SS 100

Zainab Sattar
Some Literary Devices
(http://literarydevices.net)

Litotes Definition
Litotes, derived from a Greek word meaning “simple”, is a figure of speech which employs an
understatement by using double negatives or, in other words, positive statement is expressed
by negating its opposite expressions.

For example, using the expression “not too bad” for “very good” is an understatement as well
as a double negative statement that confirms a positive idea by negating the opposite.
Similarly, saying “She is not a beauty queen,” means “She is ugly” or saying “I am not as young
as I used to be” in order to avoid saying “I am old”. Litotes, therefore, is an intentional use of
understatement that renders an ironical effect.
Common Litotes Examples
In everyday life, it is common to experience litotes in conversations although not many people
are aware of this term and its usage. Below are a few examples of litotes from daily
conversations:
 They do not seem the happiest couple around.
 The ice cream was not too bad.
 New York is not an ordinary city.
 Your comments on politics are not useless.
 You are not as young as you used to be.
 I cannot disagree with your point of view.
 William Shakespeare was not a bad playwright at all.
 He is not the cleverest person I have ever met.
 She is not unlike her mother.
 Ken Adams is not an ordinary man
 A million dollars is not a little amount.
 You are not doing badly at all.
 Your apartment is not unclean.
Interestingly, the use of understatement in the above litotes examples adds emphasis to the
ideas rather than decrease their importance. This is due to the ironical effect produced by the
understatement.

Examples of Litotes from Literature

In literature, writers and poets use this type of figure of speech in their texts in order to
communicate novel ideas to readers vividly.
Example #1
“I am not unaware how the productions of the Grub Street brotherhood have of late years
fallen under many prejudices.” (Jonathan Swift, A Tale of a Tub)

1
Now just see how Swift has used double negatives to emphasize the point that he is totally
aware of it. The irony is that he is aware but he is saying it as if he is unaware that he is not.
Example #2
“Some say the world will end in fire,
Some say in ice.
From what I’ve tasted of desire
I hold with those who favor fire.
But if I had to perish twice,
I think I know enough of hate
To say that for destruction ice
Is also great
And would suffice.”
Now read this short piece “Fire and Ice” by Robert Frost very carefully. Calling the destruction
caused by the “ice” as “great” is balanced by an opposing statement “would suffice” that is an
understatement.
Example #3
“Indeed, it is not uncommon for slaves even to fall out and quarrel among themselves about
the relative goodness of their masters, each contending for the superior goodness of his own
over that of the others.”
This line has been taken from “Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass; An American Slave”
by Frederick Douglass himself. He was an African-American social reformer and a writer. He has
effectively used litotes to stress that his point that even slaves used to seek dominance over
other slaves by stressing the point that their respective masters were much better than those of
the other slaves.
Function of Litotes
Litotes uses ironical understatement in order to emphasize an idea or situation rather than
minimizing its importance. It rather discovers a unique way to attract people’s attention to an
idea and that is by ignoring it.
J.R. Bergmann in his book “Talk at Work: Interaction in Institutional Settings” talks about litotes
in the following words: “I want to claim that the rhetorical figure litotes is one of those
methods which are used to talk about an object in a discreet way. It clearly locates an object for
the recipient, but it avoids naming it directly.”
This is the best that has ever been said about litotes – that to ignore an object and still talk
about it in a negative way is the best way to make it appear important and prominent.

Irony Definition
Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is
different from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that may end up in
quite a different way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it is a difference
between the appearance and the reality.

2
Types of Irony
On the grounds of the above definition, we distinguish two basic kinds of irony i.e. verbal irony
and situational irony. A verbal irony involves what one does not mean. When in response to a
foolish idea, we say, “what a great idea!” it is a verbal irony. A situational irony occurs when, for
instance, a man is chuckling at the misfortune of the other even when the same misfortune, in
complete unawareness, is befalling him.
Difference between Dramatic Irony and Situational Irony
Dramatic irony is a kind of irony in a situation, which the writers frequently employ in their
works. In situational irony, both the characters and the audience are fully unaware of the
implications of the real situation. In dramatic irony, the characters are oblivious of the situation
but the audience is not. For example, in “Romeo and Juliet”, we know much before the
characters that they are going to die.
In real life circumstances, irony may be comical, bitter or sometimes unbearably offensive.
Common Examples of Irony
Let us analyze some interesting examples of irony from our daily life:
• I posted a video on YouTube about how boring and useless YouTube is.
• The name of Britain’s biggest dog was “Tiny”.
• You laugh at a person who slipped stepping on a banana peel and the next thing you know,
you slipped too.
• The butter is as soft as a marble piece.
• “Oh great! Now you have broken my new camera.”

Irony Examples from Literature

Example #1
We come across the following lines in Shakespeare’s “Romeo and Juliet”, Act I, Scene V.
“Go ask his name: if he be married.
My grave is like to be my wedding bed.”
Juliet commands her nurse to find out who Romeo was and says if he were married, then her
wedding bed would be her grave. It is a verbal irony because the audience knows that she is
going to die on her wedding bed.
Example #2
Shakespeare employs this verbal irony in “Julius Caesar” Act I, Scene II,
CASSIUS: “‘tis true this god did shake”
Cassius, despite knowing the mortal flaws of Caesar, calls him “this god”.
Example #3
In the Greek drama “Oedipus Rex” written by “Sophocles”,
“Upon the murderer I invoke this curse – whether he is one man and all unknown,
Or one of many – may he wear out his life in misery to miserable doom!”
The above lines are an illustration of verbal and dramatic irony. It was predicted that a man
guilty of killing his father and marrying his own mother has brought curse on the city and its
people. In the above-mentioned lines, Oedipus curses the man who is the cause of curse on his
city. He is ignorant of the fact that he himself is that man and he is cursing himself. The
audience, on the other hand, knows the situation.
Example #4

3
Irony examples are not only found in stage plays but in poems too. In his poem “The Rime of
the Ancient Mariner”, Coleridge wrote:
“Water, water, everywhere,
And all the boards did shrink;
Water, water, everywhere,
Nor any drop to drink.”
In the above stated lines, the ship, blown by the south wind, is stranded in the uncharted sea.
Ironically, there is water everywhere but they do not have a single drop of water to drink.
Function of Irony
Like all other figures of speech, Irony brings about some added meanings to a situation. Ironical
statements and situations in literature develop readers’ interest. Irony makes a work of
literature more intriguing and forces the readers to use their imagination and comprehend the
underlying meanings of the texts. Moreover, real life is full of ironical expressions and
situations. Therefore, the use of irony brings a work of literature closer to the life.

Antimetabole Definition
Antimetabole is derived from a Greek word which means “turning about”. It is a literary term or
device that involves repeating a phrase in reverse order.
“You like it; it likes you” and “Fair is foul and foul is fair” etc. Chiasmus and antimetabole are
usually expected to be overlapped in usage and it is also often used as a synonym for Epanados
in modern day books. However, the writer would make them distinct through his use.

Famous Antimetabole Examples

Just see these examples of how it has been used since the time of Socrates to the present
modern age.
 “Eat to live, not live to eat.”- Socrates
 “I go where I please, and I please where I go.” – Attributed to Duke Nukem
 “In America, you can always find a party. In Soviet Russia, Party always finds you!” –
Yakov Smirnoff
 “If you fail to plan, you plan to fail.”
 “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country.” John
F. Kennedy, Inaugural Address, January 20, 1961.
 “He who questions training only trains himself at asking questions.” The Sphinx, Mystery
Men (1999)
 “The great object of [Hamlet’s] life is defeated by continually resolving to do, yet doing
nothing but resolve.” – Samuel Taylor Coleridge on Shakespeare’s Hamlet
 “We do what we like and we like what we do.” – Andrew W.K., “Party Hard”
 “We didn’t land on Plymouth Rock. Plymouth Rock landed on us.” Malcolm X, “Malcolm
X”
 “If you can’t be with the one you love, love the one you’re with.” –Billy Preston
 “You stood up for America, now America must stand up for you.” Barack Obama –
December 14, 2011.
Functions and Effectiveness of Antimetaboles

4
For antimetaboles to be effective, they do not only have to be grammatically correct but should
also be logical. People after studying literature for a while start thinking that they can churn out
antimetaboles with a snap of a finger. They fail to understand the fact that a sentence cannot
be called an antimetaboles if it is not based on a logical theme. For instance, you may witness a
‘smart Alec’ come up with a sentence like this and expect it to qualify for an antimetabole,
which clearly is not the case.
Antimetaboles are popular and effective solely because they appeal to reason and are easy to
remember. If the first half is relatable, then the reader or listener automatically will make sense
out of the second half. For example: “It is not about the years in your life, but about the life in
your years.” A sentence like this can be called an antimetabole because it is appealing, correct
(logic and grammar) and has a message to convey to the readers.

Chiasmus Definition
Chiasmus is a rhetorical device in which two or more clauses are balanced against each other by
the reversal of their structures in order to produce an artistic effect.

Let us try to understand chiasmus with the help of an example:

“Never let a Fool Kiss You or a Kiss Fool You.”
Notice that the second half of the above mentioned sentence is an inverted form of the first
half both grammatically and logically. In the simplest sense, the term chiasmus applies to
almost all “criss-cross” structures and this is the concept that is common these days. In its strict
classical sense, however, the function of chiasmus is to reverse grammatical structure or ideas
of sentences given that the same words and phrases are not repeated.
The Difference between Chiasmus and Antimetabole
Chiasmus is different from antimetabole. An antimetabole is repetition of words in the
consecutive clauses but in an inverted or transposed order. For example,
“You forget what you want to remember, and you remember what you want to forget.”
Antimetabole examples resemble chiasmus examples as they are marked by the inversion of
structure. In chiasmus, however, the words and phrases are not repeated. Generally, chiasmus
and antimetabole are regarded by many critics as similar tools of rhetoric.

Chiasmus Examples in Literature

The use of chiasmus as a rhetorical device dates back to the ancient Greek and Roman
civilizations. Its traces have been found in the ancient texts of Sanskrit and also in the ancient
Chinese writings. Greeks, however, developed an unmatched inclination for this device and
made it an essential part of the art of oration.
Below are a few samples from famous Greek sages:
Example #1
“It is not the earth that makes us believe the man,
but the man the oath.” – Aeschylus (5th Century B.C.)
Example #2

5
“Love as if you would one day hate,
and hate as if you would one day love.” – Bias (6th Century B.C.)
Example #3
“Bad men live that they may eat and drink,
whereas good men eat and drink that they may live.” – Socrates (5th Century B.C.)
Let us have a look at some examples of chiasmus from English literature:
Example #1
“But O, what damned minutes tells he o’er
Who dotes, yet doubts; suspects, yet strongly loves.” (Shakespeare, Othello)
Example #2
“His time a moment, and a point his space.” (Alexander Pope, Essay on Man)
Example #3
“Do I love you because you’re beautiful?
Or are you beautiful because I love you?” (Oscar Hammerstein, Do I Love You Because You’re
Beautiful?)
Example #4
“In his face.
Divine compassion visibly appeered,
Love without end, and without measure Grace” (John Milton,  Paradise Lost)
Example #5
“Lust is what makes you keep wanting to do it, Even when you have no desire to be with each
other. Love is what makes you keep wanting to be with each other, Even when you have no
desire to do it.” (Judith Viorst)
Example #6
“In the blue grass region,
A paradox was born:
The corn was full of kernals 
And the colonels full of corn.” (John Marshall)
Example #7
“Some have an idea that the reason we in this country discard things so readily is because we
have so much. The facts are exactly opposite – the reason we have so much is simply
because we discard things so readily.” (Alfred P. Solan)
Example #8
“The instinct of a man is
to pursue everything that flies from him, and
to fly from all that pursues him.”  (Voltaire)
Example #9
“When religion was strong and science weak, men
mistook magic for medicine;
Now, when science is strong and religion weak, men
mistake medicine for magic.” (Thomas Szaz)
Function of Chiasmus
As the above discussion reveals, chiasmus is a unique rhetorical device which is employed by
writers to create a special artistic effect in order to lay emphasis on what they want to

6
communicate. Richard A. Lanham in his treatise, Analyzing Prose, puts forward his interesting
point of view about chiasmus in the following words:
“By keeping the phrase but inverting its meaning we use our opponent’s own power to
overcome him, just as a judo expert does. So a scholar remarked of another’s theory, ‘Cannon
entertains that theory because that theory entertains Cannon.’ The pun on ‘entertain’
complicates the chiasmus here, but the judo still prevails–Cannon is playing with the power of
his own mind rather than figuring out the secrets of the universe.”

What Is the Difference Between Chiasmus and Antimetabole?

Antimetabole and chiasmus are very closely related and some experts even use them
interchangeably but both the terms still exist to refer to two distinct literary devices. According
to scholars, when a sentence is repeated after reversing it so as to convey an idea or stress on a
point, it is called chiasmus. Antimetabole is not very much different from chiasmus, only that in
an antimetabole the words and grammatical structure is also reversed because just reversing
the meaning is not enough. So in the light of the above mentioned facts, it can be deduced that
all the antimetaboles are chiasmus, but not all instances of chiasmus are antimetaboles.

A chiasmus is a sentence repeated inversely and the only condition of a chiasmic sentence is
that the two clauses in the phrase are opposite in meanings. For example, the popular saying by
Havelock Ellis’s, “Charm is a woman’s strength, strength is a man’s charm,” The aforementioned
sentence, although, is an example of chiasmus but is not an antimetabole because the two
clauses have opposite meanings but the words and the grammatical makeup are dissimilar.
In an antimetabole the word order in a sentence is reversed to contrast the meanings. One very
good example is Mae West’s catchphrase, “It’s not the men in my life; it’s the life in my men.”
As you can see, in this sentence the words, rhythm and grammatical structure used in the
second sentence are exactly similar to the first one but only the meaning is opposite. Many
experts refer to antimetabole as a subtype of chiasmus.

Connotation Definition
Connotation refers to a meaning that is implied by a word apart from the thing which it
describes explicitly. Words carry cultural and emotional associations or meanings in addition to
their literal meanings or denotations.

For instance, “Wall Street” literally means a street situated in Lower Manhattan but
connotatively it refers to “wealth” and “power”.
Positive and Negative Connotations
Words may have positive or negative connotations that depend upon the social, cultural and
personal experiences of individuals. For example, the words childish, childlike and youthful
have the same denotative but different connotative meanings. Childish and childlike have a
negative connotation as they refer to immature behavior of a person. Whereas, youthful
implies that a person is lively and energetic.

7
Common Connotation Examples
Below are a few connotation examples. Their suggested meanings are shaped by cultural and
emotional associations:
 A dog connotes shamelessness or an ugly face.
 A dove implies peace or gentility.
 Home suggests family, comfort and security.
 Politician has a negative connotation of wickedness and insincerity while statesperson
connotes sincerity.
 Pushy refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating.
 Mom and Dad when used in place of mother and father connote loving parents.

Examples of Connotation in Literature

In literature, it is a common practice among writers to deviate from the literal meanings of
words in order to create novel ideas. Figures of speech frequently employed by writers are
examples of such deviations.
Example #1
Metaphors are words that connote meanings that go beyond their literal meanings.
Shakespeare in his Sonnet 18 says:
“Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day”
Here, the phrase “a Summer’s Day” implies the fairness of his beloved. Similarly, John Donne
says in his poem “The Sun Rising”:
“She is all states, and all princes, I.”
This line suggests the speaker’s belief that he and his beloved are wealthier than all the states,
kingdoms, and rulers in the whole world because of their love.
Example #2
Irony and satire exhibit connotative meanings, as the intended meanings of words are opposite
to their literal meanings. For example, we see a sarcastic remark passed by Antonio on Shylock,
the Jew, in William Shakespeare’s play “The Merchant of Venice”:
“Hie thee, gentle Jew.
The Hebrew will turn Christian: he grows kind.”
The word “Jew” has a negative connotation of wickedness, while “Christian” demonstrates
positive connotations of kindness.
Example #3
George Orwell’s allegorical novel “Animal Farm” is packed with examples of connotation. The
actions of the animals on the farm illustrate the greed and corruption that arose after the
Communist Revolution of Russia. The pigs in the novel connote wicked and powerful people
who can change the ideology of a society. In addition, Mr. Jones (the owner of the farm),
represents the overthrown Tsar Nicholas II; and Boxer, the horse, represents the laborer class
etc.
Example #4
Metonymy is another figure of speech that makes use of connotative or suggested meanings, as
it describes a thing by mentioning something else with which it is closely connected. For
example, Mark Anthony in Act III of Shakespeare’s “Julies Caesar” says, “Friends, Romans,

8
countrymen, lend me your ears.” Here the word “ear” connotes the idea of people listening to
him attentively.
Read the following lines form Robert Frost’s poem “Out, Out”:
“As he swung toward them holding up the hand
Half in appeal, but half as if to keep
The life from spilling”
In the line “The life from spilling” the word “life” connotes “blood”. It does make sense as well
because loss of blood may cause loss of life.
Example #5
Connotation provides the basis for symbolic meanings of words because symbolic meanings of
objects are different from their literal sense. Look at the following lines from Shakespeare’s play
“As you Like It”:
“All the world’s a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts,”
“A stage” connotes the world; “players” suggests human beings; and “parts” implies different
stages of their lives.
Function of Connotation
In literature, connotation paves way for creativity by using figures of speech like metaphor,
simile, symbolism, personification etc. Had writers contented themselves with only the literal
meanings, there would have been no way to compare abstract ideas to concrete concepts in
order to give readers a better understanding .Therefore, connotative meanings of words allow
writers to add to their works, dimensions which are broader, more vivid and fresher.

Denotation Definition
Denotation is generally defined as literal or dictionary meanings of a word in contrast to its
connotative or associated meanings.

Let us try to understand this term with the help of an example. If you search for meaning of the
word “dove” in a dictionary, you will see that its meaning is “a type of pigeon, a wild and
domesticated bird having a heavy body and short legs.” In literature, however, you frequently
see “dove” referred to as a symbol of peace.
Denotation and Connotation
In literary works, we find it a common practice with writers to deviate from the dictionary
meanings of words to create fresher ideas and images. Such deviations from the literal
meanings are called the use of figurative language or literary devices e.g. metaphors, similes,
personifications, hyperboles, understatements, paradoxes, and puns etc. Even in our daily
conversation, we diverge from the dictionary meanings of words and prefer connotative or
associated meanings of words in order to accurately convey our message. Below is a list of
some common deviations from denotative meanings of words that we experience in our day to
day life:
 A dog is used to suggest shamelessness or an ugly face.

9
  A dove is used to suggest peace or gentility.
 Home is used to suggest family, comfort and security.
 Politician has a negative connotation of wicked and insincere person
 Pushy refers to someone loud-mouthed and irritating.
 Mom and Dad when used instead of mother and father suggest loving parents.

Denotation Examples in Literature

Let us analyze a few examples from literature:
1. An example of denotation in literary terms can be found in the poetic work of Robert Frost’s
“Mending Wall”:
“And on a day we meet to walk the line
And set the wall between us once again.
We keep the wall between us as we go.
To each the boulders that have fallen to each.”
In the above lines, the word “wall” is used to suggest a physical boundary which is its
denotative meaning but it also implies the idea of “emotional barrier”.
2. William Wordsworth in his poem “A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal” says:
“A slumber did my spirit seal;
I had no human fears–
She seemed a thing that could not feel
The touch of earthly years.
No motion has she now, no force;
She neither hears nor sees;
Roll’d round in earth’s diurnal course
With rocks, and stones, and trees.”
Wordsworth makes a contrast between a living girl and a dead girl in the first and second stanza
respectively. We are familiar to the meanings of the words used in the last line of the second
stanza; rock, stone and tree but the poet uses them connotatively where rock and stone imply
cold and inanimate object and the tree suggests dirt and thus the burial of that dead girl.
3. Look at the following lines from Shakespeare’s play “As you Like It”:
“All the world’s a stage,
And all the men and women merely players;
They have their exits and their entrances;
And one man in his time plays many parts,”
Shakespeare moves away from the denotative meanings of words in the above lines in order to
give a symbolic sense to a few words. “a stage” symbolizes the world, “players” suggests human
beings and “parts” implies different stages of their lives.
4. Sara Teasdale in her poem “Wild Asters” develops a number of striking symbols by deviating
from the denotative meanings of the words:
“In the spring, I asked the daisies
If his words were true,
And the clever, clear-eyed daisies
Always knew.
Now the fields are brown and barren,

10
Bitter autumn blows,
And of all the stupid asters
Not one knows.”
In the above lines, “spring” and “daisies” are symbol of youth. “Brown and barren” are a symbol
of transition from the youth to the old age. Moreover, “Bitter Autumn” symbolizes death.

Function of Denotation
Readers are familiar with denotations of words but denotations are generally restricted
meanings. Writers, therefore, deviate from the denotative meanings of words to create fresh
ideas and images that add deeper levels of meanings to common and ordinary words. Readers
find it convenient to grasp the connotative meanings of words because of the fact that they are
familiar to their literal meanings.

Metaphor Definition
Metaphor is a figure of speech which makes an implicit, implied or hidden comparison between
two things that are unrelated but share some common characteristics. In other words, a
resemblance of two contradictory or different objects is made based on a single or some
common characteristics.

In simple English, when you portray a person, place, thing, or an action as being something else,
even though it is not actually that “something else,” you are speaking metaphorically. “He is the
black sheep of the family” is a metaphor because he is not a sheep and is not even black.
However, we can use this comparison to describe an association of a black sheep with that
person. A black sheep is an unusual animal and typically stays away from the herd, and the
person you are describing shares similar characteristics.
Furthermore, a metaphor develops a comparison which is different from a simile i.e. we do not
use “like” or “as” to develop a comparison in a metaphor. It actually makes an implicit or
hidden comparison and not an explicit one.
Common Speech Examples of Metaphors
Most of us think of a metaphor as a device used in songs or poems only, and that it has nothing
to do with our everyday life. In fact, all of us in our routine life speak, write and think in
metaphors. We cannot avoid them. Metaphors are sometimes constructed through our
common language. They are called conventional metaphors. Calling a person a “night owl” or
an “early bird” or saying “life is a journey” are common conventional metaphor examples
commonly heard and understood by most of us. Below are some more conventional metaphors
we often hear in our daily life:
 My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was too angry.)
 The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the assignment was not difficult.)
 It is going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies that clear skies are not a threat
and life is going to be without hardships)
 The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a threat; therefore, this implies that
the coming times are going to be hard for him.)
 Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that her voice makes him feel happy)
Literary Metaphor Examples

11
Metaphors are used in all type of literature but not often to the degree they are used in poetry
because poems are meant to communicate complex images and feelings to the readers and
metaphors often state the comparisons most emotively. Here are some examples of metaphor
from famous poems.

Example #1
“She is all states, and all princes, I.”
John Donne, a metaphysical poet, was well-known for his abundant use of metaphors
throughout his poetical works. In his well-known work “The Sun Rising,” the speaker scolds the
sun for waking him and his beloved. Among the most evocative metaphors in literature, he
explains “she is all states, and all princes, I.” This line demonstrates the speaker’s belief that he
and his beloved are richer than all states, kingdoms, and rulers in the entire world because of
the love that they share.
Example #2
“Shall I Compare Thee to a summer’s Day”,
William Shakespeare was the best exponent of the use of metaphors. His poetical works and
dramas all make wide-ranging use of metaphors.
“Sonnet 18,”also known as “Shall I Compare Thee to a Summer’s Day,” is an extended
metaphor between the love of the speaker and the fairness of the summer season. He writes
that “thy eternal summer,” here taken to mean the love of the subject, “shall not fade.”
Example #3
“Before high-pil’d books, in charact’ry / Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain,”
The great Romantic poet John Keats suffered great losses in his life – the death of his father in
an accident, and of his mother and brother through tuberculosis.
When he began displaying signs of tuberculosis himself at the age of 22, he wrote “When I Have
Fears,” a poem rich with metaphors concerning life and death. In the line “before high-pil’d
books, in charact’ry / Hold like rich garners the full-ripened grain”, he employs a double-
metaphor. Writing poetry is implicitly compared with reaping and sowing, and both these acts
represent the emptiness of a life unfulfilled creatively.
Functions
From the above arguments, explanations and examples, we can easily infer the function of
metaphors; both in our daily lives and in a piece of literature. Using appropriate metaphors
appeals directly to the senses of listeners or readers, sharpening their imaginations to
comprehend what is being communicated to them. Moreover, it gives a life-like quality to our
conversations and to the characters of the fiction or poetry. Metaphors are also ways of
thinking, offering the listeners and the readers fresh ways of examining ideas and viewing the
world.

Double Entendre Definition

A double entendre is a literary device that can be defined as a phrase or a figure of speech that
might have multiple senses, interpretations or two different meanings or that could be
understood in two different ways.

12
Oxford Dictionary says that it “conveys an indelicate meaning”. The first meaning in double
entendre is usually straightforward while the second meaning is ironic, risqué or inappropriate.

Double Entendre Examples in Literature

Double entendre is used in literature, everyday life, films, magazines and newspapers to
criticize and provide entertainment and sometimes to make people laugh. It is widely used for
insinuation and irony. William Shakespeare and Geoffrey Chaucer have made use of double
entendres in their works.
Example #1
“Marriage is a fine institution, but I’m not ready for an institution” (Mae West, the 2,548 Best
things Anybody Ever Said).
The word “institution” in connection to marriage has two meanings in this context. One, it
refers to marriage as an important practice of a society. Two, marriage is something that will
cause an individual to go to a mental institution.
Example #2
An excerpt from William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, Act II, Scene three.
Nurse: God ye good morrow, gentlemen.
Mercutio: God ye good den, fair gentlewoman.
Nurse: Is it good den?
Mercutio: ‘Tis no less, I tell you; for the bawdy hand of the dial is now upon the prick of noon.
Nurse: Out upon you! What a man are you!
Are wondering why the nurse reacted negatively when Mercutio was plainly stating the time?
This is because he was telling her something more… something that is sexual in meaning
(bawdy = lustful; prick = penis).
Example #3
An excerpt from a sitcom “Are You Being Served” by Jeremy Lloyd and David Croft.
Mrs. Slocombe: Before we go any further, Mr. Rumbold, Miss Brahms and I would like to
complain about the state of our drawers. They’re a positive disgrace.
Mr. Rumbold: Your what, Mrs. Slocombe?
Mrs. Slocombe: Our drawers. They’re sticking. And it’s always the same in damp weather.
Mr. Rumbold: Really …
Mrs. Slocombe: They sent a man who put beeswax on them, but that made them worse.
Mr. Rumbold: I’m not surprised.
Miss Brahms: I think they need sandpapering.
Underwear and the sliding part of a cabinet (where items are placed) are both called “drawers”.
One can’t help but laugh when one thinks of drawers as underwear and hears the characters
say their drawers are “sticking”, and are thus “a positive disgrace”, and when “…a man who put
beeswax on them, ….that made them worse.”
Example #4
An excerpt from a sitcom Are You Being Served by Jeremy Lloyd and David Croft.

13
Mrs. Slocombe: Before we go any further, Mr. Rumbold, Miss Brahms and I would like to
complain about the state of our drawers. They’re a positive disgrace.
Mr. Rumbold: Your what, Mrs. Slocombe?
Mrs. Slocombe: Our drawers. They’re sticking. And it’s always the same in damp weather.
Mr. Rumbold: Really …
Mrs. Slocombe: They sent a man who put beeswax on them, but that made them worse.
Mr. Rumbold: I’m not surprised.
Miss Brahms: I think they need sandpapering.
The double entendre is used as in the words like “positive disgrace” and “sent a man…made
them worse”. There writer has used double meanings.
Example #5
Event from The Odyssey by Homer.
It happens that Odysseus lands on the island of one-eyed giant Polyphemus and enters his
caves with his twelve valiant soldiers. However, he is caught and imprisoned when the Cyclops
closed its door with a huge stone wheel. When the Cyclops asks his name, he tells him that his
name is “Nobody” and then plans with his surviving soldiers to blind him with a log made hot
and sharpened with knives. When they succeed, the Cyclops cries out at the top of his voice
saying, “Nobody has hurt me. Nobody is going to kill me.”
Here “Nobody” has been used as a double entendre as it has double meanings. On the one
hand, it means that “Nobody” that is Odysseus has blinded him while on the other hand it
means that nobody has done this to the Cyclops.
Function of Double Entendre
As double entendre is a phrase that expresses double meanings, the purpose of using double
entendre is usually to articulate one thing perfectly and indirectly (which is generally an insult,
or an insinuation). Shakespeare made use of this device to add humor to his work. If the
audience are able to understand the different meanings that the actors or characters are trying
to convey, double entendre will surely create laughter or to put forward a suggestion to the
audiences.

Definition of Tautology
Tautology is a repetitive use of phrases or words which have similar meanings. In simple words,
it is expressing the same thing, an idea or saying two or more times. The word tautology is
derived from the Greek word “tauto” (the same) and “logos” (a word or an idea).

A grammatical tautology means when an idea is repeated within a phrase, sentence or

paragraph to give an impression that the writer is providing extra information. Tautologies are
very common in the English language due to the large variety of words it has borrowed from
other languages. Given the fact that during its evolution the English language has been greatly
influenced by several other languages including Germanic and Latin, it is not uncommon to find
several exotic tautologies. Since English has the capacity to borrow words from foreign
languages, multiple similar words are used in it and this is how tautologies can often be found
in poetry as well as prose.

14
Types of Tautology
There are several types of tautology which are commonly used in everyday life, in poetry, in
prose, in songs, and in discussions depending on the requirements of a situation. Some of the
common categories are:
 Due to inadequacies in Language
 Intentional ambiguities
 Derision
 As a Poetic Device
 Psychological significance
 Used by inept Speakers

Examples of Tautology in Literature

Tautology is often confused with repetition. Some authorities say the latter uses the same
words while the former uses words with similar meanings. That tautology is the repetition not
of words but of ideas. Others say, there is no clear distinction between the two. That tautology
includes the repetition of words. To understand this better, read the following examples of
Tautology.
Example #1
”Your acting is completely devoid of emotion.”
Devoid is defined as “completely empty”. Thus, completely devoid is an example of Tautology.
Example #2
“Repeat that again” and “reiterate again”
To repeat or reiterate something is to do or say something again.
Example #3
“Shout It Out Loud!” – Kiss
When a person shouts, it is always loud.
Example #4
“This is like deja vu all over again” (Yogi Berra)
Example #5
The emphatic function of tautology reveals itself as in the example given below:
“To Carthage then I came
Burning burning burning burning.”
 (T. S. Eliot, The Wasteland)
See how Thomas Stern Eliot used the same words in the lines
Example #6
In some excerpts, tautology is used intentionally that involves derision inherent in it.
“Polonious: What do you read, my lord?
Hamlet: Words, words, words.”
(Hamlet, II: ii] Shakespeare)
Here Hamlet has used words in order to show that he is lost in words that Polonius is famous in
using.
Example #7
As a Poetic Device
“Keeping time, time, time,

15
In a sort of Runic rhyme…
From the bells, bells, bells, bells.”
(The Bells by Edgar Allen Poe)
“Twit twit twit/ Jug jug jug jug jug jug”
(The Wasteland” by T. S. Eliot)
“This is the way the world ends
This is the way the world ends
This is the way the world ends
Not with a bang but a whimper.”
(The Hollow Men by T. S. Eliot)
Here, different types of tautologies have been used in a technical way of repetition that
dominates others such as figures of speech, imitation and ornamentation. All of above
mentioned examples might appear in the daily use of language and also as poetic devices.
Example #8
Unlike the artistic inspiration inbuilt in the preceding types of redundancy; here are a couple of
tautology examples with psychological implications. The speakers show the acceptance of their
destiny in these types of repetition:
“If I perish, I perish.”
(Esther 4:15)
“If I be bereaved (of my children), I am bereaved.”
(Genesis 43:14)
Function of Tautology
The importance of tautology cannot be denied in modern literary writing. Today, however,
writers try to avoid using tautological words and phrases to avoid monotony and repetition. It
has almost become a norm to present short and to-the-point language instead of repetitious
and redundant piece.
Despite it being counted as a major style error, several writers commonly use tautology as a
powerful tool to emphasize a particular idea or draw their readers’ attention to a certain aspect
of life. But it is not always taken as a quality of poor grammar; rather it has been taken as a
specific rhetorical device.

Definition of Meiosis
The word meiosis originated from the Greek word “meioo” that means “to diminish” or “to
make smaller”. Meiosis can be defined as a witty understatement that belittles or dismisses
something or somebody, particularly by making use of terms that gives impression that
something is less important than it is or it should be. Meiosis examples are sometimes also used
in the sense of a synonym of litotes.

In literature, however, meiosis describes the use of understatement to highlight a point or

explain a situation or to understate a response used to enhance the effect of a dramatic

16
moment. For example, when Mercutio is wounded mortally and he says “ay, ay, a scratch, a
scratch…” , this is a form of meiosis(Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare).
Features of Meiosis
 It is intentional understatement.
 It is used to belittle a person or an event.
 It is opposite to hyperbole or exaggeration.
 It often makes use of litotes as synonym to give ironic effect.

Examples of Meiosis in Literature

There are several examples of meiosis in literature, where the persons and events are
understated depending on the situations. Here are some of them:
Example #1
An extract from King Lear by William Shakespeare
“I am a very foolish fond old man,
Fourscore and upward, not an hour more or less;
And, to deal plainly,
I fear I am not in my perfect mind….”
Shakespeare has used meiosis in these lines to create humor. Although it is undoubtedly clear
that Lear has gone mad, yet his reaction that “I fear I am not in my perfect mind” is an example
of an understatement.
Example #2
An extract from Hamlet by William Shakespeare
“A little month, or ere those shoes were old
With which she followed my poor father’s body,
O God, a beast that wants discourse of reason
Would have mourned longer!
O, most wicked speed, to post
With such dexterity to incestuous sheets!
It is not nor it cannot come to good:
But break, my heart; for I must hold my tongue…”
In this speech, Hamlet uses understatement or meiosis to conclude his soliloquy where he
states that all this cannot come to good, which is a gentle statement as compared to the rest of
his speech in which he has lashed out at his mother. The best and the most effective use of
meiosis can be seen in tragic plays like this.
Example #3
Some say the world will end in fire,
Some say in ice.
From what I’ve tasted of desire
I hold with those who favor fire.
But if it had to perish twice,
I think I know enough of hate
To say that for destruction ice
Is also great
And would suffice.

17
(Fire and Ice by Robert Frost)
The understatement in the entire poem is given emphasis on the last word which is suffice. That
means “adequate. In this poem, ice symbolizes hatred and fire passion that could consume
relations quickly. Therefore, both would be more than enough to destroy the world.
Example #4
King Arthur: The Lady of the Lake, her arm clad in the purest shimmering samite held aloft
Excalibur from the bosom of the water.
Peasant: Listen, strange women lying in ponds distributing swords is no basis for a system of
government. Power derives from the masses not from some farcical aquatic ceremony.
King Arthur: Be quiet!
Peasant: You can’t expect to wield supreme power because some watery tart threw a sword at
you.
King Arthur: Shut up!
Peasant: If I went around saying I was an emperor because some moistened bint had lobbed a
scimitar at me…”
(Monty Python and the Holy Grail, 1975)
Just check the use of the words moistened bint the peasant says to King Arthur. This is the best
use of meiosis used here to belittle the king himself.
Function of Meiosis
Meiosis, in fact, illustrates tone and mannerism such as quiet and brooding where protagonists
are often understated in tone and action. Meiosis is very common everywhere in our daily lives,
old and modern literature and media. We can distinguish understatement in modesty, in
humor, in composed and calm characters, in personalities where it gives rhetorical effects to
the speech delivered by them. Since it is a method used to give information that diminishes the
response of an overemotional occurrence, the basic function of meiosis is to reduce the
significance of someone or something in order to heighten something else simultaneously.

Metonymy Definition
It is a figure of speech that replaces the name of a thing with the name of something else with
which it is closely associated. We can come across examples of metonymy both from literature
and in everyday life.

Metonymy, Synecdoche and Metaphor

Metonymy is often confused with another figure of speech called synecdoche. They resemble
each other but are not the same. Synecdoche refers to a thing by the name of one of its parts.
For example, calling a car “a wheel” is a synecdoche. A part of a car i.e. “a wheel” stands for the
whole car. In a metonymy, on the other hand, the word we use to describe another thing is
closely linked to that particular thing, but is not a part of it. For example, “Crown” which means
power or authority is a metonymy.
Metonymy is different from a metaphor. A metaphor draws resemblance between two
different things as in “You are sunlight and I moon” – Sun And Moon from Miss Saigon. Sunlight
(and moon) and human are two different things without any association but it attempts to
describe one thing in terms of another based on a supposed similarity. Metonymy, however,

18
develops relation on the grounds of close associations as in “The White House is concerned
about terrorism.” The White House here represents the people who work in it.
Examples of Metonymy in Everyday Life
We use metonymy frequently in our everyday life. For a better understanding, let us observe a
few metonymy examples:
 England decides to keep check on immigration. (England refers to the government.)
 The pen is mightier than the sword. (Pen refers to written words and sword to military
force.)
 The Oval Office was busy in work. (“The Oval Office” is a metonymy as it stands for
people at work in the office.)
 Let me give you a hand. (Hand means help.)

Metonymy Examples from Literature

Example #1
The given lines are from Shakespeare’s “Julies Caesar” Act I.
“Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears.”
Mark Anthony uses “ears” to say that he wants the people present there to listen to him
attentively. It is a metonymy because the word “ears” replaces the concept of attention.
Example #2
This line is from Margaret Mitchell’s novel “Gone with the Wind”.
“I’m mighty glad Georgia waited till after Christmas before it secedes or it would have ruined
the Christmas parties.”
Scarlett uses “Georgia” to point out everything that makes up the state: citizens, politician,
government etc. It is a metonymy extremely common in the modern world, where a name of a
country or state refers to a whole nation and its government. Thus, it renders brevity to the
ideas.
Example #3
These lines are taken from “Out, Out” by Robert Frost.
“As he swung toward them holding up the hand
Half in appeal, but half as if to keep
The life from spilling”
In these lines, the expression “The life from spilling” is a metonymy that refers to spilling of
blood. It develops a link between life and blood. The loss of too much blood means loss of life.
Example #4
These lines are from the poem “Yet Do I Marvel”.
“The little buried mole continues blind,
Why flesh that mirror Him must someday die,”
Countee Cullen uses “flesh” to represent human and questions God why we have to die when
we are created in His likeness.
Example #5
These lines are from Lycidas written by John Milton.
“But now my oat proceeds,
And listens to the herald of the sea
That came in Neptune’s plea,

19
He asked the waves, and asked the felon winds,
What hard mishap hath doomed this gentle swain?”
In the above-mentioned lines, John Milton uses “oat” for a musical instrument made out of an
oak-stalk. Thus, “oat” represents the song that the poet is composing next to the ocean.

Function of Metonymy
Generally, metonymy is used in developing literary symbolism i.e. it gives more profound
meanings to otherwise common ideas and objects. By using metonymy, texts exhibit deeper or
hidden meanings and thus drawing readers’ attention.  In addition, the use of metonymy helps
achieve conciseness. For instance, “Rifles were guarding the gate” is more concise than “The
guards with rifles in their hands were guarding the gate.”
Furthermore, metonymy, like other literary devices, is employed to add a poetic color to words
to make them come to life. The simple ordinary things are described in a creative way to insert
this “life” factor to the literary works.

Synecdoche Definition
Synecdoche is a literary device in which a part of something represents the whole or it may use
a whole to represent a part.
Synecdoche may also use larger groups to refer to smaller groups or vice versa. It may also call
a thing by the name of the material it is made of or it may refer to a thing in a container or
packing by the name of that container or packing.

Difference between Synecdoche and Metonymy

Synecdoche examples are often misidentified as metonymy (another literary device). Both may
resemble each other to some extent but they are not the same. Synecdoche refers to the whole
of a thing by the name of any one of its parts. For example, calling a car “wheels” is a
synecdoche because a part of a car “wheels” stands for the whole car. However, in metonymy,
the word we use to describe another thing is closely linked to that particular thing, but is not
necessarily a part of it. For example, “crown” that refers to power or authority is a metonymy
used to replace the word “king” or “queen”.

Synecdoche Examples from Everyday Life

It is very common to refer to a thing by the name of its parts. Let us look at some of the
examples of synecdoche that we can hear from casual conversations:
 The word “bread” refers to food or money as in “Writing is my bread and butter” or
“sole breadwinner”.
 The phrase “gray beard” refers to an old man.
 The word “sails” refers to a whole ship.
 The word “suits” refers to businessmen.
 The word “boots” usually refers to soldiers.
 The term “coke” is a common synecdoche for all carbonated drinks.

20
  “Pentagon” is a synecdoche when it refers to a few decision makers.
 The word “glasses” refers to spectacles.
 “Coppers” often refers to coins.

Examples of Synecdoche in Literature

Example #1
Coleridge employs synecdoche in his poem The Rime of the Ancient Mariner:
“The western wave was all a-flame.
The day was well was nigh done!
Almost upon the western wave
Rested the broad bright Sun”
The “western wave” is a synecdoche as it refers to the sea by the name of one of its parts i.e.
wave.
Example #2
Look at the use of synecdoche in the lines taken from Shakespeare’s Sonnet 116:
“O no! It is an ever-fixed mark
That looks on tempests and is never shaken.”
The phrase “ever-fixed mark” refers to a lighthouse.
Example #3
Look how Shelly uses synecdoche in his poem Ozymandias:
“Tell that its sculptor well those passions read
Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,
The hand that mocked them.”
“The hand” in the above lines refers to the sculptor who carved the “lifeless things” into a
grand statue.
Example #4
Observe the use of synecdoche in the following lines from The Secret Sharer by Joseph Conrad:
“At midnight I went on deck, and to my mate’s great surprise put the ship round on the other
tack. His terrible whiskers flitted round me in silent criticism.”
The word “whiskers” mentioned in the above lines refers to the whole face of the narrator’s
mate.
Example #5
Jonathan Swift in The Description of the Morning uses synecdoche:
“Prepar’d to scrub the entry and the stairs.
The youth with broomy stumps began to trace.”
In the above lines the phrase “broomy stumps” refers to the whole broom.
Example #6
Note the use of synecdoche in The Lady or the Tiger? by Frank R. Stockton:
“His eye met hers as she sat there paler and whiter than anyone in the vast ocean of anxious
faces about her.”
“Faces” refers to people (not just their faces).
Function of Synecdoche

21
Literary symbolism is developed by the writers who employ synecdoche in their literary works.
By using synecdoche, the writers give otherwise common ideas and objects deeper meanings
and thus draw readers’ attention.
Furthermore, the use of synecdoche helps writers to achieve brevity. For instance, saying
“Soldiers were equipped with steel” is more concise than saying “The soldiers were equipped
with swords, knives, daggers, arrows etc.”
Like any other literary device, synecdoche when used appropriately adds a distinct color to
words making them appear vivid. To insert this “life” factor to literary works, writers describe
simple ordinary things creatively with the aid of this literary device

22