ALTERNATIVE TRANSPORTATION

SYSTEM AT A GLANCE
 SECTION I: AIRPORT ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION
Road transport is the oldest and perhaps the most popular mode of transportation.
Several sophisticated methods of design, construction and maintenance of highway
have been devised with the advancement of modern technology. Several other means
of transportation becomes very important as well. The course of Alternative
Transportation is thus designed to acquaint us or at least introduce us with the
knowledge of design, construction and maintenance of airport, railways and harbours
as alternative to highway.
AIRPORT ENGINEERING
This involves the design, construction and maintenance of a wide range of
facilities for the landing, take off, ground movement, parking, maintenance and repair
of planes, fuel storage, handling of passengers, baggages and freight.
Facilities to be found in a typical airport includes terminal buildings and
hangers, pavement of airport runways, taxiways, aprons, roads, bridges, tunnels for
automobiles, walkways, for pedestrians, parking lots for vehicles, drainage structures
and underground storage tanks.
Airport engineers have the responsibilities of determining the size and
arrangement of these facilities for safe, efficient and low cost functioning of an airport.

A TYPICAL AIRPORT LAYOUT

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 1. Control Tower
2. Administrative building
3. Fueling Area
4. Taxiway
5. Hanger
6. Runway
7. Car Park
8. Apron

DEFINITIONS
1. Airport: This is a transportation, interchange, where principally facilities for
landing, take off, ground movement, parking of planes, maintenance and repair
of planes, fuel storage, handling of passengers, baggage and freights are
provided and usually serviced by the various transportation modes such as cars,
buses and taxis.
2. Aerodrone: This is an area of land or water designed, equipped or set apart or
commonly used for affording facilities for landing and departure of aircraft and
includes any area or space, whether on the ground, or on the roof of a building
which is designed and equipped or set apart for affording facilities for the
landing and departure of aircraft capable of descending or climbing vertically.
CLASSIFICATION OF AIRPORTS
The Civil Aviation Authority (C.A.A) groups civil airports into eight (8) classes
based on the air services to be accommodated and the runway length required.
1. Secondary Airports: These are used for larger aircraft (between 900 to
7000kg) used in a non-scheduled flying activities.
2. Personal Airports: These are capable of handling light aircraft for small
communities or urban areas. (1.5 tons or 1500kg).
3. Feeder or Local Service Airport: These are to serve small cities or airline
track route.
4. Express Airports: These are at important cities for junction points on track
routes.
5. Continental Airports: These are to serve aircrafts making long non-stop
domestic flights.
6. Intercontinental Airports: These are located at the termini of long
international flights.
7. Intercontinental Express Airports: These are those serving the highest form
of transoceanic flights.
8. Military Airports: These are classified by the Air Force Authority according to
the type of the aircraft to be accommodated such as bombardment aircraft,
flights, cargo aircraft, troop carrier, training etc.

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 COMPONENTS OF AN AIRPORT/AERODROME
An airport is designed to meet many needs but compromise is inevitable since
some of the most important requirements present various degrees of incompatibility.
The major components of an airport are: -
i. A Runway – Straight hard paths within the landing strip of the airport. They are of
either rigid or flexible pavement used for landing and take-off of aircrafts.
ii. Taxiways – Specially prepared paths on an airport used for taxing aircrafts. They
are laid to connect the terminal area with the end of the runway for take-off.
iii. Terminal Area – It consists of administrative building where passengers and
cargoes are handled. Servicing of aircrafts and some commercial activities also
take place within this area. The major constituents of a terminal area are: -
a. The Aircraft Apron: - A defined space within the terminal area intended to
accommodate aircrafts for the purpose of loading or unloading of passengers or
cargos, refueling, parking or maintenance.
b. Car Parking – Areas specially designed for parking cars for the airport workers,
passengers, etc within the terminal area.
c. The Terminal Building – The main building within the terminal area that
houses the airport workers where baggages, mails, express and airline operation
etc. are being handled. Ticket counters, baggage, scales, coffee shops,
restaurants, pilots’ rooms, airport management offices and other public utilities
are also located within the terminal building.
iv. Airport Access – In addition to the terminal building, apron and car parking
arrangements, provision are made for alternative mode of surface access by which
air passengers, airport workers and visitors may move to and from the airport.
v. Hanger – Special buildings within which an aircraft is stored or maintained hence
we have storage and maintenance hangers.
vi. Cargos Terminals – In large airports, separate terminals are provided for the
purpose of handling cargos.
vii. Control Tower: A separate building (not within the terminal area) that gives air
traffic controllers the view of all runways and taxiways. It is built round an
equipment required for air traffic control. It is the control point for air traffic
control. It is the control point for all take-off and landing operations, ground
movement of air craft and airport vehicles control.
viii. Apron Control – Some airports include an apron control cabin in which an apron
controller direct aircraft to the appropriate apron standard from the taxiway.
ix. Buildings for Electrical and Electronics Equipment – These are generally
simple buildings designed to house particular items of equipment, some of which
may require a controlled environment as advised or instructed by the
manufacturers. They do no generally cause any construction problem.
x. Airfield Lighting – The extent of the approach and runway lighting provided not
only depends on the airport classification but should be compatible with the radio
and radar landing aid. Cross bar lighting for the approach areas together with

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 runway centre line and edge lighting. Taxiway lighting usually consists of green
centerline supplemented with blue edge lights at junctions and around the approach
area.
xi. Telecommunications – This is a general term covering radio navigation aids and
radar in addition to data and voice communications. All airports require
telecommunication services to some degree. In the case of international airports
these can be quite extensive. The services consists of some or all of the followings:
a. Air ground radio
b. Land mobile radio
c. Navigational aids
d. Final approach and landing aids
e. Radar
f. Direct speech communication
g. Direct data communication
h. Public Communication services
The position of these facilities must conform to the accepted international
recommendations.
xii. Airport Security – Security on ground at airports is very essential because attack
on civil aircraft for the furtherance of extreme political aims both on the ground
and in the air have become a major feature of air travel. Computers are used in
sophisticated security systems together with more advanced x-rays and electronic
equipment, but the process is in a continuous state of evolution, in order to cope
with new types of explosives that are not easily detected on x-ray machines.
Moreover, the human factor is always at the centre of most security systems used at
airports for screening passengers and their baggages.
xiii. Airport Ancillary Services – There are several ancillary services associated with
the airport. The main ones are: -
i. Fuel Installation: - Supply of fuel to aircraft is normally carried out by the
fuel companies on contract basis.
ii. Aircraft Sanitation: Collections are emptied into vehicles and the contents
are disposed-off in airport sanitation buildings.
iii. Ground Movement Signs: These are placed adjacent the taxiways and aprons
to direct the pilot on the ground.
iv. Crash and Rescue Services: Fire engines and crash tenders are housed in
building with quick and easy access to the aprons, taxiways and runways. At
some airports where crash in water is possible rescue boats are provided.
v. Boundary and Security Fences: Airports should be fenced properly and the
choice depends on availability and cost. Security and customs may require a
high fence topped with barbed wire strands in the terminal area. The
perimeter fence should include fragible gates so that crash and rescue
services can get quickly into the scene of any crash which may occur outside
the boundary.

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 xiv. Aerodrome Beacon: Is used to locate the position of an aerodrome.
xv. Aerodrome Elevation: Is the elevation of the highest point of the landing area.
xvi. Aerodrome Reference Point: Is the designated geographical location of an
aerodrome.
xvii. Barratte: This consists of three or more aeronautical ground lights closely spaced
together in a transverse line, so that from a distance they appear as a short bar of
light. They convey special information to the pilot at night to aid landing.
xviii. Clear Ways: This is a rectangular area at the end of the take-off run available and
under the control of the aerodrome license selected or prepared as a suitable area
over which an aircraft may make a portion of the directional drive to a specified
height, usually free of obstructions so that the aircraft can fly to a specified height
safely.
xix. Cross-Wind Component: Is the velocity component of the wind measured or
corrected to a height of 10m above ground level at right angle to the direction of
take-off. Runways should not be positioned at right angles or opposite to the
direction of the wind as this will impair the suitability of the aircraft. The velocity
of the cross wind component should not exceed a certain value if the aircraft
stability is not to be impaired.
xx. Instrument Approach Runway: This is a runway intended for operation of
aircraft using non-visual aids providing at least directional guidance in azimath
adequate for a straight approach.
xxi. Runway Selected Basic Runway: This is the length that will be required on a
level site at sea level in standard atmospheric condition and in still-air to meet the
need of the aircraft for which the runway is provided in order to comply with the
relevant maximum crosswind component.
xxii. Runway Actual Length: This is the basic length of the runway corrected to take
account of the elevation, temperature and humidity. Lengths of runways depend on
the type of aircraft and slope of the ground.
xxiii. Shoulder: Is an area adjacent to the edge of a paved surface prepared as to provide
a transition between the pavement and the adjacent surface for aircraft to running-
off the pavement.
xxiv. Stop-Way: Is a defined rectangular area at the end of the take-off run available,
prepared and designated as a suitable area in which an aircraft can be stopped in
case of a discontinuous take-off.
xxv. Strip: Is an area of specified dimension enclosing the runway to provide for the
safety of aircraft operation.
xxvi. Threshold: Is the beginning of that portion of a runway usable for landing.
xxvii. Apron – is defined as area in a land aerodrome intended to accommodate the
aircraft for the purpose of loading and unloading i.e. on area for parking and
holding of aircraft.
AIRPORT SITE LOCATION
The selection of an airport site is influenced by a member of factors such as: -

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 i. The Area required,
ii. Possibility of expansion,
iii. Accessibility to the community,
iv. Absence of obstruction in the approaches or area
v. Nature of the terrain,
vi. Proximity to other airports
vii. Cost of development and construction of the airports.
The need for constructing an airport may be because of: -
i. The non-existence of one, it is believed that air services meet a specific physical or
economical demand within the community.
ii. An existing airport cannot be expanded to meet growing traffic.
iii. An existing site has become environmentally unacceptable.
The essential factors to be considered in the selection of an airport therefore include:
1. Passenger Catchment area: Where regional airports are concerned, a journey time
of about 45 minutes from the centre of the cooperation is normally considered
acceptable. In the less developed nations, it may be necessary to consider what
effect of proposed airport may have on the existing highway system. A major
international airport may attract passengers from much wider catchment area
including those feeder air routes from regional airports and the proximity to the
center of the population may be less critical.
2. Environment: - An airport affects the environment in three major ways.
i. The land use
ii. Noise
iii. Ecology
A modest regional airport may occupy about 450 hectares. A major
international airport may require up to 5000 hectares, relatively flat and well drained
land, unfortunately such a land is often also the best agricultural land in the area, or it
may be area suitably distant from a population center to suit an industrial estate. Other
suitable areas may incur the possibility of disturbing the natural ecological balance. To
avoid these difficulties/conflicts, areas unsuitable for other needs, need to be looked at.
In developed countries the movement, of earlier and noisier aircrafts have been
restricted to curb the environmental pollution due to aircraft noise.
3. Economical Appraisal: An economic appraisal compares the total cost of each
site of the whole community.
i. The comparison will take into account the capital cost of site acquisition and
construction.
ii. Access to the airport by the airport employees.
iii. Access for passengers and cargo.
iv. Noise and other environmental factors.
v. Operation of the airport.

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 These costs will be offset by the revenue earned directly by the airport
operators, airlines, the airport associations and the airport attached businesses.
4. Financial Appraisal: Financial appraisal compares the alternative sites on the
bases of the capital cost of development only. It may also be considered as
including direct cost and revenues related to operating the airport, repayments and
interest charges.
5. Air Space: This siting of an airport may be critical if there is the possibility of
aircraft operations conflicting with operations from an adjacent airport particularly
if it is sited within the borders of another country.
6. Topography: Ideally an airport should be located on a relatively flat ground
having effective natural drainage. The site should not be amidst hills, rivers, roads
or developments which may hinder future expansion or form potential obstruction
to aircrafts approaching or departing.
7. Obstruction to Aircraft Operation – At an initial stage of site consideration,
possibly before even the alignment of runway has been determined, it is possible of
objects becoming obstructions that this needs to be assessed together with the
degree of problems they could create in terms of removal or by altering the
alignment of the runway.
8. Meteorology: For any site to be appraised properly, meteorology condition of
wind direction, strength and frequency together with visibility range and cloud base
height are necessary. This information provides the data for the determination of
runway alignment and for the type of approach aids needed.
9. Construction Problems: Any particularly difficult construction problem can
usually be recognized in the initial stage of site appraisal. Such problems may be
poor soil condition, bad, drainage, difficulties of access, lack of suitable
construction materials etc.
10.Vertical Alignment – Runways should follow the contour of the natural ground as
closely as possible to reduce the cost of earthwork. Since gradient of the slope has
an effect on aircraft operation, the maximum slope of 1.25% should be adhered to.
The effective slope is the difference between the maximum and minimum along the
runway centre line divided by the runway length. The actual runway length adopted
should be selected basic length for the runway code letter increased at a rate of
10% for each 1% of effective slope. Also, the basic length of a runway should be
increased at the rate of 7% per 300m elevation above sea level.
Example:
Runway Basic Length = 2100m
Effective Slope = 2%
Elevation = 200m above sea level
Solution
i) For an effective slope of 1%, increase basic length by 10%.
ii) For an elevation of 300m above sea level increase basic length of 7%.

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 Therefore, Actual length = Basic Length + 10% of basic length for each 1%
effective slope + 7% of basic length for every 300m elevation above sea level.
2 ×10 7 200
Actual Length=2100+ × 2100+ × × 2100
100 100 300
¿ 2100+ 420+98=2,618 m

RUNWAY LAYOUT
The choice of runway layout pattern is influenced by the following factors:
a. Desire to obtain clear approaches.
b. Desire to provide maximum wind coverage.
c. Desire to fit layout to the topography to reduce drainage cost and earthwork.
d. The shape and location of the terminal area, the distance of the taxiway between
runways and terminal area.
The number of runways depends on the wind coverage and the traffic volume. So
generally, to increase the capacity of the airport operations, it should be possible to use
one or more runways simultaneously.
RUNWAY CONFIGURATION
1. Single runway: This is the simplest layout with parallel taxiway and centrally
located terminal area.

8
 Two directions of operations are possible only one landing and take-off can be
made at a time. Under this condition the capacity of the runway is about 40
movements/hour (landing or taking-off). When more capacity is needed, a second
parallel runway may be built as shown by the dotted lines. The original runways can
be used for take-offs and the future runways for landings. The capacity will now be
increased to about 80 movements/hour. Landing traffic will have to cross the take-off
runway under control from the tower.

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2. Separate Parallel Runway

The runway is about 1000 – 2000m apart with the terminal area in between. The
arrangement has operational advantage over the single runway configuration.
Taxiways do not cross runways, as in the single runway configuration. The terminal
area is centrally located with ample room for expansion and the wide separation of
runway approaches will increase the capacity under conditions of low visibility. The
two parallel runways need to be opposite each other. Increasing the offset from the
terminal area will decrease the taxing distance but may increase load and construction
cost. Taxiway may be extended to the runway and to provide exit for incomplete take
offs or in case of emergency to facilitate landing and take offs on the same runway.

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3. Two Directional Layout

This layout gives four (4) directions of wind coverage and allows simultaneous
operations of runways in most directions when wind velocities are not unusually high.
The traffic diagrams indicate the separation of landing and take-off in three of four
wind directions.
In one situation where the landing go around path intersects the take-off path
landing and take-off will have to be separated. The V-shaped permits a centrally
located terminal area with 200m for expansion. When additional capacity is required,
the design may be expanded by building parallel runways outside each of the original
runways at a spacing of 250-350m. Two runways will then be available for landing
and two for take-offs at all times in the case of the separate parallel runways and for
most of the time the V-Shaped layout.
RUNWAY LENGTH
One of the most important design features of an airport is runway length. Its
importance stems from its dominant influence on air safety, and size and cost of the
airport.
The design of runway length is influenced mostly by the performance
requirement of the aircrafts using the airport, especially when operated with its
maximum landing and take-off loads. Variations in registered runway lengths, are
caused by:
i. Evaluation of the airport.
ii. Average maximum air temperature at the airport.
iii. Runway gradient
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 Recall that the runway actual length required for a partial aircraft should be the
selected basic length for the runway code letter increased at a rate of 10% for each 1%
of effective slope. Also, the basic length of a runway should be increased at the rate of
7% for each 300m elevation above sea level.
Exercise
Determine the actual length required for a runway given the following
information:
Height point = 100.97m
Lowest point = 83.08m
Basic length of runway = 2000m
Elevation of the runway = 230m above sea level
Solution
( Highest−Lowest )Point
a) Effective Slope = × 100
Basic Length distance
100.97−83.08
¿ ×100=0.9 %
2000
For 1% effective slope, increase basic length by 10%,
10
∴ increased Length= × 0.9× 2000=180 m
100
b) For each elevation of 300m above sea level, increase basic length by 7%
∴ For elevation of 230 m , increased length
230 7
¿ × × 2000=107.33 m
300 100
Actual Length=2000+180+ 107.33m=2287.33m

FACTORS AFFECTING RUNWAY LENGTH

Runway lengths is dependent on the following main variables:
i. Aircraft performance
ii. The aircraft take-off and landing weight
iii. Aircraft reverence temperature
iv. Airport elevation
v. Runway gradient

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 INTERNATIONAL CIVIL AVIATION ORGANIZATION (ICAO)
ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL SET UP IN AIR TRANSPORT
Civil Aviation is one of the major international agencies in the world which
flies almost well over 400 million passengers per year. For such a great activity
international control in respect of buildings of international standard, suitable standard
navigational aids which would enable the pilot to be always in contact with either the
starting or destination station, proper landing aids and suitable weather report system.
The combined effect of these are to reduce the possibility of error or misunderstanding
primarily in respect of the instructions to the pilot from the control tower.
Various stages of setup of organization are briefly described below:
- 1944 – USA held discussions with its allies and other friendly nations to form
standards and policies for post-war civil aviation. This resulted in the Chicago
convention in Civil Aviation in November 1945. The conference was attended
by 52 countries.
- April 4, 1947, ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) came into
existence.
- By 1975, the number of member states grew from 26 to 131.
In the sphere of international level, some organisations associated with Air
Transport are:
i) IATA: International Air Transport Authority
ii) ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organisation which serves as a forum for
the views and interest of Civil Aviation Operations.
iii) Institution of Air Transportation – ITA – associated with individuals and
organisations having interest in civil aviation.
Primarily International set up provides standards associated with Air Transport
i.e. ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization). The organization has been set
up for international understanding and agreement between nations in technical,
economical and legal matters.
ICAO was set up as an inter-governmental organization with an initial
membership of 151 sovereign states.
In 1947, ICAO became specialized agency in relation to the United Nations
Recommendations and guidance issued by ICAO to cover the following:
a. Co-ordination of : -
i. Military authorities and Air Traffic.
ii. Activities likely to be hazardous/dangerous
iii. Unidentified/stranger Air craft.
ICAO has the following Regions: -

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Table 1.1 – ICAO Regions
S/No. Country Identification
1. European – Mediterranean EUM
2. Middle East MID
3. Africa/Indian Ocean AFI
4. S.E. Asia SEA
5. Pacific PAC
6. South America SAM
7. Caribbean CAR
8. North America NAM
9. North Atlantic NAT

ICAO also provides technical advice and administrative support to seven

regional offices as shows below (table 1.2)
Table 1.2 – Regional Offices of ICAO
S/No. City Country Identification
1. Bangkok Thailand SEA and PAC
2. Cairo Egypt MID
3. Dakar Senegal AFI (West)
4. Lima Brazil SAM
5. Paris France EUM
6. Nairobi Kenya AFI (East)
7. Mexico City Mexico CAR and NAM

ADMINISTRATIVE SETUP OF ICAO

The structures of ICAO consists of:
a) The Assembly – It is the sovereign body of ICAO. It meets once in three years
at a place and time convened by the council. All member states are represented
and decisions are taken by majority vote. The budgets are revised and directions
are issued for future action.
b) The Council – The council consists of 33 members elected by the assembly. It
elects its own president. Six additional representative bodies are also controlled
by the assembly. These representative bodies are:
1. Air Navigation Commission
2. Air Transport Committee
3. Committee for Joint Support of Air Navigation Services
4. Legal Committee
5. Finance Committee
6. ICAO secretariat
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Table 1.3 ICAO Classification of Airport (Runway Length)
Code Runway Length (in m)
A 2500
B 2150 – 250
C 1800 – 2150
D 1500 – 1800
E 1280 – 1500
F 1080 – 1280
G 980 – 1080

DESIGN OF PAVEMENTS
Design standards of Civil Aviation operations are based on International Civil
Aviation Organisation (ICAO) and Federal Aviation Administration.
Table 1.3 and 1.4 give ICAO classification for runway length and pavement strength
respectively.
Table 1.4 ICAO classification of Airports (Pavement Strength)
Cod Single Isolated Wheel Load in kg (10N) Tyre Pressure in kg/cm2
e (N/10mm2)
1 45360 8.4
2 34020 7.0
3 27220 7.0
4 20410 7.0
5 13610 6.0
6 6800 4.9
7 2270 2.9

An airport classified as B – 3 would have a runway length of 2150 – 2500

meters under standard conditions at sea level with no runway gradient and with no
wind load blowing and would be capable of having 15 WL of 27220kg (27.220t) with
tyre pressure of 7.0kg/cm2 (7N/mm2)
SELECTION OF SITE FOR AIRPORTS
Factors which govern the selection of site for airports are:
i) Availability of adequate area, preferably owned by federal or state
government along with availability of construction materials along with
accessibility.
ii) Suitability of area for proposed drainage
iii) Cost of development and maintenance
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 iv) Expected volume of traffic along with type of air traffic.
v) Proximity to existing airways
vi) Expected revenue from the following sources in due course once the airfield
becomes operational.
a. Aviation activity consisting of:
i. Airplane accommodation
ii. Plane repair services
iii. Landing fees
iv. Hanger length and plane storage
v. Gas and oil sale
b. Non-Aviation activities consisting of:
i. Telephone and Telegraph services
ii. Automobile parking and entry fees
iii. Taxes from commercial establishments including restaurants and
bars.
SURVEYS FOR SELECTION OF SITE
Main orientation for selection of site for airfield is governed by topography of
the area with a view to ensure no hindrances enroute during landing and take-off. This
has to be the primary consideration of the planners. In short suitable approach zone.
The factors which have to be looked into are: -
i. Bearing Capacity of the Soil – for this, surveys are carriedout by one of the
following procedures.
a. Test pits b. Sounding c. Core drilling d. Percussion drilling e. Wash
boring f. Augur boring
ii. Provision of Suitable Drainage – This is dictated by topography of the area.
iii. Meteorological – This information is compiled for several past years. The length
of runway has direct bearing on the atmospheric pressure.
iv. Availability of Natural Resources – The most common natural resources for
construction and maintenance are stones and sand.
ORIENTATION OF RUNWAYS AS PER FAA SPECIFICATIONS
As per FAA specification the orientation for the runway should be such that
during the take off the cross wind components should not exceed 25 kmph, 95% of the
time. This component is defined as the component acting at right angles to the
longitudinal axis of the runway.

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 In case wind data for the location under consideration is not available the
required data of the nearest adjoining station may be used.
Table 1.5 Geometric Standards of Runway (ICAO)
Airport Basic Max. Min Approach Non- Max Max Max
Classification Length Width in Width surface treatment long Effective Transverse
and Main m taxiwa FAST Runway grade Gradient grade %
Runway (runway) y (m) movement % %
(m) runway
A 2500 or 45 23 1:50 1:40 1.25 1.0 1.5
above
B 2150- 45 23 1:50 1:40 1.25 1.0 1.5
2500
C 1800- 45 23 1:50 1:40 1.5 1.0 1.5
2150
D 1550- 45 18 1:50 1:40 1.5 1.0 1.5
1800
E 1280- 45 15 1:50 1:30 1.5 1.0 1.5
1500
F 1080- 30 12.5 1:50 1:30 1.5 1.0 1.5
1280
G 900-1080 30 12.5 1:50 1:25 1.5 1.05 1.5

Note:
1. Basic runway length is for sea-level, elevation correction is to be applied for
temperature and elevation.
2. Maximum width of landing strip for all the classes is 150m for non-instrumental
runways and 300m for instrumental runways.
3. Rate of change of grade for all classes: 0.3% for 30m of vertical curves.
4. Site distances: any two points 3m above the runway must be mutually visible
within distance of half the runway length
5. Grading beyond runway ends 60m or other side.
6. Shoulders transverse grade 75m from runway centerline 2.5% maximum,
remaining 5% maximum.

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Table 1.6 Runway Standards (Based on FAA)
S/No. Item Particulars Requirements
1 Runway length (take off) Airport acceleration stop distance or aircraft
take off distance whichever is greater when
there is no wind.
2 Runway length (landing) It is the airplane landing based on 9 kmph
3 Distance For large planes distance is defined as the
distance that the airplane can fly from one
airport to another with a maximum pay load and
minimum fuel load required for the distance.
4 Take-off weight Less of the following two:
i. Zero fuel weight of the aircraft plus weight
of the fuel required to fly to destination
airport plus fuel reserve for 75mins of
flying.
ii. Maximum landing weight of the aircraft
plus weight of the fuel required to fly the
aircraft to destination port.
5 Airport Elevation It is the elevation of the airport above mean sea
level (msl)
6 Temperature It is the normal maximum temperature at the
airport for the hottest month.

DESIGN STANDARDS FOR GENERAL AVIATION

The runway length is coded by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F and G. Geometric
standards are given in Table 1.5 while minimum clearance are given in the table
below:
Table 1.7 Minimum Clearance (ICAO)
Airport Clearance Distance B/W Edge of one Distance Distance
Classificatio B/w edges of runway and only point on B/W any B/W any
n parallel the edge of taxiway point on one point on the
Runways Instrument Non- taxiway and edge of one
(usual Runway (m) instrument the Edge of of a fixed
condition) Runway (m) Another based
Taxiway
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
A 210 165 90 70 39
B 210 150 75 69 30
C 210 150 75 52 30
D 150 150 75 52 30
E 150 150 75 45 24
F 150 145 70 33 24
G 150 145 70 26 18
18
Note:
Minimum distance from runway centre line (CL) to the building line of all
classes of airport is 150m for instrument runways and 75m for non-instrument
runways.
WIND COVERAGE
Because of the obvious advantages of landing and taking off into the wind,
runways are oriented in the direction of prevailing winds.
An aircraft may not maneuver safely on a runway when the wind contains a
large component at right angle to the direction of travel. The point at which this
component (cross wind) becomes excessive will depend on the size and operating
characteristics of the aircraft. Recommended uplifting crosswind for aircraft
operations are 19.3 km/hr for propeller driven aircraft, 5670 kg or less, and 25 km/hr
for all other aircraft.
The International Civil Aviation Authority requires that runways be oriented so
that aircraft may be landed at least 95% of the time without exceeding the allowable
crosswinds. Where a single or set of parallel runways cannot be oriented to provide
95% wind coverage (one or more crosswind runways should be provided.
The wind rose is used to determine the orientation of runway that will offer the
greatest wind coverage. The wind rose gives that part of time the wind blows in a
specified wind range and direction.

WIND ROSE METHOD

A graphical procedure utilizing a wind rose typically is used to determine the
best orientation in so far as prevailing winds are concerned.
A record of 10 consecutive years of wind conservation should be utilized if
available. If suitable weather records are not available accurate wind data for the area
should be collected. The wind data are arranged according to velocity, direction and
frequency of occurrence as shown by the table above.
The table indicates the percentage of time wind velocities within a certain range
and from a given direction can be expected. For example, the table indicates that for
the hypothetical site. Northern wind, in 4 – 15 m/h range can be expected 12.8% of the
time. These data are plotted on wind rose by placing percentages in the appropriate
segments of the graph, on the wind rose, the circles represent wind velocity in miles
per hour and the radial lines indicate wind direction.

19
 The wind rose procedure make use of transparent templates in which three
parallel lines have been plotted. The middle line represent the runway centerline and
the distance it and each the outer line is equal to the allowable crosswind component
(e.g. 15 mph).
The following steps are necessary to determine the best runway orientation and
to determine the percentage of time that orientation conforms to the crosswind
standards.
(1) Place the template on the wind rose so that the middle line passes through the
centre of the wind rose.
(2) Using the centre of the wind rose as a pivot, take the template until the sum of
percentages between the outside lines is a maximum. When the template stripe
covers only fraction of a segment, a corresponding fractional part of the
percentage shown should be used.
(3) Read the true bearing for the runway on the outer scale of the wind rose beneath
the centerline of the template. In the example, the best orientation is 150 – 330 o
or 530o E, time.
(4) The sum of the percentages between the outside lines indicate the percentage of
time that a runway with the proposed orientation will confirm with cross-wind
standards.
It is noted that wind data are gathered and reported with true north as reference,
while runway orientation and numbering are based on the magnetic azimuth. The true
azimuth obtained from the wind rose analysis should be changed to a magnetic
azimuth by taking into account the magnetic variation for the airport location (this
variation can be obtained from aeronautical charts) and easterly variation is subtracted
from the true azimuth, and westerly variation is added to the true azimuth.
DESIGN OF AIRPORT PAVEMENTS
Suitable pavement must be provided for aprons, maintenance area as well as for
the runways and taxiways. The general requirements which must be met by the design
are:
(1) Adequate strength for all aircrafts likely to use the airport including future
aircraft types.
(2) Adequate fatigue strength.
(3) Absence of loosed particles which could be sucked into jet engines
(4) Resistance of fuel spillage, particularly in the apron and maintenance areas.
(5) Resistance to jet blast.
(6) Good surface drainage.
(7) Ability to accept temperature movement.
(8) Good skid resistance.
(9) Good riding surface for comfort in aircraft.
(10) Ease of maintenance

20
 From the operational point of view, it is difficult at busy airports to close down
the runway for maintenance or for strengthening of pavement, indeed, maintenance
work may have to be done at night.
Pavements are designed to fulfill the needs of only the immediate future which
may prove to be expensive in the long run. The run way may be required to have a
lifespan of 20 years or more, and the designer must anticipate requirements as far into
the future as possible.
TYPES OF PAVEMENTS
Pavement construction may be grouped as follows:
a) Rigid pavements
b) Flexible pavements
c) Composite pavements
RIGID PAVEMENT
This is a concrete pavement. It is considered being rigid by virtue of its inherent
flexural strength the concrete is usually reinforced and is divided into rectangular bays
to resist the tensile stresses which are induced by a combination of 3 factors.
1) Contraction of the slab due to fallen temperature and concrete shortage. The
movement is restricted by frictions between the slab and the subgrade as a result
of which stresses are induced in the slab.
2) Warping of the slab due to temperature gradient through the thickness of the
slab. High surface temperature causes the slab to dome until it is ruptured
mainly at the edges, while low surface temperature causes the concrete to curl
upwards.
3) Loading: slabs are usually more susceptible to loading near their corners which
will cause cracks to form across their corners. Acute angles in slabs should
therefore be avoided.
The bays are usually separated by contraction joints and the bay sizes depend on
the thickness of the slab.
Maximum Bay Sizes of Concrete Slabs
Slab Thickness Bay Size
150mm or less 3m
151mm – 225mm 3.75m (Bays usually square in shape)
226mm – 274mm 5.25m
2.75mm and over 6.0m

PAVEMENT QUALITY CONCRETE

21
 The pavement quality concrete used in rigid pavement should be designed on
the basis of its flexural strength measured by load 152mm x 152mm test beams rather
than on cube strength. The aggregate cement ratio should not exceed 6.3:1, water
cement ratio should be less than or equal to 0.5.
The pavement quality concrete slab should be placed over a layer of dry lean
concrete having aggregate cement ratio of 15:1 and a minimum cube strength of
5.2N/mm2.
In order to improve the skid resistance on the concrete surface, it should be
combed or small transverse grips should be cast into the wet concrete. Concrete
pavements show little cracking and are resistant to jet blast and fuel spillage. They
have the disadvantage of being bumpy between the joints. They are ideal for runway
ends, taxiway junctions, aprons and maintenance area where aircrafts stay or are
moving slowly.

FAA Requirements for Rigid Pavement

The FAA chart for rigid pavement design requires the followings:
1) Concrete flexural strength
2) Subgrade modulus
3) Gross-weight of the design aircraft
4) Number of equivalent annual departures of the design aircraft.
The chart gives the total thickness for critical areas which can then be reduced
by appropriate factors for non-critical areas.
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
This is the pavement which depends on its thickness and density to dispense the
load to such an extent that the subgrade is not over stressed. It is made up of a number
of layers of granular materials of increasing rigidity and decreasing flexurability
towards the surface. The lower materials may be bonded or unbonded with bitumen or
cement. The middle layer should be asphalt; Bitumen or tar surfacing is used usually.
The following factors have to be considered in the design.

22
 (1) The overall depth of the pavement must be such that the strength of the
subgrade is not exceeded.
(2) The strength of each individual layer must be such as to resist the pressure at
that level.
(3) The shearing strength of the surfacing and layers beneath must exceed the shear
stresses produced by the tyre loads. When dry lean concrete is used in the
subgrade to provide a good walling surface, it must be weak otherwise cracks
which form in this layer are likely to spread to the surface. Aggregate/cement
ratio of 18:1 for gravel or 22:1 for crushed rock is suitable.
Well-designed pavements have good riding qualities but some surfacing are
susceptible to jet blast, heat and fuel spillage and may cause softening of the surface.
The choice of pavement depends on the availability and cost of the materials
required and on the operational requirement at any particular location. In practice,
there is often justification in using different types of construction at different areas in
the same airport.
Previously, the airport pavement was designed to resist a single-wheel load. In
this, the surface area over which this acted depended on the magnitude of the tyre
pressure used. Current practice design approach disregard the old one, since for
example of boeing 747 jumbo jet has a maximum all-up weight of 356 tonnes and is
supported on 18 wheels. The stress induced in the pavement depends on, under
carriage configuration, the individual wheel load and tyre pressure, the type of
pavement construction, the thickness of the various layers and the subgrade.
The concept of load classification number has been in use to classify aircraft
according to their effect on pavement. But recently, the use of load classification
group (LCG) for both aircraft and pavement is in use. For example, the concord
airliner is classified as LCG II, while the H.S. 125 executive air liner is classified as
LCG VII. It is the load classification group of the heaviest air craft likely to use the
pavement on repeated occasions that is critical to design. If the LCG system of aircraft
loading is used, then the corresponding pavement design chart should be used to
determine the required thickness of each layer in a rigid, composite or flexible
pavement. The lowest layer recommended in all cases is a 100mm of a dry lean
consists. The medulus of subgrade reaction “K” should be determined by using a
752mm diameter plate. The selected pavement could be checked by analytical method.

23
FAA Flexible Pavement Design Requirement
The FAA flexible pavement design charts are also provided for the same aircraft
groups as for the rigid pavements. Use of the charts require the followings:
1) The CBR value of the subgrade.
2) The gross weight of the design aircraft
3) The annual departure of the design aircraft.
The figure gives the total thickness for the critical and non-critical areas of the
bituminous surface or wearing course, the thickness of the granular base and by
deduction, the thickness of the granular sub-base. The critical annual departures
according to FAA is 1200, if the design equivalent annual departures is less than 1200
(<1200) the thickness of the pavement is obtained directly from the chart. If the design
equivalent annual departures is more than 1200 (>1200). The surface thickness of any
traffic surface areas is increased by 1inch (25mm) and the base, sub base thickness are
increased by the percentage shown in table 14.11
Example 1
Design a flexible pavement for an air taxiway using the following data.
i) The critical aircraft weight is 180000 Ib /181648 kg dual wheel assembly
ii) The equivalent annual departure in 650
iii) The CBR of the subgrade is 6.5%.
Solution
Step 1 – Consider Dual wheel gear = Table 14:16 and decide for the design.
Step 2 – 650 equivalent annual departure is less than 1200. Therefore consider the
value directly from the chart, that modification is not required.
Step 3 – The CBR value is 6.5% which complies with F7. Therefore the CBR of 6.5%
indicates F7 horizontally from 180000 and vertically is 37 inches (i.e. 25 x 37 =
925mm).
1
∴ 37× =0.938 ≈ 0.94∈¿ 37 ×0.0254=0.939 ≈ 0.94 m
39.37
Step 4 – Obtain the base thickness from the slanting lines i.e. base thickness from the
slanting lines i.e. required base thickness (in) directly draw a straight line from 180 =
11inches.
∴ 11× 0.0254=0.28 m

Step 5 – Critical or non-critical area

From the table, it shows a critical area, therefore the surfacing is 4 inches from the
table. Then multiplying by 0.0254 => 4 x 0.0254 = 0.1016 ≈ 0.1m

24
Step 6 – Sub base thickness is by deducting from the total thickness, the base and the
surface thickness
∴ 0.94−0.28−0.1=0.56 m

Step 7 – Modification – Modification is not required because the equivalent annual

departures is < 1200, supposed it is greater, then go to table 14.11
Assignment
A flexible pavement for a runway is to be designed in accordance with the FAA
method. The critical aircraft in the mix is 130000 lb. single wheel gear assembly. The
anticipated aircraft traffic mix has been analysed and the results indicate that 3234
annual equivalent critical departures will occur. The CBR of the Subgrade is 12%.
Design the pavement and determine the thickness of the surfacing, base and sub base.
Express the figures in metric unit.
Hint: 1lb. = 0.4536kg, therefore 130000lb. = 130000 x 0.4536 => 58968kg
Soil with maximum CBR for FAA design should not be more than 15%. If more
than that, it is not suitable in the design of an airport.
COMPOSITE PAVEMENT
This is one in which the reinforced concrete pavement is protected by an
overlay of bituminous surfacing. This renders the cracks in the concrete and protects
the cracks from direct contact with forces of disintegration. The flexural strength of
the concrete slab gives this form of construction good load spreading properties, and a
good riding quality surface can be obtained. It is not resistant to jet blast and heat as
well as fuel spillage compared with rigid pavements, so it is often used in runways and
taxiways where aircrafts are likely to be moving fairly rapidly.
Pavement quality concrete is to be used for the surface slap overlaying 100mm
of dry lean concrete. The surfacing, normally 100mm in thickness, should be rolled
marshal asphalt or dense tar surfacing, laid in two coats.
DESIGN
Traffic Forecast: The capacity of this apron, terminal building and car park is
determined by forecast. Such forecast are usually made either from historical data or
by analysis of such factors as future income of vehicles, regional and national
development plans, future population forecast, tourist potential etc. The annual figures
are then converted to hourly flows called ‘Standard Busy Rate’ (SBR).

25
 The SBR is defined as that rate which exceed 29 times in a year and has been
found to give a reasonable basis for design. It is essential to obtain the short period
flow rates of passengers and aircraft movement pattern. In general, the SBR ratio
decreases with increasing annual movement. They also tend to be higher in airports
with high proportion of international travel or where one route dominates the schedule.
The passenger SBR is then used to determine the SBR of the air craft
movement, estimating the likely mix of the aircraft capacity and load factor taking
future traffic trends into account.
Annual Passenger Movement SBR/Annual Ratio
100000 0.002 – 0.003
250,000 0.001 – 0.002
500000 0.0002 – 0.0012
1000000 0.0006 – 0.0010
2500000 0.0004 – 0.0009

FAA PAVEMENT DESIGN CONSIDERATION

The FAA design method is based on gross weight of the critical aircraft
operation at the maximum take-off weight. The areas of traffic concentration such as
the central portion of the runway, taxiway, aprons and the runway end where the
departing traffic will load, the pavements are considered as critical areas. The design
chart produce a pavement thickness which is appropriate to these critical areas, non-
critical areas can have reduced thickness. The FAA design method requires the
following steps –
(1) An estimate of the annual departures of all aircrafts to use the pavement.
(2) The determination of the designed aircraft.
(3) Calculation of the equivalent gross of the departures of the designed aircraft
load. Arrivals are neglected since the land weight is less than the take-off
weight. The design method provides a pavement life of 20 years with the
forecast annual departures.

26
S/No Recommended Code Letter A B C D E
1 Runway Length 2000 and over 1057-1500 1497-900 899-750 779-600
2. Minimum Width of Runway 45 45 30 23 18
3. Minimum width of taxiway 23 23 15 10 7.5
4. Distance between any point of the edge of the Taxiway and
the edge of runway.
a) Instrument runway 150 150 150 - -
b) Other runways 75 73 73 36 29

5. Distance between any point of the edge of one taxiway and 65 52 43 27 23

the edge of another taxiway.
6. Distance of any point on the edge of a taxiway and any fixed 38 30 26 18 16
obstruction.
7. Vertical Alignment of runways
a) Maximum effective slope 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 2.0% 2.0%
b) Maximum Slope 1.25% 1.25% 1.5% 2.0% 2.0%
c) Maximum change between consecutive slopes 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 2.0% 2.0%
d) Maximum rate of change of slope per 30m 0.1% 0.1% 0.2% 0.4% 0.4
8. Max distance between successive point of intersection of
vertical curves as the sum of absolute numerical values of 30000 30000 15000 5000 5000
corresponding grade changes multiplied by the given factor
9. Maximum transverse slope 1.5% 1.5% 1.5% 2% 2%

27
 HELIPORT
Heliport is a terminal facility used for the landing and take-off of helicopters
including spaces for loading and unloading as well as limited positions for parking and
servicing.
The characteristics including those in the development stage fall within the following: -
1) Passenger Capacity => 3 – 50
2) Number of engines or rotors registered – 1, 2 or 4 (single, double or quadruple
lifting rotors)
3) Rotor diameter => 13 to 90m
4) Gross Weight => 2400 to 18200kg
5) Tyre pressure => 310 to 690 kN/m2 (or 103 pa)
6) Cargo capacity => 635 to 5450 kg
7) Maximum wheel load => 850 to 7300 kg
DESIGN SPECIFICATION
Design specifications for heliport are ten time with more experience in commercial
service. The landing area must be large enough to handle loading-unloading, parking and
servicing. The surface must be clean enough well drained and strong enough to support
impact landing loads.
Heliports may be on roof tops, on the ground, or on floating surfaces. Location
considerations include accessibility to traffic generating areas, economy of construction,
maximum safety of operation and minimum nuisance to the adjacent residents and
offices/personnel. Roof top heliport has the advantages of accessibility and economy
when combined with other commercial uses of the building. Clear approaches are usually
available.
The disadvantages are the limited spaces on the roof, absence of any over-run area
for emergency landing and take-off, possible cost of strengthening the structure and the
need of transporting passengers, cargoes supply and fuel vertically upward. Ground sites
are usually more economical to construct and provide more flexibility in terms of
planning. The problem is usually how to provide or to find adequate ground space close
to the centre of urban areas. Where cities are located near bodies of water, a water front
location can be found which has the advantage of accessibility as well as clear
approaches over water surfaces and other advantages of the ground site.
Assignment
What are the prospects and problems of helicopters for commercial services in
Nigeria? Write at least 5 pages and is due for submission in 2 weeks’ time.

28
HELIPORT STANDARD
Heliport a b c d Minimum angle of approach between
Class paths in degrees
Private 1.5 1.5 100 65 90o
Small 1.5 2.0 100 60 60o
(Public)
Large 1.5 1.5 130 135 135o
(Public)

Dimensions a & b are expressed as multiples of the overall length of the biggest
helicopter size using the heliport. As a general guide, the following dimensions could be
used.
Landing/Take-off
Length = 1.5/2.0 ×helicopter length ( ¿ ) i . e . 1.5∨2.0
Width = 1.5/2.0 ×helicopter length(¿)
For elevations over 300m above sea level, increase by 1.5% per 30m of elevation.
SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF HELICOPTERS
Types Weight in kg Overall length Passenger/crew Fuel capacity
capacity (litres)
Small types 800 9 3 100
1300 13 4 100
Big types 6000 17 14 1000
9000 25 27 1200

HELIPORT SITE SELECTION

Heliport can be on a building, usually at the top (reinforced concrete roof), water
front or on hand. All other planning, soil investigation, lateral clearance and obstruction
requirements should be carefully looked into as in airport.

29
ASSIGNMENT
Wind Direction Percentage of Wind 15 – 31 m/hr 31 – 47
N 4.3 1.0
NNE 1.3 -
NE 1.3 0.3
ENE 0.7 0.4
E 3.1 0.1
ESE 5.4 0.2
SE 4.2 0.5
SSE 1.3 -
S 0.4 0.1
SSW 3.1 0.5
SW 1.8 0.7
WSW 0.6 0.4
W 2.5 0.8
WWW 2.0 -
NW 0.2 0.2
NWW 1.0 0.5

Percentage of wind at 4 – 15m/hr = 58.2%

Percentage of wind at 0 – 4m/hr = 3.8%
Using the wind data given above, construct a wind rose and indicate what will be best
intention for a runway based on these prevailing wind.

30
 SECTION II: HARBOUR ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION
Harbour is any body of water either sea or river with sufficiency of water depth for
ships to enter and find shelter from storms and other natural phenomenon. The modern
day harbour is a place where ships are built, launched and are repaired as well as a
terminal for incoming and outgoing ships. There are four (4) principal classes of harbour.
These are the commercial, Naval, Fisheries and Refuge for small crafts. Most harbours
are situated at the mouth of a river or at some points where it is easy to transfer cargoes in
land by river barges, railroad or trucks.
Harbour engineering involves the planning and design of facilities for ships to
berth and discharge or remove cargos or passengers.
TYPES OF HARBOURS
1. Natural
2. Semi Natural
3. Artificial Harbour
4. Refuge Harbour
5. Military Harbour
6. Commercial Harbour
1. Natural Harbour – This is an inlet of water protected from waves and storms by
natural configuration of the land its entrance facilities navigation and ensure
comparatively quiet and calm water within the harbour e.g. Lagos Lagoon.

Fig 2.1.1 A typical natural harbour

2. Semi-Natural Harbour – This is similar to the natural habour but the inlet wall
require protection from both sides.

31
 Fig. 212 A Semi-Natural Harbour

3. Artificial Harbour – This is the type of harbour that is protected from the effect of
wave by break water or one created by dredging.

Fig. 2.1.3
4. Harbour of Refuge – This is a harbour used by ship when there is a storm.

Fig 2.1.3
32
5. Military Harbour or Naval Base – This is a harbour that accommodate military ship
or vehicles and serves as a supply deport eg. The naval dock yard at Apapa in Lagos.
6. Commercial Harbour – This is a harbour in which docks (resting places) are
provided with facilities for loading and unloading. Dry docks or ship ways are always
provided for ship maintenance and repairs. Commercial harbour may be privately
owned by government agencies like Ports Authorities (NPA).
CLASSIFICATION OF HARBOURS
There are three types of harbours viz:
1. Land Locked Natural Harbours: These are protected from the sea by a narrow
inlet.
2. Unprotected Natural Harbours: These may be dock even though unprotected
from the hazards of changing tides, ocean waves etc.
3. Artificial Harbours: These are carved out at sites where the natural features are
unfavourable. They are fashioned by dredging and constructing jetties, breakwaters
and sea basins, that protects the ships against unusually high or low tides. Most
harbours are cut geographically situated at places missing certain natural and
commercial advantages. At this location, port facilities such as wind houses, piers,
quays, loading and unloading equipment have constructed and channels have been
developed and maintained by constant dredging activities.
A natural coastal harbour is sheltered from the wind and sea by virtue of its
location. Breakwaters are constructed where needed to provide shelter or supplement in
adquoted already provided. National sources in natural river harbour, the waters are not
restrained by any artificial means. Facilities may consist of quays or wharfs parallel to the
bank of the streams or piers. Jetties which extend into the stream. A canal or passage is
located in the interior portions of the canal or lake that is connected with the sea by
navigable water ways.
PORT
A port is a harbour where marine terminal facilities are provided. These can be
piers or wharves (continuous retaining wall on one shore) where ships berth and anchor
while loading and unloading cargo or transit passengers; storage facilities where ships
may discharge incoming cargo or warehouse where goods may be stored for long period
while awaiting distribution and or sailing.
Terminals to port must be served by road, rail or inland waterways connection e.g.
Lagos, Port Harcourt and Warri ports.
In this respect the area of influence of a port reaches for a considerable distance
beyond the harbour.
33
 Fig 2.2
Turning Basin: This is a water area in the harbour to permit the turn of the ships. This
area should have a radius of at least twice the ship’s length.
SHIP CHARACTERISTICS THAT AFFECT HARBOUR DESIGN
The length, beam and draft of a ship affect the design of harbour. These factors are
taken into consideration in the design of the approach channel, harbour and maritime
terminal facilities.
The terminal facilities will be taken into consideration the type of vessel, the
capacity and tonnage.
Displacement Tonnage – This is the actual weight of the ship or the amount of water
displaced when a float may be either loaded or lightened.
Dead Weight Tonnage – Is the carrying capacity of a ship in long lanes and the
difference between displacement light, displacement loaded is the weight of the cargo,
fuel and stored ship carries, when landed to the hand line as different from loaded to
space capacity.
Draft – The draft of a ship (expressed in relation to the displacement as being loaded or
light draft) is the depth of the keel of the ship below water level for the particular
condition of loading.
Ballast – This is the weight added to the whole or ballast compartment of a ship, to
increase its draft, after it has been discharged of its cargo to improve stability. Ballast
usually consists of water.
34
Year Vessel Overall B/W Breadth Depth Draft Tonnage
Built Type Length Perpendicular (m) Dead Displacement
(m) (m) unit
1964 Olympus 249.631 229.8192 35.6616 18.8976 14.0208 75142 94260
tanker
1964 Bulk 195.986 182.88 23.1648 13.8684 10.287 47480 35883
Carrier
1960 General 147.523 136.2456 16.06296 11.90244 8.9916 12417 17088
Cargo
ship
1958 Orention 204.643 173.736 25.6032 13.716 8.2296 10170 22700
passenger
ship

In designing a port for harbour the types and properties of ships that will be
accommodated has to be taken into consideration. The following characteristics of ships
likely to use the port is prepared in addition to their dimensions.
1. Ship Layouts: Including the location and dimension of ramps and hatches, loaded
and unloaded deck heights super structure positions and clearance for dock site
cranes. Handling characteristics of ships for maneuvering and turning operation.
2. Winded area of ships to assist more seats on berth.
3. Ship mooring lines, sizes and capacities of bollard pull.
4. Deck cranes capacities and reaches.
Harbour Site Selection
The following factors will be considered in the selection of a harbour:
1) Need and economic justification
2) Abundance of sea borne activities
3) Availability of inland communication by land air and water.
4) Studies to establish the status of the harbour.
5) Site investigation of the harbour which will help in making the general plan and
design features.
Information on the depth of water, general characteristics of bottom and ranges of
tides, wind, speed, temperature and rainfall are required. Preliminary reconnaissance may
be made by aerial contour mapping which can be used to know the topography, and aerial
photograph can indicate the suitable position along the coast and shore surroundings can
give approximate river depth and seismic equipment can identify the pressure of rock at
all possible site locations, the most protected location involving the least amount of

35
dredging and with the most favourable bottom conditions and shore area should be
suitable for the development for terminal facilities.
Generally, a deep water bottom is preferable and is a requirement for the location
of a port whether natural or has to be obtained by construction. Bottom situations
involving rock or unsuitable soil must be or are better avoided because the requisites
considerable construction cost.
LAYOUT OF HARBOUR
The number and size of ships using a habour and the existing site condition
determine its size to a large extent. These are sometimes used in assisting ships to berth
and dock. Harbour size (area) is given by the space required for the docks and the turning
basins in front of them.

A typical layout of Artificial Harbour

HARBOUR PROTECTION
Break water: Is a structure constructed to form an artificial harbour within a water area,
so as to be protected from the effect of sea water and to provide safe accommodation for
shipping.
Break waters and Jetties
Break waters are massive structures built generally parallel to the shoreline to
protect from a storm area or to develop an artificial harbour.
A jetty is a structure built roughly perpendicular to the shore extending some
distance seaward for the purpose of maintaining an entrance channel and protecting it
from waves and excessive or otherwise undesirable current or otherwise undesirable
current. Jetties are usually built in pairs, one on each side of a channel or the mouth of a
river. Structurally, breakwaters and jetties are similar, however, the designs standards for
jetties may be slightly lower than those for breakwaters. This is because jetties are not
subject to direct waves attack to a great extent as are breakwaters. There are two classes
of breakwaters most successively employed-mound breakwater and wall breakwater. By

36
far the most popular type of breakwater is the rubble mould breakwater. As the name
suggests, it consists of a mound of large stone extending in a line from the shore or lying
parallel to and some distance from the shore.
Typically this type of breakwater is constructed of stone ranging in weight from
226.8kg to more than 16,000 kg each. The smaller stones are used to construct the
corners while the largest sizes being most resistance to displacement, serve as armour
stones that comprise the outer layer of the mound. Commonly the largest armour stones
are used on the seaward side of the breakwater. Where adequate quantities of common
stones are not available in suitable size precast concrete armour units may be used;
various shapes of these units have been used, including tetrapods, quadrapods, and
tribars.
Vertical wall breakwater constitute the second major class of breakwaters. This
class of breakwaters differ in concept and design from rubble mound breakwaters.
Vertical breakwaters include the following types:
1) Timber or precast concrete ribs filled with large stones.
2) Concrete caisson filled with stones or sand.
3) Short pilling breakwaters.

Tetrapod-Rubble Mound Break water

37
 Cellular Sheet Pile Breakwater
TIDES
The tide is the periodic rises and fall on ocean waters provided by the attraction of
the moon and sun. The average interval between successive high tides is 12 hours 25
minutes.
TYPES OF TIDES
1. Spring Tides: are highest tides which occur at interval of half a lunar month. They
occur at or near the period when the moon is new or full, that is when the sun,
moon and earth fall in line and the tide generating forces of the moon and sun are
additive.

38
 2. Neap Tides: Are the lowest tide in the month and they occur when the lines
connecting the sun, earth and moon form a right angle i.e. when the moon is a heat
quarter and the action of the moon and sun are subtractive.
In general large difference in tidal range exist along most coast all over the world.
The highest tides in the world occur at the bay of Fumday (30m) inland and land locked
seas such as the Mediterranean. Baltic has less than 30cm of tide and most lakes are not
noticeably influenced.
TIDES AND WAVES
Wave is a disturbance which propagates from one point in a medium to other
points without giving the medium as a whole any permanent displacement.
In the case of maritime engineering wave can be described as a disturbance which
moves through or over a surface of water.
Tide is a periodic rising and falling of the ocean resulting from lunar and solar tide
producing forces. The moon and the sun are identified with the rising and falling of the
tide. In open oceans the tide generated takes the form of a progressive waves in which the
associate currents are in the direction of the propagation below the crest and in the
opposite direction in the trough i.e. at high and low water. As the tide and wave enter a
shallow water it is distorted; the speed of propagation is reduced and wave crests tend to
overtake the proceeding trough. Thus time interval for low and high water is reduced
from high and low water increase.

39
 g m1 m
F=
d
Where m1 = Mass of the water body
F = Tidal producing force
d = distance between the moon and water
m = Mass of the moon
Wave Length (λ) is the distance between two (2) successive points on the wave with the
same depth and velocity.
Period (T): Is the time taken for the wave to repeat itself.
Frequency (F): Is the number of times through which a wave vary from its equilibrium
value.
Velocity (C) OR Celerity: Is the distance travelled by the wave motion in any time.
Amplitude (a): Is the maximum magnitude of disturbance caused by the wave motion.
1 λ
T = , C=λf ∨
f T
WIND WAVE GENERATION

40
 When wind blows across a free water surface gradually from a very low velocity,
ripples will begin to appear as the velocity increases. These are called capillary waves
and have a length of about 17m with a period of 0.07 seconds. With further increase in
wind velocity the ripples start to grow and become gravity waves. Once these gravity
waves are formed, energy is transferred from air to the water. If the wind blows for
sufficient time the energy input from the wind becomes equal to the losses within the
wave motion and further growth ceases. At this stage
2
gH 0.283u
C/U ≈ 1.95 where U=wind velocity C=clarity and 2 =¿ H = g
u
Where H = depth of the water bed.
MOORING STRUCTURES AND APPURTENANCES
1. Dock: This in general is a marine structure for mooring or tying up vessels loading
and unloading cargo or embarking and disembarking passengers. Dock may be a
general name for such structures as pier, wharves, bulk head, jetties, quay and quay
walls.
2. Wharf or Quay: This is a dock that is parallel to the shore.
3. Bulk Head or Quay Wall: Is similar to the wharf but it is backed by the ground
usually the fill behind the bulk head has to be supported by bulk head.
4. Pier or Jetty or Mole: This is a dock that project into the water. Ships can dock on
both sides of a pier or jetty. A pier is usually built parallel to the shore and connected
by a mole or pistle.

5. Dholphins: These are marine strcutures for mooring vessels, used in combination
with piers and wharves to shorten the length of these structures. They are designed
principally for horizontal forces of impact, wind or current forces from a ship when
docking or moving.
6. Flexible Dholphins – These are made of wood piles clusters of three, seven or
nineteen piles and worked with galvanized cable. The centre pile is permitted to
provide about 0.75m above the others and is used to hold the moving line of a ship.
41
Note: that steel cylinder piles can be used in place of wood which are generally used for
small ships.
In general the bottom condition of wooden pile should ensure that dholphins after
taking the minponent from ship will not affect their original condition. Such condition
should not be soft and should be suitable for a flexible installation.
Rigid dholphins are made of the following:
1) Wooden platform type of rigid dolphin.
2) Sheet pile set capped with heavy concrete slab.
3) Precast concrete pile capped with heavy concrete slab.
These will take impact from heavier ship design consideration. Since these are all
hydraulic structures, the residual knowledge of soil, water pressure and permissible stress
of member are required. Also a knowledge of investigation is required.
FENDER SYSTEMS
During the moving process a great deal of damage can be done to the wharf and
ship unless some sort of protection device is provided to absorb the energy of the moving
vessel. Such a device also is needed to lessen, the effect of the bumbins and rubbing of
the ship against the wharf while the ship is on sail. Protection installation that meet these
needs are called fender. A wide variety of fenders has been employed including
i) Pile Fender
ii) Timber hung fender system
iii) Rubber fenders
iv) Gravity type fender system

42
THE RAYKIN FENDER BUFFER
Several protective rubber fender devices have been employed including fender
buffer illustrated above. Raykin fender buffer consists of layer of a rubber cemented to
the most important factors are:
1) Mass of ship to be berthed
2) Speed of berthing (normal to the dock)
3) Environmental condition at the port.
The speed of approach normal to the dock taken for design purpose varies from
30mm to 375mm/sec depending principally on the ship size, exposure of the wharf to
wind, wave tides and current and the availability and type of docking assistance.
The kinetic energy of a docking ship is given by the equation.
1 2 1 w
E= m v =
2 2 g v2

Where m = mass of ship

v = berthing velocity normal to face of the dock
w = displacement of the ship
g = acceleration due to gravity
For ships docking at moderate to high speed the kinetic energy is increased due to
the mass of water moving alongside ship. To allow for this effect the mass value used in
the equation above should be increased by about 60%.
For design purpose it may be assumed that one half of the kinetic energy is to be
absorbed by the fender system.

43
 The energy absorbed by the fender and dock is ½ K.E. The other ½ K.E is assumed
absorbed by the ship and the surrounding water.
Example
A ship of mass 9 x 10 4 kg approaches a dock at angle of 10 o with a velocity of
0.3m/s. Calculate the energy to be absorbed by the dock and fender.

Solution
m = 9 x 104 kg
v = 0.3m/s
K.E. = ½ mv2
= 1/2 [9 x 104 (0.3 sin 10)2]
= 122.12J
Energy to be absorbed E = ½ 122.12 = 61.06J
MARITIME STRUCTURES
The most common types of maritime structures are as follows:
1. Wharfs or Wharves
It is a structure along the water front providing the berth for ships to load and
unload passengers and cargos. A marginal wharf parallel to the shore is generally known
as the quay.
2. Piers
A piers is a wharf (at) perpendicular to the shore line. It is a finger projection to
form the shore on which berths are provided.
3. Jetties
It is a structure extending out from the shore at the river mouth or it is located
parallel to and at one or both sides of a navigation channel. Jetties are used to keep the

44
channel open by preventing the lateral drifts. It is also used to provide berth at some
distance from the shore.
4. Dholphins
It is an isolated structure or a strong point used for maneuvering a vessel or to
facilitate holding it in position at its berth.

WHARVES
These require a vertical face against which the ship berths and a contiguous area
alongside for cargo handling, equipment and cargo storage.
The vertical walls can be of two types:
i. A Solid wall which can be a gravity wall or short pile wall.
ii. An open type piled structure.
The choice depends on the depth of water foundation condition and availability of
suitable materials for filling behind the solid wall.

PIERS
A pier normally require a vertical face on both sides against which ships are
berthed with the deck of the pier providing the walling area for cargo handling and

45
storage. The methods of cargo handling determines the width. If the pier is sufficiently
inside the seawards end can also be used for berthing ships.
The pier can also be of solid type or a suspended structure on piles. The choice of
whether the pier is solid or open will depend on the foundation condition, availability of
fill materials and their effect on lateral drift.

JETTIES
A jetty is a structure providing a berth at some distance from the shore where the
required depth of water is available. The jetty head should normally be aligned so that the
vessel is berthed to the direction of strongest current and is normally an open pile
structure. In some cases a course way is used for the first section of the jetty approach
from the shore, until the depth of water increases to the point where the pile structure
becomes more economical. The jetty head is normally smaller than the length of the ship
it is designed to handle and generally requires the breasting and mooring dholphins for
berthing and for maintaining the vessel in position.

DHOLPHINS
A dholphins is of two types
i) Breasting Dholphins
ii) Mooring Dholphins
i) A breasting dholphins is an isolated structure designed to provide two distinct
functions.

46
 a. It must absorbe the kinetic energy of the berthing vessel.
b. It must assist in restraining the vessel at berth.
There are also two types of breasting dholphins namely (1) Rigid Dholphins and
(2) Flexible Dholphin
i. The Rigid Breasting Dholphin could be either a massive structure or an open
multiplicity structure rigidly held together at the top by of a massive deck.
ii. Mooring Dholphins – These are isolated structures to which mooring lines are
attached to restrain the ship at berth. They are not normally subject to impact
from flexible to absorb the energy. However they have to be designed to resist
the horizontal loads from the mooring liner over a wide angular range which
arises from both wind and current on the moored vessel. They must also be
designed for uplifting to resist the vertical component of the force in the
mooring line. They are normally of rigid pile structures.
PEIRS AND WHARVES
A wharf is a structure built on the shore of a river, canal or bay so that vessels may
be alongside to receive and discharge cargo and passenger. A wharf built generally
parallel to the shoreline is called a marginal wharf or quay. A wharf built at an angle to
the shore is called a finger pier or simply a pier. The berthing and maneuvering space
between adjacent pier is called a slip.
Basically there are two broad classes of wharf substance/structure. i) Solid fill type
and (ii) the open type
The solid filled type illustrated below consists of a vertical wave that is backfilled
by earth that support a paved deck. The wall is commonly a cantilevered, anchored steel
sheet pile bulk head. Gravity structures such as cellular steel bulkhead and cribs of timber
or any concrete have been employed successfully.

47
 Fig. Solid fill type of Wharf Construction
The open type of wharf has principal advantage over the solid fill type of wharf
substructure in that its mass provide adequate resistance to the impact of moving ship.
Solid fill substructures are inexpensive (except in deep waters) stable and requires little
maintenance. Because this type of substance serves as a barrier to current and tide, it is
used principally to support marginal wharves.
In the open type construction the wharves superstructure is supported by timber,
concrete or steel piles. In this type of substructure, transverse rows of bearing piles are
driven and capped with concrete girder longitudinal loads. Alternatively, when heavy
concentrated loads are not expected, the piles are spaced closely and capped with a flat
slab. A typical open type of wharf substructure is illustrated below.

48
 High Level Open Type of Wharf Construction
The open type of wharf substructure is more economical in deep water location and
where a high level superstructure is required since this type of substructure after little
restriction to water movement it can be used to support piers in rivers and coasted areas
alike.

FENDERING SYSTEM
A fendering system is a structural element or a combination of elements which
ensure the safe disposition of vessels kinetic energy at berth in a controlled manner.
Fendering system may be divided into two (2) main categories.
i) The Detached System – The detached system in which berthing forces do not
act on the main system or jetty structure.
ii) Attached System – In which the fender elements are attached to the main quay
or jetty structure. Fender systems are designed to protect both vessels and
breasting structures from damages cause by berthing impact. They range from
timber rubbing strips fixed to a quay face to purpose built free standing energy
absorbing structure.
The factors for determining the type and capacity of a suitable fender system
include:
i) Nature and size of berthing vessel.

49
 ii) The form of structure to be protected.
iii) The environmental conditions such as wind, current, waves etc.
iv) The operational requirement of the system
v) The consequences of damaged to the vessel or structure.
The berthing force is often the predominant lateral force on jetty structure and its
effects is largely controlled by the fender system adopted. The design of the fendering
system must therefore form an integral part of the structural design. The selection of
fendering system will be the first step in design process and can influence the shape, size
and form of the structure.
DETACHED FENDERING
The main advantage of the detached fender system is that, it permits lighter main
structures to be designed. Also where the capacity of the existing berth is to be increased,
the detached system is more advantageous especially if the existing structures have
insufficient strength to withstand increased berthing load. The common example of the
detached fender system is a row of free standing piles usually of timber, driven into sea
or river bed in front of the face of the main structure. Berthing energy is absorbed mainly
by deflection. The capacity for energy absorption can be determined by the size, length,
penetration and material properties of the system. Generally detached fender systems are
of either i) detached quay fender system, (ii) Breasting dholphins.
Breasting dholphins are independent of the service structure provided for the
vessels. With flexible dholphins the energy absorption is provided in part by energy
absorption units attached to the dholphin force and in part by the deflection of the entire
structure.
ATTACHED FENDER SYSTEM
This consists of energy bolted to or suspended from a quay face or strong point on
a jetty. Some types of energy absorbing materials include hollow member cylinders and
gravity fenders. The required energy absorption capacity is derived by deformation in
compression or shear. Gravity fenders are those in which kinetic energy is converted to
potential energy by means of raising a large mass. They relief the main structure of the
berthing load but impose considerable dead load. The design of an attached fender system
comprises of:
i. Calculation of energy to be absorbed
ii. Investigation of alternative systems capable of absorption.
iii. The energy and calculation of force to be resisted by the structure for each
alternative.
iv. Investigation of design of the structure to resist forces of berthing.

50
 v. Selection of fender system and structure.
Energy of berthing vessel available for absorption by a fender system is given
by
E = ½ mv2CECmCsCc, E= ½ m
Where m = the mass of the vessel (displacement (t))
v = the velocity of vessel normal to fender at the point of impact.
Cm = Coefficient of hydro-dynamic mass
Cs = Stiffness factor or softness coefficient
CE = Eccentricity factor
Cc = Berthing configuration coefficient.
As the energy varies with the square of the velocity of the approaching vessel, the
following figures are suggested
DISPLACEMENT (t) TRANSVERSE VELOCITY (m/s)
Up to 2000 0.30
2000 – 10,000 0.18
10,000 – 12,500 0.16
Over 12,500 0.14
The eccentricity factor is calculated from
2
K
CE= 2 2
K +R
Where K = the radius of gyration of the ship.
R = the distance of the point of impact from centre of gravity of the vessel
The mass factor Cm take account of the mass of water entrained with moving
vessel commonly referred to as hydro-dynamic mass. The sum of hydro-dynamic mass
and the displacement give the virtual mass of the vessel. The mass factor Cm is the ratio
of the virtual mass to the displacement. Cm is given by
2D
Cm=1+
B
Where B = the beam of the vessel
D = the drought or length of the vessel
The softness co-efficient allows for the portion of the impact energy that is
absorbed by the ship hull. The value is between 0.9 – 1.0. A figure of 1.0 for Cs is
recommended for a soft fendering system and between 0.9 – 1.0 for a hard fendering
51
system. The berth configuration coefficient Cc allows for that portion of ship energy
which is absorbed by the effect of water trapped between the ship hull and the quay wall.
It is influenced by the type of the quay construction and its distance from the sides of the
vessels the berthing angle and the shape of the haul. A value of 1.0 should be used for
piled jetty structure and between 0.8 – 1.0 is recommended for solid quay wall.
Example:
Estimate the kinetic energy of the berthing vessel displacement approaching a solid
quay wall with a hard tendering system at a velocity of 0.7 km/hr at 60 o to the quay wall.
The length of the ship is 50m and the point of impact is 4.3m above the centre of gravity.
The beam is 10m and the vessel drought is 1.375m
Solution
The KE is given by E = ½ mv2CECsCmCE
m = 5000 × 103 kg
1000
v = 0.7km/hr = ¿ 0.7 × 3600 m/ s=0.19 m/s

Normal velocity = 0.19cos30o

2
K
CE= 2 2
, R=4.3 m given
K +R
And K lies between 0.2L and 0.25L
Assume K = 0.232L => 0.23 × 50 = 11.5m
115 2
¿>CE= 2 2
=0.88
115 + 43
2D 2 ×1.375
Cm=1+ =1+ =1.275
B 10
Cs: Hard fendering system => Cs lies between 0.9 and 1.0 Assume Cs = 0.93
Cc: Solid quay wall => Cc lies between 0.8 and 1.0
Assume Cc = 0.85
1 3 o 2
∴ E= ×5000 ×1 0 (0.19 cos 3 0 ) × 0.88× 1.275× 0.93 ×0.85
2
60034.8194
¿ =60.03482 kJ
1000

52
53
LOCKS
Maritime locks are designed to allow vessels to pass between tidal and impounded
water area to be maintained at a constant level thereby eliminating tidal effects. Locks
may be essential to prevent vessels grounding while alongside berth. A constant water
level behind the lock also has advantages in that the height of quays depend only on the
ships drought and no account need to be taken of tides upstream of the locks; loading and
discharging is also simplified with a constant water level and normally waves and culvert
can be discharged.
DIMENSION OF LOCKS
The usable length of the locks chamber width and length of the fill should be
sufficient to ensure that all vessels entering the locks may be safely locked in and out.
The level of the outer sill is normally dependent upon the dimension of the approach
channel. The level of the river sill is dependent upon the impounded water level and the
maximum vessel drought. A clearance of 10% of the maximum ship beam should be
allowed on each of the vessel. The length and the width of the lock also depend on the
number of ships being locked simultaneously.
LOCK GATES
Lock gates can be caissons, mitre gates or sector gates. For smaller lock single leaf
gates (vertical or horizontal axis) are sometimes used. Mitre gates are probably the most
common types of gates for locks under 30m wide as they are generally more economical
than other types. They can be more easily handled for maintenance. Mitre gates obtain
their strength largely from the edge of water on the side holding them together. However,
they have the disadvantage that they can only resist the head of water on one direction.
They are not suitable when the tide level, out of the tide rises above the impounded water
level. Mitre gates also has the disadvantages that they are likely to vibrate where there is
only a small hydraulic head holding them together. Radial sector gates are the most
suitable for smaller locks.

54
 SECTION III: RAILWAY ENGINEERING
INTRODUCTION
Railway Engineering is that part of transportation engineering which involves
planning, designing, development, construction, maintenance and operation of wheel
units of rolling stock running on and guided by rail for the transportation of goods and
people. Railways of Nigeria are wholly owned and operated by government. They
provide coordinated services for transportation of cargo and passengers to most of the
commercially oriented towns in Nigeria and to sea ports. Experience has shown that as a
country develops its need for a reliable and efficient railway system grows. Since 1912
railways have been the only flourishing common carrier services in Nigeria until later in
the century, when additional modes of inland transport such as the highways and pipeline
transportation became available.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF NIGERIAN RAILWAYS
Most of the Nigerian railways were constructed by the colonialists to facilitate the
movement of natural resources from Nigeria to Europe. Such products include,
groundnuts, cocoa, cotton, hides and skins, tin, coal etc. The historical order of railway
development followed the following stages –
i) 1898 – 1912 Lagos – Minna line, which runs across the heart of coca and kolanut belt
was constructed.
ii) 1910-1912 Another line was extended to Kaduna – Zaria – Kano. Cotton and
groundnut lands of the North were opened up.
iii) Tin mining started in Jos Plateau in 1903 and a 76km mineral line was extended from
Zaria – Jos arriving in 1913. Before the railway from Port Harcourt reached Jos in
1927 the tin was sent by this narrow gauge railway to Zaria and from there to Lagos.
The narrow gauge has since outlived its usefulness and was abundant in 1958. With
the discovery of coal in Enugu in 1915 a railway was started from Port Harcourt
which reached Enugu in 1916. The Port Harcourt – Enugu line was extended
Northwards until it finally reached Jos in 1927. The extension not only provided the
outlet for the Enugu coal but also provided a shorter cut to the sea for the Jos tin. By
1929 a line was extended from Zaria to Kaura Namoda to carry groundnuts and hides
from the far north. Then the Kano line was pushed further north east to Nguru for
same reason. There then emerged two integrated railway systems, the western line
from Lagos to Nguru and the Eastern line from Port Harcourt to Kaura Namoda.
iv) The Ilaro branch built in 1930, heads into the cocoa country of the west and terminals
at Idoko and the offshoot construction in 1958 branches off from Ogbaho and carried
coal and gypsum to the Nkalagu Cement factory.

55
v) The Borno railway extension the latest in the country up till now and last in the
sequence was built between 1958 and 1964 to open up the potentials groundnut and
cotton districts of Borno State. It started from Jos through Bauchi and Gombe and
terminated at Maiduguri. The 27 year period between, 1965-1992 have been the worst
in the history of railway development with decline in both the amount of goods and
passangers carried.
In spite of the technological progress that led to the availability of other modes of
transport, transportation systems in industrialized nation are subject to increased
pressures from population expansion, congestion and overcrowding energy shortages
and rising cost of living. Increased utilization of rail roads to bring more balance into
the transportation sector could be important in the solution of these problems.
SIGNIFICANCE OF RAILWAYS
Railways are always constructed for commercial purpose and from the economic
point of view. They are sited where it pays to build them. They serve to:
i) Open up land which is potentially good for major crop production.
ii) Tap resources for agriculture, mining and forestry.
iii) Link up different region thus promoting inter-regional trades.
iv) Increase in district development
v) Links up important cities and facilitates movement of goods and services
vi) Move troops and supplies in times of emergency.
ATTRACTIVE RESISTANCE (TRACTIVE)
Attractive resistance is the functional resistance to motion per ton. It is made up of
rolling resistance between rails and wheels, bearing friction air resistance and additional
resistance due to curves and slopes. It is the ratio of the tractive force to the weight of the
tractive.
RAILWAY COMPONENT CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS
TRACK CHARATERISTICS
A rail track consists of two (2) lines of rail supported on tie plates that are secured
to cross ties by spikes or other fastenings with the whole system resting on a bed of
ballast.
Rails should satisfy the following functional requirements;
i) Resist contact pressure from the wheel of the train, so it must be hard.
ii) Must have good flexural and fatigue resistance qualities to enable it absorb
repeated loading and shock.

56
 iii) It must be stiff enough to distribute the wheel loads over several cross ties along
the track.
RAILWAY TRACK COMPONENTS
TIE
Is a steel, timber or pre-stressed concrete beam passing under the rails used to hold
the rails to correct gauges and distribute the imposed load from the rails to the ballast.
Traditional track support since the early days of railways has been timber ties, but now
pre-stressed concrete and steel ties are very much in common use in many countries.
In Nigeria tie spacing is 700mm with 650mm on curves or on timber tie continuous
welded rail. A decrease in spacing may be appropriate where the formation is weak or
where it is not practicable to increase, the total construction depth by increasing the depth
of ballast. Increasing the density of tie increases both the lateral and vertical resistances
of buckling movements of the track, it is therefore a general practice to reduce tie spacing
when laying track intended to carry long welded rails.
TIMBER TIES
Timber ties are generally of softwood. All softwood and most hardwood ties that
can be impregnated are pressured creosoted by roping process. Before base plating the
harder softwood ties need to be increased prior to creosoting. 4 – 14 litres of creosote per
lie is the normal absorption according to species.
A timber tie may have the first running life time of 6 to 50 years with an average of
about 20 years according to basic loading weather exposure and nature and incidence of
indigenous vegetative and insects enemies of timber, presence or absence of base plates,
the nature of the fastening of maintenance, the species of timber and the rate at which it
has grown.
STEEL TIES
Steel ties give average service year of over 50 years before failing through
cracking in or adjacent to the rail seat area. These cracks propagates from rail fastening
holes or from discontinuities in the rail area. Abrasive wear and corrosion also contribute
in this area to the failure. Rail fastener mountings and accumulated gross traffic tonnage
carriers are the most important factors determining tie life. Steel ties do not burn nor
suffer from exposure to dry heat and in tropical climates their immunity to insects or
fungal damages is extremely beneficial. Loss of metal due to corrosion is usually low but
there may be few special sites subject to corrosion.
Steel ties provides good resistance to lateral and longitudinal movement of the
track and gives high consistency of gauge. The natural resistance of the ballast is more
57
effectively utilized by steel ties and ballast depth may be increased by about 17-100mm
as compared with timber or concrete ties where standard ballast depth is retained. The
additional load spreading effect of steel ties may enable ties spacing to be slightly
increased.
Steel ties are similar to concrete ties in that there is the tendency to degrade soft
ballast more rapidly than timber ties. Hence the use of hard stone is recommended for
steel ties.
CONCRETE TIES
Concrete ties are resistant to decay, insects attack and fire, but it is brittle and a
reinforced concrete sleeper will not withstand the impact load on main line track.
Pre-stressed concrete were then introduced and they give a good distribution and
control of the stress. Concrete ties have the following advantages in general: -
i. Higher Passenger train speeds and heavier axle loads are achieved with strong
concrete ties.
ii. Low frequency of maintenance cycles and costs.
iii. Increased use of mechanized equipment has overcome the difficulties in
handling heavy concrete blocks.
iv. Soft wood ties may be unable to handle the high stress developed and
hardwoods ties are often very expensive in comparison to concrete.
v. Expensive base plates are eliminated and only a resilient pad is required
between the rail and sleeper. Pre-stressed concrete ties have an average of 45-50
years. At high speeds wheels and rail surface defects can cause high stress in
concrete sleepers which can cause cracking in the rail seat area of the tie. Pre-
stressed concrete with such cracks can remain serviceable pending the
rectification of the cause of the high stress.
GENERAL FUNCTION OF TIES
1. Secured hold the two lines of rails of correct gauges.
2. Bear the axle load from the rails and transmit them to the ballast with diminished
unit pressure.
3. With their embedment in the ballast anchor they protect track against any lateral,
longitudinal and vertical movement.
Optimum Length of Tie

58
Let L = Length of the tie
L2 = Length of the guage
L1 = Spacing of rails
W = Pressure of the ballast
2p
∑ V =0=¿ 2 p=WL ,W = L
Bending moment (BM) at the centre of the tie is max.

M i=
pL WL L1
2
−
2 2 [ p
4 ]
+ L2 = [ L1−2 L2 ]

W L2 2 p L2 2
Mi (Moment of bottom of rail) = =
2 L
For optimum length of tie, Mc = Mr (to ensure optimum use of materials)
2
p L2 p 1
= ( L1−2 L2) , But L2 = ( L−L2 )
L 4 2
2
( L−L2 ) 1
= ( 2 L1 −L )
4L 4
L2−2 L L1 + L12=2 L L1−L2∨2 L2−4 L L1 + L12=0=¿ a quadratic equation∈L
L=Optimum=1.71 L1

For standard gauge, L1 = 152.3cm => the optimum length of ties in Nigeria = L optimum
= 1.71 x 152.3 = 260cm
The analysis indicate that for standard gauge the optimum length for ties from B M
consideration is 260cm. It should be noted that increasing the tie length or width
increases the bearing area thereby reducing the pressure at the top surface of the ballast.

59
 The track force is the amount of pad provided by a locomotive (e.g. train) it is
usual to the locomotive weight times coefficient of friction between the rails and wheels
on level track. The coefficient of friction is usually a maximum of 0.25. The maximum
pull is therefore 0.25 x cut of locomotive. On ascending by the locomotive, weight times
gradient on descending grades, the tractive weight times gradient.
BALLAST
Ballast is placed to provide support and lateral assistance to sleeper. It provides
adjustment of lateral and alignment as required if this is done manually the minimum size
of particles should be 50mm. Ballast should be free draining mainly of single size,
cubical shape and more importantly durable so that there is negligible volume change,
due to loading under track. The Wet Attuition Value (WAV) gives the best correlation
with minimum maintenance requirements over a longtime. Particles with different size
have different WAV. The WAV should not exceed 4% for good ballast and it is possible
to obtain stones with WAV down to 1%. It is rare for synthetic stones such as blast
furnace slag to have adequate wet attuition properties and may generally be grouped with
some limestone as being unsuitable to be in contact with cross ties. However, crushed
slag, steel mill and blast furnace in uniform size may be considered suitable. Gravels
prepared by washing and screening excessively fine and silty materials can serve as
ballast material with good quality. But gravel lack the strength and durability of stone and
cannot be ordinarily clean. These features made its performance inferior to that of
crushed stones.
FUNCTIONS OF BALLAST
1. It transmits the load due to track and rail road traffic with sufficiently diminished unit
pressure so as to overstress the subgrade.
2. It anchors the track in place against any movement.
3. It facilitates rapid drainage of moisture from the track due to shape of the section and
free drainage properties of the ballast.
4. It facilitates easy maintenance operations because irregularities in sub-base are
connected by lapping the ballast under the tie.
5. Since drainage absorbs moisture quickly from the sub-base, growth of vegetables is
retarded.

60
 The required depth of ballast is given by

( )
0.8
16.8 pa
h=
pc

Where: pa is effective type pressure (psi)

pc is the bearing capacity of subgrade (psi)
RECOMMENDED PROPERTIES OF RAIL ROAD TRACK
1. Stiffness: There should be sufficient stiffness for the pressure pulse from individual
axle to be merged into one. Otherwise excessive deflection which will lead to
differential settlement between track components may result.
2. Resilience or Elasticity: This is required within limit to provide a smooth ride and to
prevent breakage of wheel and track components.
3. Resistance to Permanent Deformation: If the track were to experience uniform
deformation, than the permanent deformation will be considered desirable since this is
never the case, track should be capable of resisting permanent deformation.
4. Stability: A good track should remain in the designed vertical and horizontal
conditions. Stable track requires a firm, well drained subgrade as well as a clean, well
compacted top and well graded ballast. There should be sound ties supporting rail of
adequate section and width.
5. Adjustability – since the track is never completely stable, a means of adjusting the
geometrical conditions must be available.
FUNCTIONS OF TRACK COMPONENTS
i. Tie-Plates: these protect the cross-ties from abrasive, longitudinal and horizontal
movement of the rail base, provides a larger bearing surface of the tie and rail base.
The plates also make the spikes more effective in holding down the rail gauge.
ii. Cross-tie: This serves several functions including the followings:
a. Spreading the horizontal and vertical loadings to the ballast.
b. Maintaining the correct gauge between the rails.

61
 c. Providing, in conjunction with the ballast a means of anchoring the track
against longitudinal and lateral movements.
d. Providing a convenient means for making needed adjustments of the vertical
profile of the track.
iii. Ballast: Its function is to distribute the load more uniformly on the subgrade
between ties and also extend the distribution across the track. Ballasts must
withstand the bearing pressure from the tie without flowing (i.e. without spreading
out) and must provide drainage.

RAIL JOINTS
Rail joints are used to provide smooth continuity of alignment of surface where
two rails ends meet and to transfer the wheel load from one end of the rail to the other.
Rail joints consist of two steel members that fit on each side of the rail and span the gap
between the two rails. The joints bars are typically 600 or 900mm in length and usually
are held in place by bolting through in the rail flange. The 600mm bars have 4 bolt holes
and the 900mm bars have 6. There are 211 joints in 1.6km of rail line. Joints bars are
shaped like I shaped beam.
RAIL ANCHORS
These are employed to reduce or stop the longitudinal movement of rails under
traffic and to control the temperature induced expansion of rails. The main purpose is to
hold the rail in a fixed position with respect to the tie. Without anchorage, rails tend to
expand unevenly and local concentration of expansion forces may cause the track to
buckle or warp. This results in twisted ties, tight gauge and broken welds at rails joints.

62
 Rail anchors are used in great number for tracks carrying traffic in one direction,
use 8-forward anchors and 2-back-up anchors per 39ft or 11.7m of rail length. For tracks
carrying traffic in both directions, 16 anchors per 11.7m of rail length are recommended.
CONTINUOUS WELDED RAIL
This is obtained by welding together a number of rails usually 40 into a string
about 400mm long fastened to the tie and properly positioned. Expansion and contraction
provided by rail joints, fastenings and anchors. A temperature drop of 1oF can cause
tensile stress of about 195Psi on the rail line if it is unstrained from shortening. Usually,
some rail ends and tie movement is inevitable as a result of temperature drop, so it is
convenient practice to
(1) Anchor every tie for five (5) lengths at the end of the welded stream to reduce the
end movement and joint gaps.
(2) For the remainder of the welded rail, only the 2nd or the 3rd tie is to be anchored
POWER COMPONENTS
In the movement of a train along a rail many types of resistances to the movement
of the train are encountered. These are basically: -
(i) Guide resistance: - Resistance due to an ascending grade in slope.
Guide Resistance = Slope 44 x grade % (kg/ton weight of grade)
Example
On a 2% grade, the guide resistance = 44 x 2 = 88kg/ton grade
(ii)Curve Resistance: - This is the additional resistance encountered in trying to guide
the train while negotiating a curve. It is equivalent to 0.04% grade per degree of
curvature, so the curve of 4%, the curve resistance = 0.04 x 44 x 4 = 7.08kg/ton grade.
(iii) Rolling or Drain resistance: - is the resistance to drain movement on a level
tangent. Rolling resistance is affected by speed, weight of axle and trade
characteristics. Starting resistance is less with roller bearing than with Solid bearing.
Formular for calculating rolling resistance.
a. For passenger car (Axle load > 5 tons)
20 0.00034 A V 2
Rolling distance ( R )=1.3+ + 0.03V +
W WN
b. For freight car (axle load > 5 tons)
2
20 0.0005 A V
R=1.3+ +0.045+
W WN
Where R = Train resistance
A = Cross Sectional area of car m2
63
 V = Velocity; km/hr
N = Number of axles per track
W = Weight of the coach – kg
Example
Calculate the train resistance of a coach weighing 55 tons if the operating speed is
40 km/hr. Assume an area of 850 square m and the train to be a passenger train. Assume
1 no axle, Ans 11.2716/ton
Problem: Try same for freight car
LIFE OF RAIL ON CURVE
Percentage of life on tangent.
Degree of Curve Without Oilers With Oilers
0 100 100
1 87 100
2 73 89
3 60 29
4 48 70
5 38 62
6 30 55
7 22 49
8 16 44
9 12 40
10 10 37

For life on curves use the percentage of life in tangent life on tangent (T) = KWD0.565
Where:
T = rail life on tangent
W = Weight of rail: or kg/m
D = traffic density: million gross ton/yr
K = Coefficient of friction

64
Example
Calculate the rail life expected on a straight stretch of track given the following
parameters.
Weight of rail = 54kg/m D = 159.91
Traffic density = 20 x 106 gross ton/yr
K = 0.545
Ans = 159.91 million gross tons
If the rail is provided with oilers, what will be the rail life in a 3% curve
Rail life on tangent with oilers = 159.91 x 79/100 = 126.33%
SIGNALLING
Signalling is effectively used in the control of train movement; essentially, signally
provides the required separation in time by permitting rail cars to use a rail line when it is
not occupied by another rail car.
TYPE OF SIGNAL
1. Train Orders – Time Schedules
In areas where only light densities of traffic occur, operations are possible without
signal by abiding to operating rule and time tables. Under heavier density signal system
helps to provide train control.
The two types of signals and almost exclusively are SEMAPHORE & LIGHT
SIGNALS. At most all semaphore signal currently in operation use the upright hand
quadrant. The vertical position is used for clear, the 45o position for approach (requiring
special reduction) and the horizontal position for stop or stop and proceed.
Light signals are arrangement of electric light and optical applications which are
capable of producing light coloured light visible even in bright sun light. Moreover
colours of lamp are used – green for clear, yellow for approach, red for the most
restrictive aspect stop.

65
2. Automatic Block Control
Here block of tracks are separated electrically by insulated joint in both rails. When the
rail is occupied a red signal will be displayed and when the line is free, the green signal
will be displayed.
Automatic rail control is used in some instances and an indicator is placed in advance of a
block which the engine man must make contact with. There are various types of electrical
signal control used in railway traffic control. All these improve considerably train
schedule capacity and safety.
OBJECTS OF SIGNALLING
The main purpose of signalling is to control and regulate the movement of trains. The
objectives of signalling are:
i. To regulate the movement of trains running in opposite directions to prevent
collision.
ii. To help to regulate the movement of trains in the same direction by keeping a
safe distance between them.
iii. To facilitate safe shunting operations within the station limits.
iv. To control and restrict the speed of trains at curves during maintenance and
repairs of tracks.
v. To regulate the movement of incoming and outgoing trains.
CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS
Signals are mainly classified as
a. Functional signals
b. Locational signals
c. Special signals
a. Functional Signals
The most important signals of this types are:
i. Stop signals
This signal directs the driver of a train to stop or proceed. It is placed on the left side of
the direction of movement of a train with the arm projecting away from the track for
which it is intended.

66
A stop signal is also called a semaphore signal (sema means ‘sign’ and phor means
‘bear’ in Greek). The figure below shows a semaphore signal. The signal carries a
horizontal movable arm pivoted on a vertical post. When the arm is in the horizontal
position, it is said to be in the ON position and directs the drivers to stop the train at the
signal. When it is in an inclined position, it is said to be in the OFF position and directs
the driver to proceed. The side facing the driver to proceed. The side facing the driver is
painted red with a vertical white band, near the end. The other side is painted white with
a vertical black band. The arm contains red and green coloured galsses over which a
spectacle is provided. The red glass is on the upper end and the green light at the lower
end, so that when the arm is horizontal, the red light would be visible and when the arm
is inclined the green light is visible. The arm comes to the horizontal position when
analyzing goes wrong with the mechanism.

Fig 3.1 Semaphore Signal

ii. Warner Signals
A warner signal is used a high speed sections to warn a driver of a stop signal ahead.
The advance warning gives time to a driver to stop if necessary as it will not be safe to
confront the stop signal suddenly.
The warner signal is placed independently on a post with a green light 1.5 – 2m above
or on the same post as the outer or home signals. If the warner arm is inclined it is said
to be in OFF position and it indicates that the stop signal too is in the OFF position and

67
the driver can proceed. If the warner arm is horizontal, the signal is said to be in ON
position and the driver should proceed with caution and should be prepared to stop at
the next stop signal.

Fig 3.2 Warner below an outer signal

iii. Ground Signals
Ground signals – the ground signal consists of a white painted disc mounted on a stand.
A red band of 200mm width is painted across the disc and houses a red spectacle.
Another green spectacle is provided on the disc. Provision is made to accommodate a
signal lantern behind the disc. When the red band is kept horizontal, it indicates ON
position or stop signal. The disc can be rotated to shift the red band to an inclined
position which indicates OFF (proceeds) signal. During night, the red and green
spectacles against the light of the lantern shows the ON and OFF position of the signal.
Ground signals are used for shunting operations and are sometimes called shunting
signals. They are very handy for maintenance gangs repairing the track, during day and
night time. fig 3.

68
 Fig 3.3 (A) Ground Signal (B) Colour Light Signals

iv. Colour Light Signals

Indications to drivers to proceed or otherwise is green through colour lights. Colour
light signals can be seen during both day and night unlike semaphore signals, in which
the arm is used during the day and lights during the nights. Generally, three aspects
signalling is used i.e. green, yellow and red. Green indicates proceeds, yellow indicates
proceed with caution and red indicates stop. In case of colour light signals, the signal
remains in Green or in proceed position. When a train enters a section, the signal
changes to red, and when it passes the block, the signal changes to yellow and finally
becomes green.
b. Locational Signals
Signals are identified on the basis of their location, the Figure below shows the position
of these signals with respect to the station section.

69
 Fig 3.4 Locational Signals
i. Outer Signals
This is the first signal provided outside the section limit. Its distance from the home
signal is about 400m on double line and 580m on signal line. If it is on ON position, the
driver has to stop at the signal and the driver should not pass the outer signal. When it is
in OFF position. The driver can proceed without stopping the train.
ii. Home Signals
This signal is situated exactly at the station limit. As the points are situated at about
450m towards the station, the home signal protects the points and the station. The train
can enter a platform only when the home signal is given. The distance between the
home signal and the advance starter signal is known as station section. And the distance
between the home signal and outer signal is called block overlap on double line forming
part of the block station
iii. Starter Signals
It is located at the forward end of the platform. The operation of this signal to OFF
position gives the train permission to leave the platform. This signal is again dependent
on the directions of the advanced starter signal.
iv. Advanced Starter Signals

70
 These signals are provided at a distance ahead of the starter signal depending on local
conditions. The shunting operations is done within its limits. The lowering of this signal
authorizes the driver to enter the block section.
c. Special Signals
Some of the special types of signals are:
i. Routing Signals
Routing signals are those with many semaphore arms giving direction to the main and
loop lines. These are mounted on the same vertical post. The signal for the main line is
at the centre kept at higher level. The signals to the left or right indicate the track on the
left or right respectively. The driver will, thus know whether the train will be received
on the main or loop line.
ii. Repeating Signals
These signals are situated on curves near a station or when the main signal is obstructed
due to a bridge or a tunnel. They are mounted on a separate post before the main signal
and repeat the position of the main signal.
iii. Co-acting Signals
When the main signal is provided beyond a bridge or tunnel or some other structure
disturbing the continuous visibility, a second semaphore arm is mounted on the same
post at a lower level of clear visibility. This second signal works together with the main
signal. Such a signal is called co-acting signal.

Fig 3.5 Routing Signals

71
iv. Calling on Signals
These are small semaphore arms fixed to the post of the main signal. When the main
signal is in the ON position, and the small signal is on OFF position, the train can move
beyond the signal with caution. These signals help when the main signal mechanism
fails or the train has to be received on an obstructed line.

v. Indicators
These are signals that are painted on boards and provide special information to the
driver for compliance. Examples of indicators are the whistle indicator, shunting hint
board, speed indicator and termination indicator. There of the above are explained
below.
- Whistle Indicators – This is a square board with a letter ‘W’ which directs the
driver to give the whistle. This board is provided before a level crossing, when it is
obstructed from the view of the driver. It enables the pedestrian traffic to be
cleared from the level crossing. There are not provided with light during night.
- Shunting Limit Boards – There are rectangular boards with the words ‘shunting
limit’ on it. They are kept at a height of 2m from the rail level. Shunting operation
is prohibited beyond the limit. A night plain lamp fitted in the board shows up in
both directions.
- Speed Indicator – This indicator directs the driver to reduce the speed.

72
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT DESIGN CRITERIA FOR RAILWAY
Sudden changes in horizontal alignment cannot be tolerated in rail road design.
Horizontal curvature limit the speed of trains and increases the probability of derailment
and overturning accident. Tracks on curves also require greater horizontal clearances and
may create difficulty coupling. These undesirable effect stems from the necessity to
design for a vehicle unit (the passengers or freight car) that is typically 26m long and
measures 18m between trunk centres.
The operation train around curve causes wear and rails increases train resistance.
Train resistance increases in direct proportion to the degree of curve when horizontal
curvature is imposed on a section that has steep gradient, it may become necessary to
compensate the curvature by lessening the grade.
Generally speaking 1o to 3o rail road curves are considered relatively flat curve
while 8 – 10o curves are considered relatively sharp. Curves greater than 10 o are seldomly
used as main rail road line although curves of sharpness are sometimes used in
mountainous areas. Even in mountainous topography seldom with a horizontal curve
greater than about 24o will be used. Curves as sharp as 40o, however have been used in
railroad yards.
Train TGV high speed rail road is designed with a normal minimum radius of
4000m or less than 0.50m, however, the design allows for a minimum of 3200m radius
for exceptional condition.
Minimum curve radii for urban passengers system are exemplified by the data
below:
Minimum recommended curve for urban passengers system
S/No. Sytem/Criteria Source Minimum radius of curvature
Main Line Yard/Secondary tracks
1. Metropolitan Atlanta rapid transit 228.6m 106.68m
Authority
2. Montreal Bureaucratic transport 139.9m 51.82m
Metropolitan

73
 3. Italian Transport Organisation 150m 75m

The differences in the criteria are explained in part by variation in the size of car.
For example, the 228.6m long car used for Atlanta System requires a longer minimum
curvature radius than Montreal system which has 17.39m car.
Basic Properties of a Curve

Where
PI = Point of intersection
PC = Point of Curvature
PT = Point of Tangent
Δ = External or Deflection Angle
D = Degree of Curve
E = External Distance
M = Middle Ordinate
L = Length of Curve
Lc = Length of chord length
T = Length of Tangent
74
 R = Radius of Curve
D
T =Rtan
2
D
Lc=2 Rsin
2
100 D
L=
D

( D2 −1)=Ttan D4
E=R Sec

M =R ( 1−cos )
D
2
5729.6
D=
R
D
R=50/sin
2
VERTICAL PARABOLIC ALIGNMENT DESIGN FOR RAIL ROAD
Grade design for rail road is similar in many respect for that of highway. As in
highway design there is need to provide smooth and consistent vertical alignment and to
consider controlling elevation of crossing and connecting rail roads, highways bridge and
drainage structure.
Vertical parabolic curves are used to correct the intersecting rail road grade lines,
and the calculation of curve elevation as accomplished as described for highway.
Rail road vertical alignment design differ significantly in several respects from the
profile grade design of highway. These differences arise from inherent vehicles
differences and result in more stringent design criteria for rail roads. The need for stricter
design criteria for rail roads is principally attributed to two considerations.
i. The much longer and heavier the rail road vehicles.
ii. The relatively low coefficient of friction between the driver wheel and the rail.
Rail road design is characterized by much small maximum grades and much longer
vertical curves than are for highways. Generally, steep grades cannot be tolerated in rail
and design. The maximum grade for most main line is about 1%, although grades as high
as 2.5% may be used in mountainous terrain. This is especially true for rail roads that

75
accommodate freight trains. Slightly greater grades can be tolerated for rail road design
exclusively for passenger’s service. A mini-gradient of about 0.3% may be required in
underground and in area line structures to accommodate the drainage.

y= ( L )
q−p x 2
L
× px

y= ( q−p
2L )
2
x

L L
Where x= 2 , y=E= 8 ( q−p )

LAYING AND MAINTENANCE

Construction of Railway Line
Operations Involved: The construction of a new railway line involves the following
operations:
i. Land acquisition
ii. Earth-work for formation
iii. Construction of bridges
iv. Construction of Station Buildings
v. Loco, carriage and wagon, sheds and other maintenance facilities
vi. Laying of track
vii. Construction of Signalling arrangements

76
 viii. Construction of quarters and other allied facilities.
Land Acquisition: The land to be acquired should be sufficient for the formation and
borrow-pits. Land required for laying of new line is normally determined as shown
below.

Earth Work for Formation – The earthwork for the railway track includes formation of
banks, cuttings and tunnels. The formation in bank is made commonly from borrow pits
and spoils from cutting. However, it may be necessary at times to bring outside earth in
order to meet the specification of the soil.
There are two methods for consolidation of information. In the first case the earth is laid
in layers and after reaching the required level the bank is allowed to remain two monsoon
seasons for natural consolidation. In the other method which is the mechanical
consolidation method, the earth is laid in uniform layers of 150mm and water is
sprinkled. Each layer is consolidated with sheep-foot rollers, or heavy duty rollers
depending upon the type of soil, so that maximum density of the soil is achieved to
optimum moisture content”. The density of the soil is checked in field laboratory at
frequent intervals. The track can be laid directly on the mechanically consolidated
formation.
Some of the important principles in laying formation are:

77
 i. The foundation shall be firm.
ii. Abundant availability of suitable earth nearby.
iii. Least dislocation due to floods, rains, landslips etc.
iv. Laying of formation shall be avoided as far as possible in marshy lands,
agriculturally rich areas, urban areas, sides of hill slopes, dips (slopes), highly
flood prone areas and areas nearer to the coast.
Construction of Bridges: Depending on the topography and the type of stream, a pipe
culvert, RCC Slabs bridge, a pre-stressed concrete bridge or steel bridge may be provided
to cross the stream. Provision for future expansion is made by constructing bridges for
double line even if it is single line as it is difficult later to alter them.
Construction of Station – Station is a key infrastructural facility for train operation. The
building not only should provide facilities for passengers and other uses but should also
have the facility for passengers and other users but should also home the facilities for
operation of train services. Station shall be constructed along with formation and track
linking. The station provides for station master’s rooms, booking offices, cabin for train
control, platform, shelters, water supply, waiting halls and booking offices. Depending
upon the importance and requirement of other facilities, like train checking, carriage,
watering loco-raking, fueling facilities, foot – over – bridges, restaurants, retiring rooms
are also provided.
Construction of Loco Sheds, Carriage and Wagon Depots, Permanent way, Signal
and Telecommunication, Electrical Inspectors Offices – Loco sheds, carriage and
wagon depots are constructed at important locations based on operational requirements.
Loco sheds are required for maintenance of locos, located where loco charging is
involved. Carriage and wagon depots are located at much longer intervals than loco
sheds. They are normally located at junction, situations and large yards. Permanent way
inspectors offices are located at about 90 km intervals whereas S & T, Electrical
inspections offices are located at Sub-divisional headquarters.
Laying of Tracks – The following methods are available for plates laying:
(i) Train line method
(ii) American Method
(iii) Telescopic Method
(iv) PQRS – Plasser Quick Relaying Systems
Train Line Method: In this method, a temporary line known as train line is laid on the
natural ground by the side of the proposed track and the materials are transported on this
line. This method is, however, not used nowadays.

78
American Method – The American method consists of assembling the rails and sleepers
in the base depot. These pre-assembled units are transported to the site along with the
necessary cranes. The units are then unloaded at the site of work and laid in the final
position. This method is adopted in many developed countries.
Telescopic Method – This method is the one most common used in India. It involves the
following operations:
- Unloading materials
- Linking of tracks
- Packing of track
- Ballasting of track
Plasser Quick Relaying System (PQRS) – Plasser and Themer Company has introduced
mechanical relaying system which has become very popular on Indian Railways. It is
designed for relaying existing railway track mechanically. This system consists of:
a. Four portal cranes
b. Sleeper layer
c. 10 hand gantries
d. 40 truck jacks.
MAINTENANCE OF TRACK
A track or permanent way consists of the formation, ballast, sleepers, rails and other
fittings. The track parameters like gauge, alignment, and twist undergo constant changes
due to passage of loads, and climatic changes. If these defects are not attended to
regularly, they may cause accidents to the trains. For this reason, maintenance gangs are
kept to attend to the track continuously and to keep it in good condition always. The
railway track is divided into a number of sections of 5 to 8 km length each. The number
of men required for each section is one to two men per km length of track (usually 12
men per section). A maintenance gang consists of one gangmate (leader), one key man
(second leader) and 10 gangmen. Each gang is expected to attend to about 100 meters of
length every day. Ten to twelve such gangs work under the supervision of permanent way
inspector.
PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE OF TRACK
a. Through Packing – the railway maintenance organization is created essentially for
the preventive maintenance of the railway track. The preventive maintenance of the
track is essentially carried out by a routine track maintenance called through packing
of track. The various operations involved in through packing are:
a. Opening of a road
b. Examination of rails, sleepers and fastenings
79
 c. Squaring of sleepers
d. Aligning the track
e. Gauging
f. Packing of sleepers
g. Repacking of joints sleepers
h. Boxing of ballast section and dressing
1. Opening of a road: The ballast is opened out on either side of the rail seat for a
depth of 50mm below the bottom of the sleeper with the help of shovel or ballast
fork.
2. Examination of Rails, Sleepers and Fastenings – The rails, sleepers and fastenings
are examined. Defective sleepers are removed. The loose fastenings are tightened.
The kinks in the rails are removed.
3. Squaring of Sleepers – The sleepers frequently get out of square because of kinks
in rails or variations in gauge. One of the rails is taken as sighting rail and the
positions of sleepers are marked on it. With the help of T-square, the position of
the sleepers on the second rail are checked. The sleepers are adjusted for correct
spacing and are properly brought to square.
4. Aligning the Track – The aligning of track is done by sighting the rail from a
distance of about four rail lengths by eye judgement. If there is a small error in the
alignment, it is corrected by slewing the ballast. This consists in removing
sufficient ballast from ends of sleepers and planting crow bars deep into the ballast.
This consists in removing sufficient ballast from ends of sleepers and planting
crow bars deep into the ballast at an angle of about 30 o and slowly shifting the rail
alignment.
5. Gauging – The gauge is checked as follows for different types of sleepers.
a. Wooden sleepers: The inside dog spikes and half the outside dog spikes are
removed. The remaining half of the outer dog spikes are loosened and gauge
is adjusted. The old spike holes are plugged and new holes bored in the
correct position. Gauge adjustment should be done only when the gauge is
quite irregular.
b. Steel trough sleepers – When the gauge is slack, the inside keys are
loosened and outside keys adjusted and if the gauge is tight, the outside is
tight, the outside keys are loosened and inside keys adjusted.
c. CST sleepers – Gauge adjustment is done with the help of collers.

80
 6. Packing of the Sleepers – The longitudinal level of one of the rails is done by
sighting and lifting the rail. The sleepers are then packed by the scissors packing
method. This method consists of two men standing diagonally at each rail seat one
inside and the other outside. Similarly two more men stand diagonally at the
opposite rail seat of the same sleeper. The men standing back to back pack the
ballast and the other two will use beaters. While, packing the second rail is
checked for correct cross levels.
7. Repackaging of Joint Sleeper – The sleepers under joints are packed once again
and cross levels checked.
8. Boxing of Ballast Section and Dressing – The ballast section is then properly
boxed and dressed with the help of special template. The cess is dressed up again
so that there is proper drainage.
This through packing is done from one end of the gang length towards other end of
the gang length continuously which normally completes two cycles in a year.
All the above operations are carried out under traffic conditions and normally no
speed restrictions are imposed. The permanent way staff are trained to carry out the
different tasks in the above operations. The mode of packing will be different for
different kinds of sleepers, ballast, short welded rails, long welded rails and continuously
welded rails. The objective of the through packing is to maintain the track geometry for a
certain period of time under varying conditions of traffic, and weather. Through packing
is carried out normally four days in a week and other two days the gangs are engaged in
slack packing i.e. to attend the isolated spots requiring attention and other duties.
b. Measured Shovel Packing – In through packing the track is attended to from one end
to the other end irrespective of whether the track needs attention or not. This is
sometimes uneconomical and not desirable particularly on the wooden sleeper track.
French railways have introduced a measured shovel packing system where in wooden
sleepers are not packed with beaters but required quantities of small chips of ballast
are placed below the wooden sleepers to maintain track geometry. The existing ballast
core below the sleeper is not disturbed as is done in the normal through packing with
beaters.
c. Machine Packing – With the increase in speeds of the trains and number of trains,
axle, loads, introduction of new rolling stock, the manual methods now adopted are
becoming quickly obsolete and cannot meet the needs of future high speed track. It is
imperative that railways have to go for mechanized maintenance which ensures

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 efficient method of maintenance, improved track ballast and economy. The regular
through packing with beaters cannot be adopted for concrete sleepers as they also
require to be maintained only machine. In recent times, track tie tampers crib and
shoulder consolidated machines, ballast cleaners have been introduced. These
machines can be employed on the curved track also.
TRACK INSPECTION
The railway track is regularly inspected by officials at different level in prescribed time
schedules. These inspections are called schedule of inspections. The organizational set up
of the maintenance unit is shown below:

The basic unit of maintenance is the gang which consists of about 12 to about 16
members. This gang is headed by a gangmate. It has a jurisdiction of about 8km of single
line track. The duties of the gang are:
i. To check the gauge and level of track.
ii. To lighten or replace loose fittings
iii. Adjust ballast and formation profile
iv. Oiling points and crossings
v. To carryout systematic through packing of entire length in a year.
vi. To carryout 1/3 length of overhauling of track in a year.
vii. Overhauling of all level crossings once in a year
viii. Attention to bridge approaches and bridges
ix. Slack packing as and when required.
x. Repairs and normal replacements to track components.
xi. Monsoon and security patrolling

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 The Gangmate, under whose control the tools, machinery and the gangmen are
kept, is responsible for maintenance of tracks in safe condition. He has to carry out such
maintenance as renewals of rail and sleepers, screening of ballast, maintain records of
work in his section, lubrication of rail joints, correct the gauge and alignment and
maintenance of level crossings.
The Keyman of the gang is responsible for the duties of the gangmate in his
absence. His normal duties are upkeep of all the fastenings and joints. The opening and
refitting of all the joints in his section is carried out at least once in 12 months.
The PW I Gr 1 is the section in charge and is a key figure in the maintenance
organization. He will push trolley once a week, carryout fortnightly inspection on engine
and brake van. He will be present at site of all the work which involve safety. He has to
inspect curves, points and crossings, level crossings, periodically and maintain records.
He carries out night inspections also. He will have about 12 gangs under him assisted by
2 to 3 PWIs (GrIII). The gang’s work is set by PWI and records are kept on the work
done by the gangs.
PWI GrIII trolleys the entire section once a week, attends to various activities of
maintenance. He personally supervises the gangs’ works and will be available at site for
all the safety works. He will be in charge of about six gangs and carries out the
instruction of PWI Gr1.
An Assistant Engr. is in charge of various other railway assets including track. He
inspects track by push trolley once a month, carries out engine and brake van inspection
in the fastest train. His annual inspection schedule also includes points and crossings,
curves and points and crossings.
TRACK RECORDING
Apart from the regular visual check by staff, the normal health of the track is also found
by other means namely:
i. Hallads track recorder
ii. Amster track recorder
RAIL TRANSPORT SYSTEM
There are three principal types of rail transportation system namely:
i. Inter-city passenger and freight
ii. Commuter system
iii. Rapid transit system
Inter-City Passenger and Freight

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 This system is usually provided by most railways. It involves movement of
passengers and goods between cities. The engineering requirement for effective service
include:
- Good air conditioning
- Lighting
- Attractive doors
- Comfortable and roomy seats
- Decent toilet facilities etc.
Other requirements include prompt departure time, speed, on-time arrival, and
reasonable fares.
Commuter system
This system usually provides short haul passengers service between a large city
and its suburbs. Peak periods are usually in the morning and late afternoon,
corresponding to resumption of work. Some services must be available outside these peak
periods. Important requirements are:
- Reliability
- Travel time
- Convenience, comfort
- Economy
Buses and taxis compete with the rail commuter services so, it is mandatory that
engineers design a rail commuter system that will attract sufficient volume of service for
profitable operation.
These attractions are:
- Trains at frequent intervals
- Possible savings in travel time
Use of double deck stainless steel commuter caps with air conditioning, good lightening,
comfortable seats, in-time and frequent scheduling results in a substantial increase in
commuter travel.
Rapid Transit System
This system is primarily intra-city, although some services are provided to nearby
suburbs.
Characteristics requirements are:
- Frequent and dependable service
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- Quick loading and unloading weight for rapid acceleration and deceleration
- Low fares and comforts.

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