Introductory Classes

Books:
1. Elementary Surveying; An introduction to Geometics (13th Edition)
By: Charles D Ghillani & Paul R Wolf
2. Surveying Principles and applications (8th Edition)
By: Barry F Kavanagh
Sessional Marks Criteria:
2-Test (10)
2-Assignment
(8)
sesionalMarks
Class
performance (2)
Mid term (20)
Definition: Surveying is the science, art, and technology of determining the relative positions of
points above, on, or beneath the Earth’s surface.
Classification of Surveys:
Plane surveys are the most commonly practised method of surveying and treat the earth as a
flat or "plane" surface. This assumption is good enough for small-scale surveys in limited areas,
the curvature of the earth has no effect on the results, and thus the computations and results
can be referenced to a plane or flat surface. This method of survey is employed when area
covered of a certain survey is less than 250 sq. km or 15 km.
Plane surveys are used for the determination of legal boundaries, for engineering surveys for
the construction of buildings and roads and for small-scale topographic surveys.
Geodetic Surveys are surveys, which take into account the true shape of the earth. The curved
surface of the Earth is considered by performing the computations on an ellipsoid (curved
surface approximating the size and shape of the Earth). Geodetic surveys are typically carried
out with great precision, often over long distances. This method of survey is employed when
area covered of a certain survey is more than 250 sq. km.
Specialized Types of surveys: According to purpose of surveys, following are the types of
surveysf;
1. Topographic surveys determine locations of natural and artificial features and

elevations used in map making.
2. Construction surveys provide line, grade, control elevations, horizontal positions,
dimensions, and configurations for construction operations. They also secure essential
data for computing construction pay quantities.
3. Control surveys establish a network of horizontal and vertical monuments that serve as
a reference framework for initiating other surveys.
4. Land, boundary, and cadastral surveys establish property lines and property corner
markers. The term cadastral is now generally applied to surveys of the public lands
systems.
5. Hydrographic surveys define shorelines and depths of lakes, streams, oceans,
reservoirs, and other bodies of water.
6. Alignment surveys are made to plan, design, and construct highways, railroads,
pipelines, and other linear projects.
7. As-built surveys document the precise final locations and layouts of engineering works
and record any design changes that may have been incorporated into the construction.
8. Mine surveys are performed above and below ground to guide tunnelling and other
operations associated with mining. This classification also includes geophysical surveys
for mineral and energy resource exploration.
Except for control surveys, most other types described are usually performed using plane-
surveying procedures, but geodetic methods may be employed on the others if a survey covers
an extensive area or requires extreme accuracy.
Location methods:
A point can be located by one of the following methods;
a. Triangulation Angular measurement from

a fixed base line. The length AB is known. The
angles α and β are measured.
Fig. 1
b. Trilateration Linear measurement only.
The lengths AC and BC are measured or
plotted. The position of C is always fixed.
Fig. 2
c. Polar co-ordinates Linear and angular
measurement.
Fig. 3
d. Rectangular co-ordinates Linear
measurement only at right-angles.
Fig. 4
ACCURACY AND PRECISION:
Accuracy is the relationship between the measured and the “true” value of the dimension
being measured; the greater the accuracy, the smaller the error.
Precision describes the degree of consistency with which the measurement is made.
Stationing/Chainage:
While surveying, measurements are often taken along a baseline and at right angles to that
baseline. Distances along a baseline are referred to as stations or chainages, and distances at
right angles to the baseline (offset distances) are simple dimensions. The beginning of the
survey baseline—the zero end—is denoted as 0+00; a point 100 ft (m) from the zero end is
denoted as 1+ 00; a point 156.73 ft (m) from the zero end is 1+56.73; and so on.
100 ft interval is considered as full station, and the half station are at even 50-ft interval. Twenty
meter intervals are often used as the key partial station in the metric system.
INSTRUMENTS USED IN SURVEYING:
1. Steel tapes:
Steel tapes are relatively less precise measuring instruments and are commonly used for short
distance measurement.
2. Theodolite:
Theodolite is used to measure horizontal and vertical angle and for establishing linear and
curve alignments in the field. Electronic theodolite uses photoelectric sensors capable of sensing
horizontal and vertical angle and then displaying it in degrees, minutes and seconds.
3. Level and measuring staff:

Measuring staff are made of wood, metals or glass fibres and graduated in meters or feet. The
graduations can have various forms. The majority of staff are socketed in three sections for easy
carrying.
A level is basically a telescope attached to an accurate levelling device, set upon a tripod so that
it can rotate horizontally through 360°. Normally the levelling device is a bubble, but modern
ones incorporate a pendulum. There are three basic types of level;
1. Tilting level 2. Automatic level 3. Digital level

Automatic level: It has a compensator which consists of an arrangement of
three prisms. The instrument is first levelled approximately with a circular
bubble; the compensator will then deviate the line of sight by the amount that
the telescope is out of level.
4. Total station:
This instrument combines Electronic Distance Measuring Instrument (EDMI) with an electronic
theodolite. In addition to electronic distance and angle measuring capabilities this instrument is
provided with a central processor which enables the computation of horizontal and vertical
distances. The central processor also executes software that enables the surveyor to perform a
wide variety of surveying applications. Total station can measure horizontal and vertical angles
and distances. These all data can be captured into attached electronic field book or on to on-
board storage.
5. Satellite Positioning Receiver:

Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is the term used worldwide to describe various
satellite positioning systems now in used or various in stages of implementation and planning.
Global Positioning System (GPS) is the term use to describe the US satellite system NAVSTAR.
NAVSTAR is the only positioning system which is the fully functional. GLONASS describes the
Russian satellite system. Galileo describes the European Union satellite system.

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Books:

1. Elementary Surveying; An introduction to Geometics (13th Edition)

By: Charles D Ghillani & Paul R Wolf

2. Surveying Principles and applications (8th Edition)

By: Barry F Kavanagh

Sessional Marks Criteria:

Mid term (20)

1. Topographic surveys determine locations of natural and artificial features and

A point can be located by one of the following methods;

a. Triangulation Angular measurement from

ACCURACY AND PRECISION:

INSTRUMENTS USED IN SURVEYING:

3. Level and measuring staff:

1. Tilting level 2. Automatic level 3. Digital level

5. Satellite Positioning Receiver:

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