Drinking Water Quality of Water Children Fund estimated that about 12% or 2.

1
billion of the world’s population still don’t have
Supplies in the City of San Jose access to clean water at home. Meanwhile in the
Del Monte (SJDM), Bulacan Philippines, almost 5 million Filipinos rely on
Sofia Joy G. Quillope1 unsafe and unsustainable water sources and
1
Institute of Environmental Science and Meteorology, nearly, 9 million of the population lacks access
College of Science, University of the Philippines, Diliman,
1101 Quezon City, Philippines to improved sanitation (Water.org, n.d.).

Abstract The integrity of the water quality is highly

The drinking water quality of selected residential units in affected by both natural and human influences.
the city of San Jose Del Monte, Bulacan were tested for its Water pollution may come from different sources
physico-chemical characteristics. Water samples were such as domestic waste, agricultural and
collected from nine (9) different barangays namely Gaya-
gaya, Graceville, Minuyan 1, Minuyan Proper, Narra,
industrial run-off. These are further exacerbated
Poblacion I, San Manuel, Sto. Cristo and Tungkong by the impacts of droughts, flood, storms and
Mangga. Using a multi-meter, sample were measured for other water-related events (ECU, 2019).
pH, electrical conductivity (EC), total dissolved solids (TDS) Polluted water causes deleterious effects to
and salinity. The ambient temperature and humidity were human health especially if water is heavily
also recorded at the time of sampling. Results of the study
showed a strong positive correlation between EC-TDS contaminated by toxic chemicals. Excessive
(r=0.91, p-value=0.0002289), EC-salinity (r=0.92, p-value = effluent discharge may disrupt the productivity
0.000199) and TDS-salinity (r=0.99, p-value =9.036e-08). and nutrient cycling of aquatic ecosystems
The relationship between the salinity, TDS and EC is which could lead to its total breakdown (NRDC,
strong due to the fact the salt and dissolved solids found in
water are the same ions that produces the electric current
2018). The rapid rise in population and
of the water. The drinking water samples in SJDM city are urbanization put cities into greater risk of water
also found to be within the acceptable standards of the shortage and contamination especially those
PNSDW and DENR Water Quality Guidelines. While the that are located near agricultural and industrial
obtained water quality parameters are well below the activities.
national standards, sudden changes in water conductivity
may indicate pollution. The study was limited due to the
restriction brought by the pandemic. But it is highly The city of San Jose Del Monte is a 1 st class
recommended to have studies that will look into the quality component city in the province of Bulacan. The
of the water sources (e.g. rivers, streams, ground wells, supply of domestic water in the city is serviced
pump stations) to detect pollution problems. A more
comprehensive spatio-temporal analysis of the water
by two types: pump stations and deep well.
quality through increase sampling points and location and However, with the increasing service of water
comparing samples from different seasons may also give district in the city, deep well extraction has
more accurate results. Results of this study are just gradually decreased. As of 2018, there are two
preliminary and further analyses of the water’s water service providers in the city namely: SJDM
microbiological quality might be needed. Nevertheless,
results of the study can serve as a guide for water service City Water District and Tungkong Mangga
providers and other local authorities responsible for Barangay Water Service Cooperative. Almost
monitoring and evaluating the drinking water quality of 90% of the water supplied by SJDM City Water
SJDM City, Bulacan. District is coming from Angat River (CSJDM,
2018).
Keywords: water quality monitoring, tap water,
freshwater, residential water Water quality monitoring is done to detect
emerging problems in the water (e.g. pollution)
Introduction to prevent greater problems in the future.
With only less than 3% of the world’s water Usually, results of water quality are compared
resources accessible for human consumption, with an established national standard which
the quality of these resources is highly varies with different designated uses (e.g.
threatened by pollution derived from various recreational, drinking, agricultural). The
human activities (WWF, n.d.). Looking into the standards quality of water with the most
global context, the 2017 report by the World stringent parameters should be those that can
health Organization (WHO) and United Nation’s directly affect human health and well-being.
 during sampling such as 250ml sampling bottles,
There are no direct studies that looked into the washing bottle, beaker and graduated cylinder
water quality of San Jose Del Monte however, were cleaned using mild dishwashing liquid. The
reports from the SJDM-LGU looked into the materials were then wiped by a paper towel and
water quality of Angat River which is the major air-dried. After that, a blank label using masking
source of water for the city. Angat River is tape was placed in each sampling bottle for
classified as Class B in the upstream and Class proper labelling and storage.
C in the downstream. Water quality in the river
showed increasing dissolved oxygen (DO) levels As part of quality control, the multi-parameter
from 2002 to 2005. Total suspended solids meter was checked against one (1) method
(TSS) was also observed to increase sharply in blank (distilled water), two (2) EC control
2004 (345.5 mg/L) as compared to 2003 levels solutions (high and low) and one pH check. The
(4.7 mg/L) but gradually decrease again in 2005 recorded EC high and EC low readings are 2800
(28.1 mg/L). Fecal coliform concentration is also µs/cm for low and 9750 µs/cm for high
relatively beyond the water quality standards respectively. For pH, the recorded pH using the
(CSJDM, 2018). While point-of-use water 6.86 buffer is 7.12. The multi-parameter meter
undergoes water treatment and sanitation, it is was also calibrated against pH values of 4 and
not guaranteed that this water will not be 9.28 and EC high- and low- controls.
contaminated during collection, transport,
storage, and drawing of water. For instance, The DO meter was also calibrated using
studies from Wright et al., (2004) found that oxygen-saturated and anaerobic water. The
there is an increased faecal and total coliform anaerobic water was prepared by mixing
counts in stored domestic water especially those Reagent A with 30mL distilled water while the
found in urban areas with uncontaminated oxygen-saturated water was prepared by
supplies. Thus, it is critical that monitoring of manually aerating the water. Manual aeration is
water quality at the consumer tap level be done done by using two water containers and
in order to reflect the true quality of the water. transferring the distilled water content
alternately, one after another to introduce
Objectives: oxygen. The oxygen-saturated and anaerobic
water was then measured against the DO meter.
The primary goal of this study is to test the
physico-chemical characteristics of selected tap Description of Study Site
water samples in the city of San Jose Del
Monte, Bulacan. Specifically, the study aims to
1. To assess the temperature, pH, electrical
conductivity, total dissolved solids (TDS)
and salinity of selected tap water
samples in the city of San Jose Del
Monte, Bulacan
2. To evaluate the water quality parameters
studied against the Philippine National
Standards

Materials and Methodology

Pre-Sampling Figure 1. Location of San Jose Del Monte City,

Bulacan
Source: Google Earth
The dissolved oxygen (DO) meter was used to
measure the dissolved oxygen while the multi-
The city of San Jose Del Monte (SJDM),
parameter was used to measure TDS, EC, pH,
Bulacan is located in the Northeast portion of
salinity and temperature. Materials to be used
Manila. It is bounded by the municipalities of whereas, Barangay Tungkong Mangga has the
Sta. Maria and Marilao to the west and highest pH level (7.95) recorded. The average
Norzagaray to the north, all of Bulacan, pH value for all the sites is 7.79 which means
municipality of Rodriguez, Rizal to the that residential drinking water in the area is
southeast, and the cities of Quezon and relatively alkaline. Likewise, the mean for TDS
Kalookan to the south. The city is approximately (73.4 µs/cm) is within the maximum allowable
42 kilometers away from Manila. As seen in levels (600 ppm) for drinking water based on the
Figure 1. The City of SJDM lies between 121°1‟ Philippine National Standards for drinking water
to 121°10‟ east longitude and 14°46‟ to 14°52‟ (PNSDW).
north latitude (SJDM Ecological Profile, 2018).
Water samples were collected in nine (9) Standard deviation measures how dispersed is
different barangays of SJDM City namely Gaya- the data in relation to the mean and a higher SD
gaya, Graceville, Minuyan 1, Minuyan Proper, indicates that the data are more spread out
Narra, Poblacion I, San Manuel, Sto. Cristo and (Investopedia, 2021). Among the water quality
Tungkong Mangga. parameters, EC has the highest standard
deviation (SD) of 3.05 followed by salinity, then
Sampling TDS and lastly, pH. Since EC is sensitive to
Collection of water samples was done last April temperature fluctuations, the relatively high SD
11, 2019 from 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM in nine (9) for EC can be attributed to the difference in time
different barangay of SJDM City. Water samples (morning and evening) when the water samples
came from residential tap water sources. The are measured
ambient temperature and humidity of the
environment where the water sample was
collected was also recorded. Samples were Table 1. Summary of the physico-chemical characteristics
labelled accordingly by location of the barangay of the residential water supplies in nine (9) selected
barangays of SJDM City, Bulacan
and the data & time when the sample was
collected. Samples were measured right away to Date of
Sampling EC TDS Sal.
minimize sampling errors during storage. Brgy. pH
µs/cm ppm ppm
Temp (oC)

The water samples were measured twice – in

7.76 147 73.5 73 pH 26.10
the morning and evening. Instrument readings April 11, EC 26.15
Gaya-        
are directly red and then, recorded in the field gaya 2021         TD 26.15
laboratory notebook. Since sampling was done         S
Sal 26.05
during a pandemic, it is ensured that people who Grace- 7.86 155 77.5 78
.
pH 25.65
collected the samples wore a face mask at all ville April 11,         EC 26.50
2021
times with strict social distancing measures.         TD 25.50
        S
Sal 25.30
Also, the waste (e.g. used paper towels and .
Minuya pH 28.10
reagents) that were generated during the n1 April 11,
7.6 147 73.5 73.5
        EC 28.00
conduct of the sampling were properly labelled 2021         TD 27.75
and disposed.         S
Sal 27.65
Minuya .
pH 26.75
7.78 145.5 72.5 73
Results and Discussion n April 11,         EC 26.15
Proper 2021         TD 25.95
        S
A. Water Quality Measurements Sal 25.85
.
Results of the water quality measurements of Narra, 7.93 145.5 72.5 72.5 pH 27.30
Phase F April 11, EC 27.15
selected residential drinking water supplies in 2021
       
        TD 26.95
SJDM City, Bulacan is summarized in         S
Sal 26.80
Table 1. Barangay Graceville has the highest Narra, .
pH 27.45
7.79 144.5 74 74
recorded measurement values for electrical Phase April 11,         EC 27.05
conductivity (EC) - 155 µs/cm, total dissolved O-2 2021         TD 26.95
solids (TDS) – 77.5 ppm and salinity – 78 ppm         S
Sal 26.90
.
 Poblaci 7.72 144.5 72.5 72.5 pH 27.90
on 1 April 11,         EC 27.43
2021         TD 27.30
        S
Sal 27.25
Sn. .
pH 28.15
7.8 145.5 72 72 d)
Manuel April 11,         EC 27.80
2021         TD 27.70
        S
Sal 27.65
Sto. .y
pH 26.30
7.69 146 73 73
Cristo April 11,         EC 26.25
2021         TD 26.25
        S
Sal 26.20
T. .y
pH 27.35
7.95 146 73 73
Mangga April 11,         EC 26.90
2021         TD 27.00
        S
Sal 27.00
146.6 . pH measures how acidic or basic a water is. A
Mean 7.79 73.4 73.45
5 pH of less than 7 means that water is acidic
SD 0.11 3.05 1.56 1.69
while more than 7 indicates that it is alkaline
whereas, a pH equals to 7 means that water is
neutral. The pH value of the sample ranges from
Figure 1 show a boxplot for the four (4) water 7.6-7.95 which is within the optimal range (6.5 to
quality parameters namely: pH, EC, TDS and 8.5) of PNSDW. This also indicates that the
salinity to show the spread and variance among water samples are relatively alkaline.
measurement data. Distribution of measurement values for pH levels
is relatively symmetric as shown with the almost
Figure 1. Box-and-whisker plot for the four (4) water quality similar length of whiskers on both sides. The
parameters: a) pH, b) electrical conductivity, c) total
mean pH value of 7.79 is also near the median
dissolved solids (TDS), and d) salinity
a) value confirming the almost symmetric
distribution of values. The symmetric distribution
is also supported by the relative low SD (0.11) of
pH measurements.

For EC, TDS and salinity, the plots are all

asymmetrically distributed due to the presence
of outliers. EC values ranges from 144.5 to 155
µs/cm, TDS value ranges from 72-77.5 ppm and
salinity values ranges from 72-78 ppm. The
b) boxplots for the said parameters are all
positively skewed to the right. The relatively high
SD for EC might explain this skewed distribution.

Total dissolved solids (TDS) is used to describe

the inorganic salts and small amounts of organic
matter present in the water solution. The most
common form of dissolved solids usually
includes calcium, magnesium, sodium, and
potassium cations and carbonate, hydrogen-
c) carbonate, chloride, sulfate, and nitrate anions
(WHO, 1993). For electrical conductivity, it
measures the ability of water to conduct an
electric current whereas salinity measures the
total concentration of all dissolved salts in water.
Dissolved salts and inorganic materials such as The Pearson-product moment correlation
alkalis, chlorides, sulfides and carbonate are all determines the strength of linear association
conductive ions and therefore, salinity is a between two variables and is denoted by r. The
strong contributor to conductivity (Fondriest equation attempts to draw the “line of best fit”
Environmental Inc., 2014). From the data above, between the two variables and the value of r
it can be observed that that measurement indicates how far away are the data points to the
values for TDS and salinity are very similar fitted line. The proposed guidelines for
suggesting that the amount of dissolved solids in evaluating the strength of linear association in
the sample are the same salt ions present in the relation to r is shown in Table 3.
water sample. As for EC and salinity, the
relatively narrow boxplots suggest that Table 3. Guidelines for the strength of association, Pearson
measurement values for the said parameters are product-moment correlation
Source: Laerd Statistics, 2020
near with each other. Strength of coefficient, r
Association Positive Negative
B. Relationship between the parameters Small 0.1 to 0.3 -0.1 to -0.3
Medium 0.3 to 0.5 -0.3 to -0.5
Test for normality and correlation Large 0.5 to 1.0 -0.5 to -1.0

Each water quality parameters were tested for Table 4 shows the correlated variables with their
corresponding p and r-values (at 95%
Water Quality Parameters p-values
confidence interval) while Figure 2 shows the
pH 0.9064
pH temperature 0.4658
fitted line for each of the correlation coefficients,
EC 0.0001114 r.
EC temperature 0.4049
Table 4. Results of the Pearson’s product-moment
TDS 0.001796 correlation, 95% confidence interval
TDS temperature 0.5798 Parameters r-value p-value
Salinity 0.000377 correlated
Salinity temperature 0.6233 pH with EC 0.1563222 0.6663
normality through the Shapiro-Wilks test while pH with TDS 0.1156601 0.7504
the relationship between each of the variables pH with salinity 0.1350909 0.7098
was determined through the Pearson product EC with TDS 0.9126525 0.0002289
moment correlation, both in the RStudio EC with salinity 0.9157411 0.000199
software. TDS with salinity 0.9879685 9.036e-08
temperature with -0.1860067 0.6069
Table 2. Summary of p-values for Shapiro-Wilk’s Normality pH
Test, 95% level of confidence temperature with -0.2547926 0.4774
EC
The Shapiro-Wilks normality test is design to temperature with -0.5785331 0.07975
know if a set of measurements departs from the TDS
normal distribution. The test rejects the temperature with -0.6206197 0.05554
hypothesis of normality when the p-value is less salinity
than or equal to 0.05 (Ahad et al., 2011). Table 2
shows the p-values for the normality test and it With regards to the obtained r-values of the
can be concluded that the data of all the water water samples, all the parameters only have a
quality indicators are all normally distributed small, positive linear association with pH. pH
except for EC, TDS and salinity. The non- has an only small effect to the other water
normality of a dataset can be fixed through quality parameters since water samples are
increasing the sample size. For instance, relatively alkaline-to-neutral in nature. A
Shapiro and Wilk (1965) suggested that the relatively alkaline to neutral pH means that the
sample size must be between 3 to 50. system is more or less equilibrium hence,
changes in conductivity, salinity and dissolved
solids are not that abrupt (Fondriest The range of conductivity widely varies on
Environmental Inc., 2013). different location but according to sources
(Team Clean Water), tap water usually have
For temperature, all the parameters have a conductivity values from 50-800µs/cm. For the
negative linear association. However, pH and water samples of SJDM City, its range of 144.5-
EC only have a small negative association while 155µs/cm is within the approximate values for
TDS and salinity have a large negative tap water.
association. The strength of associations is also TDS is considered as a secondary contaminant
confirmed by the correlation plots in Figure 2. by the US Environmental Protection Agency.
While pH decreases with increasing The recommended TDs levels for drinking water
temperature, this does not mean that water will by the PNSDW is 600 mg/L. TDS affects water
become more acidic or basic at changing taste and people can experience gastrointestinal
temperature because the ratio of hydrogen and irritation from drinking water with high TDS
hydroxyl ions remains the same. For neutral (Sigler & Bauder, n.d.). TDS levels is also a
water, the entire pH range will shift and will have concern in water distribution systems since high
a value other than 7 (Westlab, n.d.). TDS may result in the scaling of water pipes,
Conductivity is dependent on water temperature, water heaters, boilers and household appliances
salinity and TDS (Fondriest Environmental Inc., like kettles and steam irons. While the TDS of
2014a). While the inverse relationship was the water samples in SJDM city are well below
captured by the test, the small association of EC the maximum allowable level, it should still be
can be attributed to the nature (e.g. spread and monitored religiously by the water suppliers of
variance) of the data. As you can recall earlier, SJDM city to avoid health and environmental
the SD of EC is very large as such, data points consequences in the long run.
greatly vary. As for TDS and salinity, data are in
good agreement with each other. Therefore, the Figure 2. Correlation plots of the correlated water quality
high variance in EC values could have affected parameters. a) pH with EC b) pH with TDS c) pH with
salinity d) EC with TDS e) EC with salinity f) TDS with
the degree of association between the variables salinity g) temperature with pH h) temperature with EC i)
since values are far from each other. temperature with TDS j) temperature with salinity

The relationships which yields an almost perfect

positive relationship and statistically significant a)
relationships are EC-TDS (r=0.91, p-
value=0.0002289), EC-salinity (r=0.92, p-value =
0.000199) and TDS-salinity (r=0.99, p-value
=9.036e-08). In addition to this, the p-values for
the said relationships are all highly statistically
significant.

The strong correlation between conductivity,

total dissolved solids and salinity has already
been established and results of the study have b)
confirmed this. In fact, conductivity readings are
usually used as basis for most salinity and total
dissolved solid calculations (Fondriest
Environmental Inc., 2014b). Also, the
relationship between the salinity, TDS and EC is
strong due to the fact the salt and dissolved
solids found in water are the same ions that
produces the electric current of the water.
c)

d) h)

e) i)

j)
f)

g) Difference between Sites

Analysis of variance was employed to know if

there is a significant difference between the
 water quality parameters between the pollution. Agricultural run-off, industrial
barangays. Results of the analysis is shown in discharges, urban run-off and, sewage leak may
Table 5. increase conductivity through the addition of
chloride, phosphate and nitrate ions (Fondriest
Table 4. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) between water Environmental Inc., 2014b). Similarly, an oil spill
quality parameters across the Barangays, 95% confidence increases the amount of total dissolved solids
interval
Parameters F-value p-value
while decreasing the water’s electric
pH-barangay 0.507 0.4967 conductance. pH also affects the solubility and
EC-barangay 2.6729 0.1407 toxicity of the chemicals and heavy metals
TDS-barangay 2.8027 0.1326 present in the water. Likewise, salinity values
Salinity- 2.2726 0.1701 may increase through the addition of salt ions
barangay coming from waste water effluents (Fondriest
Environmental Inc., 2014b). Knowing what water
Analysis of the results showed that there is no quality parameters to be tested will depend on
statistically significant difference between the the scope, budget and time constraints of the
water quality parameters (pH, EC, TDS, salinity) monitoring program. However, it is highly
across the barangays. Results suggest that the suggested to include microbiological aspects of
water quality parameters between the water be included in pollution studies to have a
barangays are relatively uniform which could more accurate result.
mean that there is no problem with the line
distribution systems. It was also observed that some of the water
parameters are not normally distributed (EC,
Conclusions and Recommendations TDS, salinity). Increasing the sample size and
selecting additional sampling points will help
Table 5. Comparison between the Water Quality improve the results of the study. It is important to
Measurements in SJDM City, Bulacan and National ensure that results of the monitoring will
Standards accurately represent the water quality of the
Parameter National Results whole city of SJDM. Random sampling may help
Standards 1 mg/L = 1 ppm
detect local water problems but are less useful
Temperaturea 26-30oC 25.3 - 28.15oC when detecting changes over time (Bartram &
(DAO)
Balance, 1996).
Total Dissolved 600 mg/L 72 - 77.5 ppm
Solidsb
pHa,b 6.5-8.5 7.6 – 7.95 The study was also limited due to the restriction
Chloridesb (EC, 250 mg/L 144.5 – 155 ppm (EC) brought by the pandemic. But it is highly
salinity) 72 – 78 ppm (salinity) recommended to have studies that will look into
Sulfatesb (EC, salinity) 250 mg/L the quality of the water sources (e.g. rivers,
Sodiumb (Salinity) 250 mg/L 72 – 78 ppm streams, ground wells, pump stations) as this
a
DENR Water Quality Guidelines and General Effluent Standards of will more effectively detect pollution problems. A
2016 more comprehensive spatio-temporal analysis of
b
Philippine National Standards for Drinking Water of 2017
the water quality is also highly recommended.
Sampling between the wet and dry season can
Results of the water quality of selected drinking
help detect issues in line distribution systems
water samples in SJDM city are found to be
since precipitation contribute to contamination
within the acceptable standards of the PNSDW
through surface run-off (EPA, n.d.).
and DENR Water Quality Guidelines. A
comparison of the water quality results vs.
Results of this study are just preliminary and
national standards can be seen in Table 5.
further analyses of the water’s microbiological
quality might be needed. Nevertheless, results
While the obtained water quality parameters are
of the study can serve as a guide for water
well below the national standards, sudden
service providers and other local authorities
changes in water conductivity may indicate
responsible for monitoring and evaluating the  Hargrave, M. (2021, April 15). Standard Deviation.
drinking water quality of SJDM City, Bulacan. Retrieved May 21, 2021, from
https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/standardde
References viation.asp
 Ahad, N. A., Yin, T. S., Othman, A. R., & Yaacob,  Laerd Statistics (2020). Pearson's product
C. R. (2011). Sensitivity of normality tests to non- moment correlation. Statistical tutorials and
normal data. Sains Malaysiana, 40(6), 637-641. software guides. Retrieved May 21, 2021, from
 Bauder, J., & Singler, A. W. (n.d.). Alkalinity, pH, https://statistics.laerd.com/statistical-guides/pears
and Total Dissolved Solids. Retrieved May 21, on-correlation-coefficient-statistical-guide.php
2021, from https://waterquality.montana.edu/well-  Melissa Denchak. Water Pollution: Everything You
ed/interpreting_results/fs_alkalinity_ph_tds.html Need to Know. NRDC, 14 May 2018,
 Bartram, J., & Ballance, R. (Eds.). (1996). Water www.nrdc.org/stories/water-pollution-everything-
quality monitoring: a practical guide to the design you-need-know.
and implementation of freshwater quality studies  Team, C. W. The Clean Water Team Guidance
and monitoring programmes. CRC Press. Compendium for Watershed Monitoring and
 CSJDM. (2018) City of San Jose Del Monte – Assessment.
Ecological Profile. City Planning and Development  US EPA. (2012, March 06). Chapter 5 Water
Office. Quality Conditions. Retrieved May 21, 2021, from
 East Central University. (2019, September 09). https://archive.epa.gov/water/archive/web/html/vm
What are the Causes of Water Pollution? s50.html#:~:text=Water quality monitoring is
Retrieved May 21, 2021, from defined,These may include:&text=Constituents
https://online.ecok.edu/articles/causes-of-water- found naturally in water,dissolved oxygen,
pollution/#:~:text=Industrial Waste,major bacteria, and nutrients
contributor to water pollution.&text=Industrial  Water.org. (n.d.). Philippines Water Crisis - Water
waste from agricultural sites,lead directly to the In The Philippines 2020. Retrieved May 21, 2021,
sea. from https://water.org/our-impact/where-we-
 European Environmental Agency. (2020, work/philippines/
November 23). 2. surface water quality  Westlab. (n.d.). How Does Temperature Affect
monitoring. Retrieved May 21, 2021, from pH? Westlab. Retrieved May 21, 2021, from
https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/92-9167- https://www.westlab.com/blog/2017/11/15/how-
001-4/page003.html does-temperature-affect-ph#:~:text=*pH
 Environmental Protection Agency. (n.d.). The decreases with increase in temperature.&text=In
Effect of Climate Change on Water Resources the case of pure,scale at this higher temperature.
and Programs. Retrieved May 21, 2021, from  World Health Organization. (1993). Guidelines for
https://cfpub.epa.gov/watertrain/moduleFrame.cfm drinking-water quality. World Health Organization.
?parent_object_id=2469  World Health Organization and UNICEF Progress
 Fondriest Environmental, Inc. “Water on household drinking water, sanitation and
Temperature.” Fundamentals of Environmental hygiene 2000-2017. Special focus on
Measurements. 7 Feb. 2014. Web. < inequalitiesexternal icon. United States: United
https://www.fondriest.com/environmental- Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) and World
measurements/parameters/water-quality/water- Health Organization (WHO) Joint Monitoring
temperature/ >. Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation,
 Fondriest Environmental, Inc. “Conductivity, 2019.
Salinity and Total Dissolved Solids.”  Wright J, Gundry S, Conroy R. Household
Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements. 3 drinking water in developing countries: a
Mar 2014. Web. < systematic review of microbiological
https://www.fondriest.com/environmental- contamination between source and point-of-use.
measurements/parameters/water-quality/ Trop Med Int Health. 2004 Jan;9(1):106-17. doi:
conductivity-salinity-tds/ >. 10.1046/j.1365-3156.2003.01160.x. PMID:
 Fondriest Environmental, Inc. “pH of Water.” 14728614.
Fundamentals of Environmental Measurements.  WWF. (n.d.). What is Freshwater and Where is it
19 Nov. 2013. Web. < Found? Retrieved May 21, 2021, from
https://www.fondriest.com/environmental- https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/freshwater
measurements/parameters/water-quality/ph/ >. -systems