B.F. SKINNER V.

Conditioning
Skinner recognized two kinds of conditioning:
classical and operant. 
I. Overview of Skinner's Behavioral A. Classical Conditioning
Analysis In classical conditioning, a neutral (conditioned)
Unlike any theory discussed to this point, the stimulus is paired with an unconditioned
radical behaviorism of B. F. Skinner avoids stimulus until it is capable of bringing about a
speculations about hypothetical constructs and previously unconditioned response, now called
concentrates almost exclusively on observable the conditioned response. For example, Watson
behavior. Besides being a radical behaviorist, and Rayner conditioned a young boy to fear a
Skinner was also a determinist and an white rat (the conditioned stimulus) by
environmentalist; that is, he rejected the notion associating it with a loud, sudden noise (an
of free will, and he emphasized the primacy of unconditioned stimulus). Eventually, through
environmental influences on behavior. the process of generalization, the boy learned
to fear stimuli that resembled the white rat.
II. Biography of B. F. Skinner B. Operant Conditioning
B. F. Skinner was born in Susquehanna, With operant conditioning, reinforcement is
Pennsylvania in 1904, the older of two brothers. used to increase the probability that a given
While in college, Skinner wanted to be a writer, behavior will recur. Three factors are essential
but after having little success in this endeavor, in operant conditioning: (1) the antecedent, or
he turned to psychology. After earning a Ph.D. environment in which behavior takes place; (2)
from Harvard, he taught at the Universities of the behavior, or response; and (3) the
Minnesota and Indiana before returning  consequence that follows the behavior.
to Harvard, where he remained until his death Psychologists and others use shaping to mold
in 1990. complex human behavior. Different histories of
reinforcement result in operant discrimination,
meaning that different organisms will respond
III. Precursors to Skinner's Scientific
differently to the same environmental
Behaviorism
contingencies. People may also respond
Modern learning theory has roots in the work of
similarly to different environmental stimuli, a
Edward L. Thorndike and his experiments with
process Skinner called stimulus generalization.
animals during the last part of the 19th century.
Anything within the environment that
Thorndike's law of effect stated that responses
strengthens a behavior is a reinforcer. Positive
followed by a satisfier tend to be learned, a
reinforcement is any stimulus that when added
concept that anticipated Skinner's use of
to a situation increases the probability that a
positive reinforcement to shape behavior.
given behavior will occur. Negative
Skinner was even more influenced by John
reinforcement is the strengthening of behavior
Watson, who argued that psychology must deal
through the removal of an aversive stimulus.
with the control and prediction of behavior and
Both positive and negative reinforcement
that behavior-not introspection, consciousness,
strengthen behavior. Any event that decreases
or the mind-is the basic data of scientific
a behavior either by presenting an aversive
psychology.
stimulus or by removing a positive one is called
punishment. The effects of punishment are
IV. Scientific Behaviorism much less predictable than those of reward.
Skinner believed that human behavior, like any Both punishment and reinforcement can result
other natural phenomena, is  from either natural consequences or from
subject to the laws of science, and that human imposition. Conditioned reinforcers are
psychologists should not attribute inner those stimuli that are not by nature satisfying
motivations to it. Although he rejected internal (e.g., money), but that can become so when
states (thoughts, emotions, desires, etc.) as they are associated with a primary reinforcer,
being outside the realm of science, Skinner did such as food. Generalized reinforcers are
not deny their existence.  conditioned reinforcers that have become
He simply insisted that they should not be used associated with several primary reinforcers.
to explain behavior. Reinforcement can follow behavior on either a
A. Philosophy of Science continuous schedule or on an intermittent
Skinner believed that, because the purpose of schedule. There are four basic intermittent
science is to predict and control, psychologists schedules: (1) fixed-ratio, on which the
should be concerned with determining the organism is reinforced intermittently according
conditions under which human behavior occurs to the number of responses it makes; (2)
so that they can predict and control it. variable-ratio, on which the organism is
B. Characteristics of Science reinforced after an average of a predetermined
Skinner held that science has three principle number of responses; (3) fixed-interval, on
characteristics: (1) its findings are cumulative, which the organism is reinforced for the first
(2) it rests on an attitude that values empirical response following a designated period of time;
observation, and  and (4) variable interval, on which the organism
(3) it searchers for order and lawful is reinforced after the lapse of varied periods of
relationships. time. The tendency of a previously acquired
response to become progressively weakened one person's means of countercontrol. There
upon nonreinforcement is called extinction. are four basic methods of social control: (1)
Such elimination or weakening of a response is operant conditioning, including positive and
called classical extinction in a classical negative reinforcement and punishment; (2)
conditioning model and operant extinction when describing contingencies, or using language to
the response was acquired through operant inform people of the consequence of their
conditioning. behaviors; (3) deprivation and satiation,
techniques that increase the likelihood that
VI. The Human Organism people will behave in a certain way; and (4)
Skinner believed that human behavior is shaped physical restraint, including the jailing of
by three forces: (1) natural selection, (2) criminals. Although Skinner denied the
cultural practices, and (3) the individual's existence of free will, he did recognize that
history of reinforcement, which we discussed people manipulate variables within their own
above. environment and thus exercise some measure
A. Natural Selection of self-control, which has several techniques:
As a species, our behavior is shaped by the (1) physical restraint, (2) physical aids, such as
contingencies of survival; that is, those tools; (3) changing environmental stimuli; (4)
behaviors (e.g., sex and aggression) that were arranging the environment to allow escape from
beneficial to the human species tended to aversive stimuli; (5) drugs; and (6) doing
survive, whereas those that did not tended to something else.
drop out.
B. Cultural Evolution VII. The Unhealthy Personality
Those societies that evolved certain cultural Social control and self-control sometimes
practices (e.g. tool making and language) produce counteracting strategies and
tended to survive. Currently, the lives of nearly inappropriate behaviors.
all people are shaped, in part, by modern tools A. Counteracting Strategies
(computers, media, various modes of People can counteract excessive social control
transportation, etc.) and by their use of by (1) escaping from it, 
language. However, humans do not make (2) revolting against it, or (3) passively
cooperative decisions to do what is best for resisting it.
their society, but those societies whose B. Inappropriate Behaviors
members behave in a cooperative manner Inappropriate behaviors follow from self-
tended to survive. defeating techniques of counteracting social
C. Inner States control or from unsuccessful attempts at self-
Skinner recognized the existence of such inner control.
states as drives and self-awareness, but he
rejected the notion that they can explain VIII. Psychotherapy
behavior. To Skinner, drives refer to the effects Skinner was not a psychotherapist, and he even
of deprivation and satiation and thus are related criticized psychotherapy as being one of the
to the probability of certain behaviors, but they major obstacles to a scientific study of human
are not the causes of behavior. Skinner believed behavior. Nevertheless, others have used
that emotions can be accounted for by the operant conditioning principles to shape
contingencies of survival and the contingencies behavior in a therapeutic setting. Behavior
of reinforcement; but like drives, they do not therapists play an active role in the treatment
cause behavior. Similarly, purpose and intention process, using behavior modification techniques
are not causes of behavior, although they are and pointing out the positive consequences of
sensations that exist within the skin. some behaviors and the aversive effects of
D. Complex Behavior others.
Human behavior is subject to the same
principles of operant conditioning as simple
animal behavior, but it is much more complex
and difficult to predict or control. Skinner IX. Related Research
explained creativity as the result of random or Skinner's theory has generated more research
accidental behaviors that happen to be than any other personality theory. Much of this
rewarded. Skinner believed that most of our research can be divided into two questions: (1)
behavior is unconscious or automatic and that How does conditioning affect personality? and
not thinking about certain experiences is (2) How does personality affect conditioning?
reinforcing. Skinner viewed dreams as covert A. How Conditioning Affects Personality
and symbolic forms of behavior that are subject A plethora of studies have demonstrated that
to the same contingencies of reinforcement as operant conditioning can change personality
any other behavior.  (that is, behavior). For example, a recent study
by Stephen Higgens et al. demonstrated that a
E. Control of Human Behavior contingent management program can be
Ultimately, all of a person's behavior is successful in decreasing cocaine use.
controlled by the environment. Societies B. How Personality Affects Conditioning
exercise control over their members through Research has also found that different
laws, rules, and customs that transcend any personalities may react differently to the same
environmental stimuli. This means that the
same reinforcement strategies will not have the
same effect on all people. For example, Alan
Pickering and Jeffrey Gray have developed and
tested a reinforcement sensitivity theory that
suggests that impulsivity, anxiety, and
introversion/extraversion relate to ways people
respond to environmental reinforcers.

X. Critique of Skinner
On the six criteria of a useful theory, Skinner's
approach rates very high on its ability to
generate research and to guide action, high on
its ability to be falsified, and about average on
its ability to organize knowledge. In addition, it
rates very high on internal consistency and high
on simplicity.

XI. Concept of Humanity