Part - 2 - Research Design and Methodology

Research Design and Methodology
Research Design and Methodology
Gebeyehu B. (Dr. of Eng.) Associate Professor

gebeyehu2009@gmail.com
1
BDU: Bahir Dar Institute of Technology: Computing Faculty
Concepts of research design
• Design: is the core of all professional tasks; it is the principal mark t
hat distinguishes the professions from the sciences.
• Why do we need this?

• To understand content of directed reading within taught modules
• To be able to write essays or reviews of published literature
• To be able to plan and conduct good research or project where there is an elem
ent of research in the investigation or the evaluation of what you have done ,
• What has been done so far

• Preliminary Studies
• How you are going to do it

• Research Design and Methods
2 2
• A general research strategy = research design (RD)
• RD provides /includes
• Philosophical assumption
• Mainly Research approach/method
• Overall structure for the procedures
• The data the researcher collects/and techniques
• The data analyses the researcher conducts
• Evaluation…
• It is the overall design carefully to be successful
• It is a clear definition or a process to resources, procedures and data

always with the goal from the very beginning
• It matters to get your proposal accepted or rejected

3 3
 A research method is a strategy of inquiry which moves from the un
derlying philosophical assumptions to specific research design and d
ata collection & analysis
 Research methodologies reflect high-level approaches to conducting

research.
 The individual steps within the methodology might vary based on the research
problem being performed.
 There are three broad approaches to be used in research design

 Quantitative.
 Qualitative.
 Design science
4 4
 Qualitative
• Qualitative research involves the use of qualitative data, such as i
nterviews, documents, and participant observation data, to unders
tand and explain social phenomena.
• Examples of qualitative methods are action research, case study research an
d ethnography.
• Qualitative data sources include observation and participant obser

vation (fieldwork), interviews and documents and texts, and the r
esearcher's impressions and reactions
 Quantitative
 Quantitative research methods were originally developed in the natural scien
ces to study natural phenomena.
5 5
 Quantitative
• Examples of quantitative methods now well accepted in the social sciences incl
ude survey methods, laboratory experiments, formal methods (e.g. econometric
s) and numerical methods such as mathematical modeling
• The most popular data collection techniques include: Questionnaire (survey ins
truments) , secondary data sources or archival data, objective measures or tests.
 Design science –engineering research

• Is a problem-solving paradigm:
• Seeks to create innovations that define the ideas, practices, technical capabi
lities, and products through which the analysis, design, implementati
on, and use of IT can be effectively and efficiently accomplished.
• Employes data collection techniques from qualiatative and quantitative met
hods
6 6
Instructions for research design
• Describe the research design conceptual framework, procedures, and
analyses to be used to accomplish the specific aims of the research
• Include how the data will be collected, analyzed, and interpreted as
well as the data-sharing plan as appropriate.
• Describe any new methodology and its advantage over existing
methodologies.
• Describe any novel concepts, approaches, tools, or technologies for
the proposed studies.
• Discuss the potential difficulties and limitations of the proposed pr

ocedures and alternative approaches to achieve the aims.
• Provide a tentative sequence or timetable for the research.
7
Steps in preparing a research design
• It is a master plan that specifies the flow of process and methods or

procedures for doing a subsistence and pertinent research.
Step 1: Defining the research problem
Step 2: Developing an approach to the problem
Step 3: Formulating a research design
Step 4: Doing resource searching and collecting data
Step 5: Preparing and analyzing data
Step 6: Preparing and presenting the report
8
Steps in research design
• Identify a need
• Problem solving • Research begins with a problem, however,
identifying this problem can actually be the
• Build:
hardest part of research.
• Model, Instantiate
• Evaluate • And, good research projects should:
• Address an important question.
• Verify, Validate
• original and significant
• Learn • Advance knowledge.
• Current, Emergent
• Theorize
• Conceptualize and generalize findings
• So that research design:

• Is the task of defining the research problem and the preparation of the
research algorithms.
9 9
Major components and tasks of research design
• Research question
• Theory
• Data
• Sampling design: which deals with the methods of selecting items

to be observed for the study,
• Observational design: which relates to the condition under which

the observation are to be create, and
• Statistical design: which concern the question of the of How the in

formation and data gathered are to be analyzed ?
10
• Research question
• Important
• Not too general
• Not too specific
• Just right
• Contribute to literature
• How to tell: Computer Sciences Citation Index
• Theory
• Definition: A general statement of a proposition that argues why e
vents occur as they do and/or predicts future outcomes as a functio
n of prior conditions
• Desirable qualities of theories
11
• Data
• Terms
• Cases
• Observations
• Variables
• Dependent variables
• Independent variables
• Units of analysis
• Mapping between the abstract and concrete

• Measures
• Indicators
12
Formulation of research design
• Research design is a creative process and a guide line to the flow
of the whole research work,
• Defining good research goals:

• Statement about the relationship between two or more variables,
• Converts the question into a statement that predicts an expected outcome,
• A unit or subset of the research problem,
• Coherently formulated research design

• Declarative statement that identifies the predicted relationship between two or
more variables,
• Testability
• Based on sound scientific theory/rationale
13
Directional vs. non directional formulation of
research design
• Directional formulation:
• Specifies the direction of the relationship between independent
and dependent variables,
• Non-directional hypothesis:
• Shows the existence of a relationship between variables but no
direction is specified,
• Deductive Vs inductive formulation Theory
Tentative
Theory hypothesis
Hypothesis Pattern
Observation Observation
Conformation
A schematic representation of
A schematic representation of
inductive formulation
deductive formulation
14
Deduction Vs. Induction research formulation
• Deductive research formulation is:
• Carry out large scale literature review to gather enough theories or evidence
as premises,
• Use deductive logic to derive a set of hypotheses,
• Systematically gather data relevant to the hypothesis,
• Statistically test and interpret the data to see if they support the hypothesis.
• Inductive research design formulation
• Building theory
• Start from the data, begin to detect patterns and regularities, for
mulate some tentative hypotheses, end up developing some gen
eral conclusions or theories
15
Deduction Vs. Induction research formulation
Deductive research Inductive research

• Scientific principles • Gaining an understanding of
• Moving from theory to data the meanings humans attach to
• The need to explain causal events
relationships • A close understanding of the
• The collection of quantitative research context
data • The collection of qualitative
• Clearly define and operationa data
lization of concepts • Flexible structure
• Highly structured approach • Researcher is usually part of
• Researcher independence of the research process
what is being researched • Less concern with the need to
• The request for generalization generalize
16
Qualities of a Workable research design
• The quality of good research design results requires:
• A careful design of the research methodology,
• Considerable evaluation efforts.
• It depends of the nature of the research either primary or investigation /proofing

• It is the a detailed blueprint used to guide the conduct of the research work fr
om A-Z so that the research questions are answered and the research object
ives are realized.
• Research may be either qualitative or quantitative
• Assuring validity and reliability of the research
17
Qualities of a Workable research design
(Hypothesis);
• Care should be taken to ensure that the results are valid and re
liable.
• Validity • Reliability
• Main question: Is the relationshi • 3 main questions:
p between two variables causal? • Will the measures yield the
• Threats to validity: same results on other occasions?
• History
• Testing • Will similar observations be
• Instrumentation reached by other observers?
• Maturation
• Ambiguity over causal directi • Is there transparency in how
on sense was made of the raw data?
18
Feasibility of research design
• Good research design:
• The availability and meanings of information,
• The objective and the nature of the problem to be studied,
• The availability of time and other resources for the research work.
• The concepts of good RD is relating to dependent and independent

variables:
• A concept which can take on different quantitative values
(variables),
• A phenomena which can take on different qualitatively values
even in decimal value (continues).
• Factors that are not related to the purpose of the study but may
effect on the dependent variables (the extraneous variables)
19
Classification of research design
• Broad classification of research design

Research Design
Exploratory Conclusive Research

Research
Cross-sectional Study
Descriptive/dia Causal Design
Longitudinal Study gnosis Design
Experiment
Secondary Data Survey Observation

Study
20
Exploratory of research design
• Exploratory research design
• Identifying potential causes of a problem, and establishing priorities or dire
ction for a research program
• Clarifying concepts, and Assisting new product development
Pilot study
Exploratory
Research
• undertaken with the aim of clarifying ambiguous problems (under the aim of
determining the characteristics of a population or phenomenon)
• general problems usually known but not sufficiently understood
• the purpose is to get more information, not to uncover specific courses of
action (subsequent research)
• High degree of precision or accuracy required
21
Exploratory research design
• Exploratory research design (ERD): fundamental research design
• Purpose of ERD: is that of formulating a problem from precise investigation or developing
hypothesis from an operational point of view,
• Focused on discovering new ideas and/or in sight,
• Exploratory study must have flexibility in design to provide opportunity for
considering different aspects of a problem under study,
• ERD basic methods are:

• The survey concerning literature (simple but important to formulate
the research problem or to develop the hypothesis),
• The experience survey (practical experience with the problem to obtain
ideas) and
• The analysis of in sight stimulating examples (intensive study to
selecting instances the phenomenon in which one is interested).
22
• Explanatory studies focus on casual relationships and
• Have at least two variables
• Is used to prove or disprove whether there is a causal relationship
between two variables.
• Can be expressed as a prediction or an expected future outcome.
• Is logically linked to a research question or theory.
• Hypothesis are used to state the relationship between two
variables and may be stated as
• Null hypotheses (no relationship between two variables).
• Nondirectional hypotheses (we don’t know or won’t speculate abo
ut the direction of the relationship between two variables).
• Directional hypotheses. We state the direction of the relationship
between two variables.
23
• Relationships specify:
• How the value of one variable changes in relation to another.
• May be either positive, negative, or the two variables may not have any
relationship to one another.
• Are not necessarily correlations. The type of relationship or association
among variables is determined by the level of measurement of each of
the two variables.
• Example:
Negative Positive Negative
1 4 1 1 1 4
2 3 2 2 2 1
3 2 3 3 3 2
4 1 4 4 4 3
24
Descriptive and diagnostic research design
• The studies concerned with specific predictions, with a narrations
of facts and characteristics concerning individual, group, and
examples of descriptive studies,
• Can specify one or more variables (we don’t know enough to specify the
direction of the relationship among the variables).
• We use a research question rather than a hypothesis.
• Diagnosis study determine the frequency with which something
occurs or its association with something else.
• It focus on:
• Formulating the objectives and design the methods of data collection,
• Selecting samples and collecting data, then processing and analyzing the data,
• Accomplish the research work and reporting the findings.
25
Experimental research design
• Experimental research design: hypothesis testing RD
• The study of tests the hypothesis of casual relationships between variables,
• It requires procedures that not only reduce bias and increase reliability but
will permit drawing of inference about causality,
• It has three basic principles:
• Principles of replication: The experiment should be repeated more than
once to ensure that each treatment is applied in many experimental units inst
ead of one,
• By doing so the statistical accuracy is increased.
• Principle of randomization: Provides protection against the effect of th
e extraneous factors in an experiment,
• The experiment in such a way that the variation caused by extraneous factors
can all be combined under the general heading of chance.
• Principles of local control: The known sources of variability is made to the
experiment.
26
Focuses of research design
• The major focus of research design
Research
objectives
Research
questions
Research
project
27
Research design consideration
• Design consideration in terms of
• Research strategies (survey, case study, action research, and others ....see
more research methodology).
• Choices, and
• time horizons
28
Design research process
Metrics, Analysis
How to Knowledge
Knowledge
Disciplinary
Inference
Knowledge
Identify Prob Define Objec Design & De Demonstration Evaluation Communica-
Theory
lem & Motiv tives of a Sol velopment Find Suitable co tion
ate ution ntext Observe How E
ffective, efficien Scholarly Publi
Define Problem What would a B Artifact Use Artifact to Solv t cations
Show Importan etter Artifact A e problem
ce/ supported b ccomplish? Iterate Back to Professional
y lit. design Publications
Process Iterations
29
Design research process
knowledge
+ operation and goal knowledge
flows
circumscription
process
steps
Awareness of
Suggestion Development Evaluation Conclusion
problem
Logical
formalism
abduction deduction
30
Sc/Eng research design output
constructs
better theories
emergent theory about models
embedded phenomena
abstraction models
abstraction methods
knowledge as constructs
operational principles
better theories
abstraction
artifact as situated implementation instatiations

methods
constructs
31
Phenomena of research methodologies
• What is research methodology? How it is important?
• the process of systematic approaches or flow of steps to undertake co

nsistence and successful research
• It ultimate impact is to obtaining better performance to significant an

d pertinent research issues by the use of the scientific method of gath
ering and interpreting information,
• The research methodologies are:

• Become aware the or define a problem and set workable procedures
• It can be quantitative or qualitative research approach,
• Choice of research methodology and methods are depend on:

• Research questions, and Research goals
• Researcher Beliefs and Values, and researcher skills
• Time and other factors

32
The flow of research process
• Defining the basic elements and flow chart of the research process
Problem Discovery
Secondary (historical) data

Pilot Study
Selection of
Experience Survey
Research technique
Case Study
Problem Definition
(Statement of research problem)
Survey (Interview, Questionnaire)
Selection of Experiment (Laboratory, Field)
basic research Secondary Data Study
method Observation
33
The flow of research process
• Based on the defined or survey research issues the research workflow
Survey (Interview, Questionnaire)

Collection of Data (Fieldwork)
Experiment (Laboratory, Field)
Secondary Data Study
Observation
Editing and Coding Data
Sample Design Data Processing and Analysis
Probability Non-Probability Interpretation of Findings

Sampling Sampling
Report
34
The methodology of research process
• Case study:
• Intensive evaluation of small sample of entitles such as groups, o
rganizations, or systems
• Purpose: explanation, description, hypothesis generation
• Multiple means of data collection
• No controls of experimental phenomena
• Field study:
• An ex post facto method of evaluating organizational systems
• Purpose: Description, hypothesis generation or hypothesis testing
• Data Collection: questionnaires, interviews
• No experimental variables are manipulated
• Field experiment
35
The methodology of research process
• Field experiment
• Experimental manipulation of one or more independent variables while
confounding variables are controlled
• Purpose: To observe the effect of the independent variable(s) in a natur
al setting, typically evaluated by hypothesis testing
• Many types of data collection possible
• Lab experiment
• Research takes place in a researcher-created setting with researcher ma
nipulation of independent variable(s) and a high degree of control
• Purpose: Hypothesis testing
• Many types of data collection possible
• Conceptual or narrative
• Non-empirical (no data) research

36
Tools and techniques to defining research problems
• Basic questions to ask in defining the research problems
Who What Where
• Who is causing the problem? • What will happen if this problem • Where does this problem occur?
• Who says this is a problem? is not solved? • Where does this problem have a
• Who are impacted by this pro • What are the symptoms? n impact?
blem? • What are the impacts? • Etc.
• Etc. • Etc.
When Why How

• When does this problem occur? • Why is this problem occurring? • How should the process or syste
• When did this problem first start • Why? m work?
occurring? • Why? • How are people currently handlin
• Etc. • Etc. g the problem?
• Etc.
37
• A problem becomes known when we observes a discrepancy between
the way things are and the way things ought to be. Problems can be identified
through:
• Comparative/benchmarking studies
• Performance reporting -assessment of current performance against goals
and objectives
• SWOT Analysis – assessment of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,

and threats
• Complaints
• Surveys
• Etc.
38
• Feasibility Study: Here is a new idea, is it possible?
• Is it possible to solve a specific kind of problem … effectively ?
• computer science perspective (Turing test, …)
• engineering perspective (build efficiently; fast — small)
• economic perspective (cost effective; profitable)
• Is the technique new / novel / innovative ?

• compare against alternatives
• Proof by construction
• build a prototype
• often by applying on a “CASE”
• Conclusions
• primarily qualitative; "lessons learned“,
• quantitative: - economic perspective: cost – benefit,
• engineering perspective: speed - memory footprint
39
• Guidelines to pick and formulate an important and useful research
problem
• Looking around you
• In many disciplines, questions that need answers – phenomena that need explan
ation - are everywhere.
• Concentrate on smaller problems – continually ask questions about what you he
ar and see.
• Why does such–and–such happen? What makes such–and–such tick? (The reas
ons for somebody’s behavior)
• Reading the literature

• What things are already known –don’t reinvent the wheel –also tells what is N
OT known in the area – in other words, what still needs to be done.
• Provides theoretical base on which to build a rationale for your study
• Provides potential research methodologies and methods of measurement
• Help you interpret your results and relate them to what is already known in the
field
40
• Attending professional conferences
• Many researchers have great success finding new research projects at national a
nd regional conferences.
• Learn “what is hot and what is not” in their field
• As an example:
• Sentiment analysis
• M-systems , Security, privacy in wireless communication
• Big data,
• Method tailoring (in software development)
• Novice researchers can make contacts with experts in their field, ask questions,
share ideas, exchange e-mail addresses with more experienced and knowledgea
ble individuals
• Seeking the advice of the tutors, professors

• Another simple yet highly effective strategy for identifying a research problem is simply
to ask an expert:
• What needs to be done? What burning questions are still out there?
• What previous research findings seemingly don’t make sense?
41
• Getting the pertinent research issues or problems
• Sometimes the thing we think is a problem is not the real problem, so to get at
the real problem, probing is necessary
• Knowing the cause then after cause analysis is an effective method of probing
– it helps identify what, how, and why something happened
• Basic techniques to define the cause:

• Specific underlying cause
• Those /that can reasonably be identified
• Those/ that management has control to fix
• Fishbone approach
Detail Cause Detail
Cause
Result (Problem)
Cause Detail Cause Detail
42
• The fish model
43
• Basic techniques to define the cause:
• Force Field Analysis – Visually show forces that impact your proble
m or issue
• Scatter Diagrams – Graphs the relationship of two variables – quant

ifies the correlation, showing how one variable influences another
• Process Mapping – Maps the “as is” flow of activities that make up a
process – look for excessive handoffs, redundancies, and other root
causes of inefficiencies
• Benchmarking – Compares existing performance to another internal

or external source, identifies issues not otherwise revealed through o
ther techniques
44
Stating the research problem
• The heart of any research project is the problem.
• At every step in the process, successful researchers ask themselves:

• What am I doing? For what purpose am I doing it?
• Such questions can help focus your efforts toward achieving your ult
imate purpose for gathering data: to resolve the problem.
• Researchers get off to a strong start when they begin with an unmista
kably clear statement of the problem.
45
Formulating the research problem
• The task of formulating or defining a research problem is a step of greatest
importance in the entire research process,
• It determine the data to be collected,
• It determines the characteristic of the data which are relevant,
• It determines the choice of techniques to be used,
• It determines the form of the final report,
• After identifying a research problem, therefore, you must articulate it in suc

h a way that it is carefully phrased and represents the single goal of the tota
l research effort.
• So once you’ve identified a research problem:
• State that problem clearly and completely.
• Determine the feasibility of the research.
• Identify sub-problems:
• Completely researchable units.
• Small in number.
• Add up to the total problem.
• Must be clearly tied to the interpretation of the data.
46
Research Questions and hypothesis
• Research question(s) are a technique of evaluation of a research problem
• Is the problem in line with my goal, expectations, and the expectation of
others,
• Will the solution of the problem advance knowledge?
• What is the value of potential outcomes? Who are the beneficiaries?
• Do I possess or can I acquire the necessary skills, abilities and background kno
wledge to study the problem?
• Will data be accessible?
• Do I have access to the necessary resources (time, money, tools, equipment, lab
oratory, etc.) to conduct the investigation?
• In cases where we don’t have a hypothesis, a problem statement should also
end with a research question
• Putting a the problem in a question form so that it guides the research process.
• How many RQ: You may have 3-5
47
• Farming the key questions
How many users w
Key Question #1A-a ill be…..?
The service is large.
Service interest
Hypothesis #1A Key Question #1A-b
Issue #1 How many are larg
Hypothesis #1B Key Question #1A-c e enough to take
on the client's busi
ness?
Web design project Cost Effectiveness?
Hypothesis #2A
Problem Issue #2 What questions need to be
answered to prove/disprove
Hypothesis #2B the hypothesis?
Large percentage of custome

rs will likely subscribe in two Key Question #3A-a
Impacts on years.
Ecommerce?
How many customer
Hypothesis #3A Key Question #3A-b s are interested to
Issue #3 subscribe the
domain?
Hypothesis #3B Key Question #3A-c
48
• In order to answer the key questions and validate the hypotheses, coll
ection of factual information is necessary
• First critical steps are to identify what information, i.e. data elements,
is required and develop a data collection approach/ technique
• Depending on the type of problem being solved, different data-collec

tion techniques may be used
• Combining a number of different techniques allows looking at proble

ms from different perspectives
• Data collection is a critical stage in problem solving - if it is superfici

al, biased or incomplete, data analysis will be difficult
• Using the Issue Diagram to identify data and information needs
49
• Using the Issue Diagram to identify data and information needs
• Number of subscribe
How much efficient companies, individua
Key Question #1A-a
#1A a and effective to acc ls
ommodate all inqui • Gain from its service
ry? for …… years
Issue #1
Hypothesis #1A Key Question #1A-b
#1A b • Etc.
Hypothesis #1B
What information or dat

Problem Issue #2
Hypothesis #2A Key Question #1A-c a needs to be collected to
Hypothesis #2B
answer these questions?
Key Question #3A-a
#3A a
Hypothesis #3A • As service provider or
Issue #3
Hypothesis #3B How many subscr domain subscriber
Key Question #3A-b
#3A b ibers are intereste • As individual users
d on it? • Etc.
Key Question #3A-c
50
• The aim is to determine what the relationship is between one thing (an
independent variable) and another (dependent variable);
• A research question may contain more than one independent and

dependent variable, each hypothesis can contain only one of each type
of variable, and there must be a way to measure each type of variable.
• A correctly formulated hypotheses, should answer the following

questions:
• What variables should manipulating, or is responsible for a situation?
How can this be measured? (independent variable)
• What results do expect? How can this be measured? (dependent
variable)
• Why do expect these results? The rationale for these expectations
should be made explicit in the light of the review of the literature and
personal experience. This helps form the conceptual or theoretical
framework for the study.
51
Formulation of the hypothesis
Definition:
• Hypothesis is a tentative explanation for an observation that can be tested (i.e.
proved or disproved) by further investigation
Importance:
• Start at the end - Figuring out the solution to the problem, i.e. "hypothesizing",
before you start will help build a roadmap for approaching the problem
Basic Concepts:
• Hypotheses can be expressed as possible root causes of the problem
• Breaking down the problem into key drivers (root causes) can help formulate
hypotheses
Collecting and analyzing facts

• Gathering relevant data and information is a critical step in supporting the analys
es required for proving or disproving the hypotheses.
• Analysis of the facts is required to prove or disprove the hypotheses
• Analysis provides an understanding of issues and drivers behind the problem
52
Developing objective and specific objectives
• Statements that indicate what a researcher intends to accomplish in
a more specific term,
• Objective and or specific objectives need to be:
• Must be specific, concrete and achievable statement,
• It should clearly fit to the statement of the problem,
• The objectives must propose to do things as per the capability of the design of
the study,
• Objectives should be in their approximate order of importance,
53
54

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Research Design and Methodology

Research Design and Methodology

Gebeyehu B. (Dr. of Eng.) Associate Professor

• Why do we need this?

• What has been done so far

• How you are going to do it

• It is the overall design carefully to be successful

• It is a clear definition or a process to resources, procedures and data

• It matters to get your proposal accepted or rejected

 Research methodologies reflect high-level approaches to conducting

 There are three broad approaches to be used in research design

• Qualitative data sources include observation and participant obser

 Design science –engineering research

• Discuss the potential difficulties and limitations of the proposed pr

• Provide a tentative sequence or timetable for the research.

• It is a master plan that specifies the flow of process and methods or

Step 1: Defining the research problem

Step 2: Developing an approach to the problem

Step 3: Formulating a research design

Step 4: Doing resource searching and collecting data

Step 5: Preparing and analyzing data

Step 6: Preparing and presenting the report

• So that research design:

• Sampling design: which deals with the methods of selecting items

• Observational design: which relates to the condition under which

• Statistical design: which concern the question of the of How the in

• Mapping between the abstract and concrete

• Defining good research goals:

• Coherently formulated research design

• Inductive research design formulation

Deductive research Inductive research

• Considerable evaluation efforts.

• It depends of the nature of the research either primary or investigation /proofing

• Research may be either qualitative or quantitative

• Assuring validity and reliability of the research

• The concepts of good RD is relating to dependent and independent

• Broad classification of research design

Exploratory Conclusive Research

Secondary Data Survey Observation

• ERD basic methods are:

artifact as situated implementation instatiations

• the process of systematic approaches or flow of steps to undertake co

• It ultimate impact is to obtaining better performance to significant an

• The research methodologies are:

• Choice of research methodology and methods are depend on:

BDU: Bahir Dar Institute of Technology: Computing Faculty

Secondary (historical) data

Survey (Interview, Questionnaire)

Sample Design Data Processing and Analysis

Probability Non-Probability Interpretation of Findings

• Non-empirical (no data) research

Who What Where

When Why How

• SWOT Analysis – assessment of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,

• Is the technique new / novel / innovative ?

• Reading the literature

• Seeking the advice of the tutors, professors

• Basic techniques to define the cause:

Cause Detail Cause Detail