ASSIGNMENT

NAME
MUHAMMAD SHOIB AKBAR
ROLL NUMBER
11
CLASS
M.PHILL PHYSICS 1ST SEMESTER

SUBMITTED TO
DR MUHAMMAD RAFIQUE
TOPIC NAME
Metal and metal oxide Nano material for their microbial activity in food packing

SUB TOPIC
1 Silver Nanoparticle
2 Anti-microbial performance of Silver Nanoparticle
3 Impact of Silver nanoparticle on gram +ve or -ve bacteria
4 Factor regulating the release rate of Silver Nanoparticle

UNIVERSITY OF SAHIWAL
Metal and metal oxide Nano material for their microbial activity in food packing

Nanotechnology has revolutionized almost all the fields of science and technology, particularly
the food packaging industry. Accordingly, some nanoparticles can be used in food contact
materials to preserve food products for longer periods. To date, many inorganic and metal
nanoparticles have been implemented to synthesize active food packaging materials and to
extend the shelf-life of foods. Packaging with nanocomposites containing these nanoparticles
offers advantages, such as reduction in the usage of preservatives and higher rate of reactions to
inhibit the microbial growth. Nevertheless, the safety issues of employing the metal and
inorganic nanoparticles in food packaging are still a major concern and more studies along with
clinical trials need to be carried out prior to the mass production of these promising food
containers. In this review, we have evaluated recent studies plus the applications of inorganic and
metal nanoparticles mostly in food packaging applications along with their antimicrobial
properties and reaction mechanisms. Many examples have been provided with the aim of
opening new horizons for researchers to implement inorganic and metal nanoparticles in active
food packaging field.
With an increase in antibiotic resistance, a growing interest in developing new antimicrobial
agents has gained popularity. Metal‐ and metal‐oxide‐based nanoparticles, surface‐to‐volume is
able to distinguish bacterial cells from mammalian cells and can provide long‐term antibacterial
and biofilm prevention. These nanoparticles elicit bactericidal properties through the generation
of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that are able to target physical structures, metabolic pathways,
and DNA synthesis of prokaryotic cells leading to cell death. In this progress report, a critical
analysis of current literature on antimicrobial effect of metal and metal‐oxide nanoparticles are
examined. Specifically, the antimicrobial mechanisms of metal ions and metal nanomaterials are
discussed. Antimicrobial efficiency of nanomaterials is correlated with the structural and
physical properties, such as size, shape, and/or zeta potential. A critical analysis of the current
state of metal and metal‐oxide nanomaterial research advances our understanding to overcome
antibiotic resistance and provide alternatives to combat bacterial infections. Finally, emerging
approaches to identify and minimize metallic poisoning, specifically for biomedical applications,
are examined.
Antibacterial properties of nanoparticles
Antibacterial agents are very important in the textile industry, water disinfection, medicine, and
food packaging. Organic compounds used for disinfection have some disadvantages, including
toxicity to the human body; therefore, the interest in inorganic disinfectants such as metal oxide
nanoparticles (NPs) is increasing. This review focuses on the properties and applications of
inorganic nanostructured materials and their surface modifications, with good antimicrobial
activity. Such improved antibacterial agents locally destroy bacteria, without being toxic to the
surrounding tissue. We also provide an overview of opportunities and risks of using NPs as
antibacterial agents. In particular, we discuss the role of different NP materials.
1 Silver Nano particle
Nano biotechnology is considered to be one of the fastest emerging fields. It is still a relatively
new and exciting area of research with considerable potential for development. Among the
inorganic nanomaterials, biogenically synthesized silver nanoparticles (bio-AgNPs) have been
frequently used due to their unique physicochemical properties that result not only from their
shape and size but also from surface coatings of natural origin. These properties determine
antibacterial, antifungal, antiprotozoal, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and many more activities
of bio-AgNPs. This review provides the current state of knowledge on the methods and
mechanisms of biogenic synthesis of silver nanoparticles as well as their potential applications in
different fields such as medicine, food, agriculture, and industries.
Silver nanoparticles are well known potent antimicrobial agents. Although significant progresses
have been achieved on the elucidation of antimicrobial mechanism of silver nanoparticles, the
exact mechanism of action is still not completely known. This overview incorporates a
retrospective of previous reviews published and recent original contributions on the progress of
research on antimicrobial mechanisms of silver nanoparticles. The main topics discussed include
release of silver nanoparticles and silver ions, cell membrane damage, DNA interaction, free
radical generation, bacterial resistance and the relationship of resistance to silver ions versus
resistance to silver nanoparticles. The focus of the overview is to summarize the current
knowledge in the field of antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles. The possibility that
pathogenic microbes may develop resistance to silver nanoparticles is also discussed. From the
Clinical to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized using
Cumin oil. Silver nanoparticles are the most generally utilized nanoparticles both in key
therapeutic sciences and clinical practice. Silver particles are connected to modified cell demise,
and expanded cytotoxicity in specific conditions.
Silver Nanoparticles: Synthesis
Recent advances in Nano science and nanotechnology radically changed the way we diagnose,
treat, and prevent various diseases in all aspects of human life. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are
one of the most vital and fascinating nanomaterial’s among several metallic nanoparticles that
are involved in biomedical applications. AgNPs play an important role in Nano science and
nanotechnology, particularly in Nano medicine. Although several noble metals have been used
for various purposes, AgNPs have been focused on potential applications in cancer diagnosis and
therapy. In this review, we discuss the synthesis of AgNPs using physical, chemical, and
biological methods. We also discuss the properties of AgNPs and methods for their
characterization. More importantly, we extensively discuss the multifunctional bio-applications
of AgNPs; for example, as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic,
and anti-cancer agents, and the mechanism of the anti-cancer activity of AgNPs. In addition, we
discuss therapeutic approaches and challenges for cancer therapy using AgNPs. Finally, we
conclude by discussing the future perspective of AgNPs.
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are increasingly used in various fields, including medical, food,
health care, consumer, and industrial purposes, due to their unique physical and chemical
properties. These include optical, electrical, and thermal, high electrical conductivity, and
biological properties. Due to their peculiar properties, they have been used for several
applications, including as antibacterial agents, in industrial, household, and healthcare-related
products, in consumer products, medical device coatings, optical sensors, and cosmetics, in the
pharmaceutical industry, the food industry, in diagnostics, orthopedics, drug delivery, as
anticancer agents, and have ultimately enhanced the tumor-killing effects of anticancer drugs.
Recently, AgNPs have been frequently used in many textiles, keyboards, wound dressings, and
biomedical devices [2,5,6]. Nanosized metallic particles are unique and can considerably change
physical, chemical, and biological properties due to their surface-to-volume ratio; therefore,
these nanoparticles have been exploited for various purposes. In order to fulfill the requirement
of AgNPs, various methods have been adopted for synthesis. Generally, conventional physical
and chemical methods seem to be very expensive and hazardous. Interestingly, biologically-
prepared AgNPs show high yield, solubility, and high stability. Among several synthetic
methods for AgNPs, biological methods seem to be simple, rapid, non-toxic, dependable, and
green approaches that can produce well-defined size and morphology under optimized conditions
for translational research. In the end, a green chemistry approach for the synthesis of AgNPs
shows much promise.
After synthesis, precise particle characterization is necessary, because the physicochemical
properties of a particle could have a significant impact on their biological properties. In order to
address the safety issue to use the full potential of any nan material in the purpose of human
welfare, in Nano medicines, or in the health care industry, etc., it is necessary to characterize the
prepared nanoparticles before application. The characteristic feature of nanomaterial’s, such as
size, shape, size distribution, surface area, shape, solubility, aggregation, etc. need to be
evaluated before assessing toxicity or biocompatibility. To evaluate the synthesized
nanomaterial’s, many analytical techniques have been used, including ultraviolet visible
spectroscopy (UV-vis spectroscopy), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), dynamic light scattering (DLS),
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force
microscopy (AFM), and so on.
The biological activity of AgNPs depends on factors including surface chemistry, size, size
distribution, shape, particle morphology, particle composition, coating/capping, agglomeration,
and dissolution rate, particle reactivity in solution, efficiency of ion release, and cell type, and
the type of reducing agents used for the synthesis of AgNPs are a crucial factor for the
determination of cytotoxicity. The physicochemical properties of nanoparticles enhance the
bioavailability of therapeutic agents after both systemic and local administration and other hand
it can affect cellular uptake, biological distribution, penetration into biological barriers, and
resultant therapeutic effects. Therefore, the development of AgNPs with controlled structures
that are uniform in size, morphology, and functionality are essential for various biomedical
applications.
Cancer is a complex, multifactorial disease which has the characteristic feature of the
uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells caused by several factors, including a
combination of genetic, external, internal, and environmental factors , and it is treated by various
treatments including chemotherapy, hormone therapy, surgery, radiation, immune therapy, and
targeted therapy . Therefore, the challenge is to identify effective, cost-effective, and sensitive
lead molecules that have cell-targeted specificity and increase the sensitivity. Recently, AgNPs
have been shown much interest because of their therapeutic applications in cancer as anticancer
agents, in diagnostics, and in probing. Taken literature into consideration, in this review we
focused on recent developments in synthesis, characterization, properties, and bio-applications
mainly on the antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer and anti-
antigenic properties of AgNPs in a single platform. This review also emphasizes mechanism of
anticancer activity, therapeutic approaches and the challenges and limitations of nanoparticles in
cancer therapy. Finally, this review ends with conclusion and the future perspective of AgNPs.
Generally, the synthesis of nanoparticles has been carried out using three different approaches,
including physical, chemical, and biological methods. In physical methods, nanoparticles are
prepared by evaporation-condensation using a tube furnace at atmospheric pressure .
Conventional physical methods including spark discharging and pyrolysis were used for the
synthesis of AgNPs . The advantages of physical methods are speed, radiation used as reducing
agents, and no hazardous chemicals involved, but the downsides are low yield and high energy
consumption, solvent contamination, and lack of uniform distribution .
Chemical methods use water or organic solvents to prepare the silver nanoparticles; this process
usually employs three main components, such as metal precursors, reducing agents, and
stabilizing/capping agents. Basically, the reduction of silver salts involves two stages (1)
nucleation; and (2) subsequent growth. In general, silver nanomaterial’s can be obtained by two
methods, classified as “top-down” and “bottom-up” The “top-down” method is the mechanical
grinding of bulk metals with subsequent stabilization using colloidal protecting agents . The
“bottom-up” methods include chemical reduction, electrochemical methods, and so no-
decomposition. The major advantage of chemical methods is high yield, contrary to physical
methods, which have low yield. The above-mentioned methods are extremely expensive.
Additionally, the materials used for AgNPs synthesis, such as citrate, borohydride, thio-glycerol,
and 2-mercaptoethanol are toxic and hazardous [41]. Apart from these disadvantages, the
manufactured particles are not of expected purity, as their surfaces were found to be sediment
with chemicals. It is also very difficult to prepare AgNPs with a well-defined size, requiring a
further step for the prevention of particle aggregation. In addition, during the synthesis process,
too many toxic and hazardous byproducts are excised out. Chemical methods make use of
techniques such as cry chemical synthesis, laser ablation, lithography, electrochemical reduction,
laser irradiation, Nano-decomposition, thermal decomposition, and chemical reduction. The
advantages of the chemical synthesis of nanoparticles are the ease of production, low cost, and
high yield; however, the use of chemical reducing agents are harmful to living organisms.
Uses of silver Nano Particles
Due to their peculiar properties, they have been used for several applications, including as
antibacterial agents, in industrial, household, and healthcare-related products, in consumer
products, medical device coatings, optical sensors, and cosmetics, in the pharmaceutical industry,
the food industry, in diagnostics. Due to their peculiar properties, they have been used for several
applications, including as antibacterial agents, in industrial, household, and healthcare-related
products, in consumer products, medical device coatings, optical sensors, and cosmetics, in the
pharmaceutical industry, the food industry, in Metal-based nanoparticles are known to have a
non-specific bacterial toxicity mechanism (they do not bind to a specific receptor in the bacterial
cell) which not only makes the development of resistance by bacteria difficult, but also broadens
the spectrum of antibacterial activity.
Metal-based nanoparticles have been extensively investigated for a set of biomedical
applications. According to the World Health Organization, in addition to their reduced size and
selectivity for bacteria, metal-based nanoparticles have also proved to be effective against
pathogens listed as a priority. Metal-based nanoparticles are known to have a non-specific
bacterial toxicity mechanism (they do not bind to a specific receptor in the bacterial cell) which
not only make the development of resistance by bacteria difficult, but also broadens the spectrum
of antibacterial activity. As a result, a large majority of metal-based nanoparticles efficacy
studies performed so far have shown promising results in both Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria. The aim of this review has been a comprehensive discussion of the state of the art on
the use of the most relevant types of metal nanoparticles employed as antimicrobial agents. A
special emphasis to silver nanoparticles is given, while others (e.g., gold, zinc oxide, copper, and
copper oxide nanoparticles) commonly used in ant biotherapy are also reviewed. The novelty of
this review relies on the comparative discussion of the different types of metal nanoparticles,
their production methods, physicochemical characterization, and pharmacokinetics together with
the toxicological risk encountered with the use of different types of nanoparticles as
antimicrobial agents. Their added-value in the development of alternative, more effective
antibiotics against multi-resistant Gram-negative bacteria has been highlighted.
Metal-Based Nanoparticle Mechanisms
Bacteria have specific characteristics that explain their behavior in contact with metal
nanoparticles. Since the main toxicological effect induced by antimicrobial compounds in
bacteria occurs by direct contact with the cell surface, it is important to understand the
differences between the cell wall of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
Both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria have a negatively charged surface. Gram-
positive bacteria have a thick layer of peptidoglycan formed by linear chains alternating residues
of N-acetyl glucosamine (NAG) and N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM) linked together by a
sequence of 3 to 5 amino acids that cross-link each other, forming a cohesive mesh. Additionally,
negatively charged teichoic acids (with high levels of phosphate groups) extend from the cell
wall to the surface of most Gram-positive bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria, on the other hand,
have a slightly more complex structure. In addition to the thin layer of peptidoglycan, Gram-
negative bacteria have a phospholipid outer membrane with partially phosphorylated
lipopolysaccharides (LPS) that contribute to increase the negative surface charge of their cell
envelope.
Negatively charged bacterial cell walls attract positively charged nanoparticles to their surface
due to electrostatic interactions. On the other hand, positively charged metal-based nanoparticles
establish a strong bond with membranes, resulting in disruption of cell walls and, consequently,
increase their permeability. In addition, nanoparticles can also release metal ions from the
extracellular space, capable of entering the cell and disrupt biological processes. Inside the cell,
either metal ions or nanoparticles can induce production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). The
oxidative stress generated leads to oxidation of glutathione, thus suppressing the antioxidant
defense mechanism of bacteria against ROS. The metal ions are then free to interact with cellular
structures (e.g., proteins, membranes, DNA), disrupting cell functions. Metal ions can form
strong coordination bonds with N, O, or S atoms which are abundant in organic compounds and
biomolecules. Since the bond between metal ions and biomolecules is generally non-specific,
metal-based nanoparticles generally exhibit a broad spectrum activity.
Materials and method:
Preparation of denaturation particles using Cumin oil and evaluating the anti-inflammatory
activity by using albumin denaturation assay technique.
The characteristic surface Plasmon absorption band was observed at 440nm. It is observed that
with the increase in concentration, the anti-inflammatory activity of silver nanoparticles
increases. Silver nanoparticles synthesized using cumin oil exhibited potent anti-inflammatory
activity and hence can be used along with anti-inflammatory drugs, which would potentiate the
effect of the drugs.
What factors control the size and shape of silver nanoparticles in the citrate ion reduction
method?
Citrate ion, a commonly used reductant in metal colloid synthesis, undergoes strong surface
interaction with silver Nano crystallites. The slow crystal growth observed as a result of the
interaction between the silver surface and the citrate ion makes this reduction process unique
compared to other chemical and radiolytic synthetic methods. Addition of citrate ions to
preformed silver colloids (Ag-capped SiO2) results in the complexation of citrate with silver
colloids. The difference absorption spectra of SiO2−Ag colloids in the presence of citrate ions
show an increase in the absorption at 410 nm with increase in concentration of citrate. The
apparent association constant as determined from these absorption changes is 220 M-1. Pulse-
radiolysis studies show that citrate ions complex with the silver seeds and influence the particle
growth. For example, one of the primary intermediates, Ag2+ produced in the radiolytic
reduction of silver ions, readily interacts with citrate to form a complex absorbing in the 410-nm
region. The complex, [Ag2+−citrate], undergoes slower transformations compared to
uncomplexed Ag2+. This slow transformation of the citrate complex eventually leads to the
formation of larger clusters of silver. Steady-state and pulse-radiolysis experiments provide
evidence for the multiple roles of citrate ions as a reluctant, complexant, and stabilizer that
collectively dictate the size and shape of silver Nano crystallites.
Silver nanoparticle applications
Nanomaterials bear the promise of revolutionizing the development of biomaterials for the
medical sciences and biosensing. However, prior to safe and efficacious translational
applications of such materials in the clinic, comprehension of the nature of nanoparticles and the
properties they impart to the materials that they are incorporated into them, is necessary. Hence,
multidisciplinary collaboration amongst biologists, chemists, engineers, physicists, and clinicians
is critical for designing the next generation of nanomaterials with improved biological activity
and regenerative properties, and for moving these along the translational pipeline from “bench to
bedside.” Silver nanoparticles, in particular, have a special, almost unique, place among nano-
sized materials. This is due to their unique and multi-functional properties that include their
archetypical antimicrobial activity, excellent thermoplasmonic capabilities, and superior surface
Raman properties. This book, authored by active researchers, reviews the latest research on silver
nanoparticles and nanomaterials around the globe. We provide an overview of the current
knowledge on the synthesis, uses, and applications of nanoparticulate silver. In short, students
and researchers in the field will gain an up-to-date understanding of what silver nanoparticles
are, their current uses, and future challenges and horizons of these nanomaterials in the
development of new materials with improved properties.

Silver Nanoparticles: Synthesis

Recent advances in nanoscience and nanotechnology radically changed the way we diagnose,
treat, and prevent various diseases in all aspects of human life. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are
one of the most vital and fascinating nanomaterials among several metallic nanoparticles that are
involved in biomedical applications. AgNPs play an important role in nanoscience and
nanotechnology, particularly in nanomedicine. Although several noble metals have been used for
various purposes, AgNPs have been focused on potential applications in cancer diagnosis and
therapy. In this review, we discuss the synthesis of AgNPs using physical, chemical, and
biological methods. We also discuss the properties of AgNPs and methods for their
characterization. More importantly, we extensively discuss the multifunctional bio-applications
of AgNPs; for example, as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic,
and anti-cancer agents, and the mechanism of the anti-cancer activity of AgNPs. In addition, we
discuss therapeutic approaches and challenges for cancer therapy using AgNPs. Finally, we
conclude by discussing the future perspective of AgNPs.
Characterization
Characterization of AgNPs is important in order to evaluate the functional aspects of the
synthesized particles. Characterization is performed using a variety of analytical techniques,
including UV-vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffractometry (XRD), Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), dynamic light scattering (DLS),
scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and atomic
force microscopy (AFM). Several qualified books and reviews have presented the principles and
usage of various kinds of analytical techniques for the characterization of AgNPs; however, the
basics of the important techniques used for the characterization of AgNPs are detailed below for
ease of understanding. For example, characterization of AgNPs using various analytical
techniques prepared from culture supernatant of Bacillus species was given in
2 Anti-microbial performance of silver nanoparticles
The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the antimicrobial potential of styrene-
ethylene/butylene-styrene based thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) incorporated with zinc
pyrithione (ZnPT) and silver nanoparticles (AgNano). Japan Industrial Standard was applied to
evaluate the antimicrobial potential of incorporated TPE compounds against Staphylococcus
aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli). Antifungal action was evaluated against
Aspergillus niger, Candida albicans and Cladosporium cladosporioides. Samples prepared with
ZnPT eliminated 99.9% of the E. coli and 99.7 % of the S. aureus population, and presented an
inhibition zone in the fungal assay. Samples prepared with AgNano eliminated 99.7% of the E.
coli and 95.5 % of the S. aureus population. There was no inhibition zone in samples containing
AgNano; however, these samples did not present fungal growth on their surfaces. TPE samples
containing ZnPT showed biocidal activity against the microorganisms tested and can be used to
develop antimicrobial products.
The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the antimicrobial potential of styrene-
ethylene/butylene-styrene based thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) incorporated with zinc
pyrithione (ZnPT) and silver nanoparticles (AgNano). Japan Industrial Standard was applied to
evaluate the antimicrobial potential of incorporated TPE compounds against Staphylococcus
aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli). Antifungal action was evaluated against
Aspergillus Niger, Candida albicans and Cladosporium cladosporioides. Samples prepared with
ZnPT eliminated 99.9% of the E. coli and 99.7 % of the S. aureus population, and presented an
inhibition zone in the fungal assay. Samples prepared with AgNano eliminated 99.7% of the E.
coli and 95.5 % of the S. aureus population. There was no inhibition zone in samples containing
AgNano; however, these samples did not present fungal growth on their surfaces. TPE samples
containing ZnPT showed biocidal activity against the microorganisms tested and can be used to
develop antimicrobial products.
The aim of this study was the development of a non-toxic, biosynthetic antimicrobial agent
which selectively acts on only one type of microorganism, and preserves the microbiota.
Antimicrobial performance of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) by horsetail
(Equisetum arvense L.) extract was examined against Gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli
and Gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus, as well as yeasts Candida albicans and
Saccharomyces boulardii. Also, the cytotoxicity of Ag NPs was examined toward pre-osteoblast
cells. The synthetic conditions—concentration of extract, temperature, and pH—were optimized
to prepare silver colloids with different particle size distributions and long-term stability. The
obtained samples were characterized using transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction
analysis, and absorption spectroscopy. The smaller-sized Ag NPs (~ 10–20 nm), prepared at a
lower temperature (20 °C), showed better antimicrobial performance against E. coli compared to
larger ones (~ 40–60 nm), prepared at high temperature (100 °C). On the other hand, both
samples did not display any toxic action against bacteria S. aureus, or yeasts C. albicans and S.
boulardin. Non-cytotoxic behavior of Ag NPs toward pre-osteoblast cells was observed for the
concentrations of silver ≤ 2.25 and ≤ 4.5 mg L−1 for 10–20 and 40–60 nm-sized Ag NPs,
respectively. Biosynthesized Ag NPs by horsetail extract display selective toxic action against E.
coli at the ecologically acceptable concentration level.\
3 Impact of silver nanoparticles on gram positive or negative bacteria
The bactericidal efficiency of various positively and negatively charged silver nanoparticles has
been extensively evaluated in literature, but there is no report on efficacy of neutrally charged
silver nanoparticles. The goal of this study is to evaluate the role of electrical charge at the
surface of silver nanoparticles on antibacterial activity against a panel of microorganisms. Three
different silver nanoparticles were synthesized by different methods, providing three different
electrical surface charges (positive, neutral, and negative).The antibacterial activity of these
nanoparticles was tested against gram-positive (i.e., Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
mutans, and Streptococcus pyogenes) and gram-negative (i.e., Escherichia coli and Proteus
vulgaris) bacteria. Well diffusion and micro-dilution tests were used to evaluate the bactericidal
activity of the nanoparticles. According to the obtained results, the positively-charged silver
nanoparticles showed the highest bactericidal activity against all microorganisms tested. The
negatively charged silver nanoparticles had the least and the neutral nanoparticles had
intermediate antibacterial activity. The most resistant bacteria were Proteus vulgaris. We found
that the surface charge of the silver nanoparticles was a significant factor affecting bactericidal
activity on these surfaces. Although the positively charged nanoparticles showed the highest
level of effectiveness against the organisms tested, the neutrally charged particles were also
potent against most bacterial species.

One of the negative aspects of overuse of silver nanoparticles is their impact on the environment:
people, animals, and plants. They accumulate in skin (causing permanent decolorization of the
skin, called argyria), kidney, brain and heart. Water ecosystems are especially prone to exposure.
However, one of the dangers may be changes in microbial sensitivity to silver nanoparticles.
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been demonstrated to restrain bacterial growth, while
maintaining minimal risk in development of bacterial resistance and human cell toxicity that
conventional silver compounds exhibit. Several physical and chemical methods have been
reported to synthesize AgNPs. However, these methods are expensive and involve heavy
chemical reduction agents. An alternative approach to produce AgNPs in a cost-effective and
environmentally friendly way employs a biological pathway using various plant extracts to
reduce metal ions. The size control issue, and the stability of nanoparticles, remain some of the
latest challenges in such methods. In this study, we used two different concentrations of fresh
leaf extract of the plant Arbutus unedo (LEA) as a reducing and stabilizing agent to produce two
size variations of AgNPs. UV-Vis spectroscopy, Dynamic Light Scattering, Transmission
Electron Microscopy, and zeta potential were applied for the characterization of AgNPs. Both
AgNP variations were evaluated for their antibacterial efficacy against the gram-negative species
Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as well as the gram-positive species Bacillus
subtilis and Staphylococcus epidermidis. Although significant differences have been achieved in
the nanoparticles’ size by varying the plant extract concentration during synthesis, the
antibacterial effect was almost the same.
Silver nanoparticles showed significant antibacterial activity against the selected Gram-negative
foodborne pathogens. Thus, AgNPs might be a good alternative to develop as antibacterial agent
against the multidrug-resistant strains of bacteria. Antibacterial action of silver nanoparticles
(AgNP) on Gram-negative bacteria (planctonic cells and biofilms) is reported in this study.
AgNP of 8.3 nm in diameter stabilized by hydrolyzed casein peptides strongly inhibited biofilms
formation of Escherichia coli AB1157, Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 and Serratia
proteamaculans 94 in concentrations of 4–5 μg/ml, 10 μg/ml and 10–20 μg/ml, respectively. The
viability of E. coli AB1157 cells in biofilms was considerably reduced by AgNP concentrations
above 100 to −150 μg/ml. E. coli strains with mutations in genes responsible for the repair of
DNA containing oxidative lesions (mutY, mutS, mutM, mutT, nth) were less resistant to AgNP
than wild type strains. This suggests that these genes may be involved in the repair of DNA
damage caused by AgNP. E. coli mutants deficient in excision repair, SOS-response and in the
synthesis of global regulators RpoS, CRP protein and Lon protease present similar resistance to
AgNP as wild type cells. LuxI/LuxR Quorum Sensing systems did not participate in the control
of sensitivity to AgNP of Pseudomonas and Serratia. E. coli mutant strains deficient in OmpF or
OmpC porins were 4–8 times more resistant to AgNP as compared to the wild type strain. This
suggests that porins have an important function related AgNP antibacterial effects.
Increasing exposure to engineered inorganic nanoparticles takes actually place in both terrestric
and aquatic ecosystems worldwide. Although we already know harmful effects of AgNP on the
soil bacterial community, information about the impact of the factors functionalization,
concentration, exposure time, and soil texture on the AgNP effect expression are still rare.
Hence, in this study, three soils of different grain size were exposed for up to 90 days to bare and
functionalized AgNP in concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 1.00 mg/kg soil dry weight. Effects
on soil microbial community were quantified by various biological parameters, including 16S
rRNA gene, photometric, and fluorescence analyses.
Our research focused on the production, characterization and application of silver nanoparticles
(AgNPs), which can be utilized in biomedical research and environmental cleaning applications.
We used an environmentally friendly extracellular biosynthetic technique for the production of
the AgNPs. The reducing agents used to produce the nanoparticles were from aqueous extracts
made from the leaves of various plants. Synthesis of colloidal AgNPs was monitored by UV-
Visible spectroscopy. The UV-Visible spectrum showed a peak between 417 and 425 nm
corresponding to the Plasmon absorbance of the AgNPs. The characterization of the AgNPs such
as their size and shape was performed by Atom Force Microscopy (AFM), and Transmission
Electron Microscopy (TEM) techniques which indicated a size range of 3 to 15 nm. The anti-
bacterial activity of AgNPs was investigated at concentrations between 2 and 15 ppm for Gram-
negative and Gram-positive bacteria. Staphylococcus aurous and Kocuria rhizophila, Bacillus
thuringiensis (Gram-positive organisms); Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and
Salmonella typhimurium (Gram-negative organisms) were exposed to AgNPs using Bioscreen C.
The results indicated that AgNPs at a concentration of 2 and 4 ppm, inhibited bacterial growth.
Preliminary evaluation of cytotoxicity of biosynthesized silver nanoparticles was accomplished
using the InQ™ Cell Research System instrument with HEK 293 cells. This investigation
demonstrated that silver nanoparticles with a concentration of 2 ppm and 4 ppm were not toxic
for human healthy cells, but inhibit bacterial growth.
This manuscript investigates the effect of silver nanoparticles of different doses and shapes on
different gram reaction stain bacteria found in wastewater and to make a comparison between the
chemical and physical analyses for some water samples before and after treatment with AgNPs.
Two shapes (rod, cube) and four concentrations of 0, 100, 10 and of AgNPs were used on
Klebsiella pneumonia, Bacillus cereus and Gardnerella vaginalis. The effect of the interaction
between the best AgNPs shape and concentration on tap water inoculated with bacterial species
and physical and chemical analyses of water before and after treatment with silver nanoparticles
were also investigated. Based on the analysis of variance for growth reduction data for the three
bacteria, the models showed significance at . Generally, rod shape with concentration of showed
the best reduction results compared to cube-shaped particles with mean values of and −73.354
for G. vaginalis, B. cereus and K. pneumonia, respectively. Treating tap water inoculated with
the bacterial species by silver nanoparticles showed no growth for the bacteria after 1 or 3 days.
In general, tap water chemical and physical analyses values before and after treating with AgNPs
were increased after treating the sample with AgNPs except for the pH where it shifted from 8.3
to 6.65. However, these values are still within the Saudi maximum limit except the values of
turbidity. These results are encouraging for scaling up a treatment process using AgNPs.
4 Factor regulating release rate of Silver nanoparticles
An oil-in-water solvent evaporation method was used to prepare cyclosporine A (CyA)–loaded
particles varying in size (nanoparticles, ‘small-sized’ microparticles, ‘large-sized’
microparticles), polymer compositions [poly (d,l-lactase-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) 50/50, PLGA
85/15, poly(d,l-lactic acid) (PLA)] and additive fatty acid ester (ethyl myristate; EM). The
particles were characterized for drug loading and entrapment efficiency by high-performance
liquid chromatography, particle size by dynamic light scattering and surface morphology by
scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In vitro release kinetics were studied using a modified
dialysis method. The results showed drug loadings ranging from 6.48 to 9.01% with high
encapsulation efficiency (71.2–98.9%). SEM studies showed discrete and spherical particles with
smooth surfaces, whereas rather gross surface defects resulted from the incorporation of EM as
an additive. The release profiles of various formulations approximated zero-order release kinetics
in the first 3 weeks with a negligible initial burst. In general, the smaller the particle size and the
higher the glycolic acid content in the copolymer, the faster the release of CyA. The effect of EM
on the release profile appeared to be rather complex since an increased release rate was observed
from EM containing PLGA 50/50 particles, whereas the incorporation of EM into the PLGA
85/15 and PLA particles led to a decreased release rate. Further investigation needs to be
performed to elucidate the reason why EM influences the CyA release differently depending on
the particle size and polymer type.
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are used increasingly in consumer products for their antimicrobial
properties. This increased use raises ecological concern because of the release of AgNPs into the
environment. Once released, zero-valent silver may be oxidized to Ag+ and the cation liberated
or it may persist as AgNPs. The chemical form of Ag has implications for its toxicity; it is
therefore crucial to characterize the persistence of AgNPs to predict their ecotoxicological
potential. In this study, we evaluated the release of Ag from AgNPs of various sizes exposed to
river and lake water for up to 4 months. Several AgNP-capping agents were also considered:
polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), tannic acid (Tan), and citric acid (Cit). We observed a striking
difference between 5, 10, and 50 nm AgNPs, with the latter being more resistant to dissolution in
oxic water on a mass basis. However, the difference decreased when Ag was surface-area-
normalized, suggesting an important role of the surface area in determining Ag loss. We propose
that rapid initial Ag+ release was attributable to desorption of Ag+ from nanoparticle surfaces.
We also observed that PVP- and Tan-AgNPs are more prone to Ag+ release than Cit-AgNPs. In
addition, it is likely that oxidative dissolution also occurs but at a slower rate. This study clearly
shows that small AgNPs (5 nm, PVP and Tan) dissolve rapidly and almost completely, while
larger AgNPs (50 nm) have the potential to persist for an extended period of time and could
serve as a continuous source of Ag ions.
Recent advances in nanoscience and nanotechnology radically changed the way we diagnose,
treat, and prevent various diseases in all aspects of human life. Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are
one of the most vital and fascinating nanomaterials among several metallic nanoparticles that are
involved in biomedical applications. AgNPs play an important role in nanoscience and
nanotechnology, particularly in nanomedicine. Although several noble metals have been used for
various purposes, AgNPs have been focused on potential applications in cancer diagnosis and
therapy. In this review, we discuss the synthesis of AgNPs using physical, chemical, and
biological methods. We also discuss the properties of AgNPs and methods for their
characterization. More importantly, we extensively discuss the multifunctional bio-applications
of AgNPs; for example, as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenic,
and anti-cancer agents, and the mechanism of the anti-cancer activity of AgNPs. In addition, we
discuss therapeutic approaches and challenges for cancer therapy using AgNPs. Finally, we
conclude by discussing the future perspective of AgNPs.
Multivariate data analysis revealed significant effects of AgNP exposure for all factors and factor
combinations investigated. Analysis of individual factors (silver species, concentration, exposure
time, soil texture) in the unifactorial ANOVA explained the largest part of the variance
compared to the error variance. In depth analysis of factor combinations revealed even better
explanation of variance. For the biological parameters assessed in this study, the matching of soil
texture and silver species, and the matching of soil texture and exposure time were the two most
relevant factor combinations. The factor AgNP concentration contributed to a lower extent to the
effect expression compared to silver species, exposure time and physico–chemical composition
of soil. The factors functionalization, concentration, exposure time, and soil texture significantly
impacted the effect expression of AgNP on the soil microbial community. Especially long-term
exposure scenarios are strongly needed for the reliable environmental impact assessment of
AgNP exposure in various soil types.
Major pathways in the antibacterial activity and eukaryotic toxicity of nano-silver involve the
silver cation and its soluble complexes, which are well established thiol toxicants. Through these
pathways, nano-silver behaves in analogy to a drug delivery system, in which the particle
contains a concentrated inventory of an active species, the ion, which is transported to and
released near biological target sites. Although the importance of silver ion in the biological
response to nano-silver is widely recognized, the drug delivery paradigm has not been well
developed for this system, and there is significant potential to improve nano-silver technologies
through controlled release formulations. This article applies elements of the drug delivery
paradigm to nano-silver dissolution and presents a systematic study of chemical concepts for
controlled release. After presenting thermodynamic calculations of silver species partitioning in
biological media, the rates of oxidative silver dissolution are measured for nanoparticles and
macroscopic foils and used to derive unified area-based release kinetics. A variety of competing
chemical approaches are demonstrated for controlling the ion release rate over four orders of
magnitude. Release can be systematically slowed by thiol and citrate ligand binding, formation
of sulfidic coatings, or the scavenging of peroxy-intermediates. Release can be accelerated by
pre-oxidation or particle size reduction, while polymer coatings with complexation sites alter the
release profile by storing and release inventories of surface-bound silver. Finally, the ability to
tune biological activity is demonstrated through bacterial inhibition zone assay carried out on
selected formulations of controlled release nano-silver.
Tremendous variability in size, shape, and surface chemistry (e.g. Fig. 1), and it is likely that this
variability can be exploited to tune the biological activity and applied dose of nano-silver
products. There are published studies on release from silver-polymer composites,18–22 but no
fundamental systematic studies of controlled release chemistry for colloidal nano-silver surfaces.
The present article therefore applies elements of the drug delivery paradigm to nano-silver
dissolution, and presents a systematic study of competing chemical concepts for controlled
release. Because the major ion source is oxidation, we hypothesize that ion release can be
controlled through manipulation of the oxidation pathways, involving surface area (size), ligand
binding, polymeric coatings, sulfidic films, scavenging of peroxy-intermediates, and pre-
oxidation treatments.
The bactericidal efficiency of various positively and negatively charged silver nanoparticles has
been extensively evaluated in literature, but there is no report on efficacy of neutrally charged
silver nanoparticles. The goal of this study is to evaluate the role of electrical charge at the
surface of silver nanoparticles on antibacterial activity against a panel of microorganisms. Three
different silver nanoparticles were synthesized by different methods, providing three different
electrical surface charges (positive, neutral, and negative).The antibacterial activity of these
nanoparticles was tested against gram-positive (i.e., Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus
mutans, and Streptococcus pyogenes) and gram-negative (i.e., Escherichia coli and Proteus
vulgaris) bacteria. Well diffusion and micro-dilution tests were used to evaluate the bactericidal
activity of the nanoparticles. According to the obtained results, the positively-charged silver
nanoparticles showed the highest bactericidal activity against all microorganisms tested. The
negatively charged silver nanoparticles had the least and the neutral nanoparticles had
intermediate antibacterial activity. The most resistant bacteria were Proteus vulgaris. We found
that the surface charge of the silver nanoparticles was a significant factor affecting bactericidal
activity on these surfaces. Although the positively charged nanoparticles showed the highest
level of effectiveness against the organisms tested, the neutrally charged particles were also
potent against most bacterial species.
It is inevitable that nano-silver will be released into the environment. Therefore, there is an
urgent need to better understand the effects of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) on microbes in
natural and engineered environments. The most remarkable gap in our knowledge on this lies on
the low Ag-NPs dose side. This review summarized studies on the effects of Ag-NPs on bacteria
from simple to complicated aquatic systems. A hermetic model with a narrow stimulatory zone
has been proposed based on both experimental phenomenon and the potential mechanisms of the
observed effects. Spectrum of the stimulating zone depends on Ag-NP properties, bacterial types
and environmental conditions tested. This may become a concern in terms of Ag-NP disposal,
and further research is required to build a sophisticated toxicity model for Ag-NPs.
Silver is commonly used as an antibacterial agent, e.g., in various medical applications, and the
availability of silver nanoparticles (AgNP) has fueled this development. Their antibacterial
properties are well defined, whereas there are concerns regarding unknown and potentially
harmful effects of AgNPs on immune cells and an ongoing immune reaction. Aim of the present
study is a comparison of the effects of AgNPs and ionic silver (Ag+) on cells of the innate
immune system, in particular on neutrophil granulocytes and macrophages. The AgNPs were
synthesized within hydroxylated polyester dendrimer templates via an in situ approach,
generating five kinds of AgNPs with mean diameters from 2.0 to 34.7 nm.4 No impact is
observed on phagocytosis and oxidative burst, as well as activation of the promoter for the pro-
inflammatory cytokine TNF-α. In contrast, both AgNPs and Ag+, but not the dendrimer
templates, trigger the release of neutrophil extracellular traps and inhibit the formation of nitric
monoxide. On the molecular level, AgNPs and Ag+ cause elevated intracellular levels of reactive
oxygen species and the second messenger Zn2+. Moreover, protein phosphatases are inhibited by
an oxidative mechanism. Taken together, there are several effects of AgNPs on neutrophil
granulocytes and macrophages in vitro, but these are not specific for AgNP, instead they are also
observed with Ag+, and Ag+ released from AgNPs seems to be the component responsible for
most of the particles' immunomodulatory activity.
When silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are used commercially at a large scale, they infiltrate the
environment at a rapid pace. However, the impact of large quantities of AgNPs on aquatic
ecosystems is still largely unknown. In aquatic ecosystems, the phytoplanktons have a vital
ecological function and, therefore, the potential impact of AgNPs on the microalgae community
has elicited substantial concern. Therefore, in this study, the impacts of AgNPs on a marine
diatom, the Skeletonema costatum, are investigated, with a focus on their photosynthesis and
associated mechanisms. Exposure to AgNPs at a concentration of 0.5 mg l−1 significantly
induces excess intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS, 122%) and reduces 28% of their cell
viability. More importantly, exposure to AgNPs reduces the algal chlorophyll‐a content.
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was conducted, which revealed that AgNPs obstruct the
light absorption of algae because they adhere to their surface. The maximum photochemical
efficiency of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) demonstrates that exposure to AgNPs significantly inhibits
the conversion of light energy into photosynthetic electron transport. Moreover, the genes of the
photosystem II reaction center protein (D1) are significantly down‐regulated (P < 0.05) upon
exposure to 5 mg l−1 AgNPs. These results suggest that the physical adhesion and effects of
shading of AgNPs on algae might affect their light energy delivery system and damage the
crucial protein function of PSII. The photosynthesis inhibition effect of AgNPs is largely
different from Ag+. This study shows that AgNPs at higher concentrations might have serious
consequences for the succession of the phytoplankton communities and aquatic ecosystem
equilibrium.
There has been a recent increase in the use of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) in a wide range of
consumer products due to their highly effective antimicrobial properties. However, Ag NPs give
cause for concern since their wide use makes them likely to be released into aquatic ecosystems
and potentially affect natural bacterial communities. In this study marine biofilms were grown in
situ in a coastal site (Singapore Harbour) and exposed in the laboratory for a further 24h to 0–
2000μgL−1 of well characterised Ag NPs. Increasing concentrations of Ag NPs caused a
significant decrease in biofilm volume and biomass, and Ag uptake by biofilms per unit of
volume was also dependent on concentration. Terminal fragment length polymorphisms and
subsequent cluster and phylogenetic analysis showed the presence of major bacterial groups in
biofilms irrespective of treatment with Ag NPs. This implies that even at the highest
concentrations studied these taxonomic groups were not displaced. Nevertheless, biofilm
succession was impeded on Ag NP treated biofilms, affecting the relative abundance of major
bacterial groups in the biofilm community, with potential longer term effects on biofilm
development and function.
Nanotechnology has recently emerged as a rapidly growing field with numerous biomedical
science applications. At the same time, silver has been adopted as an antimicrobial material and
disinfectant that is relatively free of adverse effects. Silver nanoparticles possess a broad
spectrum of antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral properties. Silver nanoparticles have the ability
to penetrate bacterial cell walls, changing the structure of cell membranes and even resulting in
cell death. Their efficacy is due not only to their nanoscale size but also to their large ratio of
surface area to volume. They can increase the permeability of cell membranes, produce reactive
oxygen species, and interrupt replication of deoxyribonucleic acid by releasing silver ions.
Researchers have studied silver nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents in dentistry. For instance,
silver nanoparticles can be incorporated into acrylic resins for fabrication of removable dentures
in prosthetic treatment, composite resin in restorative treatment, irrigating solution and
obturation material in endodontic treatment, adhesive materials in orthodontic treatment,
membrane for guided tissue regeneration in periodontal treatment, and titanium coating in dental
implant treatment. Although not all authorities have acknowledged the safety of silver
nanoparticles, no systemic toxicity of ingested silver nanoparticles has been reported. A broad
concern is their potential hazard if they are released into the environment. However, the
interaction of nanoparticles with toxic materials and organic compounds can either increase or
reduce their toxicity. This paper provides an overview of the antibacterial use of silver
nanoparticles in dentistry, highlighting their antibacterial mechanism, potential applications and
safety in clinical treatment.
Nanotechnology is defined as the design, characterization and application of structures, devices
and systems by controlling shape and size at a nanometer scale (1 nm to 100 nm).1 It is an
emerging field of research, with various applications in science and technology, particularly for
developing new materials. Nanoparticles are developed with unique properties that make them
desirable in materials science and biology.1 Among various nanoparticles, silver nanoparticles
have been one of the most popular objects of study in recent decades.2 Silver nanoparticles
contain 20 to 15,000 silver atoms, and their diameters are usually smaller than 100 nm. Due to a
large surface-to-volume ratio, silver nanoparticles exhibit remarkable antimicrobial activity, even
at a low concentration.3 In addition, they are low cost and have shown low cytotoxicity and
immunological response.4 Therefore, silver nanoparticles have multiple potential biomedical
applications. They are used for drug delivery, medical imaging and molecular diagnostics.5 They
are also used in therapeutics, such as surgical mesh, fabrication of artificial joint replacements,
wound dressing and medicament for promotion of wound healing.6
In dentistry, silver nanoparticles are used to develop antibacterial materials to improve the
quality of the dental appliance for a better treatment outcome. They can be incorporated to
acrylic resins for fabrication of removable dentures in prosthetic treatment, composite resin for
direct restoration in restorative treatment, irrigating solution and obturation material in
endodontic treatment, adhesive materials in orthodontic treatment, membrane for guided tissue
regeneration in periodontal treatment, and titanium coating in dental implant treatment.7 This
study provides an overview of the antibacterial use of silver nanoparticles in dentistry,
highlighting their antimicrobial mechanism, applications and safety in clinical treatment.
Although the exact mechanism of silver nanoparticles’ antibacterial effects has not been entirely
clarified, various antibacterial actions have been proposed . nanoparticles can continually release
silver ions, which may be considered the mechanism of killing microbes.7 Owing to electrostatic
attraction and affinity to sulfur proteins, silver ions can adhere to the cell wall and cytoplasmic
membrane. The adhered ions can enhance the permeability of the cytoplasmic membrane and
lead to disruption of the bacterial envelope.8 After the uptake of free silver ions into cells,
respiratory enzymes can be deactivated, generating reactive oxygen species but interrupting
adenosine triphosphate production.9 Reactive oxygen species can be a principal agent in the
provocation of cell membrane disruption and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) modification. As
sulfur and phosphorus are important components of DNA, the interaction of silver ions with the
sulfur and phosphorus of DNA can cause problems in DNA replication, cell reproduction, or
even result in termination of the microorganisms. Moreover, silver ions can inhibit the synthesis
of proteins by denaturing ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Silver nanoparticles are well known potent antimicrobial agents. Although significant progresses
have been achieved on the elucidation of antimicrobial mechanism of silver nanoparticles, the
exact mechanism of action is still not completely known. This overview incorporates a
retrospective of previous reviews published and recent original contributions on the progress of
research on antimicrobial mechanisms of silver nanoparticles. The main topics discussed include
release of silver nanoparticles and silver ions, cell membrane damage, DNA interaction, free
radical generation, bacterial resistance and the relationship of resistance to silver ions versus
resistance to silver nanoparticles. The focus of the overview is to summarize the current
knowledge in the field of antibacterial activity of silver nanoparticles. The possibility that
pathogenic microbes may develop resistance to silver nanoparticles is also discussed.
Silver nanoparticles are the most generally utilized nanoparticles both in key therapeutic sciences
and clinical practice. Silver particles are connected to modified cell demise, and expanded
cytotoxicity in specific conditions. The characteristic surface Plasmon absorption band was
observed at 440nm. It is observed that with the increase in concentration, the anti-inflammatory
activity of silver nanoparticles increases. Silver nanoparticles synthesized using cumin oil
exhibited potent anti-inflammatory activity and hence can be used along with anti-inflammatory
drugs, which would potentiate the effect of the drugs. Increasing exposure to engineered
inorganic nanoparticles takes actually place in both derestrict and aquatic ecosystems worldwide.
Although we already know harmful effects of AgNP on the soil bacterial community,
information about the impact of the factors functionalization, concentration, exposure time, and
soil texture on the AgNP effect expression are still rare. Hence, in this study, three soils of
different grain size were exposed for up to 90 days to bare and functionalized AgNP in
concentrations ranging from 0.01 to 1.00 mg/kg soil dry weight. Effects on soil microbial
community were quantified by various biological parameters, including 16S rRNA gene,
photometric, and fluorescence analyses.
Multivariate data analysis revealed significant effects of AgNP exposure for all factors and factor
combinations investigated. Analysis of individual factors (silver species, concentration, exposure
time, soil texture) in the unifactorial ANOVA explained the largest part of the variance
compared to the error variance. In depth analysis of factor combinations revealed even better
explanation of variance. For the biological parameters assessed in this study, the matching of soil
texture and silver species, and the matching of soil texture and exposure time were the two most
relevant factor combinations. The factor AgNP concentration contributed to a lower extent to the
effect expression compared to silver species, exposure time and physico–chemical composition
of soil. The factors functionalization, concentration, exposure time, and soil texture significantly
impacted the effect expression of AgNP on the soil microbial community. Especially long-term
exposure scenarios are strongly needed for the reliable environmental impact assessment of
AgNP exposure in various soil types.
Aggregation and dissolution of silver nanoparticles in natural surface water
This study investigated aggregation and silver release of silver nanoparticles suspended in
natural water in the absence and presence of artificial sun light. The influence of the capping
layer was investigated using uncoated particles and particles coated with citrate or Tween 80.
The experiments were conducted over 15 days in batch mode using a river water matrix. Silver
release was monitored over this time while the aggregation state and morphological changes of
the silver nanoparticles were tracked using dynamic light scattering and transmission electron
microscopy. Results indicate sterically dispersed particles coated with Tween released silver
quicker than did bare- and citrate-coated particles, which rapidly aggregated. A dissolved silver
concentration of 40 μg/L was reached after just 6 h in the Tween-coated particle systems,
accounting for ca. 3% of the total silver. Similar levels of dissolved silver were reached in the
uncoated and citrate-coated systems at the end of the 15 days. Silver release was not significantly
impacted by the artificial sun light; however, the light (and citrate) imparted significant
morphological changes to the particles. Their impact was masked by aggregation, which seemed
to be the controlling process in this study.
Modeling the primary size effects of citrate-coated silver nanoparticles on their ion release
kinetics
Ion release is an important environmental behavior of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), and
characterization of Ag+ release is critical for understanding the environmental fate, transport,
and biological impacts of AgNPs. The ion release kinetics of AgNPs with three primary
diameters (20, 40, and 80 nm) was studied by dispersing them in quarter-strength Hoagland
medium at two initial concentrations (300 and 600 μg/L). Ag+ release rates were found to
depend on primary particle size and concentration, when other environmental factors (e.g.,
dissolved oxygen and protons) were kept constant. A kinetic model was developed to describe
the Ag+ release based on the hard sphere theory using the Arrhenius equation. The model fitted
the experimental data well with correlation coefficients of 0.97–0.99, and the model usefully
interpreted the dependence of ion release kinetics on the primary particle size and concentration.
Moreover, the effects of environmental factors (e.g., dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, and
salinity) potentially can be interpreted as well. This model provides fundamental insight into the
ion release kinetics of AgNPs in aqueous environments, allowing us to better understand and
predict the nontoxicity of AgNPs.
Differential regulation of intracellular factors mediating cell cycle, DNA repair and
inflammation in Silver Nanoparticles in human cells
Investigating the cellular and molecular signatures in eukaryotic cells following exposure to
nanoparticles will further our understanding on the mechanisms mediating nanoparticle induced
effects. This study illustrates the molecular effects of silver nanoparticles (Ag-np) in normal
human lung cells, IMR-90 and human brain cancer cells, U251 with emphasis on gene
expression, induction of inflammatory mediators and the interaction of Ag-np with cytosol
proteins.
We report that silver nanoparticles are capable of adsorbing cytosolic proteins on their surface
that may influence the function of intracellular factors. Gene and protein expression profiles of
Ag-np exposed cells revealed up regulation of many DNA damage response genes such as Gadd
45 in both the cell types and ATR in cancer cells. Moreover, down regulation of genes necessary
for cell cycle progression (cyclin B and cyclin E) and DNA damage response/repair (XRCC1 and
3, FEN1, RAD51C, RPA1) was observed in both the cell lines. Double strand DNA damage was
observed in a dose dependent manner as evidenced in γH2AX foci assay. There was a down
regulation of p53 and PCNA in treated cells. Cancer cells in particular showed a concentration
dependent increases in phosphorylated p53 accompanied by the cleavage of capsize 3 and PARP.
Our results demonstrate the involvement of NFκB and MAP kinase pathway in response to Ag-
np exposure. Up regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukins (IL-8, IL-6),
macrophage colony stimulating factor, and macrophage inflammatory protein in fibroblasts
following Ag-np exposure were also observed.
In summary, Ag-np can modulate gene expression and protein functions in IMR-90 cells and
U251 cells, leading to defective DNA repair, proliferation arrest and inflammatory response. The
observed changes could also be due to its capability to adsorb cytosolic proteins on its surface.
Factor Uptake, translocation, and transformation of silver nanoparticles in
plants
Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been globally applied in consumer products
because of their antimicrobial properties. Broad applications inevitably release
AgNPs into the natural environment. Moreover, AgNPs are produced naturally in
soils. Plant uptake of AgNPs is the first step of their transfer along food chains,
which ultimately raises concerns about human health. This review systematically
summarizes the current knowledge on the uptake process of AgNPs in plants
which is regulated by the physical properties of nanoparticles (e.g., size, surface
coating, and morphology), environmental conditions (e.g., soil redox conditions,
soil components, co-contaminants, and symbiotic microorganisms), and plant
species (e.g., monocotyledon and dicotyledon). After internalization, AgNPs are
translocated within plants and undergo biotransformation, including aggregation,
oxidative dissolution, sulfidation, chlorination, and complexation with organic
matter such as thiolates. Little is known about whether the internalized AgNPs and
the transformed products will be accumulated in edible tissues of plants, which can
raise the possibility of Ag to enter the food chains. Knowledge gaps about detailed
mechanisms of transformation and translocation of AgNPs in planta still limit our
understanding of Ag fate in plant–soil systems. This review intends to give a
comprehensive assessment of the interaction between AgNPs and plants,
highlighting that an integrated investigation of the full life cycle of AgNPs in
plant–soil systems is needed to ensure safe application of nanoparticles.
Factor of Silver released from silver nanoparticles in aqueous media
simulating sweat, laundry detergent solutions and surface
From an increased use of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) as an antibacterial in
consumer products follows a need to assess the environmental interaction and fate
of their possible dispersion and release of silver. This study aims to elucidate an
exposure scenario of the Ag NPs potentially released from, for example,
impregnated clothing by assessing the release of silver and changes in particle
properties in sequential contact with synthetic sweat, laundry detergent solutions,
and freshwater, simulating a possible transport path through different aquatic
media. The release of ionic silver is addressed from a water chemical perspective,
compared with important particle and surface characteristics. Released amounts of
silver in the sequential exposures were significantly lower, approximately a factor
of 2, than the sum of each separate exposure. Particle characteristics such as
speciation (both of Ag ionic species and at the Ag NP surface) influenced the
release of soluble silver species present on the surface, thereby increasing the total
silver release in the separate exposures compared with sequential immersions. The
particle stability had no drastic impact on the silver release as most of the Ag NPs
were unstable in solution. The silver release was also influenced by a lower pH
(increased release of silver), and cotransported zeolites (reduced silver in solution).
Factor on stability and toxicity
Silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) readily transform in the environment, which
modifies their properties and alters their transport, fate, and toxicity. It is essential
to consider such transformations when assessing the potential environmental
impact of Ag-NPs. This review discusses the major transformation processes of
Ag-NPs in various aqueous environments, particularly transformations of the
metallic Ag cores caused by reactions with (in)organic ligands, and the effects of
such transformations on physical and chemical stability and toxicity.
Thermodynamic arguments are used to predict what forms of oxidized silver will
predominate in various environmental scenarios. Silver binds strongly to sulfur
(both organic and inorganic) in natural systems (fresh and sea waters) as well as in
wastewater treatment plants, where most Ag-NPs are expected to be concentrated
and then released. Sulfidation of Ag-NPs results in a significant decrease in their
toxicity due to the lower solubility of silver sulfide, potentially limiting their short-
term environmental impact. This review also discusses some of the major
unanswered questions about Ag-NPs, which, when answered, will improve
predictions about their potential environmental impacts. Research needed to
address these questions includes fundamental molecular-level studies of Ag-NPs
and their transformation products, particularly Ag2S-NPs, in simplified model
systems containing common (in)organic ligands, as well as under more realistic
environmental conditions using microcosm/microcosm-type experiments.
Toxicology studies of Ag-NP transformation products, including different states of
aggregation and sulfidation, are also required. In addition, there is the need to
characterize the surface structures, compositions, and morphologies of Ag-NPs and
Ag2S-NPs to the extent possible because they control properties such as solubility
and reactivity.
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