Rhabdoviridae), RNA virus, bullet shaped virus and
neurotropic in nature.
 Rabies viruses are highly fragile viruses and susceptible to standard disinfectants.
 Sunlight and moderate heat destroy the rabies virus.
 There are 25 viruses in this genus, of which closely related rabies viruses are called
“Classical rabies viruses”.
 The different serotypes of rabies viruses are:
o Lagos bat virus
o Mokola virus
o Duvenhage virus
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o European bat lyssa virus I (EBL I)

o European bat lyssa virus II (EBL II)
o Australian bat lyssa virus
 Based on antigenicity, rabies virus is classified as fixed or street rabies virus.
Table: Differences between fixed and street rabies virus
Fixed rabies virus Street rabies virus

The virus is passaged by serial intradermal route in It is from naturally occurring infection
rabbits
Incubation period is fixed and shorter (6-7 days) Incubation period is variable (11-47 days)
It does not produce Negribodies It produces Negribodies (Intracytoplasmic inclusion
bodies)
No shedding of virus in the saliva Shedding of virus in the saliva
The virus is not virulent and self-limiting. Used for The virus is virulent and not self-limiting. Pathogenic to
vaccine production warm blooded animals
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Reservoir and incidence
 Worldwide distribution (except in few countries)

 Primary reservoirs are foxes, bats, raccoons, skunks, dogs, cats and cattle.
 Primary reservoirs vary geographically. Wherever the population of non-human
primates available, rabies is endemic in those countries.
 Rodents and lagomorphs are unlikely to have rabies.
 Every year, rabies claims nearly 55000 human deaths, worldwide, most of them
being children. Presently the efforts at rabies control have enabled a marginal
reduction of rabies deaths from 30000 to 20000 in India annually.
Transmission
 The high concentration of rabies virus released from the salivary gland
secretions before the onset of clnical signs of rabies
 Virus in fresh saliva is transmitted via bite, scratch or abrasion by an rabid animal
(rabid dogs shed virus in saliva 5-7 days before showing signs and cat does so for
only 3 days before signs)
 Contamination of skin wounds by fresh saliva from infected animals
 Aerosol transmission has been documented in the laboratory and in caves where bats
inhabit (requires a high concentration of suspended viral particles)
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Figure 1: Diagrammatic representation of sylvatic and urban cycle of

transmission of rabies
Disease in animals
 In all animals, rabies is characterized by typical signs of central nervous system

disturbance, with minor variations peculiar to carnivores, ruminants, bats and man.
 The clinical course, particularly in dogs, can be divided into 3 phases: the prodromal,
the excitative and the paralytic.
 The term "furious rabies" refers to animals in which the excitative phase is
predominant and "dumb or paralytic rabies" to those in which the excitative phase is
extremely short or absent and the disease progresses quickly to the paralytic phase.
 In any animal, the first sign is a change in behavior, which may be indistinguishable
from a gastrointestinal disorder, injury, foreign body in the mouth, poisoning or
an infectious disease. Temperature change is not significant and driveling may or
may not be noted. Animals usually stop eating and drinking and may seek solitude.
Frequently, the urogenital tract is irritated or stimulated as evidenced by frequent
urination, erection in the male and sexual desire. After the prodromal period of 1-3
days, animals either show signs of paralysis or become vicious. Carnivores, pigs, and
occasionally, horses and mules bite other animals or people at the slightest
provocation. Cattle bite any moving object. The disease progresses rapidly after the
onset of paralysis, and death is virtually certain within 10 days of the first signs.
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Rabid domestic cats attack suddenly, biting and scratching viciously. Rabid foxes
frequently invade yards or even houses, attacking dogs and people. The rabid
raccoon is characterized by its loss of fear of man, its frequent aggression and
incoordination and its activity during the day, being predominantly a nocturnal
animal. In urban areas, they often attack domestic dogs. Bats flying in the daytime
are probably rabid.
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Clinical signs
 In dogs
o Furious form (changes in behaviour and stage of excitement)
 Tendency to bite either inanimate or animate objects till death
 Dog may move to long distance
 Shows imaginary catching stance
 Dog will attempt to lick water but unable to drink water due to the
paralysis of pharyngeal and laryngeal muscles
 Drooling of saliva. Photophobia
 Changes in barking due to paralysis of vocal cards
 Finally, dropped jaw and tongue will protrude and head will drop
down
o Dump form or paralytic form
 Isolated themselves in dark places
 Paralysis of lower jaw ("dropped jaw"), tongue, larynx and
hindquarters
 Not capable to bite
 In cats
o Furious form is more common
 In cattle
o Furious form
 Violently attack other animals or inanimate objects
 Loud bellowing
 Incoordination of gait
 Excessive salivation
 Behavioral changes
 Muzzle tremor
 Aggression
 Sexual excitement
 Hyperexcitability
 Pharyngeal paralysis
o Paralytic form
 Knuckling of hind fetlock
 Sagging and swaying of hind quarter while walking
 Deviation of tail to one side
 Drooling of saliva
 Yawing movement
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Figure 2: Salivation in a calf
 In sheep
o Hyperexcitability
o Salivation
o Vocalization
o Recumbency
o Vigorous wool plucking
o Excessive bleating does not occur but continuous bleating is common
o Starring of eyes and twitching of lips
 In horse
o Muscle tremors are frequent and common
o Pharyngeal paralysis, ataxia and lethargy
o Sudden onset of lameness in one limb followed by recumbency
o Violent head tossing
 In pigs
o Twitching of nose
o Excessive salivation
o Chronic convulsion.
o Rapid chewing movement
o May walk backward
Disease in man
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 There is usually a history of animal bite. Pain appears at the site of the bite, followed
by paresthesias. Pain and irritation at the site of bite which is linguiring towards the
central nervous system. The skin is quite sensitive to changes of temperature,
especially air currents.
 The rabies virus travels from the periphara nerves to the brain by following bite by a
rabid animal.
 The incubation period of the disease is usually a few months in humans (usually 30
to 60 days), depending on the distance of bite, severity of bite, amount of virus
inoculated at the site of bite and aggressive status of the rabid animal. Once the
rabies virus reaches the central nervous system and symptoms begin to show, the
infection is effectively untreatable and usually fatal within days. Death almost
invariably results two to ten days after first symptoms.
 Attempts at drinking cause extremely painful laryngeal spasm, so that the patient
refuses to drink ("hydrophobia" - fear of water). The patient is restless and
behaves in a peculiar manner. Muscle spasm, laryngospasm and extreme excitability
are present. Convulsions occur. Large amounts of thick tenacious saliva are present.
There will be increased lacrimation, frequent micturition and increased
percipiration.
o The initial symptoms of rabies are often mild fever and pain or paresthesia at
the wound site.
o As the virus spreads in the central nervous system, progressive encephalitis
develops.
o Furious rabies is rapidly fatal. Brain stem encephalitis characterized by
hydrophobia or aerophobia, phobia towards sound, hyperactivity and
fluctuating consciousness. Bizarre behaviour and a lack of focal neurological
signs are typical features. Phobic reflexes involve jerky inspiratory spasms
that may end in opisthotonos, generalized convulsions and cardiorespiratory
arrest. The disease is almost always fatal and without intensive care the
patient will die within a few days.
o Paralytic rabies runs a less dramatic course, but the final outcome is the same.
Flaccid paralysis ascending with pain in the affected muscles and mild
sensory disturbances will precede death from respiratory paralysis. However,
even in the absence of intensive care, such patients may survive for about a
month.
Classification of exposure based involvement of risk
 Class I - Slight or negligible risk

o Licks on healthy / unbrocken skin
o Scratches without oozing of blood
 Class II - Definite but moderate risk
o Consumption of unboiled milk from suspected animals
o Licks on fresh cuts
o Scratches with oozing of blood
o All bites except on head, neck, face, palm and fingers
o Minor wounds less than five in number
 Class III - Severe / grave risk
o Licks on mucosa
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o Bites on head, neck, face, palm and fingers

o Lacerated wounds on any part of the body
o Bites from wild animals
Top
Diagnosis
 Consider rabies as a possible problem in any animal of unknown vaccination history

showing central nervous system signs or symptoms.
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 Fluorescent antibody test (FAT) with corneal impression smear, as well as

brain. FAT is highly specific and rapid test (99.9%).
 FAT detects different strains using monoclonal antibody. The identifiable strains
correlate well with species and geographic distributions observed. This allows
identification of source and is an important epidemiologic tool.
 Identification of Negribodies (intracytoplasmic inclusion bodies) in the brain
impression smear by Seller's staining technique.
 Virus isolation from body fluid or brain tissue.
 Molecular techniques
 For confirmation, a combination of tests should be done
Treatment after exposure
 Wound cleaning and immunizations, should be done as soon as possible after

suspect contact with an animal and following WHO recommendations, can prevent
the onset of rabies in virtually 100% of exposures. Recommended treatment to
prevent rabies depends on the category of the contact:
 Post-exposure care to prevent rabies includes
o Washing and scrubbing the wound with phenolic soap and/or plenty of
running tape water
o Application of antiseptics
o Avoiding bandaging or suturing of wound, or point of contact
o Administering anti-rabies immunizations as soon as possible.
o Anti-rabies vaccine should be given for category II and III exposures (follow
post exposure schedule).
o Anti-rabies immunoglobulin, or antibody, should be given for category III
contact, or to people with weaker immune systems (up to 50% of human
rabies immune globulin is infiltrated around the wound; the rest is
administered IM).
 Intensive care with attention to the airway, maintenance of oxygenation, and control
of seizures in confirmed case of rabies.
Post exposure schedule
 If the animal is not previously immunized, post exposure vaccination on 0-day (the
day starts within 24 hours after bite), 3rd, 7th, 14th, 28th and if necessary,
on 90thday (Essen's schedule).
 If the animal is immunized annually 0 day, 3rd and 7th day, put the animal under
observation for 10 days. If the animal is died, should follow the full regimen (5
doses).
 Zagreb schedule with 2-1-1 regimen on day 0, 7 and 21 is found to be effective
 Intradermal schedule
o 8-site intradermal method (8-0-4-0-1-1)
o 2-site intradermal method (2-2-2-0-1-1)
 In 2005, Jeanna Giese was the first patient treated with the Milwaukee protocol and
became the first person ever recorded to survive rabies without receiving successful
post-exposure prophylaxis. But, survival rate is about 8% by this protocol.
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Top
Prevention and control
 Prevention of human rabies must be a community effort involving both veterinary

and public health services.
 Virus is destroyed rapidly at greater than 50°C and survives no more than a few
hours at room temperature (but the rabies virus can persist for years in frozen
tissues).
 Vigorous first aid for bite wounds.
 Immediately rush to the health authority if suspected exposure.
 Postexposure immunization: Upto 50% of human rabies immune globulin is
infiltrated around the wound; the rest is administered IM.
 Human Diploid Cell Vaccine (HDCV) is given as 5 injections IM at days 0, 3, 7, 14,
and 28.
 Vaccination of domestic animals and enforced animal control measures (Animal
Birth Control and Anti-rabies vaccination programme: ABC-AR programme).
 Controlling stray dog population and proper immunization of household dogs (ABC-
AR programme).
 Vaccination of high risk personnel.
 Awareness prgramme among public.
Vaccination
 Pre-exposure schedule
o Type of vaccine: Inactivated (from cell culture or embryonated egg vaccine)
o Number of doses: Three
o Schedule: 0, 7th and 21st or 28th day given by intramuscular or intradermal
route (vaccine should not be given at the glutial region)
o Booster: After one year then every five years
o Contraindication: Severe reaction to previous dose
o Adverse reactions: Mild local or systemic reactions; rare neuroparalytic
reactions reported
o Special precautions: Do not use animal-brain-derived vaccines
World Rabies Day
 Every year September 28
World Zoonoses Day
 In 1885, on July 6th, Louis Pasteur injected the first of 14 daily injections of rabbit
spinal cord suspensions containing progressively inactivated rabies virus into a 9-
year old boyJoseph Meister, who has been severely bitten by a rabied dog two days
before. The immunization was successful. Joseph Meister not only got protection
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against rabies but also withstood large quantities of virulent virus. Pasteur's
immunization procedure was rapidly adopted throughout the world. Hence, every
year July 6th is celebrated as world zoonoses day.
Top
MODULE-20: ZOONOTIC DISEASES - JAPANESE

ENCEPHALITIS, KYASANUR FOREST DISEASE AND INFLUENZA
Learning objectives
To know about reservoirs, clinical manifestations in animals and humans, and the
management of
 Japanese encephalitis
 Kyasanur forest disease
 Influenza
JAPANESE ENCEPHALITIS
Synonym
 Japanese B encephalitis
Type of zoonosis
 Metazoonosis type I
Definition
 Japanese encephalitis (JE) is one of a group of mosquito-borne virus diseases, affects

the central nervous system characterized by rapid onset, hyperpyrexia and cerebral
and meningeal manifestations, and even death.
Etiology
 JE is caused by the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), an arbovirus (arbovirus is

short for arthropod-borne virus).
 JEV is an enveloped virus (Genus Flavivirus, Family Flaviviridae). It is a positive
sense single stranded RNA genome is packaged in the capsid, formed by the capsid
protein.
 JEV is antigenically associated with West Nile virus and St. Louis encephalitis virus.
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 The outer envelope is formed by envelope (E) protein and is the protective antigen. It
aids in entry of the virus to the inside of the cell.
 JEV is maintained principally by biological transmission between mosquitoes and
vertebrates.
 Domestic pigs and wild birds (herons and egrets) are reservoirs of the virus.
 Human, cattle and horses are dead-end hosts.
 Swine acts as amplifying host and has very important role in epidemiology of the
disease.
 Japanese encephalitis can be a risk to travelers to rural areas where the disease is
common.
 The most important mosquito vector is Culex tritaeniorhynchus, which feeds on
cattle in preference to humans; it has been proposed that moving swine away from
human habitation can divert the mosquito away from humans and swine.
 The mosquitoes reproduce in paddy fields and natural water bodies of fresh water.
 Japanese encephalitis is an endemic disease in tropical areas. Epidemics occur
during rainy season and a seasonal disease in temperate regions.
 JE is most common in Asian countries, with 30,000 - 50,000 cases reported
annually.
 Case-fatality rates range from 0.3% to 60% and depends on the population and on
age.
 People living in rural areas where the disease is common.
 In India, the earliest evidences of occurrence of JE are from Nagpur (Maharastra)
and Chingelpet (Tamil Nadu) in 1952. Over the next decade, several cases of
encephalitis presenting at the Christian Medical College, Vellore were identified to be
JE. Around the same time, extensive serological surveys in South India revealed
widespread Flavivirus activity.
 The first major epidemic of JE from India was reported from the Bankura and
Burdwan districts of West Bengal in 1973. Since then, repeated annual outbreaks
have occurred especially in the post monsoon, high mosquito season in West Bengal,
Bihar, Assam and the North East, Uttar Pradesh and the 3 southern states of Tamil
Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
Transmission
 The extrinsic incubation period is about 14 days.

 JEV is transmitted by a biological vector, Culex tritaeniorhynchus that lives in rural
paddy fields and stray pigs roaming regions.
 Breeding of this mosquito is very high in rice fields and stagnated water
bodies. However, person to person transmission is not been reported.
 Inoculation of this virus in to the susceptible person leads to invasion in to the
central nervous system, including the brain and spinal cord.
 Spread of JE is enhanced by several socio-economic status of rural people: low cot
houses with open windows, open drainage, semi-urban and dwellers.
 Transplacental spread has been reported in human beings.
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Disease in animals
 Cattle and horses: Fatal encephalitis

 Pigs: Asymptomatic, except in pregnant sows, it causes abortion and fetal
abnormalities.
Disease in man
 Incubation period ranges from 4 to 14 days.

 The majority of human infections are asymptomatic, only 1 in 500 - 1000 develops
JE.
 The onset is rapid and usually starts as a flu-like illness, with fever (between 38 and
41°C), chills, tiredness, headache, nausea and vomiting, sometimes swelling of the
testicles in male. Cerebral and meningeal manifestations are stiff neck, convulsions
in children, confusion, disorientation, delirium and finally progressing to coma in
humans.
 The illness can progress to a serious infection of the brain (encephalitis) and case
fatality is about 30%, mostly in children. Among the survivors, 30% may have
serious brain damage, including paralysis.
 JE affects the ear, particularly the cochlea due to neurological involvement.
 Life-long neurological defects such as deafness, psychic and motor deformity as
sequealae.
Diagnosis
 Based on isolation and identification of JEV.

 Demonstration of antibodies in serum and CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) by serological
methods (IgM capture ELISA).
 Haemagglutination inhibition test may also be used for diagnosis.
 Paired sera are very useful in diagnosis of JE.
Treatment
 Supportive treatment with clinical management is highly required to the infected

person.
 Raised intracranial pressure due to JE may be managed with mannitol.
 Affected person do not need to be isolated, because, there is no person to person
transmission.
 Prompt reporting of JE incidence to the local authority. Recovered patients from JEV
confer life-long immunity.
 Evironment and personal hygiene.
 Food and water sanitation.
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 Prompt treatment.
 Use of mosquito net and mosquito repellents.
 Vaccination
o Vaccination of the susceptible population comprised of children.
o All current vaccines are based on the genotype III virus.
o A formalin-inactivated mouse-brain derived vaccine was first produced in
Japan in the 1930s.
o The high cost of the vaccine, which is grown in live mice, means that poorer
countries have not been able to afford to give it as part of a routine
immunization programme.
o Neutralizing antibody persists in the circulation for at least two to three years
and perhaps longer.
o The total duration of protection is unknown, but because there is no firm
evidence for protection beyond three years, boosters are recommended every
two years for people who remain at risk.
o There are a number of new vaccines under development.
o The mouse-brain derived vaccine is replaced by a cell-culture derived vaccine
that is both safer and cheaper to produce. China licensed a live attenuated
vaccine in 1988 and more than 200 million doses have been given; this
vaccine is available in Nepal, Sri Lanka, South Korea and India.
o There is also a new chimeric vaccine based on the yellow fever 17D vaccine
that is currently under development.
KYASANUR FOREST DISEASE
Synonym
 Monkey disease
Type of zoonosis
 Metazoonosis type IV
 Vector-borne zoonosis
Definition
 Kyasanur forest disease (KFD) is a tick-borne viral haemorrhagic fever, caused by

Kyasanur forest disease virus, transmitted by bite of an infected tick nymphs
(Haemaphysalis spinigera). KFD is named after its location, Kyasanur forest area in
Soraba and Sagar talukas of Shimoga district of Karnataka in India. KFD is clinically
characterized by sudden onset with fever, cephalalgia, myalgia, anorexia, insomnia
and prostration, bradycardia and hypotension, and less frequently coughing
and abdominal pain.
Brief history
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 In 1957, several dead monkeys were noticed in the Kyasanur forest in Soraba and
Sagar taluks of Shimoga district in Karnataka along with a severe prostrating illness
in some of the villagers in the area. A similar illness has been observed in the locality
a year earlier also. A new antigenically related to the Russian spring-summer
encephalitis complex of viruses was isolated by investigators from patients and dead
monkeys. It was named as the KFD virus after the name of the place from where the
first isolations were made.
 The infected area in the Kyasanur forest has increased since 1957 from 800 sq.km to
4000 sq.km.
Etiology
 KFD is caused by Kyasanur forest disease virus (KFDV). Single stranded RNA virus
belongs to the genus Flavivirus, family Flaviviridae.
 KFD is limited to Karnataka state, India. Though human infection is usually found in
certain areas in Karnataka, the virus appears to be more widespread in distribution
as evidenced by KFD antibody in man and animals in the Kutch and Saurashtra
Peninsula and sporadically from other parts of India. Recently, a virus very similar to
KFD virus known as Alkhurma. Haemorrhagic Fever virus (AHFV) was discovered in
Saudi Arabia. KFDV and AHFV share 89% sequence homology.
 People with recreational or occupational exposure to rural or outdoor settings (eg:
Hunters, campers, forest workers, farmers) are potentially at risk for infection.
 Outbreaks of KFD in human beings residing by the side of the forest occur generally
in dry months (summer season - January to June) when field workers go to forests
more frequently. This period is also coinciding with increased tick activity. Human
being visiting natural nidus of infection may be bitten by infected ticks. Alternatively,
cattle grazing in the forest bring on to the human inhabitants, then the infected ticks
crawl down to reach human beings to bite.
 Deforestation changed the uniform conditions of the environment and results
in evergreen forest vegetation changed to deciduous vegetation. This change has
favoured the proliferation of the tick H.spinigera.
 Porcupines, rat, mice, forest birds and small mammals act as reservoir hosts. KFDV.
 Haemaphysalis ticks acts as reservoir to some extent, in which transovarian
transmission of the virus has been demonstrated.
 Monkeys act as amplifier host.
 Man and cattle are accidental hosts.
 There is no evidence of the disease being transmitted via unpasteurized milk of these
animals.
Transmission
 By contact with an infected animal, such as sick/recently dead monkey.

 By bite of an infected tick nymphs (Haemaphysalis spinigera).
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 The adult Heamaphysalis spinigera ticks feed on large wild or domestic animals,
and then fell down on the ground. The larvae and nymph attach themselves to
humans, various small mammals of the forest, as well as birds and monkeys
and transmit the virus.
 The virus has also been isolated from H.turturis, in the nymphs of which the agent
can survive throughout the year, and from six other species of Haemaphysalis,
several species oflxodes, and the tick family Argasidae.
 The introduction of cattle in the jungle has facilitated the spread and increased
density of H.spinigera, along with higher circulation of the virus.
Disease in monkeys
 KFD infecion of South Indian macaque (Macaca radiata) develop diarrhoea,

bradycardia, hypotension and eventually lead to death.
Disease in man
 The incubation period ranges from 3 to 8 days.

 KFD has sudden onset with fever, cephalalgia, myalgia, anorexia and insomnia. On
the third or fourth day, the patient tends to experience diarrhoea and vomiting.
 Severe prostration, papulovesicular lesions on the palate are a consistent finding.
 Bradycardia and hypotension are prominent signs.
 Less frequently symptoms of coughing and abdominal pain.
 The fever lasts for 6 to 11 days. After a febrile period of 9 to 21 days, a significant
proportion of the patients undergo a second phase of pyrexia that lasts for 2 to 12
days, usually with neurologic symptoms such as stiffness of the neck, mental
confusion, tremors and abnormal reflexes.
 Palpable cervical and axiliary lymph nodes.
 Haemorrhagic manifestations in agricultural workers who are poor and
malnourished.
 Leukopenia is common.
 Convalescence is prolonged. A small proportion of patients develop coma or
bronchopneumonia prior to death.
 The case fatality rate is approximately 5% to 10%.
Diagnosis
 Blood and paired sera should be collected.

 Serologic diagnosis by complement fixation, haemagglutination
inhibition, neutralization tests and ELISA using paired sera.
 Serologic diagnosis is more difficult if the patient has been previously exposed to
another Flavivirus.
Treatment
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 Supportive therapy and clinical management are important, include maintenance of

hydration and prevention of bleeding disorders.
 Individual human protection against ticks is very much important, such as protective
clothing and the use of repellents.
 A formalin-inactivated chick embryo fibroblast tissue culture vaccine produced,
but, demonstrated only 59% seroconversion in a field trial in the endemic area. The
presence of antibodies to other Flaviviruses, especially the West Nile virus, seems to
interfere with the vaccine’s efficacy.
 In mice, it is reported that 70 to 100% protection against large doses of KFD virus for
at least 18 months with single inoculation of a live vaccine based on an attenuated
strain of Langat virus.
 Tick control measures to be followed in KFD prevalent areas.
Tick control
 To remove attached ticks, use the following procedure

o Use fine-tipped tweezers or shield your fingers with a tissue, paper towel or
rubber gloves.
o When possible, persons should avoid removing ticks with bare hands.
o Grasp the tick as close to the skin surface as possible and pull upward with
steady, even pressure. Do not twist or jerk the tick; this may cause the mouth-
parts to break off and remain in the skin (If this happens, remove mouth-
parts with tweezers. Consult your health care provider if infection occurs).
o Do not squeeze, crush or puncture the body of the tick because its fluids
(saliva, body fluids, gut contents) may contain infectious organisms.
o After removing the tick, thoroughly disinfect the bite site and wash your
hands with soap and water.
o Save the tick for identification in case you become ill. This may help your
doctor make an accurate diagnosis.
o Note the date of the bite and place the tick in a plastic bag and put it in your
freezer.
o Avoid use of petroleum jelly or hot matches for tick removal. They may make
matters worse by irritating the tick and stimulating it to release additional
saliva or regurgitate gut contents, increasing the chances of transmitting the
pathogen.
 To avoid tick bites and infection, follow these tips
o Avoid tick infested areas, especially during the warmer months.
o Wear light coloured clothing so ticks can be easily seen.
o Wear a long sleeved shirt, hat, long pants and tuck pant legs into socks.
o Walk in the centre of trails to avoid overhanging grass and brush.
o Check your body every few hours for ticks when you spend a lot of time
outdoors in tick infested areas. Ticks are most often found on the thigh, arms,
underarms and legs. Ticks can be very small (no bigger than a pinhead).
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o Use insect repellents containing DEET (n,n diethyl m.toluamide), DDT

(Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloro Ethane), HCH on your skin or permethrin on
cloting. Be sure to follow the directions on the container and wash off
repellents when going indoors.
o Remove attached ticks immediately.
INFLUENZA
Synonyms
 In animals: Bird flu, Fowl plague, Swine flu, Equine flu

 In humans: ‘Pandrikaicchal’ (Tamil), ‘Paravaikaicchal or Kozhikaicchal’ (Tamil)
Type of zoonosis
Definition
 It is an acute contagious viral disease of birds and mammals, caused by Influenza

virus type A, clinically characterized by high fever, chills, headache, myalgia, malaise,
coryza, pharyngitis and cough with full recovery within two weeks, although viral or
secondary bacterial pneumonia may develop, especially in the elderly people.
Etiology
 Influenza type A belongs to the family Orthomyxoviridae, and RNA virus.

 Nomenclature of the virus: 1. Virus type; 2. Host of origin; 3. Geographic origin; 4.
Strain number; 5. Year of isolation and 6. Antigenic description of subtype. Example:
A/duck/Ukraine/1/63 (H3N8).
 There are three types of influenza virus: Influenza virus type A, B and C.
 Influenza virus type A and B can cause disease in humans, but type A is most
common.
 The surface antigens (‘H’ - Haemagglutinin and ‘N’ - Neuraminidase) present on the
influenza virus may produce several combinations and cause human infection.
 Sixteen forms of haemagglutinin and nine forms of neuraminidase have been
identified.
 Haemagglutinin surface antigen is immunogenic and confers immunity.
 The serotypes that have been confirmed in known humans pandemic deaths are:
o H1N1: Spanish flu (1918) and Swine flu (2009), Bird flu (2010)
o H2N2: Asian flu (1957)
o H3N2: Hong Kong flu (1968)
o H5N1: Bird flu (2004) - highly pathogenic avian influenza virus of type A of
subtype H5N1 (HPAI-A H5N1)
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 Humans, wild and domestic birds, horses and pigs are reservoirs of influenza viruses,
which appear to be species specific.
 Convalescent carriers act as reservoir hosts between epidemics.
 Swine and water fowls act as mixing vessel for several influenza viruses.
 Antigenic shift is probably required before animal virus becomes epidemic in
humans. Sporadic human infections with swine and avian strains have been
reported.
 Human cases of influenza have occurred from contamination by aerosols from
infected ferrets and vice versa.
 New influenza viruses are constantly evolving by mutation or by reassortment.
 Mutations can cause small changes in the haemagglutinin and neuraminidase
antigens on the surface of the virus, is called antigenic drift, which slowly creates an
increasing variety of strains until one evolves that can infect people who are immune
to the pre-existing strains.
 When influenza viruses reassort, they acquire completely new antigens. For example
by reassortment between avian strains and human strains, is called antigenic shift.
 If a human influenza virus is produced that has entirely new antigens, everybody will
be susceptible, and the novel influenza will spread uncontrollably, causing a
pandemic.
Transmission
 By inhalation of droplets produced by coughing and sneezing, especially in crowded,

and enclosed spaces.
 Influenza virus shedding (the time during which a person might be infectious to
another person) begins the day before symptoms appear and virus is then released
for between 5 to 7 days.
 The amount of virus shed appears to correlate with fever, with higher amounts of
virus shed when temperatures are highest.
 Influenza can be spread in three main ways:
 By direct transmission (when an infected person sneezes mucus directly into the
eyes, nose or mouth of another person).
 Air-borne route (when someone inhales the aerosols produced by an infected person
coughing, sneezing or spitting). The droplets that are small enough for people to
inhale are 0.5 to 5 micrometer in diameter and inhaling just one droplet might be
enough to cause an infection.
 Through hand-to-eye, hand-to-nose or hand-to-mouth transmission, either from
contaminated surfaces or from direct personal contact such as a hand-shake.
 The survival of the influenza virus in the environment is influenced by the levels of
humidity and sunlight (UV radiation).
 As the influenza virus can persist outside of the body, it can also be transmitted by
contaminated surfaces such as door knobs, light switches and other household items.
The length of time the virus will persist on a surface varies, with the virus surviving
for one to two days on hard, non-porous surfaces such as plastic or metal, for about
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fifteen minutes from dry paper tissues, and only five minutes on skin. Avian
influenza viruses can survive indefinitely when frozen.
 They are inactivated by heating to 56°C for a minimum of 60 minutes, as well as by
acids (at pH <2).
Disease in animals
 Sudden onset of fever followed by anorexia, coughing, respiratory distress and

mucoid nasal discharge, with rapid recovery.
 Consolidation in the lung.
 Copious mucopurulent exudate fills the bronchioles.
Disease in humans
 Symptoms of influenza can start quite suddenly one to two days after infection.
Usually the first symptoms are chills or a chilly sensation, but fever is also common
early in the infection, with body temperatures ranging from 38-39°C, headache,
myalgia, malaise, coryza, pharyngitis and cough, and recovery within two weeks.
 Sometimes, viral or secondary bacterial pneumonia may develop, especially in the
elderly people.
Diagnosis
 Virus isolation and identification

 Haemagglutination and haemagglutination inhibition test
Treatment
 Complete rest.
 Drink plenty of water, but avoid taking alcohol and tobacco.
 If necessary, take antipyretic (paracetamol), and analgesics and cough syrups.
 Antibiotics have no effect on the infection, unless secondary bacterial infection sets,
such as bacterial pneumonia.
 The two classes of antiviral drugs used against influenza are neuraminidase
inhibitors and M2 protein inhibitors (Adamantane derivatives). Neuraminidase
inhibitors are currently preferred for flu virus infections since they are less toxic and
more effective.
 The World Health Organization recommended that persons in high risk groups,
including pregnant women, children under two years of age, and persons with
respiratory problems, begin taking antivirals as soon as they start experiencing flu
symptoms. Antivirals include oseltamivir (Tamiflu) and zanamivir (Relenza).
 Ribavirin aerosol may help to reduce the severity of illness in patients.

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 Strict biosecurity measures to be followed during suspected flu outbreaks, includes

disinfection, sanitations, restriction on movement of vehicles between farms, mass
culling of birds, etc.
 Personal hygiene is very important.
 Wearing face mask by the human population.
 Thorough cooking of foods and food products of animal origin.
 Strict vigilance on bird santuaries.
 Avoidace of contact between domestic animals and wild duck population.
 Import restrictions on animals and animal products.
 Quarantine of all imports and exports, including human beings.
 Restriction on movement of human population.
 Chemoprophylaxis with amantadine will markedly reduce the attack rate among
exposed individuals if begun immediately and continued for 10 days.
 Prohibit imports of live poultry and poultry meat from countries where fowl plague
occurs.
MODULE-21: ZOONOTIC DISEASES - ANTHRAX AND

BRUCELLOSIS
Learning objectives
management of
 Anthrax
 Brucellosis
ANTHRAX
Synonyms
 In animals: ‘Adaippan noiy’ (Tamil)

 In humans: Woolsorter's disease (pneumonic anthrax or pulmonary anthrax), Rag-
picker's disease, Knacker's disease, Hide-porter’s disease (cutaneous anthrax),
Malignant edema, Malignant carbuncle, Malignant pustule, Charbon, Milz brand
disease, Splenic fever
Type of zoonosis
 Occupational zoonosis
Definition
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 Anthrax ('Anthrakis' is the Greek word, means 'coal', and refering to the blackened
eschar skin lesion) is an acute infectious disease of all animals and human beings,
caused by Bacillus anthacis. Human infection is clinically characterized by necrotic
cutaneous ulcer (Eschar), pulmonay manifestations and gastrointestinal
manifestations, or some times meningeal form.
 In animals, anthrax is characterized by septicemia and sudden death, accompanied
by the exudation of tarry coloured unclotted blood from the natural
orifices (mouth, nose, ear, anus) and the important findings of failure of the
blood to clot, absence of rigor mortis and bloaty appearance.
Brief history
 In 1876-1877, the absolute proof of the etiology of anthrax was established

by Robert Koch and named it, 'Bacillus anthracis', and the famous "Koch's
postulates" was formulated using anthrax as the model infection.
 In 1881, Louis Pasteur produced vaccine against anthrax.
 In 1939, Stern evolved a vaccine called "Stern's vaccine / Spore vaccine" and
still used this technique for vaccine production for animals.
Etiology
 Bacillus anthracis, is a Gram-positive, endospore-forming, rod-shaped (square-

ended), non-motile and facultatively aerobic bacteria.
 Pathogenecity of anthrax bacilli depends on three factors, are
o Factor I: Edema factor - Inflammatory property
o Fator II: Protective antigen (PA) - Antiphagocytic and immunogenic factor.
The capsular polypeptide, poly-D-glutamic acid, which is antiphagocytic in
nature. It contains two plasmids px01 and px02, which are responsible for the
production of virulence factors. It produces three types of toxins, which are
extracellular in nature.
o Factor III: Lethal factor - Inflammatory property
 There are two forms: (a). Vegetative form (capsular form) within the host and (b).
Spore form in the environment.
 Spores are formed through sporulation, when exposed to oxygen in the air.
 Spores are resistant against cold, heat, chemicals and drying. They are viable for
many years (>60 years) in the soil (if it is at least 15 cm below the soil) with neutral
or alkaline pH and in alluvia soil.Such soil/field is called as cursed soil. Acidic soil
reduces the survivability of spores.
 Spores can be destroyed by heating at 100°C for 10 minutes, 5% sodium hydroxide,
10% formalin at 40°C for 15 minutes and 3% peracetic acid.
 Vegetative form can be killed at 60°C for 30 minutes.
 Anthrax spores are considered to be one of a number of potential agents for use in
biological terrorism.

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 It is distributed worldwide, except Antarctica. It is common in agricultural regions

where it occurs in animas.
 Globally it has been estimated that as many as 20000 to 100000 human cases of
anthrax occur annually.
 Many regions in India are still enzootic for animal anthrax and sporadic cases of
human anthrax have been reported, especially from South India (Tamil Nadu,
Puducherry, Anthra Pradesh and Karnataka).
o Tamil Nadu: Vellore, Vaniyambadi, Ambur, Sempattu (Trichy) and Chennai.
o Andhra Pradesh: Chittoor, Cuddapah, Gundur and Prakasam.
o Karnataka: Mysore, Midnapore and Kolar.
 Soil is the reservoir for the infectious agents.
 For man, the source of infection is always infected animals, contaminated animal
products (leather, belts, wool, fur, hairs, skin and bone meal) or environmental
contamination by anthrax spores.
 Anthrax belt / Anthrax zone / Anthrax district: It is determined by the soil
type and climate, which is also termed as "incubator area" of anthrax. It is more
common in tropical and subtropical countries than temperate countries. Outbreaks
in animals often recorded when there is high rain fall after prolonged draught. The
area will be enzootic for anthrax under these circumstances. When the temperature
is over 15°C with relative humidity of 60% and higher results in sporulation and soil-
borne infection. This relationship to climate has made it possible to
predict "anthrax year".
Outbreaks of anthrax in animals in Tamil Nau,

India between 1991-2006
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Transmission
 Herbivorous animals infected by ingestion of spores which are viable in soil for years
and contaminated feed or water.
 Man is infected by
o Cutaneous route: contact with contaminated carcasses, wool, hide or hair.
o Ingestion (Oral route): ingestion of under-cooked infected meat.
o Inhalation (Respiratory route): during wool sorting. It needs higher
dose (LD50) of 8000 to 10000 viable spores.
 Inhalation of spores along with ingestion of under-cooked infected meat is highly
fatal than cutaneous route of infection.
 Mortality may be 20%, 25-60% and 100% respectively in cutaneous, oral and
pulmonary route of infection.
Disease in animals
 It primarily affects all warm-blooded animals, especially cattle, sheep, goats, horses
and pigs. Algerian sheep and dwarf pigs are naturally resistant to anthrax.
 It is also recorded in dogs, chickens, elephants, camels, tigers, cats, etc.
 The morbidity and mortality are 70 to 80 and 1 to 5% in highly susceptible and less
susceptible animals, respectively. But, it is fatal in swine.
 Incubation period 1-5 days. It occurs as peracute, acute, subacute and rarely chronic
form. In swine, it may be pharyngeal form, intestinal form and septicemic form.
 Anthrax is characterized by septicemia and sudden death, accompanied by the
exudation of tarry coloured unclotted blood from the natural orifices (mouth, nose,
ear, anus) and the important findings of failure of the blood to clot, absence of rigor
mortis and bloaty appearance.
 Carcass suspected for anthrax MUST NOT BE OPENED. In accidentally opened
carcasses, splenomegaly (six time enlarged than the normal spleen) was observed,
with "black-berry jam consistency" of spleen.
Disease in man
 Cutaneous form (Malignant pustule, Hide porter's disease)

o Most common form of anthrax in humans.
o Incubation period ranges from 1 to 7 days, then an erythematous papule
appears on an exposed area of skin and becomes vesicular, with a purple to
black centre. The center of the lesion finally forms a necrotic eschar and
sloughs.
o Regional adenopathy, fever, malaise, headache, and nausea and vomiting may
be present.
o After the eschar sloughs, haematogenous spread and sepsis may occur,
resulting in shock, cyanosis, sweating and collapse.
o Haemorrhagic meningitis may also occur.
o Case fatality may be 20% if not treated.
 Pulmonary form (Woolsorter's disease)
o It occurs following the inhalation of spores from hides, bristles or wool.
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o Incubation period ranges fro 1 to 5 days.

o It is characterized by fever, cough, dyspnea, respiratory failure and death in
24 hours.
o Case fatality may reach 100%.
 Intestinal form
o Less common form of anthrax.
o Incubation period ranges from 12 hours to 5 days.
o It is characterized by anorexia, vomiting and diarrhoea.
o Case fatality may be 50% if untreated.
o Anthrax sepsis and anthrax meningitis can be developed in severe cases
Eschar lesion on lower left eye lid Eschar lesion on neck
Diagnosis
 History of the patient and clinical symptoms.

 McFadyean's reaction: Staining and identification of anthrax bacilli from the
vesicular fluid or skin lesions, exudates of respiratory tract, blood by polychrome
methylene blue staining or Giemsa's staining or Wright's staining.
 Polychrome methylene blue staining with blood smear from ear vein (in suspected
cases of anthrax in animals).
 Culture and identification.
o On nutrient agar with aerobic condition, it produces virulent or rough bacilli
with "medusa-head appearance" / "curled-hair appearance" /
"bamboo-rod like appearance" / "spiked appearance" / "judge-wig
appearance"
o On gelatin stab culture, it grows like "inverted-fir tree" (becasue, it is
facultatively anaerobic)
 Animal inoculation (in guinea pigs or mice).
 Ascoli's thermoprecipitation test to detect antigen in the suspected materials.
 PCR technique
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Treatment
 Cutaneous anthrax: Procaine penicillin - 1 million units i/m injection for every 12 to
24 hrs for 5 to 7 days.
 Pulmonary anthrax: Penicillin G - 2 million units i/v injection or Penicillin G -
500000 units i/v injection slowly for every 4 to 6 hrs until temperature returns to
normal or Streptomycin - 1 to 2 g / day.
 Gastrointestinal anthrax: Ciprofloxacin 400 mg, every 12 hrs i/v injection and
ampicilin - 500 mg i/v injection, every 8 hrs for five days, followed by injections
ciprofloxacin - 500 mg twice a day and ampicilin - 500 mg at every 8 hrs interval for
two weeks.
 Chloramphenicol, tetracycline, doxycycline and erythromycin can also be effective
for anthrax.
 Carcass disposal involves incineration or deep burial. Barns and fences should be
disinfected with 10% sodium hydroxide or 3% peracetic acid.
 Protective measures to be taken while handling of infected wool and hide.
 Prevent the contact and ingestion of infected animal products.
 People handling dead carcasses suspected for anthrax must not have skin abrasions,
should wear face mask, gum boots and protective clothing.
 In animals:
o Using anthrax spore vaccine in animals can prevent the disease.
o Disinfect wool or hair from animals in endemic areas with 10% formalin, 5%
lye or 3% peracetic acid.
o Two to three days before and after vaccination of animals, antibiotics should
not be administered.
o Pregnant animals should not be vaccinated.
Disposal of anthrax infected carcass
 When an anthrax case is detected during the clinical examination of the herd or
during slaughter or post-mortem examination, immediate restrictions are imposed
on all activities to prevent the spread of the disease. In slaghterhouse all the
slaughter operations should be stopped and affected and in contact animals are
disposed off as per the recommended procedure. The buildings and slaughterhouses
are completely disinfected before subsequent use.
 It is legally required that suspected carcass should not be opened or incised.
The natural orifices should be plugged with disinfected cotton.
 Contaminated material along with animal should be collected and carried away in a
closed vehicle to the site of disposal.
 If necessary, post-mortem inspection can be conducted at the site of disposal.
 The animals should not be dragged or left uncovered for birds and wild animals to
feed upon.
 It should be protected from human beings and other domestic animals and it should
not contaminate farmhouses, water supplies and pastures.
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 Best method of disposal is burning or incineration. If it is not possible, burial should

be done in a remote area. The area is declared protected from domestic and wild
animals. A 2-meter deep pit is suitable for burial of average sized animal. The carcass
should be covered with sufficient quantities of quick lime (caustic soda) and soil.
 The farm buildings, slaughter houses, exposed hospital equipment and clothings,
boots and gloves should be disinfected with
o 5-10% formaldehyde
o 4% warm sodium carbonate
o 4-5% lye
o 5% phenol
 Disinfect wool or hair from animals in endemic areas with 10% formalin, 5% lye or
3% peracetic acid.
BRUCELLOSIS
Synonyms
 In animals: Bang's disease, Contagious abortion, Epizootic abortion, ‘Kandruveechu

noiy’ (Tamil)
 In humans: Melitococcosis (Brucella melitensis), Malta fever (Brucella melitensis),
Mediterranean fever (Brucella melitensis), Undulant fever (Brucella abortus)
Type of zoonosis
 Occupational zoonosis
Definition
 It is an infectious disease in humans, causes acute or chronic brucellosis and is

clinically characterized by chills, profuse sweating, weakness and fatigue, insomnia,
sexual impotence, headache, arthralgia and generalized malaise, which last for weeks
and months; commonly shows remissions (hence also known as undulant fever). It is
an acute or chronic contagious disease of domestic animals that causes placentitis
and abortion in farm animals, especially at last trimester of pregnancy (at about
6th month of pregnancy in cattle).
Brief history
 It is an emerging disease since the discovery of Brucella melitensis by Bruce in

1887. ‘Brucellosis’ is named after its researcher David Bruce. Danish
veterinarian Bernard Bangisolated Brucella abortus as the agent and the
additional name Bang's disease was assigned in 1897.
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 In 1905, Maltese doctor and archaeologist Sir Temi Zammit identified unpasteurized
milk as the major source of the pathogen and it has since become known as Malta
fever.
Etiology
 The "classic Brucella" are Brucella abortus in cattle, B. melitensis in goats and B.
suis in swine. Other zoonotic Brucella are B. canis in dogs, B. ovis in sheep and B.
neotomae in rats, particularly in desert rat. B. ovis and B. neotomae are nonzoonotic
agents. Recently B. maris has been identified from marine animals.
 Biovars of Brucella spp.
o Brucella melitensis - Biovars 1 to 3
o Brucella abortus - Biovars 1 to 7
o Brucella suis - Biovars 1 to 5
 Brucella spp. are Gram negative, facultative intracellular pathogen, non motile,
aerobic and coccobacilli.
Growth of Brucella organisms on selective medium
 The disease is widely prevalent in all the countries of the world. Brucellosis is still a
serious problem facing the Veterinary and Medical professions.
 In India, the disease is widely prevalent in all the States.
 Human brucellosis due to B.canis is uncommon but can be acquired from dogs; most
cases resulted from contact with aborting bitches.
 Each year about a half million cases of brucellosis occur around the world (WHO,
1975).
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 It has been eradicated from Finland, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands,
Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, Australia, Hungary, the former Czechoslovakia,
Rumania and Bulgaria.
 Swine brucellosis is never had this problem in Muslim countries as a result of
religious beliefs that have limited swine rising.
 The natural reservoirs are cattle (Brucella abortus), goats (Brucella melitensis) and
swine (Brucella suis).
Socio economic impact
 Biological warfare: The United States biological warfare program focused on

three agents of the Brucella group: Porcine Brucellosis (agent US), Bovine Brucellosis
(agent AB) and Caprine Brucellosis (agent AM). Agents US and AB had a median
infective dose of 500 organisms/person and AM was 300 organisms/person. The
rate-of-action was believed to be 2 weeks, with duration of action of several
months. AM was always believed to be a more virulent disease and a 3% fatality rate
was expected.
 Permanent sterility in male
 Monetary loss
 Reduced export on international trade
 Loss of man-hours and man-days
 Abortions in both animals and human beings
Source of infection
 Raw milk, fresh cheese and raw vegetables contaminated with the excreta of infected
animal and/or carrier animals
 Faeces of infected animal and/or carrier animals
 Uterine and vaginal discharges
 Placenta and foetal membranes
 Aborted foetus and its contents
 Contaminated environment, water, feed, utensils, farm equipment
 Semen from infected bulls
Transmission
 In humans
o Drinking of infected raw milk or unpasteurized milk.
o Ingestion of cheese, raw vegetables and water contaminated with excreta of
infected animals.
o Handling of aborted foetus, fluids and foetal membranes.
o Occupational exposure: Stockyard workers, slaughter house workers and
butchers contract infection while handling foetuses, after births or by contact
with vaginal secretions, excreta and carcasses of infected animals.
o Veterinarian gets infection during rectal examination without wearing gloves
and while conducting post mortem examination.
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o Through skin abrasions and conjunctiva.

o Possibly airborne.
 In animals
o Ingestion of feed and water that are contaminated with aborted materials.
o Mechanical transmission through flies, ticks, rats
o Artificial insemination with frozen semen from infected bulls and dogs.
Disease in animals
 The incubation period is ranged from 1 to 3 weeks, but some rare instances may take
several months.
 Abortions (at third trimester of pregnancy) are followed by immunity
 Carrier state persists especially with secretions from the udder.
 Infertility, testicular abnormalities and poor semen quality.
 Mastitis.
 Inapparent infection may be common, as indicated by seropositivity.
Aborted foetus by Brucella abortus
Disease in man
 The incubation period ranges from 1 to 3 weeks.

 It is a septicemic disease with sudden or insidious onset and is accompanied by
continued intermittent or irregular fever.
 It can be of acute or chronic form.
 In acute brucellosis
o Chills and profuse sweating (peculiar odour at night)
o Weakness and fatigue
o Normal temperature in the morning and rise at after noon.
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o Insomnia, nausea, headache, anorexia, arthralgia, muscular and body pain,

weight loss, sexual impotence and orchitis in males.
o Lymphadenopathy.
o Neurological symptoms: Irritation, nervousness and depression.
 In chronic brucellosis
o Symptoms are undulant nature, with periods of normal temperature between
acute attacks; symptoms may persist for years, either continuously or
intermittently.
o Symptoms are associated with hypersensitivity and it is very difficult to
diagnose.
 Antibiotics can effect a cure within one year in about 80% of cases.
 Case fatality may be less than 2% if untreated.
 Neurobrucellosis can be developed in 1-3% of cases
 The disease's sequelae are highly variable and may include granulomatous hepatitis,
arthritis, spondylitis, anemia, leukopenia, thrombocytopenia, meningitis, uveitis,
optic neuritis and endocarditis.
Diagnosis
In human beings
 Based on the history and clinical signs. The clinical picture is not pathognomonic,
although the herd history may be helpful.
 Increased ESR and lymphocytosis are suggestive.
 Isolation, identification and typing of Brucella agents from blood, bone marrow,
from the sternum or ileal crest, lymph nodes and CSF.
 Serology
o Standard plate agglutination test (SPAT) for qualitative diagnosis
o Standard tube agglutination test (STAT) for quantitative diagnosis. 100 IU is
considered as positive titre in human beings.
o Rose Bengal plate agglutination test (RBPT) for qualitative diagnosis
o Serological tests may have cross reaction with Cholera, Tularemia, Yersinia
enterocolitica O:9, E.coli O:157 and O:116, Salmonella subtypes Kauffmann-
White group N and Pseudomonas maltophila.
o To detect the IgG antibody (IgM antibody present in the earlier stage of the
infection, but IgG antibody always present), 2-mercaptoethanol and
compliment fixation test can be performed.
o ELISA
o Lateral flow based Spot test for qualitative diagnosis
 PCR
Serological tests for animals
 Rapid slide agglutination test.

 Milk ring test (MRT) or Abortus Bang ring test (ABRT): Dairy herds should be
screened every 6 months by testing a bulk tank milk sample for antibodies
against Brucella. If the ABRT is positive, all cows on the farm has to be tested
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individually (card test, plate or tube agglutination tests) and any "positive reactor"
animals must be slaughtered. A positive test results will lead to a trace back and
testing of other cattle at the farm of origin.
 Rose Bengal plate agglutination test.
 The reactivity of samples that are positive in screening tests should be retested using
established confirmatory tests such as the complement fixation test or enzyme-
linked immunosorbent assay.
 Brucellin skin test, which can be used as a screening or as a confirmatory herd test
when positive serological reactors occur in the absence of obvious risk factors in
unvaccinated herds.
 Diagnosis of B.melitensis and B.ovis is usually accomplished by bacterial isolation or
demonstration of the organism in tissue or by serology.
 AGID is more specific and sensitive than agglutination tests for B.canis.
Milk ring test
Antigen identification
 Smears of placental cotyledon, vaginal discharge and foetal lung, liver and abomasal
contents should be fixed with heat or ethanol and stained by the modified Ziehl
Neelsen (Stamp’s), Kosters’ staining, Gram's staining or Macchiavello staining
methods
 The presence of large aggregates of intracellular, weakly acid-fast organisms
of Brucella morphology is presumptive evidence of brucellosis. Care must be taken in
the interpretation of results as other infectious agents may have similar morphology
(e.g. Coxiella burnetii, Chlamydophila psittaci)
 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) methods.
 Culture of blood, placental cotyledon, vaginal discharge, fetal tissues or abomasal
contents or hygroma fluid should be made on Brucella selective media.
 Cultures can also be made from milk or colostrum, and from samples of tissues
collected at post-mortem, such as mammary gland, uterus, supramammary, and
internal iliac lymph nodes from females and testes, epididymis, seminal vesicles,
accessory glands, external inguinal and internal iliac lymph nodes from males. The
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parotid, mandibular and retropharyngeal lymph nodes, from either males or females,
are good sources of the organism.
Treatment
 Antibiotics like tetracycline, chloramphenicol, rifampicin and the aminoglycosides

streptomycin and gentamicin are effective against Brucella bacteria. However, the
use of more than one antibiotic is needed for several weeks, due to the fact that the
bacteria incubate within cells.
 Combination regimens of two or three drugs are more effective.
o Either (1) doxycycline plus rifampicin or streptomycin (or both); (2)
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole plus rifampicin or streptomycin (or both) are
effective in doses for 21 days.
o Longer courses of therapy may be required to cure relapses, osteomyelitis or
meningitis.
 The gold standard treatment for adults is daily intramuscular injections of
streptomycin 1 g for 14 days and oral doxycycline 100 mg twice daily for 45 days
(concurrently). Gentamicin 5 mg/kg by intramuscular injection once daily for 7 days
is an acceptable substitute when streptomycin is not available or difficult to obtain.
 Human brucellosis can be prevented by controlling and eradicating animal

brucellosis.
 Quarantine and testing.
 Screening the herds and remove the reactors.
 Test and slaughter method will be the most rational approach.
 Hygienic disposal of aborted uterine discharges, foetus and foetal membranes.
 Vaccination of all calves between 4 and 8 months of age with strain-19 vaccine (Dose
is 5 ml in s/c route).
 The main way of preventing brucellosis is by using fastidious hygiene in producing
raw milk products or by pasteurization of all milk that is to be ingested by human
beings, either in its pure form or as a derivate, such as cheese.
Vaccination
 Strain 19 vaccine: Live-attenuated vaccine strain.

 RB51 vaccine: Newer live-attenuated vaccine strain that is used at present.
 "Calfhood vaccination": Vaccination should be done during calfhood (4 to 8
months for S19; 4 to 12 months for RB51) so as to minimize the induction of
antibodies that might be interpreted as evidence of actual infection.
 Vaccination should not be conducted in pregnant animals because of the risk of
vaccine-induced abortion.
 S19 vaccine will induce brucellosis in humans who are inadvertently stuck. If this
happens, person should receive doxycycline for 3 weeks and rifampicin antibiotics
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prophylactically. The potential for human disease due to RB51 remains unclear, but
prophylaxis with doxycycline is prudent.
MODULE-22: ZOONOTIC DISEASES - TUBERCULOSIS AND

LEPTOSPIROSIS
Learning objectives
management of
 Tuberculosis
 Leptospirosis
TUBERCULOSIS
Synonyms
 Phthisis ('Consumption' - Tissue wasting), Pearl disease (Grape-like lesions in the

peritoneum and pleura), Scrofula (King's evil), Pott's disease (paralysis of the hind
limbs due to TB nodules of the spine), 'Rajajakshman' (the King of diseases as per
Hindu texts), ‘Elumpurikki noiy’ (Tamil)
Type of zoonosis
 Direct anthropozoonosis, Zooanthroponosis
Definition
 It is a chronic disease of man and animals caused by pathogenic Mycobacterium

spp. causing development of tubercle in vital organs. The pulmonary tuberculosis is
the most common form, characterized by protective cough, fever, fatigue, weight
loss, chest pain and night sweat in human beings.
Brief history
 Tuberculosis (TB) is an ancient disease known as early as 4000 B.C. Tuberculosis

was well described by Hippocrates and Aristotle in the fifteen century BC.
As ‘Phthisis’ (described in Greek literatures) which was translated in to English as
‘Consumption’.
 Robert Koch in 1882, cultivated the agent and demonstrated tuberculin testing
first in guinea pigs in 1890.
 French scientists, Calmette and Guerin (veterinarian) in 1906, developed
vaccine against TB, is known as "BCG vaccine". It was developed by attenuating a
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virulent strain of Mycobacterium bovis. They made 230 subcultures over a period of
13 years and evolved a strain known as "Bacille Calmette Guerin", which was
avirulent for man while retaining its immunogenicity. In 1927, the first human was
vaccinated and in 1948, the vaccine was accepted by TB workers.
 Tuberculin test was first discovered by Von Pirquet in 1907.
Etiology
 Tuberculosis is caused by bacillus of the bacteria belong to the

genus Mycobacterium. Mycobacterium organisms are facultative intracellular
pathogens, Gram positive, acid fast (because Mycobacterium has mycolic
acid in its cell wall) and aerobic. The most common zoonotic species
of Mycobacteria are:
o M.bovis - Cattle, dogs and swine
o M.avium complex (MAC) - Birds, swine and sheep
o M.tuberculosis - Man, nonhuman primates, cattle, dogs, swine and
psittacines
o M.marinum, M.fortuitum, M.platypolcitis - Fish
o Atypical Mycobacterium such as M.scrofulaceum,
M.kansasii and M.intracellulare have been reported in NHP's and are also
present in soil and water. They can cause pulmonary disease refractory to
treatment in man, and are most often seen in immunocompromised people.
 MAC is composed of 28 serotypes. MAC includes M.avium - intracelluare (MAI)
and M.avium - intracellulare - scrofulaceum (MAIS). The disease produced by MAC
complex is called as Mycobacteriosis in man.
Incidence
 The disease is discovered more than 100 years ago. There are about 60 million cases
of tuberculosis in the world. Around 5000 people die from tuberculosis daily.
According to the estimates of WHO about one third of the total population of the
world is infected with tubercle bacteria. This has made the disease an international
health problem.
 Morbidity and mortality rates continue to be higher among urbanites, minorities, the
poor, the homeless, substance abusers and persons infected with HIV.
 Global incidence is more in low income countries.
 South-east Asia region countries carry 38% of the global burden of tuberculosis, with
3 million new cases and nearly 0.6 million deaths occurring every year.
 Rising trend in HIV infection and emergence of multidrug resistant strains of TB
(MDR-TB) pose additional threat.
 The incidence of TB is influenced by may factors, are:
o Poor or inadequate health care
o Poor standard of living and socioeconomic conditions
o Malnutrition
o Higher population density
o Occupational contraction
o Poor personal hygiene
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o Lack of education and awareness

o Other diseases like, HIV/AIDS, Diabetes mellitus.
o Close confinement of the human population.
 The DOTS (Directly Observed Treatment, Short-course) strategy has been globally
recognized as the best cost-effective approach to control TB and to reduce the disease
burden and to reduce the spread of infection. DOTS, by which cure can be ensured.
 Categorization of countries by DOTS strategy
o "0" - Not reporting to WHO.
o "1" - Not implementing the DOTS and case rate over 10 cases per 100000
populations.
o "2" (Pilot phase) - Implementing the DOTS and case rate of 10% of the total
population.
o "3" (Expansion phase) - Implementing the DOTS in 10 to 90% of the total
population.
o "4" (Routine implementation) - Implementing the DOTS in over 90% of the
total population.
o "5" (Low incidence) - Not implementing the DOTS and case notification rate
of 10 cases per 100000 populations.
 As on 2002, 180 countries have implemented the DOTS, covering 69% of the world's
population.
 In India
o India globally ranks first in tuberculosis.
o It is estimated that one-third of the current global population is infected
asymptomatically with tuberculosis, of whom 5 to 10% will develop clinical
disease during their lifetime.
o India falls under MDR-TB zone.
o TB is one of the biggest public health problems in India. As per the statistics,
every year approximately 1.8 million people develop TB, of which 4.17 lakhs
people die, that means, it was observed that every second an adult in India is
infected with TB and every minute one Indian dies of this disease.
o It is estimated that loss of an average about 83 work-days annually due to TB.
o More burden in childhood and deaths from tuberculosis by meningitis and
disseminated disease.
o Since 1993, India has successfully implemented Revised National
Tuberculosis Control Programme (RNTCP) using DOTS strategy.
Reservoir and source of infection
 Human source: Sputum.

 Bovine source: Milk and faeces.
 Environmental source: Water, soil and dust contaminated with human and animal
sources. Mycobacterium multiply in the water and soil.
 Infected patients are infective as long as they remain untreated.
 Effective treatment for TB reduces infectivity by 90% with in 48 hrs.
Transmission
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 In human beings
o Ingestion and inhalation are the most common mode of transmission.
o Mycobacterium bacilli are transmitted from infected animals or infected
tissue primarily via the aerosol route.
o Inhalation of droplets or droplet nuclei of sputum-positive patients, coughed
up materials and fomites contaminated with droplets of sputum.
o Contracted via ingestion or cutaneous inoculation of the bacilli.
o Exposure to dusty bedding of infected animals, coughing of infected animals
and aerosolization of the organism during sanitation procedures may also be
sources of the disease in the laboratory environment.
o Consumption of infected milk.
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 In animals
o Directly through contact with tuberculosis animals or their discharges or their
sputum.
o Contact with tuberculosis peoples.
o Calves by ingestion of contaminated milk.
o Congenital infection.
o Through artificial insemination with infected semen.
Clinical signs
 Disease in man
o Incubation period ranges from 3 to 6 weeks, but uncertain. There after the
development of disease depends upon the host-parasite relationship. It may
take weeks or months or years.
o The patient may be asymptomatic for years. General signs may include
anorexia, weight loss, lassitude, fatigue, fever, chills and cachexia.
o Primary tuberculosis is often asymptomatic. Basic sequence of events may be
as (i). conversion of tuberculin sensitivity in 3 to 8 weeks, (ii). miliary and
meningeal TB in 3 months, (iii). pleural effusion an pneumonia in 3 to 6
months and (iv). first appearance of post primary lesions in renal, bone and
joints in one year.
o In humans, the clinical signs depend on the organ system involved.
o Chronic pulmonary TB: The most familiar signs related to pulmonary TB are
cough, sputum production and hemoptysis. It is common in middle aged
people who have preexisting pulmonary lesions.
o Lymphadenitis: It is common in children from 18 months to 5 years of age.
Lymph nodes are primarily those of the neck close to the jaw bone (cervical
lymph nodes) affected.
o Skin or cutaneous TB: Skin lesions are characterized by ulcers or by papular
lesions progressing to dark suppurative lesions.
o Miliary TB is most often seen in the very young and old people.
o M.marinum of fish strain causes granulomas on the extremities as a group of
papules that ulcerate and scab over, is described as "swimming pool
granuloma or fish tank granuloma". Lesions may persist for months, and
healing is usually spontaneous. Swimming pool granuloma may also be due
to M.xenopi.
 Disease in animals
o High fever and emaciation
o Loss of body weight slowly
o Difficult in breathing
o Painful dry cough
o Abdominal pain
o Chronic bloat
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Figure: Tuberculous nodules in lungs (cattle)
Diagnosis
 The diagnosis of TB is often difficult.

 Clinical support with laboratory tests commonly used for presumptive diagnosis are:
intradermal TB test with mammalian tuberculin, radiography, acid fast stained
sputum smear(Ziehl-Neesen staining) and ELISA. Confirmation by culture,
histopathology or animal inoculation.
 Molecular diagnosis by polymerase chain reaction.
 In humans
o Tuberculin test, which is recognized by WHO for screening.
o Tuberculin test: Mantoux intradermal test, Heaf multiple puncture test and
Tine multiple puncture test.
o Heaf multiple puncture test for screening large population, quick and easy
test, and reliable and cheap test.
o Tine multiple puncture test is an unreliable test, and not recommended.
o Mantoux intradermal test: Inject 1 ml of 1 TU of PPD-RT-23 with Tween
80 intadermally on the flexor surface of the forearm and then read the result
after 72 hrs. Tuberculin reaction is erythema and induration at the site of
injection. Reaction exceeding 10 mm is positive, <6 mm is negative (but
having risk of developing TB), between 6 mm and 9 mm is doubtful and 20
mm is strong positive. The positive reaction does not prove that the person is
suffering from the disease. It may produce cross-reaction in people who had
BCG vaccination.
o Case finding in humans includes, Sputum positivity by acid-fast staining is
the first choice of test (Zieh-Neelsen staining); X-rays (even sputum negative
cases could be identified; Symptoms of pulmonary TB and sputum positivity,
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persistent cough for 3 to 4 weeks, continuous fever, chest pain and

hemoptyis); Sputum culture in specific media like, Dorset egg media or
Lowenstein Jensen media or Harrold egg yolk media (it takes at least 6 weeks,
expensive, but second choice of test) and Tuberculin test (diagnostic value is
invalidated, but has very little value in case finding).
 In animals
o Single intradermal skin test, double intradermal skin
test and comparative intradermal skin test.
o Acid fast staining of faecal materials
Treatment
 Objective of chemotherapy is to cure and eliminate the both slow and fast growing
bacilli.
 The patient must take the correct drug at the correct dosage for the correct length of
time.
 Incomplete treatment leads to relapse and development of MDR-TB and XDR-
TB (Extreme Drug Resistant TB).
 Anti-tuberculosis drugs are:
o Bactericidal drugs: Rifampicin (10 - 12 mg/kg body weight), Isoniazid (4 - 5
mg/kg body weight), Streptomycin (0.5 - 1 gm/kg body weight) and
Pyrazinamide (30 mg/kg body weight), which kill the bacilli in-vivo.
o Bacteriostatic drugs: Ethambutol (15 mg/kg body weight) and Thioacetazone
(2 mg/kg body weight), which inhibit the multiplication and lead to their
destruction by the cell mediated immune response.
 Triple therapy means treatment with isoniazid, rifampicin and ethambutol.
 DOTS strategy: It is effective world wide. It follows two phases viz. Intensive phase
and Continuous phase.
o Intensive phase: Patients swallow drugs in the presence of health workers
(daily for 1 to 3 months).
o Continuous phase: Drugs given for a week and patients swallow medicines in
the presence of health worker (for 6 to 9 months).
 In DOTS strategy, the cases are divided in to three categories
o Note: H - Isoniazid (600 mg); R - Rifampicin (450 mg); Z - Pyrazinamide
(1500 mg); E - Ethambutol (1200 mg); S - Streptomycin (750 mg)
o Category I: For 6 months
 New sputum smear positive - 2(HRZES)3
 Seriously ill sputum smear negative or seriously ill extra-pulmonary
TB - 4(HR)3
o Category II: For 8 months
 Sputum smear positive (relapse) - 2(HRZES)3
 Sputum smear positive (failure) - 1(HRZE)3
 Sputum smear positive (treatment after default) - 5(HRE)3
 Seriously ill sputum smear negative or seriously ill extra-pulmonary
TB - 4(HR)3
o Category III: For 6 months
 Sputum smear negative, not seriously ill - 2(HRZ)3
 Extra-pulmonary, not seriously ill - 4(HR)3
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o Note: Persons >60 kgs, additional 150 gm of rifampicin and persons >50 kgs,
additional 500 gm of streptomycin should be given.
Treatmet in animals
 Treatment is not effective, but following drugs can be given

o Isoniazid
o Para-aminosalicylic acid
o Streptomycin
 Personnel education about wearing of protective clothing when handling infected

animals or humans.
 A regular health surveillance programme for humans.
 Isolation and quarantine of suspect animals.
 Careful disposal of infected animals.
 Consumption of pasteurized milk
 Screening of herd, and segregation and slaughter of positive reactors.
 Curative method: Case finding and chemotherapy
 Preventive method: Vaccination with BCG vaccine (Bacille Calmette-Guerin strain
of M.bovis).
 Control and eradication of bovine tuberculosis.
World Tuberculosis Day
 World Tuberculosis Day, falling on 24th March each year, is designed to

build public awareness that tuberculosis today remains an epidemic, causing the
deaths of about 1.6 million people each year. 24th March commemorates the day in
1882 when Dr.Robert Koch astounded the scientific community by announcing that
he had discovered the cause of tuberculosis, the TB bacillus. At the time of Koch's
announcement in Berlin, TB was raging through Europe and the Americas, causing
the death of one out of every seven people. Koch's discovery opened the way towards
diagnosing and curing tuberculosis.
 In 1982, on the one-hundredth anniversary of Dr. Koch's presentation, the
International Union Against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease (IUATLD) proposed
that 24th MARCH be proclaimed an official WORLD TUBERCULOSIS DAY. In
1996, the World Health Organization (WHO) joined with the IUATLD and a wide
range of other concerned organizations to increase the impact of World TB Day.
LEPTOSPIROSIS
Synonyms
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 Weil's disease (caused by Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae, named after Adolf Weil),

Haemorrhagic jaundice (Leptospira icterohaemorrhagiae), Canicola fever
(L.canicola), Dairy worker fever (L.hardjo), Swine herd's disease, Rice-field fever,
Sugarcane-cutter's fever, Swamp fever, Mud fever, Fort Bragg fever, Seven-day
fever, ‘Elikaicchal’ (Tamil)
 In animals: Stuttgart disease
Type of zoonosis
 Direct anthropozoonosis, Occupational zoonosis
Definition
 Leptospirosis occurs in all farm animal species and is an important zoonosis. It is an

acute or chronic or clinical inapparent infection with multiorgan failure in
humans, characterized by fever, icterus / conjunctivitis and myalgia. It causes
septicemia, interstitial nephritis, haemolytic anemia and abortion in most species of
animals, and mastitis in cattle.
Brief history
 In 1886, Adolf Weil in Heidelberg observed the disease.

 In 1907 , Stimson used silver impregnation staining to the pathogen causing Weil's
disease.
 In 1915, Inada (Japan) demonstrated the etiology and isolated the Leptospires.
Etiology
 Pathogenic Leptospires belong to the species Leptospira interrogans, which is

subdivided into more than 200 serovars in to 23 serogroups.
 Non-pathogenic or saprophytic Leptospires belong to the species Leptospira biflexa.
 Dogs: L.canicola
 Cattle: L.hardjo
 Swine: L.pomona
 Rats: L.icterohaemorrhagiae
 Humans are susceptible to all serovars, and they are mostly accidental or incidental
hosts.
 Host susceptibility may vary with different serovars, and act as primary maintenance
host. Example: pigs and cattle are principle hosts for L.pomona, cattle
for L.hardjo and dogs forL.canicola.
 The rat, particularly, Rattus norvegicus, is the chief reservoir host.
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 Mice, bandicoots, guinea pigs, gerbils, squirrels, rabbits, hamsters, reptiles,

nonhuman primates, livestock and dogs are also reservoirs of Leptospires.
 Rats and mice are common animal hosts for L.ballum. Infection in mice is
inapparent and can persist for the animal's lifetime.
 Rodents are the only major animal species that can shed Leptospires throughout
their life-span without clinical manifestations.
 High prevalence of leptospirosis recorded in tropical countries with high rain fall and
neutral or alkaline soils, and abundance of rats.
 Rodents and pigs are important reservoir hosts and potential spreaders, also
agricultural animals and mongoose.
 Outbreaks of leptospirosis by exposure to water contaminated by urine of infected
animals.
 Waling on bare foot on the contaminated water during rainy season reflects higher
incidence of leptospirosis in humans.
 Survival of Leptospires depends on soil and water condition.
 It is the number one occupational disease in many parts of the country.
 Occupational hazards to
o Veterinarians
o Paddy field workers
o Recreational activity - Swimming and water sports
o Sugarcane cutters
o Swine handlers
o Dairy workers
o Slaughter house workers
o Butchers
o Sewer workers
o Miners
o Cave explorers
Source of infection
 Urine is the chief source of infection.

 Dogs and rodents are the common source of infection for man.
 Milk from acutely infected cows.
 Genital excretions from cattle and swine.
 Leptospiruria state varies from species to species
o Man : 7 days - 1 month
o Rodents : Through out life
o Dogs : 700 days
o Pigs : Upto 1 year / through out life
o Cattle : 120 - 700 da
Transmission
 Direct contact and ingestion are the common mode of transmission.

 The organism is often transmitted to humans by handling affected animals or urine
of the reservoir host.
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 The organism may also enter through minor skin lesions and probably via the
conjunctiva.
 Many infections have followed bathing or swimming in infected waters.
 Ingestion of urine contaminated food and water.
Disease in man
 Incubation period ranges from 2 days to 10 days

 Two phases of infection have been recognized, viz. bacteremic phase (leptospiraemic
phase) for 7 to 10 days and leptospiruric phase for a week to months.
 Two clinical forms are icteric form and anicteric form.
 (a). Icteric form or hepatonephritic form or Weil's disease:
o Sudden fever, headache, myalgia, conjunctivitis, nausea, vomiting and
diarrhoea or constipation.
o Severe prostration.
o Petichae on the skin, haemorrhages in the GI tract and proteinuria.
o Hepatomegaly and jaundice.
o Renal insufficiency with oliguria or anuria, azotemia and electrolyte
imbalance with the disappearance of leptospiremia and fever.
o Convalescence lasts one or two months, during which time general malaise
and myalgia may reappear for few days.
o Uveitis (conjunctivitis).
Figure 1. Uveitis
 (b). Anicteric form: It is the mild form of leptospirosis

o Leptospiruria for several months.
 Ranges from inapparent infection to severe infection and death. Biphasic Illness
 Weakness, headache, myalgia, malaise, chills and fever.
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 Leukocytosis, painful orchitis (testes not usually enlarged), conjunctival effusion and
rash.
 Icteric leptospirosis (Weil's syndrome-usually caused by L.icterohaemorrhagiae) is
the most severe form of the disease, characterized by impaired renal and hepatic
function, abnormal mental status, hypotension, and a 5-10% mortality rate. Signs
and symptoms are continuous and not biphasic.
 Non- suppurative meningitis.
Figure 2. Icteric changes on foot
Figure 3. Icteric conjunctival mucus membrane

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Disease in animals
 In cattle
o It may be acute or subacute or chronic infection.
o L.pomona and L.hardjo are the important pathogens in cattle, causing
abortion.
o Clinically, fever and anorexia occur with rapid decline in milk yield and
atypical mastitis / milk drop syndrome or haemorrhagic
mastitis, haemoglobinuria. Also, mild jaundice and severe haemolytic
anaemia occurs with enlarged liver and swollen kidneys will be observed.
o Pregnant cows abort (at third trimester of pregnancy) with retention
of the placenta (Storms of abortion).
 In pigs
o Subclinical infection is common, though it can cause abortion and birth of
weak piglets, and infertility.
 In dogs and cats
o Gastroenteritis, jaundice and nephritis may occur.
o Acute haemorrhagic form, icteric form and uremic form (Stuttgart's disease)
have been recognized.
o L.cnicola and L.icterohaemorrhagiae are the important pathogens of dogs.
 In horses
o L.pomona causes abortion and still births
o Periodic ophthalmia (moon blindness, irridocyclitis)
 In sheep and goats
o Acute septicemia
Diagnosis
 History and clinical signs.

 Dark field microscopy examination of urine or serum (examined immediately
after collection, sample should not be placed under ice cool condition, because, it
affects the motility of the organism) at early stage of the disease.
 Microscopic agglutination test: It is a ‘gold standard test’ as per OIE. Positive
titre is 1:100.
 Culture and identification in EMJH (Ellinghauson McCullough Johnson and
Harris) medium. On semisolid or liquid medium the growth of Leptospires is
described asDinger's ring. Other media that can also be used are, Korthof's
medium, Stuart's medium, Fletcher's medium and Vervoort's medium.
 Culture is difficult and requires several weeks.
 Molecular diagnosis by PCR.
 Antibody detection in serum and aqueous humor.
 A rapid diagnosis is made with the Dot-ELISA test.
 IgM antibody detection ELISA is most useful for early diagnosis of clinical
leptospirosis.
 Silver immpregnation staining (Fondana's staining and Levaditi's
staining) can be used to stain Leptospires in tissue section.
 Haematology
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o Haemolytic anaemia.
o Haemoglobinuria.
o Increased BUN, bilirubin, leucocytic count and erythrocytic fragility.
Treatment
 Antibiotics such as penicillin or tetracycline or doxycycline can be used.

 Early diagnosis and clinical management is very important in treating a case of
leptospirosis.
 Vaccination of animals, particularly cattle, dogs and swine.

 Chemoprophylaxis of animals with dihydrostreptomycin @ 25 mg/kg body weight.
 Rodent control.
 Avoid swimming in or drinking from potentially contaminated water.
 Avoid walking bare foot in contaminated or stagnant water.
 Protect workers by providing boots and gloves.
 Doxycycline chemoprophylaxis for persons at high exposure.
 Mass education to create awareness.
MODULE-23: ZOONOTIC DISEASES - LISTERIOSIS AND PLAGUE
Learning objectives
management of
 Listeriosis
 Plague
LISTERIOSIS
Synonyms
 In animals: Silage sickness, Circling disease
Type of zoonosis
Definition
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 Listeriosis is an infectious bacterial infection in ruminants, pigs, dogs, and cats, some
wild animals and humans, causing abortions or nervous system disorders in animals.
In humans, it is clinically characterized by fever, headache, nausea, vomiting,
endocarditis, granulomatous lesions in multiple organs, cutaneous involvement,
coryza, conjunctivitis, metritis with abortion, sepsis and meningitis.
Etiology
 Listeria monocytogenes. Gram positive, facultatively anaerobic bacilli, pleomorphic

rod, motile at temperature between 20°C and 25°C and intracellular pathogens of
reticuloendothelial system.
 Serovars 4b, 1/2b and 1/2a causes infection in animals, and 4d and 4b in humans.
 It is ubiquitous nature.
 This bacterium can live almost anywhere in soil, manure piles and grass. Listeria
thrives in aerobic conditions where the pH is 5.4 or higher. It doesn't do well in very
acid conditions. Therefore, the top layers of silage or improperly preserved silage
may harbour large numbers of organisms. The increased use of trench silos has been
correlated with increased numbers of listeriosis cases among cattle. Because of this,
it is important to make sure that silage is tightly packed to ensure proper
fermentation.
 Refrigeration of foods may provide selective growth of Listeria.

 Environmental contamination (soil, pasture, water bodies, streams) with faeces of
animals and birds.
 Stools of pregnant women and female genital tract discharges are the sources of
infection.
 Isolated from fish, birds, swine, horses, ruminants, guinea pigs, ferrets, gerbils,
rabbits and chinchillas.
 The principle reservoir of the organism is in forage, water, mud and silage.
 The seasonal use of silage as fodder is frequently followed by an increased incidence
of listeriosis in animals.
 Healthy animals are not usually affected by Listeria. Cattle with lowered resistance
to disease on a high silage diet are prime candidates for listeriosis.
 Sheep and goats are even more susceptible to this disease.
 Pregnant women are susceptible and at great risk of aborting if they are not properly
protected from infection.
 The young, the elderly and the immuno-compromised people are most susceptible to
infection.
Transmission
 Ingestion of unpasteurized milk and cheese and contaminated vegetables (food

borne transmission).
 Direct contact with infectious material or soil contaminated with infected animal
faeces.
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 Vertical (transplacental) transmission (mother to fetus in-utero or during passage

through the infected birth canal).
 Person-to-person transmission through sexual contact (coitus transmission).
 Inhalation of the organism.
 In animals, poor quality silage feeding (silage sickness).
Disease in animals
 There are two forms: meningoencephalitic and visceral form.

 Meningoencephalitic form
o Neurological signs with dullness.
o Lateral deviation of the head with a tendency to circle (circling disease).
o Paralysis sets in with recumbency and death due to respiratory failure.
 Visceral form
o Abortion with retained placenta (within the last third of pregnancy in cattle
and abortion storms are more common in sheep and most abortions occur
after the 12th week of pregnancy).
o Microabscesses in the brain.
o Multiple foci of necrosis in the liver, spleen and heart.
o Placental lesions are characteristic with yellow necrotic foci and in foetus
(multiple granulomas / small yellow foci of necrosis in the foetal liver, shallow
abomasal erosions and a yellow-orange meconium).
o Mastitis is rare manifestation, but affects only a single quarter and not
responsive to antibiotics.
o Abscess formation in the eye can lead to blindness.
o Fatality is very high, ranges from 3-30% during outbreaks.
Figure: Abscess formation in the eye

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Disease in man
 It is clinically characterized by fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, endocarditis,

granulomatous lesions in multiple organs, cutaneous involvement, coryza,
conjunctivitis, metritis with abortion, sepsis and meningitis.
 Meningoencephalitis
 Acute septicaemia with pharyngitis
 Newborns are mostly affected and also above 50 years of age. It is rare between 1
month and 18 years of age.
 Abortion in second half of pregnancy.
 Miscarriage or birth by a few days or weeks with symptoms of chills, fever,
cephalalgia, dizziness and gastrointestinal symptoms.
 Perinatal mortality.
 Symptomless faecal carriage is common.
 Granulomatous lesions and abscesses occur in the liver and other organs and
beneath the skin and it is called as listeriomas.
 Focal necrosis in the placenta with mononuclear infiltration.
 Fatality rates may exceed 20%.
Diagnosis
 Culture and isolation of the causal agent from blood, CSF, amniotic fluid and
septicemic foetuses.
 Anton's eye test
 Modified CAMP test
 Intracerebral inoculation into mice
 Serology for the detection of IgM antibodies by FAT, CFT andELISA.
 PCR technique
Treatment
 For maternal-foetal infection ampicillin alone or combination with aminoglycoside

may be useful.
 Antibiotics trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole can be used.
 Tetracycline (not for children) and chloramphenicol can be used.
 In areas where neonatal mortality is more, Gram's staining of meconium of a

newborn is important, so antibiotic treatment can be started earlier and this can also
be applied for the pregnant women.
 Pregnant women and immunocompromised individuals should avoid contact with
potentially infective materials such as aborted animal foetuses and known infected
persons.
 Pasteurization of milk.
 Rodent control.
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 Personal hygiene.
 Safety food production.
 Cooking of foods of animal origin.
 Vegetables and cooking vessels should be washed before use.
 Avoid drinking raw milk, eating raw meat and food products.
 Avoid eating soft cheese by pregnant women.
 In animals:
o When an outbreak occurs in animals, the affected animals should be
immediately treated and isolated and those that have died should be
destroyed or removed from the premises.
o Buildings should be thoroughly disinfected and cleaned and all bedding and
feed should be burned.
o Silage feeding should be reduced and if spoiled, should be avoided.
PLAGUE
Synonyms
 Black death, Pestilential fever, Buboes
Type of zoonosis
 Metacyclic zoonosis type I
Definition
 Plague is a severe and highly fatal metazoonosis caused by Yersinia

pestis maintained in nature by rodent-flea cycle. It is characterized by acute onset of
high fever, painful enlargement of lymph nodes, suppurative periglandular edema
(buboes), septicemia and pneumonia. Plague is also called as "black death" because
disseminated intravascular coagulation takes place and areas of skin undergo
necrosis.
Brief history
 The second pandemic of plague, known then as the "Black Death", originated in
Mesopotamia about the middle of the 11th century, attained its peak in the
14th century and did not disappear until the close of the 17th century. It is thought
that the Crusaders, returning from the Holy Land in the 12th and 13th centuries, were
instrumental in hastening the spread of the disease. Again the land along trade
routes was primarily involved and from them the infections spread east, west and
north. During the course of the disease, 25,000,000 people perished, a fourth of the
population of the world.
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 "Black death" inspired one of the most enduring nursery rhymes in the English
language, “Ring a Ring O'Roses, a pocket full of posies / Ashes, ashes (or
ah-tishoo ah-tishoo), we all fall down”.
 The miasmatic theory of disease described that diseases such as cholera or the
Black plague were caused by a miasma (Greek language: "pollution"), a noxious form
of "bad air". A remnant of this theory is the name of malaria, from Italian mala
aria ("bad air").
Etiology
 Yersinia pestis. Gram negative, coccobacillus belonging to the Enterobacteriaceae. It

looks like "safety pin" (i.e. bipolar) with methylene blue stain or Giemsa's stain
or Wayson's stain.
 It may remain viable for weeks at room temperature in sputum and faeces of fleas.
 Pathogenicity is determined by the following factors:
o Fractions (F1), V, W, endotoxin and exodoxin (cardiotoxin).
o F1 is a capsular heat labile protein, used in serological tests.
o F1, V and W fractions render Y.pestis resistant to phagocytosis.
o Cardiotoxin is lethal to mice and rats.
 Domestic rats (Rattus rattus) are the most important reservoirs worldwide and
the urban rat (Rattus norvegicus).
 Infected rat fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis) or rodents harbor Yersinia.
 Fleas may remain infected for months.
 The disease is also associated with cats, goats, camels, rabbits, dogs and coyotes.
Dogs and cats may serve as passive transporters of infected rodent fleas into the
home or laboratory.
 A protein secreted by the Yersinia pestis is a coagulase that causes blood ingested by
the flea to clot in the proventriculus. The condition is called as "Blocked flea
condition".The bacillus proliferates in the proventriculus, and thousands of
organisms are regurgitated by obstructed fleas and inoculated intradermally into the
skin.
 Coagulase is inactive at high temperatures and is thought to explain the cessation
of plague transmission during very hot weather.
Transmission
 Yersinia pestis may enter in to the body through skin, conjunctiva, oral route and
inhalation route.
 Contact with infected rat fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis) or rodents.
 Pulmonary form spread by airborne or droplet infection.
 Human infections from non-rodent species usually result from direct contact with
infected tissues, by scratch or bite injuries and handling of infected animals.
 Man to man transmission is mainly air-borne.
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Disease in animals
 Self-limiting illness in dogs, and severe, often fatal infection in cats, with fever,
lymphadenopathy, haemorrhagic pneumonia and encephalitis.
 Rodents may carry the disease asymptomatically or develop fatal disease.
 Fatal infection in rats and squirrels.
Disease in man
 Bubonic plague
o Incubation period ranges from few hours to 12 days, generally 2 to 7 days
after flea bite.
o It is the most common form causing fever and swollen, tender lymph nodes,
called "Buboes".
o Rigor and fever are prominent signs.
o The pain in abdomen often emanates from groin (inguinal buboes) and
accompanied with vomiting and diarrhoea, which may be bloody.
o The bubo is a tender enlarged lymph nodes ranging from 1 to 2 cm. Buboes
are extremely tender and the overlying skin is erythematous. It is more
common at inguinal, groin and axial region.
 Systemic plague / Septicemic plague
o The bubonic form spreads into the blood, it may cause death in 2 days, even
before other symptoms of bubonic or pneumonic plague appear.
o Chills, rapid pulse, fever, severe headache, vomiting and delirium may be
manifested.
 Pneumonic plague
o The incubation period varies between 3 to 5 days.
o It is a systemic plague with lung involvement.
o Symptoms begin abruptly 2 to 3 days after exposure to the bacteria, which
include high fever, chills and often severe headache. A cough develops in 24
hours.
o The sputum is clear at first, but rapidly becomes flecked with blood, and then
becomes uniformly pink or bright red and foamy.
o The sign of rapid progressive pneumonia, but no pleurisy.
o Death occurs in 2 days. Mortality may exceed 50%.
o As a complication, meningitis may be observed in some cases.
 Pestis minor
o It is a mild form of plague that usually occurs only in geographic area where
the disease is endemic.
o Symptoms are swollen lymph nodes, fever, headache and exhaustion, which
subside within a week.
 Plague is also called the "black death" because disseminated intravascular
coagulation takes place and areas of skin undergo necrosis.
Diagnosis
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 Impression smears of aspirates from buboes or blood or sputum stained with Gram's
stain or Giemsa's stain. Organisms have a typical "safety pin" appearance.
 Culture and identification (confirmation by FAT).
 Serology: CIE, ELISA, CFT, PHA, Dot-ELISA and FAT.
 Paired sera may be useful for serological diagnosis of plague.
 Molecular diagnosis by PCR.
Treatment
 Streptomycin with tetracycline or chloramphenicol are effective.

 In acute cases, streptomycin and tetracycline may be used
concurrently. Streptomycin can be discontinued once the patient as become afebrile
and tetracycline may be continued for 3 to 4 days.
 In less severe cases, tetracycline alone may be given parentrally or orally.
 Streptomycin @ 7.5 to 15 mg/kg body weight, i/m at 12 hrs interval and tetracycline
@ 5 to 10 mg/kg body weight, i/v at 6 hrs interval.
 Rodent control (using rodenticides like warfarin, zinc phosphate, carbon disulphide,
SO2, methyl bromide).
 Elimination of fleas.
 Sentinel animal programmes should be used in endemic areas.
 Masks, gowns and gloves should be worn when handling cats suspected to be
infected.
 Disinfection of all contaminated surfaces with sputum, discharges and dead rats by
sanitation
o Proper disposal of garbage
o Proper storage of food grains
 Combined vector and rodent control.
 Chemoprophylaxis of individuals at high risk. Tetracycline (250 mg) or
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole may be helpful.
 Vaccination: Two doses of formalin killed whole bacteria vaccine are given at
interval of 7 to 14 days. Immunity starts one week after vaccination and confers
immunity for 6 months.
 Isolation of plague affected people must be done.
MODULE-24: ZOONOTIC DISEASE - RICKETTSIOSIS
Learning objectives
management of
 Q-Fever
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 Epidemic typhus
 Scrub typhus
 Murine typhus
Q-FEVER
Synonyms
 Q or Querry fever, Balkan influenza, Balkan grippe, Pneumorickettsiosis, Abattoir

fever, Burnet’s Rickettsiosis, Australian Q fever, Nine mile fever, Coxiellosis,
Queensland fever
Type of zoonosis
 Metarickettsial zoonosis
Definition
 Q fever is an infectious disease caused by the rickettsial pathogen, Coxiella

burnetii, characterised by sudden onset of fever, malaise, headache, anorexia,
weakness and interstitial pneumonia.
Brief history
 The febrile illness among the abattoir workers in Brisbane, Queensland in Australia
was first noted by Edward Holbrook Derrick.
 In 1937, Q-fever was discovered by Frank Macfarlane Burnet and Mavis
Freeman, and isolated the bacterium from one of the Derricks patients.
 Gorden Davis and Herald Rea Cox found the etiological agent of Q-fever.
 In 1938, Davis and Cox suggested that ticks, Ixodes ricinus involved in transmission
of disease and named as Coxiella burnetii.
 An isolate from Dermacenter andersoni ticks collected from Nine Mile Creek,
Montana, and named the strain "Nine Mile" and the disease, "Nine Mile fever"
Etiology
 Coxiella burnetii (Genus: Coxiella, Family: Rickettsiaceae, Order: Rickettsiaceae). It

is a Gram negative, non-motile, rod shaped and obligate intracellular organism.
 Stains red with Macchiavello's stains and purple with Giemsa's stain.
 Antigenically, it is biphasic and does not produce agglutinin to react in Weil Felix
test.
 It multiplies only in living cells and completes its life cycle within the phagosomes of
infected cells.
 It is very resistant to the environment and drying.
 It can be destroyed at 60°C and with phenolic disinfectants.
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 Sodium hypochlorite, 1:100 lysol solution and formalin fumigation kill the pathogen.
 The two self perpetuating cycles involve: (1). Wild animals, with numerous tick hosts
and (2). Domestic animals - sheep, goats and cattle.
 Dogs, cats and chickens are also susceptible.
 Domestic animals are the main reservoir of infection for humans.
 Coxiella burnetii can maintain itself in nature without involving invertebrate vectors.
 Q fever has been reported outbreak in Dehra Dun in 1940, involving Gurkha troops,
and it was reported from Jammu and Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and
Tamil Nadu.
Transmission
 Sheep and goats are symptomless carriers.

 Organisms shed in urine, faeces, milk and especially birth products of carrier
animals.
 Aerosol transmission is the major mode of transmission.
 Contact with infected tissues such as placenta of the infected ewe
(contains 109 organisms per gram of tissue), amniotic and foetal tissues.
 Ingestion of contaminated raw milk.
 Spread through bite of a tick, Ixodes ricinus.
 Human to human transmission is rare.
 One organism is considered to be enough to cause infection in humans.
Diseases in animals
 It is usually a subclinical infection in animals.

 Organisms multiply in genital tract, mammary gland of cow, sheep and goat, and
produce abortion, bronchopneumonia, hepatitis and meningitis.
Disease in man
 Acute form
o Incubation period is 2 to 4 weeks.
o Symptoms include, prolonged fever (39-40°C), severe frontal headache with
retro-orbital pain, profuse sweating, myalgia, fatigue, weight loss and nausea,
and clay-coloured stools.
o Chest pain upon breathing.
o Subacute endocarditis.
o No skin eruption or rash, which distinguishes it from other Rickettsial species
infections.
o Pulmonary involvement is asymptomatic in many cases.
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o Most cases resolve in two weeks but may be protracted or relapsing in the
elderly people.
o Mortality rate is usually low (1%), except with endocarditis.
 Chronic form
o Chronic endocarditis, particularly in persons with preexisting valvular
diseases, cancer and chronic kidney failure.
o Case fatality rate may be as high as 60%.
Diagnosis
 Paired sera is useful in the diagnosis.

 Smear stained with Gemsa's stain or Gimenez's stain or Macchiavello stain gives
purple or pink or red rickettsia, respectively.
 Negative result in the Weil-Felix test (a test specific for typhus and other rickettsial
diseases).
 Abnormal liver function tests.
 A titer of 1:200 or more by CF or IFA with phase 1 antigen in Q-fever endocarditis.
 Isolation of the organism from febrile blood, sputum, urine, milk, placenta, amniotic
fluid is rarely attempted due to zoonotic concerns.
 Molecular techniques like PCR
Treatment
 Most acute cases heal spontaneously.

 Tetracycline can be given. It suppresses the symptoms and reduces the period
of clinical course, but does not always eradicate the infection.
 Doxycycline for 2 to 3 weeks can be given.
 Combination of tetracycline + trimethoprim sulfamethoxazole can be given.
 Prolonged treatment (for years) with antibiotic is required for Q-fever endocarditis,
even valves replacement may also be needed.
 Isolation of infected animals from humans.

 Restrictions on movement of animals.
 Quarantine of imported animals.
 Protective clothing, masks, gloves and shoe covers.
 Intensive medical surveillance and health education programmes for public.
 Use only pasteurized milk and milk products.
 Appropriate disposal of placenta, birth products foetal membranes and aborted
foetuses.
 Vector control.
 Disinfection of contaminated materials.
EPIDEMIC TYPHUS
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Synonyms
 Brill-Zinsser disease ( first described by Nathan Brill in 1913 in New York), Camp
fever, Jail fever or Gaol fever (often occurs when prisoners are frequently huddled
together in dark rooms), Hospital fever, Ship fever, Famine fever, Putrid fever,
Petechial fever, Epidemic louse-borne typhus or Louse-borne typhus
Type of zoonosis
 Anthropo-metazoonosis
Definition
 It is caused by Rickettsia prowazekii as epidemics following wars and natural

disasters. It is transmitted by human body louse, Pediculus humanus
corporis, clinically characterized by sudden onset, fever (40ºC), headache, skin
rashes, vascular and neurological disturbances.
Etiology
 It is caused by Rickettsia prowazekii.

 Rickettsia s are Gram negative, but commonly used stains are Giemsa, Macchiavello
and Gimenez. They stain red against green background with Gimenez stain.
 Rickettsia s are intracellular pathogens and multiply by binary fission in either
cytoplasm or nucleus of host cells.
Brief history
 In 1916, Henrique da Rocha Lima proved the causative agent for typhus and he
named it Rickettsia prowazekii after H.T.Ricketts and Stanislaus von Prowazek, two
zoologists who died investigating a typhus epidemic in a prison camp in 1915.
 In 1930, Rudolf Weigl developed an effective vaccine for typhus.
 Outbreaks of epidemic typhus were often reported in camps during the time of
World War II and killed thousands of people, and also after natural disasters.
 In India, it is prevalent in Jammu and Kashmir, Kulu valley, Jabalpur, Sagar
(Madhya Pradesh), Kota and Bundi in Rajasthan.
 Epidemic typhus is a major public health problem, and has caused greatest harm in
people during the Second World War.
 Overcrowding in army camps and refugee camps associated with poor hygiene
predispose to epidemic outbreaks.
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 Flying squirrel (Glaucomys volans) and human body louse (Pediculus humanis
corporis) involved in the natural infection cycle of epidemic typhus.
 Natural infection follows three years cyclic pattern, includes entry and gradual
spread of infection in the first year, epidemic outbreaks in the second year and
development of immunity in the third year. However, it develops latent infection,
which results in recrudescence even after 10 to 20 years.
 In the environment, Rickettsia in the dried faeces of louse survives for long period.
 According to the International sanitary regulations, the affected person should be
quarantined.
Transmission
 Rickettsia prowazekii is transmitted from infected man to another man through

human body louse, Pediculus humanis corporis.
 Louse feeds blood on infected man during rickettsaemia phase, and gets infected. In
gut, Rickettsia multiplies and infectious one week after infection, and remain
infectious for life of the louse. Infected louse excretes Rickettsia in faeces, or may die
within 14 to 15 days.
 When man scratches at the site of louse bite, Rickettsia present in the faeces of the
louse, enter through abraded skin.
 Aerosol transmission of Rickettsia, from dust in the environment contaminated with
dried faeces of the louse.
Disease in animals
 No evidence of infection has been confirmed in domestic animals (cattle, sheep, goat
and camel), but there is a suggestive evidences.
Disease in humans
 Incubation period ranges from 1 to 2 weeks.

 Clinical signs start suddenly with high continuous fever (40ºC), headache and skin
rashes at the end of first week of illness.
 Skin lesions are macular and localized initially, followed by dark, purpuric and
confluent changes.
 Gangrene of the toes, finger tips, ear lobes, nose, penis and scrotum may occur due
to cutaneous thrombosis.
 Neurological involvement may lead to coma and vascular disturbances may lead to
tachycardia, hypotension and cyanosis during second or third week of infection.
 Prognosis is grave if untreated at the correct time of infection.
 The mortality rate may be 10% to 60% if untreated with antibiotics.
Diagnosis
 Serological diagnosis: Weil Felix agglutination test using OX 19 antigen (OX 19,
OX 2 and OX K antigens are “O” antigens of Proteus, to which antigenic components
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of Rickettsiacross react) to detect rise in antibody titre in paired sera is useful in

diagnosis of epidemic typhus. Compliment fixation test, haemagglutination test and
FAT can also be used.
 Animal inoculation test: Guinea pigs are inoculated intraperitoneally with blood
from suspected patient, results in development of febrile reactions in about 1 to two
weeks. Paired sera should be collected from guinea pigs and tested to detect four-fold
rise in antibody titre.
 PCR technique.
Treatment
 Chloramphenicol and tetracycline can be given to clinically affected patients. They

will become afebrile in two days of time after antibiotic treatment.
 Intravenous fluid and oxygen therapy should be given.
 Control of louse menace using malathion, DDT, lindane and carbaryl.

 In certain circumstances like army camps and refugee camps, over-crowding should
be avoided.
 Formalin treated killed vaccine can be used as good immunizing agent, but not
commercially available in India.
SCRUB TYPHUS
Synonym
 Chigger typhus
Type of zoonosis
 Anthropo-metazoonosis
Definition
 Scrub typhus is caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi, which is transmitted by the bite

of mite, Leptotrombidium deliense (chigger mite) and develops a characteristic black
eschar lesion at the site of mite bites.
Etiology
 It is caused by Orientia tsutsugamushi.

 Antigenic variation in Orientia tsutsugamushi strains is very common.
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 The endemic area of scrub typhus in the world is described as the "tsutsugamushi
triangle", which extends from northern Australia in the south to northern Japan
and far-eastern Russia in the north, to Pakistan and Afghanistan in the west.
Trombiculid mites, Leptotrombidium deliense (chigger mite) found abundant in
these areas of heavy scrub vegetation.
 Epidemics of scrub typhus occurred among US troops stationed in Japan after World
War II, and was described as "Shichito fever" or "Hatsuka fever"
 Scrub typhus is often fatal and case fatality may be 4% to 40% if untreated.
Transmission
 Trombiculid mites, Leptotrombidium deliense (chigger mite) transmit scrub

typhus.
Disease in man
 Clinical signs include fever, muscle pain, headache, cough and gastrointestinal
problems.
 The typical signs and problems of maculopapular rash, eschar lesions at the site of
mite bites, splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy are developed during clinical
infection.
 Haemorrhages and intravascular coagulations may be caused by a virulent strain
of O.tsutsugamushi.
 Pneumonia, encephalitis and myocarditis may be developed following clinical phase
of infection
Diagnosis
 Based on history and clinical signs

 Leukopenia and abnormal liver function tests during first week of infection
 Serological diagnosis with paired sera: Weil-Felix test and indirect
immunofluorescent assay (gold standard test)
 PCR
Treatment
 Doxycycline is most commonly used, but chloramphenicol can be used as an

alternative drug.
 Rifampicin and azithromycin can be used as alternative drugs for doxycycline and
chloramphenicol.
 In children and pregnant women with scrub typhus, azithromycin can be used.
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 Control of mites
 Over-crowding should be avoided in certain circumstances like army camps and
refugee camps.
Vaccination
 Vaccine was developed in 1937 in the United Kingdom by Wellcome Foundation and
used in cotton rats (the project was called as “Operation Tyburn”). But this vaccine
was not commercially used.
 The vaccine trial was planned in India for use by Allied Land Forces, South-East Asia
Command (A.L.F.S.E.A.) in June, 1945. But, it was objected by the military
commanders.
 The antigenic variation in Orientia tsutsugamushi strains was then identified, which
hindered to produce a viable vaccine.
MURINE TYPHUS
Synonyms
 Flea-borne typhus fever, Endemic typhus fever, Urban typhus
Type of zoonosis
 Metazoonosis type I
Etiology
 It is caused by Rickettsia typhi
 Natural pathogen of rats and mice.

 Mammals including cats and their ectoparasites have been found infected.
Transmission
 Transmitted by flea or lice (Xenopsylla cheopis, Nosopsyllus fasciatus) to

rodents or man.
 Humans are infected by flea bites and contamination of broken skin or
conjunctiva by flea faeces.
 Domestic animals may transport the flea vector to humans.
 Inhalation of contaminated dust may be a route of infection.
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Disease in animals
 The agent localizes in the brain and various organs but with no known lesions.
Disease in man
 Gradual onset of fever with severe headache, rigors, generalized pains and dry
cough for about 2 weeks.
 A macular rash appears by about 5 days, first appearing on the trunk and lasting
about six days.
 CNS manifestations are possible.
 Damage is caused to vascular endothelia by invasion of rickettsia, possibly
leading to thrombosis and haemorrhage.
 Case fatality rate is 1-2% in untreated cases.
Diagnosis
 Serology by CFT or FAT.

 PCR
Treatment
 Tetracycline or chloramphenicol.
 Control of wild rodents.

 Control of fleas in endemic areas.
Last modified: Wednesday, 16
MODULE-25: ZOONOTIC DISEASE - CHLAMYDIOSIS
Learning objectives
management of
 Chlamydiosis
CHLAMYDIOSIS
Synonyms
 Psittacosis, Ornithosis, Parrot Fever

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 The word "psittacosis" is used when the disease is carried by any species of bird
belonging to the Psittacidae family, whereas "ornithosis" is used when other birds
carry the disease.
Type of zoonosis
Definition
 Chlamydiosis is an infectious disease caused by Chlamydophila psittaci and

contracted not only from parrots, such as macaws, cockatiels and budgerigars, but
also from pigeons, sparrows, ducks, hens, gulls and many other species of bird. In
human, it is clinically characterized by fever, headache, chills, myalgia, and upper
and lower respiratory infection.
Etiology
 Chlamydophila psittaci (formerly it was known as Chlamydia psittaci).

 It is an obligate intracellular pathogen.
 There are different serovars, such as, C.psittaci serovar A, B, C, D and E (known as
Cal-10, MP or MN)
 The incidence in canaries and finches is generally lower than in psittacine birds.
 The main reservoirs for C.psittaci are birds.
 It also occurs in mice, guinea pig, rabbits, cats, frogs and ruminants.
 C.psittaci serovar A is endemic among psittacine birds.
 C.psittaci serovar B is endemic among pigeons
 C.psittaci serovars C and D are occupational hazards for slaughterhouse workers and
for people in contact with birds.
 C.psittaci serovar E isolates (known as Cal-10, MP or MN) have been obtained from
a variety of avian hosts.
 Ovine strains may infect pregnant women.
 Bird owners, pet shop employees, zookeepers and veterinarians are at risk of the
infection.
 C.psittaci is one of the infectious agents, as potential biological weapons.
Transmission
 Inhalation and ingestion are the major routes of transmission, and direct contact
with infective materials also causes disease.
 Dry faeces or nasal discharges are highly infective aerosols.
 Chlamydophila psittaci may survive for several months in the environment.
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Disease in birds and animals
 Conjunctivitis, difficulty in breathing, watery droppings and green urates, air

sacculitis, pericarditis, hepatitis, meningoencephalitis, enteritis, urethritis and
arthritis.
 Gastrointestinal and respiratory infection in birds results in shedding of organisms
in droppings and nasal discharges.
 Persistent infection or latency is feature of chlamydiosis in birds.
 Stress in clinically healthy birds can lead to clinical manifestations and shedding of
the organism.
 In ewes, it causes endometritis with abortion.
Disease in man
 Incubation period ranges from 7 to 14 days.

 Mostly, it is asymptomatic, but clinical disease may occur, includes fever, chills,
myalgia, anorexia, headache and nonproductive cough.
 Pneumonitis, hepatosplenomegaly, meningoencephalitis and endocarditis may be
present.
 During the first week of infection, the symptoms mimic typhoid fever. Symptoms
include high fever, arthralgia, diarrhoea, conjunctivitis, epistaxis and leukopenia.
 Rose spots can appear (Horder's spots).
 Ovine chlamydial infection is more dangerous in pregnant women, is life-
threatening, causing late abortion and neonatal death and disseminated
intravascular coagulation in mother.
Diagnosis
 History and clinical signs.

 Antigen detection in faecal materials and droppings by ELISA.
 Cultures from respiratory secretions produces typical inclusions called "Leventhal-
Cole-Lillie bodies" (LCL bodies) within macrophages in bronchial alveolar
lavage fluid.
 Paired sera for antibody detection with fourfold increase in antibody titres
against C.psittaci.
 PCR
Treatment
 Drug of choices are tetracycline or doxycycline or chloramphenicol.

 Treatment must continue for at least 10–14 days after fever stops. However, it may
again develop clinical disease.
 Chlamydia can develop persistent forms (i.e. atypical reticular bodies). This
persistent form can lead to chronic clinical course, such as respiratory and genital
diseases.
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 Children aged less than 9 years and pregnant women can take erythromycin as an
alternative to tetracycline.
 Pet birds should be given chemoprophylaxis with tetracycline or chlortetracycline.

 Human beings should wear protective clothing, such as face masks, gowns, gloves,
etc. to protect themselves from inhalation and ingestion of infective materials.
 Quarantine is must for wild caught birds and should be given chlortetracycline as
chemoprophylaxis during quarantine.
 Aborting ewes should be isolated and aborted materials should be handled with
protective clothing.
 Proper disposal and disinfection of infected and contaminated materials should be
followed.
MODULE-26: ZOONOTIC DISEASE - DERMATOPHYTOSIS
Learning objectives
management of
 Dermatophytosis
DERMATOPHYTOSIS
Synonyms
 Athlete's foot, Jock Itch, Ringworm (Tinea), Favus (crusted ringworm -

Trichophyton schoenleinli), Microsporosis, Trichophytosis
Type of zoonosis
 Direct anthropozoonosis or Zooanthroponosis, Saprozoonosis
Definition
 Dermatophytosis is a superficial mycotic saprozoonotic diseases affecting skin, hair

or nails and characterized by redness of the skin, small popular vesicles, fissures and
scaling, and it is commonly known as "ringworm".
Etiology
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 Dermatophytosis is multi-etiologic in origin.

 Species of Trichophyton, Microsporum and Epidermophyton are involved in human
dermatophytosis.
 Dermatophytes are classified into
o Anthropophilic dermatophytes (infect humans)
o Zoophilic dermatophytes (infect animals)
o Geophilic dermatophytes (saprophytes)
 Trichophyton verrucosum from cattle and horses to man.
 Trichophyton mentagrophytes is transmitted from rodents to man.
 Microsporum canis from dogs and cats to man.
 Most species of dermatophytes have distributed worldwide. In India, T.simii is

commonly distributed.
 Fungal spores are viable for long period of time on fomites.
 All domestic and companion animals, and rodents are the reservoir hosts, and
exposure to the reservoirs results in incidence of dermatophytosis in humans.
 Pet animals may also acquire disease from humans.
Transmission
 Direct or indirect contact spreads dermatophytes to humans.

 It is also spread by aerosols, especially from contaminated bedding materials and
dust.
Disease in animals
 Rodents and cats are often asymptomatic to dermatophytes.

 In dogs, it develops characteristic skin lesions, include dermatitis with local loss of
hair. Inflammatory and severe hypersensitivity reactions develop due to deeper
invasion of dermatophytes.
 In the hair cortex, hyphae grow and accumulate arthroconidia (on the surface of the
hair). This pattern is called ectothrix, is characteristic of all classical animal
dermatophytosis.
Disease in man
 Symptoms of dermatophytosis in human are mild and self limiting.

 In case of clinical dermatophytosis, the signs include scaling, redness and
occasionally vesicles or fissures, thickening and discolouring of nails.
 Skin lesions show circular pattern of development, which is clear in the centre
forming a ring.
 Dermatophytic skin lesions in man are categorized as:
o Tinea capitis – infection on scalp and hair
o Tinea corporis – infection on body (extremities, arm and hand)
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o Tinea pedis – infection on foot / Athlet's foot

o Tinea unguium – infection on nails
o Tinea barbae - infection of beard / Barber's itch
o Tinea interdigitale - infection of inter digital space
Diagnosis
 Skin scraping from active periphery region of the lesion, nail scrapings and hair
follicles should be collected for microscopic examination.
 Microscopic examination reveals the presence of branching hyphae and chains of
arthroconidia in positive cases (sample should be treated with 10% KOH and heated
gently before examination).
 Wood's lamp technique can be followed, i.e. ultraviolet light gives bright greenish
blue fluorescence.
 Lactophenol cotton blue staining improves visualization of branching hyphae
and chains of arthroconidia in positive cases.
 Isolation and identification by culture of suspected skin scrapings in selective SDA
media (Sabouraud’s Dextrose Agar with chloramphenicol).
Table: Diagnostic morphological features of different fungi
Characters Microsporum Trichophyton Epidermophyton

Macroconidia Usually present Variable (often absent) Present
Walls Thick Thin Thick
Surface Rough Smooth Smooth
Shape Spindle Club (slender) Cigar, smooth (broad)
Microconidia Variable Usual Absent
Treatment
 Moist softening and fissuring stage

o Athlete's foot: Aqueous aluminum chloride (30% solution) can be applied.
o Aluminum subacetate solution with potassium permanganate can be applied.
o Imidazole cream (broad spectrum antifungal drug) can be used.
 Dry and scaly stage
o Administration of antifungal drugs (primary used for Trichophyton infection).
 Griseofulvin @ 25 mg/kg body weight for at least 30-60 days
 Ketoconazole @ 1.5 to 2 /kg body weight for at lest 3 to 4 weeks
o Application of topical antifungal creams
 Nystatin or miconazole or clotrimazole or ketoconazole
 Griseofulvin or ketoconazole is recommended for severe cutaneous
infections
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 Betamethasone dipropionate with clotrimazole is recommended for

acutely inflamed tinea lesions
 Newly purchased animals should be examined for any fungal infection.

 Infected animals should be identified and treated with antifungal drugs.
 Protective gloves and clothing should be used while handling infected animals.
 Hands should be washed after handling of animals.
 Routine sanitization of contaminated premises using chlorine, iodine or phenol-
containing disinfectants should be followed.
 Disinfection of utensils and equipment should be followed.
MODULE-27: FOOD BORNE ZOONOSES - SALMONELLOSIS AND

STAPHYLOCOCCAL FOOD POISONING
Learning objectives
management of
 Salmonellosis
 Staphylococcal food poisoning
SALMONELLOSIS
Synonyms
 Salmonella food poisoning, Enteric paratyphosis
Type of zoonosis
 Direct anthropozoonosis, Food-borne zoonosis, Saprozoonosis
Definition
 Salmonellosis is a direct anthrapozoonosis, caused by Salmonella spp., is

characterized by either intestinal or septicemic salmonellosis. The septicemic form is
usually caused by the human adapted serotypes (Salmonella typhi and Salmonella
paratyphi). The zoonotic salmonellosis is mainly caused by non-typhoid serotypes.
Mostly the Salmonella of animal origin causes an intestinal infection in man, is
characterized by fever, myalgia, cephalalgia and malaise.
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Etiology
 It is caused by Salmonella spp., which belong to the family Enterobacteriaceae. They

are Gram negative, motile, facultative anaerobic bacteria.
 They do not survive at temperature above 70oC (at pasteurization temperature for 15
seconds destroys Salmonella in milk).
 They resist dehydration for a very long time, both in faeces and foods.
 They survive well in salinity (20%) and products with a high protein and fat content
(sausage).
 They resist smoking and survive for a long time in soil and water.
 Kauffman-White scheme divides Salmonella in to serotypes (~2,200 serotypes),
based on "O" somatic, "H" flagellar and "Vi" capsular antigens.
 Virulence factors in Salmonella are lipopolysaccharides, pili, flagella, cytotoxin and
enterotoxin.
 Salmonella spp. in animals are:
o Cattle: Salmonella dublin and Salmonella typhimurium
o Swine: Salmonella choleraesuis, Salmonella enteritidis and Salmonella
typhimurium
o Sheep and goats: Salmonella abortus ovis and Salmonella typhimurium
o Horses: Salmonella abortus equi and Salmonella typhimurium
o Fowl: Salmonella pullorum and Salmonella gallinarum
o Dogs and cats: Asymptomatic carriers for many species of Salmonella
 Incidence of salmonellosis occurs worldwide.

 Poultry, cattle, sheep and pigs mainly act as reservoirs for human salmonellosis.
However, all animals are reservoirs for Salmonella.
 Salmonella spp. are common commensals of all animals and birds.
 Only host-adapted strains of Salmonella spp. cause clinical disease in animals.
 Food-poisoning Salmonella spp. of humans do not cause clinical signs in animals.
 Salmonella inhabits the intestinal tract of animals and humans, and excreted in
faeces.
 Infection in animals is maintained by feeding of animals with slaughterhouse waste,
faecal-oral spread and faecal contamination of hatching eggs.
 All domestic animals, wild animals, birds and humans are asymptomatic carriers
/ latent carriers. They harbour the pathogens in its lymph nodes and eliminate in
its faeces intermittently or persistently.
Transmission
 Faecal-oral transmission.
 Ingestion of contaminated food and water (poultry carcasses, meat or unpasteurized
milk, inadequatly cooked food, cross-contamination of cooked foods and
inadequately storage).
 Environmental contamination (water sources and sewage) is a potential source of
infection.
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 Nosocomial infection: Person-to-person spread is common in hospitals.

 Mechanical transmission by flies (environmental contamination).
 Animal-to-animal transmission due to over-crowding.
Disease in animals
 Subclinical infection is common and many animals may be intermittent or persistent

carriers.
 In cows, it may cause clinical infection with increased fever, diarrhoea and abortion
(leading to placental necrosis).
 In calves, it causes diarrhoea with high mortality.
 In pigs, it may cause increased fever and diarrhoea.
 Sheep, goats and poultry usually show no signs of infection.
Disease in humans
 Incubation period is short, which ranges from 12 to 72 hours. Usually it is a self-

limiting illness.
 The severity of clinical infection depends on the level of infecting dose.
 Clinical signs include watery diarrhoea for about ten days, nausea and vomiting,
which leads to dehydration, with abdominal pain and low-grade fever.
 Enteritis is a feature (called as "enteric fever").
Diagnosis
 Based on clinical signs and history of gastroenteritis

 Isolation and identification from faeces and suspected foods, followed by serotyping,
phage typing and plasmid profiling.
Treatment
 Zoonotic Salmonella usually heal without complications.

 Symptomatic treatment is highly essential with antibiotic administration based on
antibiogram. This is to avoid development of multiple antibiotic resistance.
 Antibiotics such as trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, ampicillin, ciprofloxacin or
amoxicillin can be given to severely ill patients for 3 to 5 days with supportive
treatment.
 Multiple drug resistance Salmonella have reported in nurseries and pediatric clinics
with complications such as septicemia or meningitis with high mortality.
 Sulfonamides can be given to animals to reduce mortality due to enteric
salmonellosis, but is contraindicated in healthy carriers in which treatment may
prolong the carrier state.

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 Existing food processing practices, by which it is difficult to obtain salmonella-free

foods of animal origin. But, control of salmonellosis in man is currently based on
reducing its prevalence in animals. So, veterinary meat and poultry production
inspection at slaughter houses and supervision of milk pasteurization and egg
production are important for consumer protection.
 Education of food handlers, about correct cooking, refrigeration practices of foods of
animal origin, pasteurization of milk and about personal and environmental hygiene.
 Prevent cross-contamination of food materials.
 Prevent contamination of poultry carcasses at abattoirs.
 Irradiation of meat and other foods before purchase will reduce contamination.
 In animals, general cleanliness should be followed. It includes avoiding mixing
animals from different sources, providing clean drinking water, prevention of access
of wild birds and rodents to animal houses, thorough cleaning and disinfection of
animal houses before restocking of animals, regular removal of excreta of poultry,
disinfection of hatching eggs and fumigation of egg incubators.
STAPHYLOCOCCAL FOOD POISONING
Synonyms
 Staphylococcal gastroenteritis, Staphylococcal toxicosis
Type of zoonosis
 Direct anthropozoonosis, Food-borne zoonosis
Definition
 Staphylococcal food poisoning is a gastrointestinal illness and vomiting, caused by

eating foods contaminated with toxins produced by Staphylococcus aureus.
Etiology
 It is caused by enterotoxigenic Staphylococcus aureus.

 Staphylococcus spp. are Gram positive coccus (grape-like clusters / bunch of grapes)
and facultative anaerobes.
 Enterotoxins are produced by coagulase-positive strains and very few coagulase-
negative stains of Staphylococcus aureus.
 The contaminated food contains preformed toxins.
 Six types of enterotoxins have been identified till date, are A, B, C, D, E and F.
 Outbreaks are very common with enterotoxin A.
 Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) is due to enterotoxin F.
 The toxins are heat-resistant and can withstand a temperature of 100°C for 30
minutes.
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 Staphylococcus spp. are salt tolerant and can grow in salty foods like ham. Examples
of foods that have caused staphylococcal food poisoning are sliced meat, puddings,
some pastries and sandwiches.
 Staphylococcal enterotoxin B is a bio-weapon.
 Staphylococcal food poisoning is common though out the world.

 The principle reservoir is the human carrier.
 Most of the healthy humans have staphylococci in the nasopharynx, thus
contaminate the food materials while handling through sneezing and coughing.
 Infected cows, fowls and dogs may be a source of staphylococcal food poisoning in
man.
 Human strains of Staphylococcus spp. are responsible for most of the outbreaks.
 Staphylococcus spp. vey well survive and multiply in meat, ham, milk, cheese, cream
and ice cream.
 Milk pasteurization offers no guarantee of safety if toxins were produced before heat
treatment, as the toxins are heat-resistant.
 Powdered milk replacement in the market serve as the good source for human
infection.
 Staphylococcal enterotoxin B could be used as a biological weapon either by
contamination of food/water or by aerosolization. The low inhaled dose chacterized
by fever, cough, difficulty breathing, headache and some vomiting and nausea.
Transmission
 Ingestion of foods of animal origin is the chief way of transmission.

 Ingestion of milk and milk products from infected cows.
 Ingestion of contaminated eggs.
Disease in animals
 Mastitis in cattle.
 Pyoderma, impetigo, folliculitis and furunculosis in dogs.
 Salpingitis and arthritis in poultry.
Disease in humans
 The incubation period is short (~3 hours) and the course of the disease is usually
benign and the patient recovers without medication in 24 to 72 hours.
 The start of clinical signs and severity of infection is depending on the quantity of
pre-formed toxin in the food ingested.
 The major symptoms are pyrexia (38ºC), nausea, vomiting, abdominal pains and
diarrhoea.
 More serious cases manifest prostration, cephalalgia, abnormal temperature and
lowered blood pressure, as well as blood and mucus in the stool and vomit.
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 Toxic shock syndrome: Symptoms consist of vomiting, diarrhoea, high fever, renal
insufficiency and toxic shock. This syndrome had been very often noticed in women
who become ill during their menstrual period.
Diagnosis
 Culture (Baird Parker medium) and identification from blood, vomitus, faeces
and suspected food materials.
Treatment
 Symptomatic treatment consists of replacement of fluids and electrolytes.

 Antibiotic (Ciprofloxacin - 500 mg every 12 hours for 5 days) can be given if
necessary.
 Public health awareness to food handlers about food hygiene.

 Prevention of contamination of food with Staphylococcus spp. before the toxin is
produced.
 Thorough washing of hands and under fingernails vigorously with soap and water
before handling and preparing food.
 Do not prepare food if you have a nose or eye infection.
 Do not prepare or serve food for others if you have wounds or skin infections on your
hands or wrists.
 Keep kitchens and food-serving areas clean and sanitized.
 If food is to be stored longer than two hours, keep hot foods hot (over 50°C) and cold
foods cold (-2°C or under).
 Staphylococcal toxins are resistant to heat and cannot be destroyed by cooking.
MODULE-28: FOOD BORNE ZOONOSES - CLOSTRIDIAL FOOD

POISONING AND CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS
Learning objectives
management of
 Clostridial food poisoning

 Campyobacteriosis
CLOSTRIDIAL FOOD POISONING

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Synonyms
 In humans: Clostridial gastroenteritis, Clostridial toxicosis

 In animals: Yellow lamb disease (Clostridium perfringens type A), Lamb dysentery
(Clostridium perfringens type B), Struck (Clostridium perfringens type C), Over
eating disease or Pulpy kidney disease (Clostridium perfringens type D)
Type of zoonosis
 Direct anthropozoonosis, Food-borne zoonosis
Definition
 It is an infectious disease, caused by Clostridium perfringens type A. It is

clinically characterized by sudden onset, abdominal cramps and diarrhoea.
Etiology
 It is caused by Clostridium perfringens type A, an anaerobic, Gram positive,

sporogenic, nonmotile, encapsulated bacillus that produces extracellular toxins.
 It is more resistant to heat when found in foods, but 60ºC is lethal to vegetative
form.
 Sporulation occurs in the intestine at the optimum temperature between 35ºC and
40ºC.
 During sporulation in the intestine, it produces large quantities of enterotoxins.
Reservoirs and incidence
 Clostridium perfringens type A is ubiquitous in the soil and in the intestinal tract of
animals and humans.
 Soil and intestine of man and animals are the natural reservoirs for clostridial food
poisoning.
 Clostridium perfringens type A produces alpha toxin in the intestine and released
during sporulation.
 Outbreaks mostly reported in several countries where meals prepared in restaurants
or institutions.
 In animals, five types of toxigenic Clostridium identified and designated by the
letters A, B, C, D and E.
Transmission
 Ingestion of foods of animal origin (especially red meat or fowl).

 The source of poisoning is food contaminated with spores that survive cooking.
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 Cooking (heat shock) of contaminated foods favours germination of spores in to

vegetative form, which then multiply rapidly to high concentration at room
temperature. But, adequate cooking can destroy the spores.
Disease in animals
 Clostridium perfringens type A is part of the normal flora of the intestine. The
pathogens under favourable conditions produce alpha toxin and cause a disease in
nursing lambs, is described as “yellow lamb disease”. It is characterized by
depression, anaemia, jaundice and haemoglobinuria, finally death in 6 to 12 hours
after the onset of clinical symptoms.
 Clostridium perfringens type B causes “lamb dysentery” in lambs less than 2
weeks old. It is characterized by haemorrhagic enteritis.
 Clostridium perfringens type C causes “struck”, the haemorrhagic enteritis in
adult sheep, as well as necrotic enteritis in calves, lambs, suckling pigs and fowl.
 Clostridium perfringens type D produces epsilon toxin, which
causes enterotoxaemia (Over eating disease, Pulpy kidney disease) in
sheep of all ages due to abundant consumption of food, whether milk, pasture or
grains.
 Clostridium perfringens type E causes dysentery or enterotoxaemia in calves
and lambs.
Disease in humans
 Incubation period ranges from 6 to 24 hours after ingestion, which indicates that the
food ingested contained pre-formed toxin. Hence, the clinical signs begin suddenly
with abdominal cramps and diarrhoea, but usually not vomiting or fever.
 Colonization of Clostridium perfringens type A in the intestine and the production of
enterotoxin results in varied clinical pictures (diarrhoea or bloody stools), that
mimicking infection caused by Salmonella or Campylobacter.
 It causes necrotic enteritis in the small intestine, especially jejunum.
Diagnosis
 Based on history and clinical signs.

 Clostridial food poisoning is afebrile, and should be differentiated from other enteric
diseases, such as salmonellosis, shigellosis or colibacillosis, which manifest fever.
 Staphylococcal food poisoning causes vomiting, while it is rare or absent in
clostridial food poisoning.
 Counting of C.perfringens in food and patient’s stool (within 48 hours of onset of
infection). Presence of 105 cells and 106 cells respectively in food and faecal materials
is considered significant.
 Mouse inoculation technique to demonstrate the presence of specific toxin.
 Reverse passive latex agglutination test and enzyme immunoassays to detect the
toxin.
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Treatment
 Clostridial food poisoning does not usually require medical treatment, but
symptomatic treatment can be provided.
 Cooked food should be immediately consumed, or if it takes sometime to eat, it

should be rapidly refrigerated.
 Food should be reheated adequately enough to kill the vegetative form of the
pathogen, preferably with pressure cooker.
 In animals, good herd management, avoidance of sudden change from poor to rich
pasture and active immunization with toxoid should be followed.
CAMPYLOBACTERIOSIS
Synonyms
 In animals: Vibriosis, Vibrionic or epizootic abortion, Winter dysentery

 In humans: Travelers' diarrhoea
Type of zoonosis
 Food-borne zoonosis, Anthropozoonosis
Definition
 Campylobacteriosis is a most common bacterial infection of humans. It is usually a

brief, self-limiting disease. The sites of tissue injury include the jejunum, the
ileum and the colon. The symptoms include acute gastrointestinal diarrhoea with or
without blood, fever, abdominal pain, vomiting, malaise, headache, muscle and joint
pain.
Etiology
 Campylobacter fetus sub species jejuni (previously known as Vibrio fetus).

 It is a Gram negative, microaerophilic, curved or spiral and motile rod and non-
spore-forming.
 Poultry and cattle are the main reservoirs for human infection.
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 Dogs, cats, hamsters, ferrets, nonhuman primates, rabbits, swine, sheep, cattle and
birds are susceptible.
 Young animals more likely to acquire the infection.
 Asymptomatic carriers can be shed the organism for long periods of time in stool.
Transmission
 Faecal-oral transmission.
 Transmission of ingestion of contaminated raw milk, undercooked chicken or other
contaminated food.
 Direct contact with infected faecal material.
 Person-to-person transmission by direct contact.
 Houseflies mechanically spread this infection.
 Organism is viable at 40°C for 3 weeks in faeces and milk, 4 weeks in water and 5
weeks in urine.
 Campylobacter is shed in the faeces for at least 6 weeks after infection.
Disease in animals
 Mode of transmission is by oral route or venereal route.

 In all animals, clinical infection may be associated with diarrhoea.
 In poultry it causes hepatitis.
 Cattle: Genital infection results in infertility and early embryonic death or abortion.
Repeat breeding problem may occur. Infected bulls may appears to be normal, but
act as carriers.
 Sheep: It causes foetal death and abortion at last month of pregnancy. Metritis and
placentitis may occur. Abortion in ewes may not abort in subsequent pregnancies at
least for 3 years, since infected ewes acquire immunity.
Disease in man
 The infectious dose is 1000-10,000 bacteria.

 Incubation period is 1 to 7 days. It is usually a brief, self-limiting disease.
 The sites of tissue injury include the jejunum, the ileum and the colon. The
symptoms include acute gastrointestinal diarrhoea with or without blood, fever,
abdominal pain, vomiting, malaise, headache, muscle and joint pain.
Diagnosis
 Dark field or phase contrast microscopic examination of faecal material.

 Confirmatory diagnosis by stool culture.
 Gram staining or Warthin Starry staining of stool and microscopic examination.
Treatment
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 Animals should be treated based on culture and sensitivity.

 Erythromycin is the drug of choice, but does not eliminate the carrier state.
Tetracycline or ciprofloxacin may also be given.
 Campylobacter spp. are sensitive to hydrochloric acid in the stomach, and acid
reduction treatment can reduce the amount of inoculum needed to cause disease.
 Pasteurization of milk and chlorination of drinking water destroy the organism.

 Thorough cooking of foods of animal sources, particularly poultry.
 Personal hygiene. Washing of hands after handling poultry and animal faeces.
 Public health awareness about Campylobacter is of primary importance.
 Recognition, prevention and control of Campylobacter infections among domestic
animals and pets.
MODULE-29: FOOD BORNE ZOONOSES - HELMINTHOSIS
Learning objectives
management of food-borne zoonotic helminthosis such as
 Trichinosis
 Diphyllobothriosis
INTRODUCTION
 Many of the helminth parasites common to both animals and humans have an
indirect life cycle and thus limits the zoonotic potential of these organisms.
 Helminths are potentially zoonotic in the laboratory environment, but they represent
a significantly smaller problem than bacterial or viral diseases.
 Food-borne zoonotic helminthosis very common in India, which includes
o Trichinosis
o Taeniosis / Cysticercosis
o Diphyllobothriosis
o Hydatidosis
 Additionally few other important zoonotic parasitic diseases have also been
provided, such as
o Cercarial dermatitis
o Cutaneous larval migrans
o Visceral larval migrans
 The preventive and control measures that reduce the transmission and incidences of
zoonotic parasitic diseases in human beings are:
o Quarantine, surveillance and treatment to decrease endoparasitic burden
o Routine sanitation to eliminate parasitic ova before they can become infective
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o Education of personnel on standard hygiene practices
TRICHINOSIS
Synonym
 In humans: Raw pork disease

 In animals: Trichinellosis
Type of zoonosis
 Meat-borne zoonosis
Definition
 It is a type of food-borne helminthosis, caused by Trichinella spiralis. It is clinically

characterized muscle soreness and pain due to irritation, enteritis, edema of upper
eyelids, thirst, profuse sweating, chills and eosinophilia, and eventually, death due to
myocardial and respiratory failure.
Etiology
 Trichinella spiralis , an intestinal nematode.

 Female worms are ovi-viviparous (eggs hatch in the uterus itself).
 Location of the parasite:
o Adult worm in the small intestine.
o Larvae in the striated muscles (diaphragm, tongue, intercostal and
mandibular muscle)
 Common name of the parasite:
o Garbage worm
o Trichina worm
 Distributed worldwide.
 Pigs, rats, dogs, cats and many wild animals are susceptible.
 Eating of raw pork or under cooked pork results in development of trichinosis in
humans.
 Sylvatic cycle involves jackals and wild boars by cannibalism.
 Synanthropic cycle involves wild and domestic cycles.
Transmission and life cycle
 Pigs generally become infected by feeding on garbage / uncooked scraps.

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 In humans, infection occurs by eating raw or under cooked meat.

 Larvae develop into adults in the epithelium of the small intestine (L1 to L2 to L3)
and then sexual differentiation occurs (L3 to L4).
 Copulation occurs in the intestine (male parasite will die after copulation) and the
gravid female worms then produce larvae, which penetrate the lymphatics or venules
and are disseminated via the bloodstream throughout the body. The larvae become
encapsulated in skeletal muscle.
Disease in animals
 Usually subclinical
Disease in humans
 Number of larvae ingested by humans determines the clinical disease. Usually 10 to

100 parasite per gram of muscle causes clinical signs.
 Sudden appearance of muscle soreness and pain due to irritation, together with
edema of upper eyelids, sometimes followed by subconjunctival and retinal
haemorrhages, pain and photophobia.
 Thirst, profuse sweating, chills, eosinophilia, enteritis, fever, myocarditis, ascitis and
peritoneal edema.
 Lastly, death due to myocardial and respiratory failure may occur.
Diagnosis
 Meat inspection.
 Larval examination by Baermann's apparatus.
 Muscle biopsy and trichinoscopic examination.
Treatment
 Infected persons recover spontaneously.

 Supportive treatment should be given.
 Anthelmintics like mebendazole, thiabendazole or albendazole can be given.
 Cooking of pork at 77°C or above destroys the parasite.

 Freezing of pork at -10°C for about 30 days or -20°C for about 10
days destroys the parasite.
 Gamma irradiation destroys the parasite.
 Humans should not eat raw and/or insufficiently cooked Trichinella infested pork /
meat.
DIPHYLLOBOTHRIOSIS
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Synonym
 Fish tapeworm infection, Pernicious anaemia
Type of zoonosis
 Non-obligatory cyclozoonosis, Fish-borne zoonosis
Definition
 It is a fish-borne and non-obligatory cyclozoonosis, caused by Diphyllobothrium

latum. The condition is usually asymptomatic. In some patients, it develops
pernicious anaemia (macrocytic hypochromic anaemia due to vitamin B12
deficiency) due to competition between host and parasite for vitamin B12.
Etiology
 It is caused by fish tape worm, Diphyllobothrium latum.

 There are two intermediate hosts involved to complete its life cycle, includes
plankton crustacean and freshwater fish.
Reservoir and mode of transmission
 D.latum is common in northern temperate regions where the fish are eaten raw (e.g.,
in the Baltic countries, Finland and Canada / Alaska) America, especially Peru.
 Humans, dogs and cats are definitive hosts for D.latum.
 Two intermediate hosts such as plankton crustacean and freshwater fish to complete
its life cycle.
 Gravid proglottids are passed in the faeces of the definitive host, and eggs hatch in
water.
 Hatched out eggs infect the plankton crustacean (first intermediate hosts), then
freshwater fish consume these first intermediate hosts), and the larvae encysted in
the musculature.
 Humans get parasitised by eating raw infected fish.
Disease in animals
 Usually no clinical infection is seen in dogs and cats, but heavy infection with larvae
of D.latum can kill the second intermediate hosts (fishes).
Disease in humans
 Incubation period is 3 to 6 weeks from ingestion to adult D.latum.

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 The condition is usually asymptomatic. In some patients, it develops pernicious

anaemia (macrocytic hypochromic anaemia due to vitamin B12
deficiency) due to competition between host and parasite for vitamin B12.
 The presence of the large tapeworm in the intestine can cause mechanical
obstruction.
 Megaloblastic anaemia occurs owing to vitamin B12 deficiency.
Diagnosis
 Faecal examination for detection of eggs.
Treatment
 Anthelmintics, especially niclosamide and praziquantel can be given to human

beings.
 Freezing or salt curing of fish destroys D.latum.

 Cooking of fish destroys this parasite.
 Avoid eating raw or under cooked infected fish.
 Dispose human faeces hygienically.
Learning objectives
management of food-borne zoonotic helminthosis
 Taeniosis
TAENIOSIS
Synonym
 Cysticercosis (Taenia solium)
Type of zoonosis
 Food-borne zoonosis, Obligatory cyclozoonosis

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Definition
 Taeniosis is an obligatory cyclozoonotic disease, caused by the intermediate stages of

the tape worms Taenia solium and Taenia saginata. It is clinically characterized by
abdominal pain, anorexia, nausea, diarrhoea and constipation, loss of body weight
and debility. Nervousness and insomnia may also occur.
Etiology
 Taenia solium (tape worm of pigs) and Taenia saginata (tape worm of cattle)
Table: Differences between T.solium and T.saginata
Taenia solium Taenia sagin
Man and rarely dogs Man

ts Pigs and man Cattle
In 60 to 70 days cyst develops, 110 days all cysts are fully developed In 60 to 70 days cyst develops
are fully developed
ge Cysticercus cellulosae (Measly pork) Cysticercus bovis (Measly
Heart, diaphragm, internal masseter, tongue, neck, intercostals and abdominal Masseter, shoulder, esophagus
muscles, less commonly brain, liver, lung, kidney and eye diaphragm, liver, lung and lym
Taeniosis, Cysticercosis Taeniosis
Autoinfection is possible in man and man can act as complete host No autoinfection in humans
Reservoirs and incidence
 Human beings are universally susceptible to taeniosis.

 Infection is more common in low socio-economic group of the people.
 Prevalence of taeniosis is associated with socio-economic factors of the people, such
as
o Availability of carriers (pigs)
o Poverty
o Low literacy
o Night soiling
o Poor drainage
o Unsanitized water supply
 Taenia can live in human intestine for many years.
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 Eggs of Taenia can survive for about two months in summer and for 5 months in
winter conditions.
 Use of untreated sewages for irrigation.
 Coprophagus insects and birds feeding on sewage water may disseminate infection to
distance places.
 Humans get infection through ingestion of raw or under cooked meat and meat
products infested either with Cysticercus cellulosae (Measly pork) or Cysticercus
bovis (Measly beef).
Taenia solium
 Pigs (intermediate host) ingest gravid segments or free eggs in faeces of human
beings. Human beings also act as intermediate hosts (autoinfection due to
faecal-oral transmission).
 Oncospheres are released from the eggs in the intestine, which penetrate the
intestinal wall and reach the blood circulation, and finally disseminated in to various
tissues and organs.
 In 9 to 10 days, larvae (Cysticercus cellulosae – measly pork) fully develop in
the different predilection sites, such as heart, diaphragm, internal masseter, tongue,
neck, intercostals and abdominal muscles, less commonly brain, liver, lung, kidney
and eye. This is the infective stage for human beings.
 Measly pork undercooked is consumed by humans results in emergence of larvae in
the intestine, attachment and development in to adult parasite in 5 to 12 weeks time.
 Gravid segments (~8 to 10 gravid segments/day) and one gravid proglottid contains
30,000 - 50,000 eggs.
Taenia saginata
 Similar to Taenia solium, but no autoinfection in humans.

 Cattle (intermediate host) ingest gravid segments or free eggs from the pasture
while grazing. The larvae develop (Cysticercus bovis – measly beef) in the
different predilection sites, such as masseter, shoulder, esophagus, heart, tongue,
diaphragm, liver, lung and lymph nodes.
 Man gets infection by ingesting measly beef undercooked. In the intestine it develops
in to adult in 10 to 12 weeks and then voided in the faeces (50X106 eggs in a month).
Disease in animals
 Animals act as intermediate hosts, in which the infestations are described

as Cysticercus cellulosae (Measly pork) and Cysticercus bovis (Measly beef).
Disease in humans
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 The incubation period is about 8 to 14 weeks. The infection is usually subclinical,

however, in clinical cases; it is characterized by abdominal pain, anorexia, nausea,
diarrhoea and constipation, loss of body weight and debility. Nervousness and
insomnia may also occur.
 Cysticercosis is more serious than taeniosis in humans. It recognized as:
o Myocysticercosis: Muscular cramps, pain and muscle fatigue.
o Ocular cysticercosis: Presence of cysticerci in vitreous humor and anterior
chamber of eyes leads to uveitis, iritis, retinitis and palbebral conjunctivitis.
o Neurocysticercosis: Signs depend on the location of the cyst found on the
brain. Usually it found in the meninges, cerebral cortex and ventricles. So,
symptoms of meningitis, epileptic encephalitis, headache, ataxia, nausea,
vomiting and visual disturbances may be observed.
Diagnosis
 Based on clinical signs and history of the case.

 Examination of human stools
 Detection of coproantigen by ELISA and antigen profiling by SDS-PAGE.
 Biopsy examination, MRI or CT scan for the diagnosis of neurocysticercosis.
Treatment
 Praziquantel for cysticercosis

 Niclosamide or dichlorophen for taeniasis
 Complete cooking of beef or pork.

 Strict post-mortem inspection and proper disposal of affected meat.
 Freezing of meat at -20C for 10 days
 Thorough washing of fruits and vegetables before consumption.
 Avoid night soiling.
 Maintain personal hygiene (washing hands always before eating).
 Treatment of sewage before disposal is important.
 Don’t allow coprofeeding of pigs.
 Chemoprophylaxis to kill adult parasites in the human intestine.
 Public health awareness.
Learning objectives
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management of food-borne zoonotic helminthosis and some other important parasitic
zoonotic diseases such as
 Hydatidosis
 Cercarial dermatitis
 Visceral larval migrans
 Cutaneous larval migrans
HYDATIDOSIS
Synonyms
 Echinococcosis, Hydatidosis, Hydatid disease, ‘Swollen-belly disease’ of man
Type of zoonosis
 Either Obligatory or Non-obligatory cyclozoonosis (life cycle may be completed even

without involvement of man)
Definition
 Hydatidosis is an either obligatory or non-obligatory cyclozoonotic disease, caused

by Echinococcus granulosus, E.multilocularis and E.vogeli. Development of hydatid
cyst in various organs such as lung and liver, and also spleen, kidney, bones, orbit,
brain and peritoneal cavity leads to functional disorders of respective organ due to
pressure atrophy, eventually may lead to death. Symptoms include abdmonal pain,
bulging of abdomen, jaundice, hepatomegally, weight loss, anaemia, fever and
palpable abdominal masses.
Etiology
 The larval stage of following cestodes

o Echinococcus granulosus - causes "cystic" disease, called unilocular
hydatid cyst.
o Echinococcus multilocularis - causes "alveolar" disease,
called multilocular hydatid cyst.
o Echinococcus vogeli - causes "polycystic" disease, called non-invasive
hydatid cyst.
 Definitive hosts: Dogs (stray / domestic / wild), lions, cats, wolf and fox.
 Intermediate hosts: Man, sheep, cattle, goats, pigs, horses, donkeys and
buffaloes.
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 Intermediate stage: Hydatid cyst (65-75% in liver and 10-20% in lung), is a fluid-
filled cyst with brood capsules.
 Man is an accidental host.

 Prevalence of hydatidosis in man is high in countries with livestock, especially sheep
raising, in rural areas, and among people of limited economic and cultural means.
 Disease in animals is asymptomatic throughout the life.
 Definitive hosts (carnivores) harbour the adult tapeworms in the small intestine.
 The life cycle for E.multilocularis involves foxes as definitive host and microtine
(voles and meadow mice) and rodents as intermediate host. Domestic dogs and cats
can also become infected with the adult tapeworm when they eat infected wild
rodents.
 The principle definitive host for E.vogeli is the bush dog, the main intermediate
hosts are the paca and spiny rat. Domestic hunting dogs are also definitive hosts, and
serve as an important source of human infection.
 Only one gravid segment is eliminated in faeces every two weeks by the definitive
host.
 Eggs are resistant to desiccation and extreme temperatures.
 Dispersion of eggs is of great epidemiological interest.
 Radial dispersion of eggs from faeces may be about 80 m after 10 days.
 Mechanical dispersion of eggs by vectors, especially carrion birds and coprophagic
flies.
 Ingestion is the chief route of transmission.

 There are different pattern in completion of life cycle, which basically depends on
type of association between definitive host and intermediate host. Examples: Dog-
sheep-dog cycle or dog-man-dog cycle.
 Human infection occurs when eggs passed in dog faeces (or also faeces of other
definitive hosts) are accidentally swallowed.
 Adult cestode lives attached deep inside the mucosal crypts of the definitive host's
small intestine.
 The adult parasite has three proglottids, of which only the last is gravid (contains
several hundreds of eggs), which detaches from the strobila, is expelled with the
faeces and disintegrates in the environment.
 Each egg contain an hexacanth embryo (oncosphere), and this must be ingested by
the intermediate hosts to complete the life cycle.
 After ingestion of egg by the intermediate host, oncosphere is released in the small
intestine and passes through the intestinal wall, and is carried by the blood
circulation to various organs. It develops in to larval stage, called "hydatid".
 After 3 weeks, the hydatid cyst measures about 250 micrometer in diameter, with
central cavity.
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 After 5 months, the hydatid cyst measures about 1 cm, with two layers (external,
cuticular or laminar layers and internal, germinative or proligerous cellular
syncytium).
 The larval form of E.granulosus, typically consists of a single cavity, is unilocular,
which is filled with fluid, is hydatid fluid. Brood capsules bud off from the
germinative layer and invaginated protoscolices, which constitute the infective agent
of the parasite. These capsules either adhere or float freely in the hydatid fluid. The
capsules and the protoscolices that float freely in the hydatid fluid are known
as "hydatid sand". Some hydatid do not form capsules, and sometime the capsule
do not form protoscolices, is called "sterile larvae" or "sterile cyst". As the larva
develops and the tissues of the host are compressed.
 The cycle will be completed when definitive host ingests the viscera of an
intermediate host in which there are fertile hydatid cysts.
 Each scolex develops in to an adult cestode in the definitive host's small intestine and
produces infective eggs after 45 to 60 days of ingestion (a single cyst may produce
thousands of adult cestode).
 Gravid proglottids are passed in the faeces of definitive host.
Disease in animals
 Usually no clinical signs. Disease in animals is asymptomatic throughout the life,

except for enteritis in heavy infestations.
 Economic loss due to condemnation of meat and loss of production, especially in
sheep.
Disease in man
 Symptoms include abdmonal pain, bulging of abdomen, jaundice, hepatomegally,

weight loss, anaemia, fever and palpable abdominal masses.
 Cystic hydatid disease (Echinococcus granulosus)
o Cyst in liver is common (~70%), which may be remain silent for 10 to 20
years.
o The symptoms are due to pressure effects or rupture and leakage of
hydatid cyst.
o Signs of abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting may be noticed.
o Rupture of cyst results in anaphylaxis and death.
o Mild and slow leakage of hydatid particles may cause allergic reactions.
o Dissemination of germinal elements may be followed by the development of
multiple secondary cysts.
o Brain cysts may cause seizures.
o Cysts in the bone marrow may cause fracture of bone.
o Multiple cysts may be in 20% cases, and death may occur in 15% of untreated
patients.
 Alveolar disease (Echinococcus multilocularis)
o Alveolar cysts primary localyze in the liver, where they may extend locally or
metastasize to other tissues.
o Poorly defined borders of alveolar cyst mass, which behaves like a neoplasm.
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o High mortality in untreated cases (90%) within 10 years.

 Polycystic form of human hydatid disease (Echinococcus vogeli)
o Cyst size and location determines the clinical pictures.
o Numerous microcysts are produced by the brood capsules.
Diagnosis
 Based on history and clinical signs (swollen-bellied condition), and

epidemiological circumstances.
 Ultrasonography, radiography and scanning.
 Immunological assays, such as:
o Intradermal skin test (Cassoni’s skin test)
o Agar gel immunodiffusion test
o Latex agglutination test
o Indirect haemagglutination test
o ELISA, which replaced all the immunological test, because it is ~95 %
sensitive, but gives cross reaction with taeniosis and ascariosis.
o Detection of coproantigen in the faeces by using ELISA and PCR.
Treatment
 Surgical removal of cysts. Sudden removal of cyst may lead to shock. So, removal of
hydatid fluid should be done over a period of time.
 Chemotherapy with albendazole (10 mg / kg body weight) or albendazole +
praziquantel combination or mebendazole can be prescribed.
 Strict meat inspection should be practiced.

 Safe disposal of infested carcasses so as to avoid eating by dogs.
 In endemic areas, prophylactic treatment should be followed in pet dogs with
praziquantel (100% effective against adult parasite) to prevent this problem.
 Administration of arecoline hyrochloride in dogs to interrupt the life cycle of dog-
man-dog pattern.
 "Albendazole village" has been constructed for the purpose of elimination of this
problem in human beings in several African countries, especially in Turkana.
 Close contact with dogs should be avoided.
 Personal hygiene should be followed, like hand washing before eating food.
 Ingestion of raw vegetables and water should be avoided, because that may have
been contaminated with the faeces of infected dogs.
 Socio-economic and cultural conditions of the people should be upgraded through
public awareness and health education programmes.
CERCARIAL DERMATITIS
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Synonyms
 Schistosome dermatitis or Bilharziella dermatitis, Swimmer’s itch, Bather’s

dermatitis, Clam digger’s itch
Type of zoonosis
Definition
 It is caused by cercariae of Schistosomes, characterized by development of cercarial

dermatitis (immediate hypersensitivity reactions) with intense itching and
development of red spots at the site of skin penetration, but resolve spontaneously
within 10 to 24 hours.
Etiology
 It is caused by cercariae of avian Schistosomes (genera Bilharziella,

Ornithobilharziella, Microbilharziella, Trichobilharziella,
Gigantobilharziella and Australobilharziella) belong to the
family Schistosomatidae or of nonhuman mammals (genera Schistosoma,
Schistosomatium, Orientobilharzia and Heterobilharzia).
 Distributed worldwide.
 Definitive hosts: Geese, ducks, water fowls, domestic and wild mammals, such as
raccoons and rodents.
 Sources of infection are in and around fresh water or salt water bodies, where snail
activities are more.
 Swimmers, clam-diggers, washermen, fishermen and rice-field workers are most
likely to be exposed to cercariae.
 People contract infection through recreational and occupational activities.
 Eggs (contains miracidium) are voided in the faeces of definitive host or urine.
 Miracidium liberated in the water and swims till it attaches with an intermediate
host (snails such as Bulineus, Lymnea, Planorbis).
 Miracidium develops into sporocyst, which develops into redia, and then into
cercaria. Unlike the cercariae of other trematodes, schistosomes do not form
metacercariae.
 The cercariae swim in the water and die if they fail to find a host within 24 hours.
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 Cercariae invade the host body by skin penetration and undergo histological
changes in their tegument, becoming juvenile parasites, called schistosomula.
 Schistosomula penetrate into blood circulation and lymphatics, and reach the lungs,
where they remain for several days. Then, they reach the liver, where they mature
and mate. Finally migrate to their final site and start to lay eggs.
Disease in animals
 The occurrence of cercarial dermatitis animals is less significant than man.
Disease in man
 Aberrant migration of cercariae through skin penetration develops cercarial

dermatitis, which causes allergic reactions (early hypersensitivity reactions). IgE
antibodies are predominant a week after cercarial dermatitis.
 Symptoms include intense itching and development of macules / red spots at the site
of penetration of cercariae, but vanish within 10 to 24 hours. Scratching of skin
macular rash may result in secondary bacterial infection.
Diagnosis
 Based on history of recent exposure to water sources and clinical signs.

 Serology by ELISA to measure IgE antibodies, which is presumptive and should be
compared with history and clinical sign.
Treatment
 Symptomatic treatment should be provide.
Preventin and control
 Praziquantel @ 22.5 mg per duck or water fowl is effective against adult parasite, if
given during the pre-patent period.
 Rice-field worker can apply copper oleate cream of dimethyl phthalate cream on
their skin before getting in to the field.
 Swimmers should dry off their skin immediately after bathing to avoid skin
penetration of cercariae.
 Control of snail population using molluscicides.
CUTANEOUS LARVAL MIGRANS
Synonym
 Creeping eruption
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Type of zoonosis
 Saprozoonosis, Anthropozoonosis
Etiology
 Cutaneous larval migrans (CLM) is caused by the larvae of the dog and cat
hookworms, Ancylostoma braziliense and Ancylostoma caninum. A
number of other animal hookworms, gnathostomiosis and strongyloidosis are rarely
also causative agents.
 Cutaneous larval migrans is prevalent throughout the tropic and subtropics.

 Human infection is common in contact with moist sandy soil (e.g., beaches,
children's sand piles) contaminated by dog or cat faeces.
Transmission
 Direct skin contact with larvae (soil to skin contact, contamination with animal
faeces).
Figure: Direct contact of children with dog
Disease in animals
 Loss of blood together with malnutrition produce anaemia.

 Severe enteritis causes haemorrhagic diarrhoea and weight loss from intestinal
malabsorption.
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 Prenatal infection of the dog causes death of the foetal pups.

 Mild infections generally cause no clinical signs.
Disease in man
 Intensely pruritic erythematous papules appear at the site of larval entry, particularly
on the hands or feet.
 Two to 3 days later, serpiginous eruptions appear as the larvae migrate at a rate of
several millimeters a day. The process continues for weeks or up to a year, and the
lesions may remain severely pruritic, vesiculate and become encrusted and
secondarily infected.
 Without treatment, the larvae eventually die and are absorbed.
Diagnosis
 Based on history and characteristic clinical signs.
Treatment
 Treatment is not needed, but, antihistamines and antibiotic ointments can be applied
 Albendazole or thiabendazole can be taken.
 Decontaminate environment with sodium borate or sodium hypochlorite solution.

 Prevent environmental contamination.
 Minimize contact.
 Public health education.
VISCERAL LARVAL MIGRANS
Synonyms
 Toxocariosis
Type of zoonosis
 Saprozoonosis
Etiology
 Visceral larval migrans (VLM) is due to Toxocara canis, an ascarid of dogs and
other canids, but in a few cases Toxocara cati in domestic cats has been implicated.
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 Human infections are sporadic and occur worldwide.

 The reservoir mechanism for T.canis is latent infections in female dogs, which are
reactivated during pregnancy.
 Transmission from mother to puppies is via the placenta and milk.
 The life cycle of T.cati is similar to T.canis, but transplacental transmission does not
occur.
 Infection is generally in dirt-eating young children who ingest T.canis or T.cati eggs
from soil or sand contaminated with animal faeces, most often from puppies.
 Direct contact with infected animals does not produce infection, as the eggs require a
3 to 4 week extrinsic incubation period to become infective; thereafter, eggs in soil
remain infective for months to years.
 In humans, hatched larvae are unable to mature and continue to migrate through the
tissues for up to 6 months. Eventually they lodge in various organs, particularly the
lungs and liver and less often the brain, eyes and other tissues, where they produce
eosinophilic granulomas up to 1 cm in diameter.
Disease in animals
 The first indication of infection in young animals is lack of growth and loss of
condition.
 Infected animals have a dull coat and often are "pot-bellied".
 Worms may be vomited and are often voided in the faeces.
 In the early stages, pulmonary damage due to migrating larvae may occur; this may
be complicated by bacterial pneumonitis, so that respiratory distress of variable
severity may supervene.
 Diarrhoea with mucus may be evident.
 In severe infections of puppies, verminous pneumonia, ascites, fatty degeneration of
the liver and mucoid enteritis are common.
 Cortical kidney granulomas containing larvae are frequent in young dogs.
Disease in man
 Migrating larvae induce fever, cough, wheezing, hepatomegaly and sometimes

splenomegaly and lymphadenopathy are present.
 The acute phase may last 2 to 3 weeks.
 Leukocytosis is marked due to eosinophils.
 Hyperglobulinemia occurs when the liver is extensively invaded.
 Ocular toxocariasis results in eosinophilic granuloma of the retina that may be
mistaken for retinoblastoma.
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Diagnosis
 ELISA
 No parasitic forms can be found by faecal exam.
Treatment
 Thiabendazole, mebendazole or ivermectin can be given.

 Symptomatic treatment with corticosteroids, antibiotics, antihistamines and
analgesics can be given.
 Treatment for ocular toxocariasis includes symptomatic treatment plus vitrectomy
and laser photocoagulation.
 Disease in humans is best prevented by periodic treatment of puppies, kittens and

nursing dogs and cats.
 Children should be supervised to prevent pica, their hands should be washed after
playing in soil and sand, and play areas should be protected from animal faeces.
MODULE-32: BORNE ZOONOSES - TOXOPLASMOSIS
Learning objectives
management of
 Toxoplasmosis
TOXOPLASMOSIS
Type of zoonosis
 Direct anthropozoonosis, Saprozoonosis, Facultative cyclozoonosis, Food-borne

zoonosis
Definition
 Toxoplasmosis is a congenitally and postnatally acquired zoonosis, caused

by Toxoplasma gondii. It is characterized by retinochoroiditis and encephalitis, and
abortion in pregnant women (especially at first trimester). In animals, it causes
abortion (storms of abortion), specially in sheep.
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Etiology
 Toxoplasma gondii (Subphylum: Apicomplexa, Family: Eimeriidae).

 It is an obligate intracellular parasite.
 Only one species of Toxoplasma present worldwide.
 Toxoplasmosis in animals and man is distributed worldwide. It has wide host range.
 Cat and wild felines act as definitive hosts (final hosts), and reservoirs
for Toxoplasma gondii.
 Domestic cat predominates as reservoir for zoonotic transmission.
 All mammals, man, sheep, dogs, pigs, including cats and birds act as intermediate
hosts.
 Prevalence is more common during warm and humid climates.
 Infection is common in older persons, immunodeficient people and HIV positive
people.
 Seropositivity increases with age.
 Faecal-oral route: Ingestion of meat containing cysts or tachyzoites or ingestion of

oocysts.
 Ingestion of food materials and water contaminated with faeces of animals.
 Eating of under cooked meat or raw meat containing cysts.
 Ingestion of raw milk.
 Ingestion of sporulated oocysts in the soil contaminated with faeces of animals.
 Blood transfusion.
 Transplacental (in-utero) transmission.
 Spread by organ transplantation.
 Life cycle consists of two phases of infection, intestinal and extra-intestinal
phase
o Intestinal infection in the definitive host (felids) results in shedding of
unsporulated oocysts, and then sporulated (oocysts become infective after
sporulation, in 2 to 3 days) in the environment (soil). Sporulated oocysts
contain two sporocysts, each containing four sprozoites, which are infective to
the intermediate hosts. Sexual development ofToxoplasma gondii occurs only
in the definitive hosts.
o Extra-intestinal infection in the intermediate hosts (man, mice, rats,
hamsters, guinea pigs, rodents, rabbits, dogs, sheep, cattle, birds and cats)
results in replication of sporozoites asexually in the striated muscles and
various organs, and develops "pseudocyst" with tachyzoites (banana-
shaped). Continuous replication of tachyzoites (called,"proliferative form"
or active phase of infection) results in development of immunity, and
tachyzoites are replaced in to bradyzoites (called, "cystic form" or chronic
phase of infection or latent infection). Immunosuppression leads to
active proliferation of bradyzoites in to tachyzoites.
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Disease in animals
 Prepatent period is variable.

o Tissue cysts with bradyzoites: 3 to 5 days.
o Tachyzoites: 5 to 10 days.
o Sporocysts: 20 to 24 days.
 Cats are asymptomatic carriers for toxoplasmosis.
 Shedding occurs for 1 to 2 weeks following ingestion of sporulated oocysts.
 In the intermediate hosts, infection is clinically inapparent or sporadic clinical
infection.
 In sheep and goats, it causes congenital infection, which leads to abortion and
perinatal infection, which leads to infection of offspring.
Disease in man
 Usually it is inapparent or asymptomatic infection.

 Sporadic clinical incidence in humans, however, the infection is very common.
 Congenital infection may lead to systemic disease, or often lead to encephalitis.
 Ocular or systemic toxoplasmosis can be acquired by older people or
immunocompromised people.
 Clinical signs include fever, skin eruption, malaise, myalgia, arthralgia, cervical
lymphadenopathy, pneumonia, myocarditis, meningoencephalitis and
chorioretinitis.
Diagnosis
 Serology with paired sera.

o Indirect fluorescent antibody test
o Sabin- Feldman dye test (most sensitive test, but rarely used)
o ELISA
o Compliment fixation test
o Latex agglutination test
 Toxoplasmosis skin test for epidemiological studies.
 Faeces floatation technique to identify oocysts. The demonstration of cysts does not
establish a causal relationship to clinical illness, since cysts may be found in both
acute and chronic infections. However, only finding tachyzoites in blood or body
fluids confirms active infection.
 TORCH test for the diagnosis of toxoplasma, rubella, cytomegalovirus and
herpesvirus.
Treatment in man
 The drugs of choice are pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine. Combination of these

drugs is more potent than either alone, and acting on dividing Toxoplasma
gondii tachyzoites.
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 In those patients who do not tolerate sulfadiazine, a combination of pyrimethamine

and clindamycin is advised.
 Pyrimethamine is generally not given to pregnant women.
 Trimethoprim-sulfamethaxozole combination is effective for cerebral toxoplasmosis,
led to complete regression of clinical signs.
 Folinic acid is given to avoid the haematologic effects of pyrimethamine-induced
folate deficiency.
 Avoid eating raw or under cooked meat.

 Freezing of meat to -20°C for 2 days or -15°C for 3 days kills cysts.
 Cooking of meat to 60°C kills cysts.
 Oocysts voided in cat faeces can remain infective for a year or more under
appropriate environmental conditions.
 Children's play areas should be protected from cat and dog faeces.
 Clean the litter pans daily.
 Wear gloves while cleaning and removing cat faeces.
 Hands should be washed after handling raw meat and before eating or touching the
face.
 Pregnant women should be checked for both IgM and IgG antibodies against
toxoplasmosis. If the IgM antibody is negative but the IgG titre is present less than
1:1000, no further evaluation is necessary.
 Pregnant women with negative titres for both IgM and IgG antibodies, should take
all precautionary measures to prevent infection (by avoiding contact with cat faeces
and avoid working in soil or gardens that could be contaminated by cats, etc. and by
thoroughly cooking meat).
MODULE-33: FOOD BORNE ZOONOSES - SARCOCYSTOSIS
Learning objectives
management of
 Sarcocystosis
SARCOCYSTOSIS
Type of zoonosis
 Cyclozoonosis
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Definition
 Sarcocystosis is a type of cyclozoonotic disease in man, clinically characterized by

nausea, stomach ache, diarrhoea and dyspnoea in man. In cattle, can cause fever,
anorexia, anaemia, loss of weight, hair loss, weakness, muscle twitching, prostration,
abortion, reduced milk-yield, hypersalivation, neurologic signs and death.
 Sarcocysts (in Greek, Sarkos – flesh, Kystis – bladder) are the terminal asexual
stages found encysted, primarily in striated muscles of mammals, birds,
poikilothermic animals and intermediate hosts). Sarcocysts also have been found in
central nervous system and in Purkinje fibres of the heart and muscle bundles.
Etiology
 Different species of Sarcocystis belongs to the phylum: Apicomplexa and family:

Sarcocystidae.
 Sarcocystis spp. lack flagella and cilia, but they infect the host cells by way of an
organelle, called the apicoplast.
 Species-specific prey (intermediate host) – predator (final host) life cycles
have been demonstrated. Examples are:
o Sarcocystis cruzi - Cattle-dog
o S.hirsuta - Cattle-cat
o S.hominis - Cattle-human
o S.capracanis and S.hircicanis - Sheep-dog
o S.gigantea and S.medusiformis - Sheep-cat
o S.capracanis and S.hircicanis - Goat-dog
o S.moulei - Goat-cat
o S.meischeriana - Pig-dog
o S.suihominis - Pig-human
o S.porcifelis - Pig-cat
 Sarcocystis spp. normally develops in two-host cycles consisting of species-specific

prey (intermediate host) – predator (final host) life cycles.
 Apart from domestic animals, wild animals may also serve as intermediate hosts
(such as raccoons) or final hosts (coyotes) for some species of Sarcocystis.
 After ingestion of sarcocystis infested meat and meat products by the intermediate
hosts such as humans, horses, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, birds, rodents, camelids,
wildlife and reptiles, they invade in to the endothelium, muscles and other soft
tissues, and then cysts (vary in size from a few micrometers to several centimeters)
are formed.
 Fatal dose of sporocysts is 5x106 or more.

 Transmission only through ingestion of sarcocystis infested meat and meat products.
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 Birds and other invertebrates consume the parasite in egg or oocyst form from the
faeces of infected vertebrates.
 The oocysts then develop into the sporozoite form in the intestines of the
invertebrate.
 The sporozoites migrate to the animal's bloodstream and invade certain cells, which
are then multiplied and give rise to the merozoite form.
 These merozoites are carried by the blood to the animal's muscles, where whitish
macrocysts are produced.
 When carnivores eat the invertebrate's muscle tissue, the parasites reach maturity
and reproduce sexually in the host's intestine, releasing oocysts.
Disease in animals
 In cattle (S.cruzi, the most pathogenic species), the disease manifests fever, anorexia,
anaemia, loss of weight, loss of body hair (particularly at the tip of the tail),
weakness, muscle twitching, prostration, abortion, reduced milk-yield,
hypersalivation, neurologic signs and death.
 Pregnant cows may abort and milking cows may have reduced milk yield.
 Haemorrhages are most evident on the serous surface of viscera, in cardiac and
skeletal muscles, and in the sclera of the eyes.
 In acute sarcocystosis, skeletal muscles are seen mottled or striped with pale areas,
interspersed with dark haemorrhagic areas.
Disease in humans
 Nausea, stomach ache, diarrhoea and dyspnoea.
Diagnosis
 Presumptive diagnosis based on clinical signs and history.

 Periodic Acid Schiff (PAS) staining can be used to stain bradyzoites, which
contain amylopectin granules that stain bright red.
 Serology by ELISA.
 Animal inoculation method: Intraperitioneal inoculation of mice with the infected
blood containing sarcocystis results in the appearance of merozoites in the peritoneal
fluid and cysts in the muscles.
Treatment
 Therapeutic treatment of animals has been ineffective, but

o In cattle, prophylactic dose of amprolium (100 mg/kg body weight, SID for 30
days) may reduce illness.
o In sheep, prophylactic administration of amprolium or salinomycin can be
given.
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 The main objective in controlling sarcocstosis is to interrupt the life cycle, which will
minimize the spread of sporocysts the definitive hosts.
 Uncooked meat or offal should never be left to feed carnivores.
 Dead livestock should be buried or incinerated to avoid access of carnivores.
 Cooking of the meat above 55oC for 20 minutes or at 70oC for 15 minutes destroys the
cysts.
 Freezing of the meat at 4oC for 2 days or -20oC for 1 day can kill sarcocysts in meat.
MODULE-34: VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH ADMINISTRATION
Learning objectives
To know about
 Veterinary public health administration at State, National and International level
VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH
Veterinary Public Health
 World Health Organization (WHO) defined Veterinary Public Health (VPH) as "the
sum of all contributions to the physical, mental and social well-being of
humans through an understanding and application of veterinary
science". Zoonoses are the main concern of VPH.
Zoonoses and public health
 Human health is inextricably linked to animal health and production.

 This link between human and animal populations, and with the surrounding
environment, is particularly close in developing regions where animals provide
transportation, draught power, fuel and clothing as well as proteins (meat, eggs and
milk).
 In both developing and industrialized countries, however, this can lead to a serious
risk to public health with severe economic consequences.
 A number of communicable diseases (known as zoonoses) are transmitted from
animals to humans.
 About 75% of the new diseases that have affected humans over the past 10 years have
been caused by pathogens originating from an animal or from products of animal
origin.
 Many of these diseases have the potential to spread through various means over long
distances and to become global problems.
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 In addition a number of well known and preventable animal diseases that can be
transmitted to humans (i.e. zoonoses) such as rabies, brucellosis, leishmaniosis and
echinococcosis continue to occur in many countries especially in the developing
world where they mostly affect the poorest segment of the human population.
 They cause a serious amount of deaths and millions of affected people every year.
 All major zoonotic diseases prevent the efficient production of food of animal origin,
particularly of much-needed proteins, and create obstacles to international trade in
animals and animal products. They are thus an impediment to overall socioeconomic
development.
 From way back veterinary medicine played a major role in the preventing of and
interventions against animal diseases including zoonoses.
OBJECTIVES OF VETERINARY PUBLIC HEALTH
 The most important objectives of veterinary public health,

o It includes the following: diagnosis, surveillance, epidemiology, control,
prevention and elimination of zoonoses, food protection, management of
health aspects of laboratory animal facilities and diagnostic laboratories,
biomedical research, health education and extension and production and
control of biological products and medical devices.
o Other activities include management of domestic and wild animal
populations, protection of drinking-water and the environment and
management of public health emergencies.
o Veterinary public health is an essential part of public health and includes
various types of cooperation between the disciplines that link the health triad,
people-animals-environment and all of its interactions.
ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS ON ZOONOSES
The role of international organizations on zoonoses
 VPH activities contribute to WHO's global efforts to strengthen the surveillance of

and response to all communicable diseases which are or may emerge as public health
threats.
 In collaboration with its Regional Offices, WHO supports Member States in the
surveillance and containment in humans and animals of zoonoses and foodborne
zoonotic diseases of public health importance and animal diseases with known or
potential public health implications and in the surveillance and containment of
resistance to antimicrobial agents in animals, with implications for human medicine.
 VPH activities are currently implemented by WHO Headquarters through the
Department of Communicable Diseases Control, Prevention and Eradication (CPE)
in close collaboration with the Food Safety programme.
 Focal points exist in all WHO Regional Offices.
 The VPH programme in WHO has been closely linked with various aspects of the
work of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the
World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) in relation to zoonoses, food safety and
the public health aspects of trade in animals and animal products.
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 There is also much collaboration with WHO collaborating centres, other universities,
research centres and institutions.
Activities on zoonoses by international organizations
 Identifying and evaluating microbiological hazards to human health of animal origin:

new, emerging and re-emerging zoonotic diseases, and foodborne diseases, including
those due to antimicrobial resistant bacteria.
 Developing policies, guidelines, operational research and strategies for the control of
zoonotic and foodborne diseases.
 Promoting research on zoonotic and foodborne diseases and their management in
humans.
 Strengthening global surveillance of zoonotic diseases and antimicrobial resistance
in foodborne pathogens by enhancing the epidemiological capabilities of national
laboratories.
 Disseminating relevant information to experts in public health, veterinary science
and other scientific disciplines, as well as to consumer groups and the public.
 Contributing to field and laboratory investigations of zoonotic and foodborne
diseases.
 Facilitating active contributions to public health by the veterinary services of
Member States, an essential requirement for the cost-effective surveillance and
control of zoonotic and foodborne diseases in their animal hosts.
 Providing technical and scientific assistance to Member States for their surveillance
and control programmes, when requested.
ACTIVITIES OF PUBLIC HEALTH AND PREVENTIVE MEDICINE,

TAMIL NADU
Introduction
 The Department of Public Health and Preventive Medicine is providing primary

health care services through a network of many Primary Health Centres that includes
Community Health Centres and Health Sub Centres spread over the entire State.
 The Community Health Centres / Primary Health Centres / Health Sub Centres
functioning in the rural areas are manned by medical, paramedical, nursing and
other ancillary staff.
 The department provides technical, financial and administrative support for the
urban health infrastructure in the Municipal Corporations, Municipalities and Town
Panchayats.
 The Department is responsible for the implementation of various National and State
Health Programmes and to formulate strategies to prevent the occurrence of diseases
thereby reducing the level of morbidity and mortality in the state.
Activities of public health department

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 The activities undertaken by the department of Public Health and Preventive

Medicine are provision of primary health care that includes
o Maternity and Child Health Services
o Immunisation of children against vaccine - preventable diseases
o Control of Communicable diseases, such as
 Malaria
 Filaria
 Japanese Encephalitis
 Elimination of Leprosy
o Prevention of Food Adulteration
o Vazhvoli Thittam
o Varumun Kappom Thittam
o Health Education of the Community
o Collection of Vital Statistics under Birth and Death Registration System and
Iodine Deficiency Disorder Control Programme.
PRIMARY HEALTH CARE, TAMIL NADU
Primary health care in Tamil Nadu
 Primary Health Care facilities to the people of Tamil Nadu especially to those in the
rural areas under different health programmes are formulated through
strengthening the preventive, promotive, curative and rehabilitative health care
services, and are implemented through the Community Health Centres, Primary
Health Centres and Health Sub centres.
 Network of Primary Health Centres and their services: As per the norms
prescribed by the Government of India, one Primary Health centre is to be set up for
every 30,000 population in the plains and for every 20,000 population in the hill
areas.
 Accordingly at present (as on 2009) there are 1399 Primary Health centres including
59 Community Health Centres in Tamil Nadu.
 The Medical Officers who along with other public health staff provide curative,
preventive, promotive and rehabilitative services in the rural areas.
 The drugs required for these health centres are procured and supplied through the
Tamil Nadu Medical Services Corporation Limited.
 Tribal Welfare Scheme: Under this scheme, 12 blocks viz, Alangayam,
Jamnamarudur, Sankarapuram, Kalrayan Hills, Uppiliapuram, Yercaud,
Ayodhiyapattinam, Peddanaickenpalayam, Gangavalli, Kolli Hills, Pappireddipatty
and Thiruvattar have been identified as tribal areas in the State. 14 Primary Health
Centres are functioning under the Tribal Sub Plan Scheme. In addition 11 more
Primary Health Centres are located in tribal areas including the two Community
Health Centres at Alangayam and Kariyalur.
UNIVERSAL IMMUNISATION PROGRAMME (UIP), TAMIL NADU
 The Government of India launched the Universal Immunisation Programme in 1985

with a view to ensuring 100% coverage of pregnant women against Tetanus and
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infants against vaccine preventable diseases and the entire State of Tamil Nadu came
under Universal Immunisation Programme in a phased manner.
 The programme is very successful and pregnant women and infants are getting the
benefits continuously.
 Tamil Nadu has already achieved the target of elimination of Neonatal Tetanus and
reduction of morbidity and mortality due to measles. The state is almost nearing the
stage of eradication of poliomyelitis.
 Intensified Pulse Polio Immunisation for eradication of Poliomyelitis: To achieve
100% coverage of all children under 5 years, Intensified Pulse Polio Strategy is
adopted.
CONTROL OF COMMUNICABLE DISEASES, TAMIL NADU
 The control of Communicable Diseases is one of the major programmes under the
Primary Health Care Services, especially for the diseases occurring in epidemic
forms.
 Acute Diarrhoeal Diseases and suspected Cholera are common among the water
borne diseases.
 Tamil Nadu is endemic for Acute Diarrhoeal Diseases with sporadic outbreak of
cholera in most of the districts throughout the year, and, in epidemic proportions
during the rainy seasons and peak summer periods.
 All the District level officials and executive authorities of local bodies have been
asked to take necessary preventive measures including proper disposal of solid
wastes and maintain sanitation and hygiene, chlorinate all water sources and
undertake fly control measures.
INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE AND HEALTH
 The Water Analysis Laboratories established at Chennai and Coimbatore collect and
examine water samples from various protected water sources to control pollution
and contamination of drinking water.
 These laboratories also assist the Tamil Nadu pollution Control Board in examining
samples of Industrial Wastes and conduct field surveys to ensure the prevention and
control of environmental and industrial pollution.
 Air pollution surveys are also carried out around the industries to assess air quality.
VECTOR BORNE DISEASES CONTROL PROGRAMMES
 The programme for the control of Vector borne diseases (Viz) Malaria, Filaria,
Guineaworm and Japanese Encephalitis are implemented in the State.
 There is a separate post of Director of Public Health and Preventive Medicine (M&F)
to oversee the implementation of these programmes.
Institute of Vector Control and Zoonoses - Hosur
 The Institute of Vector Control and Zoonoses, Hosur acts as a nodal agency for
Plague Control activities.
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 Surveillance system is organised to collect field rodents and examine the organ and
serum of these rodents for the presence of Plague Bacilli / Antibody which is
indicative of sylvatic plague foci among animals.
 Dengue is also a vector borne disease and is transmitted through Aedes aegypti.
 Malaria, Filaria, Japanese Encephalitis and Dengue are emerging diseases
transmitted by mosquito vectors.
 Leptospirosis and anthrax are zoonotic diseases spread from animals to humans.
 Disease surveillance units have been established in 5 districts to study the prevalence
and forecast the outbreak of these diseases which will help in organizing timely
preventive measures.
NATIONAL LEPROSY ERADICATION PROGRAMME

AND VARUMUN KAPPOM THITTAM
National Leprosy Eradication Programme
 The National Leprosy Eradication Programme was launched in 1954-55 with the
main thrust on early detection and sustained regular treatment of all Leprosy
Patients with a single drug.
 With the introduction of multi drug therapy (MDT) in 1981 there has been a
remarkable improvement in the recovery of Leprosy patients.
 Tamil Nadu has done a commendable work in Leprosy Eradication Programme.
The prevalence rate which was 118 per 10,000 population in 1983 has now been
brought down to 4.2 per 10,000 population.
 The programme has helped us to move towards total elimination of Leprosy.
 Tamil Nadu has shown significant progress over the years and with sustained
efforts and co-operation from the public.
 It is expected to achieve the target set by Word Health Organisation of
elimination of leprosy as a Public Health Problem and to reduce the case load to
less than 1 per 10,000 population.
 The tremendous gain achieved through the Intensive Leprosy Eradication
Campaign launched in 1997 has made the Government of India and Government
of Tamil Nadu to decide to launch the modified Leprosy Elimination Campaign in
January 2000, to detect remaining hidden cases and fresh cases and create
awareness about Leprosy in the minds of the public.
Varumun Kappom Thittam
 On 22.11.1999 the Government have launched a new scheme viz." VARUMUN

KAPPOM THITTAM" for screening and early detection of diseases in the
Community by conducting free comprehensive health check up and treatment.
10,000 camps are proposed to be conducted in the rural areas of Tamil Nadu.
Last modified: Wednesday,
Active immunity
:
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Resistance developed in response to stimulus by an antigen (infecting agent or vaccine) and usually cha
host
Agent
:
Biological, chemical, physical, mechanical, social or behavioural entity for which the presence, the exce
Allergen
:
Any foreign substance usually a protein that induces allergic reaction in the body of a person who is hy
B
Bar chart
:
A visual display of the size of the different categories of a variable. A bar represents each category or va
C
Case
:
In epidemiology, a countable instance in the population or study group of a particular disease, health
individual with the particular disease
Census
:
The enumeration of an entire population, usually with details being recorded on housing, managemen
Cluster
:
An aggregation of cases of a disease or other health-related condition, which are closely grouped in tim
Cohort
:
A well-defined group of people who have had a common experience or exposure, who are then follow
cohort or prospective study
Communicable disease
:
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Disease whose agent can be transferred from one individual to another
Contamination
:
Presence or transfer of a microorganism or substance in or on an object in a preparation in or on a livin
Control
:
In a case-control study, comparison group of persons without disease
D
Database
:
A collection of data organised into a specific format and stored in a computer system allowing for data
Death rate
:
Mortality rate Number of deaths divided by the number of individual-time at risk in a defined group or
Determinants
:
Factors or cause
Diagnosis
:
Identification of a disease or other health status of an individual or group of individuals showing clinica
Disease control
:
Reduction in the prevalence of a disease to a level where it is no longer considered a major health and/
E
Ecology
:
Study of environment and of the interrelationship between organisms and their environment
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Elimination of a disease
:
Disappearance of all clinical cases of specific disease in an area
Endemic
:
Disease clearly expressed or not constantly present in a population in a given region
Endemic disease
:
The constant presence of a disease or infectious agent within a given geographic area or population
disease within such area or group
Environmental factor
:
An extrinsic factor (geology, climate, insects, sanitation, health services, etc.), which affects the agent a
Epidemics
:
Occurrence of a disease or any other health related event affecting a number of individuals in clear e
period of time
Exposed (group)
:
A group whose members have been exposed to a supposed cause of disease or health state of intere
health outcome of interest
Extrinsic
:
Factor that is external to or not a component of an individual
F
Frequency
:
Number of occurrences of an event recorded in a population or a sample during a given period of time
G
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Geographical information system

:
An electronic data system for collection, analysis and display of data having a spatial orientation
Graph
:
A way to show quantitative data visually, using a system of coordinates
H
Hazard
:
Any biological, chemical or physical agent that could have a negative impact on health
Health
:
A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or inf
Health management
:
The action of implementing a strategy or set of measures designed to sustain or health in animal based
Heterogeneity
:
Being heterogeneous i.e. Composed of parts, people, things etc that are not related to each other
Histogram
:
A graphic representation of the frequency distribution of a continuous variable. Rectangles are dr

representing different intervals, and their heights are proportional to the frequencies of the values with
Host
:
Organism that lodges and maintains in natural conditions a pathogen
Host determinant
:
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Inherent trait of an individual
Hypothesis
:
A proposition on one or more related events of interest, arrived at from observation or reflection, a
before it can be accepted or rejected
I
Immunity
:
State of resistance/protective ability of an organism to a pathogen
Incidence
:
The number of new health events experienced by a given population over a specified period of time
Indicators
:
Descriptive measure, quantitative or not depicting a specific aspect of a system
Infestation
:
Parasitic aggression or subsistence on the surface of the host’s body of ectoparasites and invasion of the
Interaction
:
The interdependence of two or more determinants to produce an effect
Intrinsic
:
Characteristic of an individual that could modulate its performance or receptivity to diseases
Investigation
:
Process of inquiring into a matter through research, follow-up, study, or formal procedure of discovery
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J
Jargon
:
The specialised vocabulary of a particular trade, profession, group or activity
M
Monitoring
:
The practice of collecting, recording, summarizing and disseminating information related to health an
Morbidity
:
Any departure, subjective or objective, from a state of physiological or psychological well-being
Mortality
:
Frequency of deaths
N
Natural history of disease
:
The temporal course of disease from onset (inception) to resolution
Necessary cause
:
A causal factor whose presence is required for the occurrence of the effect (of disease)
O
Objective
:
Expected result of an action
Outbreak
:
Synonymous with epidemic. Sometimes the preferred word, as it may escape sensationalism associated
opposed to generalized epidemic
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P
Pathogenesis
:
The way a disease develops in an organism, organ or tissue
Population
:
The total number of inhabitants of a given area or country
Prophylaxis
:
Set of measures mostly hygienic or medical employed to prevent occurrence of disease
Proportion
:
A type of ratio in which the numerator is included in the denominator. The ratio of a part to the whole,
Public health
:
The state of physical and mental well- being in a human population
R
Random
:
Expresses lack of knowledge and capability of predicting or controlling a process or event
Random sample
:
A sample derived by selecting individuals such that each individual has the same probability of selectio
Rate
:
An expression of the frequency with which an event occurs in a defined population
Ratio
:
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The relative size of two quantities expressed by dividing one (numerator) by the other (denominator)
Retrospective study
:
A study in which historical records about the populations of interest are used as the basis for studies of
S
Sample
:
A selected subset of a population. A sample may be random or non-random and it may be representati
Seasonality
:
Change in physiological status or in disease occurrence that conforms to a regular seasonal pattern
Sentinel
:
Animal that is free of and susceptible to a specific condition and this is monitored during and/ or
suspected of harbouring this condition
Stratum
:
Two or more subsets of a study population defined by mutually exclusive characteristics
Surveillance
:
The systematic collection, analysis, interpretation, and dissemination of health data on an ongoing ba
and potential in a community, in order to control and prevent disease in the community
T
Table
:
A set of data arranged in rows and columns
Transmissible diseases
:
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Synonym of Communicable diseases
Transmission
:
Action/event/process whereby a pathogen is passed from one individual to another
V
Variables
:
Attribute or observable event that can vary
Virulence
:
The host-specific ability of an infectious agent to multiply in the host while inducing lesions and diseas

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MODULE-1: DEFINITIONS AND AIMS OF EPIDEMIOLOGY

 The word "epidemiology" is derived from Greek

 Study of the patterns of disease under field conditions.

 To minimize or eradicate the disease or health problems and their consequences

MODULE-2: FACTORS INFLUENCING OCCURRENCE OF

 To learn elaborately about,

 The disease is caused by multiple factors. The factors are determinants of

 Knowledge of determinants helps in the identification of categories of animal that

Determinants are described as,

 Primary and secondary

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DETERMINANTS

 Factors whose variations exert a major effect in inducing diseases.

Intrinsic Extrinsic determinants

Genetic Animate Inanimate

 Determinants correspond to predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors.

o Examples: Sex is the secondary determinant of canine heart valve

Intrinsic determinants Extrinsic determinants

Genetic constitution (breed, sex, Location

INTRINSIC AND EXINTRISIC DETERMINANTS

Intrinsic and extrinsic determinants

Species Hereditary Sex Age Physiological Animal use Level of

ASSOCIATED WITH HOST, AGENT AND

 Genotype is the genetic constitution of a host.

Species and breed

 They vary in their susceptibility and responses to different infectious agents.

 Metabolic diseases immediately after calving due to physiological stress.

o Example: Downer cow syndrome and milk fever.

Size and confrontation

 Virulence is the ability of an infectious agent to cause disease in a particular host in

 It is an alteration in the sequence of nucleic acids in the genome of a cell or virus

 It is the reassortment of segments of a genome that occurs when two microbes

 It is the transfer of small portion genome from one bacterium to another by a

 It is transmission of naked nucleic acid between bacteria without contact.

 Housing: Well-designed, non-slippery floors and well-ventilated houses are

MODULE-2: FACTORS INFLUENCING OCCURRENCE OF

 To learn elaborately about,

 The disease is caused by multiple factors. The factors are determinants of

Determinants are described as,

 Primary and secondary

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DETERMINANTS

 Factors whose variations exert a major effect in inducing diseases.

Intrinsic Extrinsic determinants

Genetic Animate Inanimate

 Determinants correspond to predisposing, enabling and reinforcing factors.

Intrinsic determinants Extrinsic determinants

Genetic constitution (breed, sex, Location

INTRINSIC AND EXINTRISIC DETERMINANTS

Intrinsic and extrinsic determinants

Species Hereditary Sex Age Physiological Animal use Level of

INTRINSIC AND EXINTRISIC DETERMINANTS

Intrinsic and extrinsic determinants

Species Hereditary Sex Age Physiological Animal use Level of

 Genotype is the genetic constitution of a host.

o In contrast many protozoan and rickettsial infections induce milder response

Species and breed

 They vary in their susceptibility and responses to different infectious agents.

 Metabolic diseases immediately after calving due to physiological stress.

Size and confrontation