G ro u p Dy na mics

PRINCIPLES A ND A PPLICATIO NS

H ube rt Bo nne r
O O OO
PR FESS
'

O HI O W S EY
E L V
R O F PSYC H L GY
A N UNI ERS ITY

E RO NA LD PRESS CO MPA NY NEW YO RK

 C g o p y ri h t, 1 9 59 , by

g
All Ri hts Reserved

Th e tex t of thi s p ub l i ca ti o n or a ny p art

manner wh a ts oev er
wu ting f rom th e

Lb
i rar
y o f C on
gres s C a talo
g C d
ar
 P a ce

Th is b ook offe s a comprehen s ive t e atm ent of the dy

r r

mami es of s ma ll g o up b eh avio I t i s des i gn ed a s a textb o ok

-
r r

f o c ollege s t ude n t s an d f o p ofess ional e ad in g by p sy

.

r r r r

ch o lo i ts
g s o csia l sc,
i e n t i sts te a che s an d pe s on n el mana
,
r ,
r

g ers

As
.

the subti tle in di c ates we a e c on ce ned wi th b o th r r

the o y an d emp i i c al ex ample A cco din gly we offe fi st a

,

r r r r r

systemati c p ese nt ation of th o se a spects of group beh avi or

.
,

whi ch e ce ntral subject matte of r

c ohes ive
p oblem r

th i s the
we then t ace its imp o t ant em e ge nt r r r

appli cat ion s t o the vi t al a e a s of in dustry comm uni ty rel a

r ,

t ions p o liti c al beh avio g oup psychothe apy an d educa

r, r r

t ion Alth o ugh the appli c at ion s of group dyn ami cs t o edu
, ,

c ation h ave ece ived much at te n tion in the p a st dec a de

.

write s in the field of g o up dynamics h ave no t made an

,

r r

exp li c it and systemat i c analys i s of these o the are a s O f r

p arti cul a in te est he e i s th e subjec t of g oup psych o the apy

.

r r r r r

a n d pe s onali ty dyn ami cs —t o i cs of espec ia l im p ort an ce t o

r
p
a n u n de st an di n g of the format ion an d e n h an cem e n t of
r

g oups g oup te n s ion s an d confli cts m utu al depen den ce

r r

group ch an ge and the ebb an d flow of th e in terp e s on al

, , ,

, r

p ocess
r

The b ook i s di vi ded in to five p ar ts P a t I lays d own th e

.

h i stori c al foun d a tion s of g oup dyn ami cs trac in g the sub

. r

r ,
iv EFACE PR

jce t f om its e a liest di sce nible ori gin s in

r r r the l atte p a t of r r

the ninetee nth ce n tu y r

P a t II det ails the dyn ami c fa ct o s wh i ch un de li e g o up

.

r r r r

beh avio I t ex amin es th e psych o lo gic al st ucture of the

r r

t
.

ro up w i th p a t i cul a e f e e n ce o i ts in d i v i du a l an d co l
g ,
r r r r

l ecti e p o pe rt i es I t desc ibes the c ohes ive an d d is rupt ive

v r . r

fact o s in g o up beh avio wi th special c ons i de at ion of in

r r r, r

t e rp so n a l an d gro up a tt a t i ve n ess an d the psy h o l o gy of

er r c c

h o stile el ation s G oup beh avio i s a ls o an al yzed in th li ght

r . r r e

o f le a nin g the o y an d the rel at ive m e i ts of in di vi du a l an d

r r ,
r

g o up le arnin g a c a e fully in vesti gated

r re r .

The p oblem s of the confli ct an d adjustm e nt of g o ups

r r ,

an d the i the o etic al an d p act i c al s o lut ion s a sym p a

r r r ,
re

thet i cally yet c it i c all y del in e ated in P a t I II Specificall y

r r

th i s i s a ch ieved by devo tin g a sep a ate ch apte t o the natu e

.
,

r r r

o f inte gro up el at ion s g o up le ad e sh ip c o llect i ve p o b

r r ,
r r ,
r

lem s o lvin g an d the appl ic ation of g o up dynami c p inc iples

in dust y c ommunity el at ion s
-
,
r -
r

a n d fi n d in gs t o educ at ion ,
r ,
r ,

an d p oliti c al beh avio r

The di scuss ion in P t IV i s con ce n ed wi th the ole of the

.

ar r r

pe s on in the gro up p a t icul a ly the rel at ion of in divi du l

r r r a

beh avio an d g o up dynami cs A det ailed t e atm en t of ole

,

r r . r r

beh avio i s followed by n anal ys i s of the self e nh an cin g

r a -

a n d self c on st i ct in g fa ct o s in th beh avio of groups An d

fi nally the f und am ent als of g oup psych othe ap y e set
-
r r e r .

,
r r ar

fo th illust atin g the emo tiona l in te n s ity of the interpe s onal

r ,
r r

c ont a cts in psych othe apeuti c g oups r r .

P a t V aim s t o b in g b al an ce an d pe spect ive to the dis

r r r

c u ion by a c i ti c al an alys i s of the fun d am e n t a l i de a s an d

ss r

a ssu m pt ion s o f g o up dyn ami cs I t thus affo ds a det ailed

r r

e v a lu at ion of i t s b a s i c a ch i eve m e n ts an d we a kn esses b o th

.

a s a sc i e n ti fic d i sc i pl in e an d as n in stru m e n t f o human a r

bette m e nt r .

The field of g oup dyn ami cs e m e ges fro m the p a ges of

r r

thi s b ook a s a v ali d sci ent ific d i scipl ine b i stlin g wi th p ob ,

r r

lem s but wi th valu able appli c at ion s f o the study an d n

h n m e n t of human el at ion s E m p i i c al ese a ch n d ex
r e

a ce r . r r r a

e im n t l in vest i g a t io n make up i ts ch a a cte i st i c te m pe

r e a
p r r r .
PR EFAC E v

While it lacks the o etic al i go and ri gid exp e im ent al de r r r r

s i gn it h as a tt ain ed the level of depe n d able desc iption if not r

th a t of e mp i i c al l a w I f p ese n t devel o p m e n ts are in di c a

,

r . r

ti ve of its futu e gro up dyn mics sh o uld in th e next dec a d

r ,
a e

be able t o desc ibe g oup beh avio by m e an s of e mp i i c al

r r r r

wh ich fun cti ona l el ation s will expl ain g o up phe r r

n om n a e To d ay h oweve expe im ent al esults pe mi t ex

.
,
r, r r r

pl an ation s of only limited scope ; he n ce we a not yet abl ,

re e

t o comp e th e fi n din gs in m et i c al te m s
ar r r

Like eve y w ite on schola ly subjects I am in debted to

.

r r r r ,

o the s eithe di ectly th ough pe s onal influe n ce o in di

r ,
r r r r r

tly by w a y of the i publi sh ed wri t in gs My ini t ial in te est

in g o up psych o l o gy w a s st im ul a t ed by D He be t B lum e
re c r . r

r r . r r r,

mo e th an twe n ty ye a s a go The the o e ti c al an d p a cti c al

r r r r

ese a ches of Ku t L ewin h ave bee n an im p o t ant s timulus

.

r r r r

an d h ave helped t o c yst alli ze m y inte est alon g syste mat i c r r

and emp i i c al lin es even th ough I h ave been quite c i ti c a l

r ,
r

of many of h is i de a s an d deplo e the ex a gge a ted claim s ‘

r r

ma de f o h i s wo k by s om e of h i foll owe s My fo m e
r r s r . r r

stude nts in a g a du ate semina in inte g o up el ation s a t

C olumbia Unive s ity in 1953—1955 we e exceedin gly help
r r r r r

r r

ful espe ially in thei c i ti c i s m s of fun d am e nt al on cepts

,
c r r c .

Seve al p e s on s e a d p a ts of the o i ginal manusc ipt n d

r r r r r r a

ma de help ful suggest ion s Spec ific ally I w ant t o th ank D r

A thu S Flemmin g M He man M Shipps an d D Don

. .
,

r r r r r

ald P I i sh D R onald B G eene e a d seve al ch apte s an d

. . . .
, ,

. r . r . . r r r r

ma de helpful suggest ion s f o imp o vin g them I als o th ank r r .

h im f o hi s ge n e ous help in the ex ctin g t a sk of e a ding

r r a r

p oofs I wa s fo tunate fu the mo e in h avin g the a dvi ce

r . r ,
r r r ,

of D J M cV Hunt ge ne al edi to of the se i es of whi ch

r . . .
,
r r r

thi s bo ok i s a p a t He wa s qui ck t o pe ce ive m y object ives

r . r ,

gave m e s o un d a dvice and goo d suggestion s f imp ovi n g or r

the o i ginal manusc ipt an d sh owed h im self in eve y w ay to

be an i de al edit o To my f m ily go es the c edit f in finit e
r r ,
r

r . a r or

p ati en ce with m y de eli ct ion a s a husb an d n d fathe while r a r

I w a s abs o bed in the s o li t a y j ob of w i tin g th i s b oo k I

th ank M M a y Alte no t only f h expe t typ in g but f or
r r r .

rs r r or er r

intelli ge nt e a din g of the wh ole man usc ipt F inally I

.

h er r r .
,
vi PR EFACE
wi sh to th ank the A dmin i s tration of Ohio Wesley an
s ity p a rt i cul a ly A c tin g D e an Ge o ge W B urn s f o m uch
r r r

n eeded finan cial a ss i stan ce a cruc ial s t a ge in the p o duc

.
, ,

t ion of thi s b o o k
Hubert B onn er
.

D el wa e Ohio
a r ,

Janua y 1959
r ,
 Conte nts

P ART I
I ntro duc ti on

Fo u n da i on s t of G upro D y i
n am cs

CH A P TE R P A GE

1 GR OUP D N Y A MI C S : ITS O RI GIN S A ND DE V LOPM N

E E T

PAR T II
G ro u
p De v e lo m en
p t
D y nam c i t i G
Fa c ors n rou
p B eh a v i or

2 P SY C HOL OGI C A L STR CT U U RE OF TH E OUP

GR
3 COH V DE SI E A ND I SR UP V OTI E F R CE S IN G OUP B H V O
R E A I R

4 G OUP L
R N E AR IN G

P ART III
R e s o lu ti on o f G upro Te n s i on s
t d Adju tm t
C o nfl i c an s en of G up
ro s

5 N OUP L ON
I TE R GR RE A TI S

6G OUP R H P L E A DE R S I
\ ’
/ OLL
7 C V O L OL V N
E C TI E PR B E M- S I G

8 OUP DYN
GR U ON A MI C S IN E D C A TI
9
v iii CON TENTS
C HP
A TE R P A GE

10 GROUP DYN M C A I S IN O U N R L ON
C MM I TY E A TI S

11 G OUP R L
R ON E A TI S m P OL C L B H V O
I TI A E A I R

PART I V
Th e P ers on in th e G upro

G upro D y n ami c s and I n di v i du a l B eh a v i or

12 ROL D N M C
E Y A I S

18 G OUP DY N M C
R A I S A ND P E RS ON L Y DYN
A IT A MI C S

14 G OUP P Y CHO H
R S T E RA P Y

PART V
C o n c l us i on
G up Dy am i s i
ro n c n P e rs p e c t iv e

15 A CRI TI Q U G OUP DYN M C

E OF R A I S

NA ME I DE X N
SU B JE C T I DEX N
I N T RO DU CT I O N
FOU N DAT I O N S O F
G ROU P DYN AMI CS
C H A P TE R I

Group Dy na mics : Its Orig ins

a nd Deve lo p me nt

Wh ile the term g oup dynami cs i s new the i de as and

r
”
,

th e kno wledge wh i ch i t ep ese n ts are a s devel o p m e n ts in

r r

the s o cial sc ie nces go el at ively old A s a matte of fa ct the

,

,
r . r ,

r elev an t knowledge in th i s a e a h a s bee n the conce n often r r

expli citly of mo st sch ol a s an d ese a che s in th domain s

,

of o ci olo gy anth op olo gy an d s o ci al psych olo gy It is d if

, r r r r e

s ,
r ,
.

ficul t if no t im p o ss ible t o fi n d s o c io lo gi c al w i t in gs s in ce
, ,
r

th l atte p a rt of the nin etee n th c e n tury in wh i ch the c on ce pt

of s o cial c ont o l i s no t a dominant on M o de n s o ciolo gy
e r

r e . r ,

s in ce it beginnin gs h conce n ed i tself wi th the p o cesses

s ,
as r r

by wh i ch in di vi du als compell ed o in duced t o c onf o m

are r r

to the cust om s of the group I t is n ot an ex a gge at ion t o s ay . r

th at s o ciol o gy i the study of the ways in whi ch s o c ial c on

s

formity an d s o ial s oli d arity c ach i eved an d main“

S o c once ived s o c iolo gy h a s bee n in vesti gatin g g oup dy
,
t ain ed are

r
.

n am i ahn t f om i ts begin nin gs

While psycholo gy c ame up on the group dyn amics scene
cs os r .

s om ewh at l ate i t h as m de im p o t ant cont ibution s to the

r, a r r

subject durin g the p a st th i ty ye a s Th is i s p arti cul a ly t ue

of s o cial psych o lo gy Much of the v lue an d imp o t an ce of
r r . r r

. a r

fi t
4 FOUND ATION S OF G ROU P DYN AMIC S
the psycholo gi s ts cont ibut ion t o the subject li es in the i ex
’
r r

eri m n t l app oa ch
e a r
p .

P ob ably no s in gle in d ivi du l i s eve s olely esp on s ible

a new i de a o di sco ve y E ve y ese archer builds on
r a r r

for r r r r

the wo k of h i s p edecess o s While Ku t L ewi n h as bee n

.

r r r . r

the d ivin g genius beh in d ecen t devel opm ents in g o up

r r r

dyn ami cs an d gave i t i ts nam e the e a the n im p o t an t ,

r re , ,
r

s o ciolo gi c al o i gin s an d p a allels a s well a s co nt ibution s by

r r ,
r

in divi du als in o the di sciplines not ably by psych olo gi sts an d

r ,

s o ciom et i sts These develop m e nts we sh all ex amine in the

r

p ese nt ch apte
.

r r .

G ROU P DYN AMIC S DEF INED

G o up dyn mi cs i s qui te obvio usly c on ce n ed with the

r a r

g o up A g o up exi s ts whe n eve two o mo e in divi du als

, ,

r . r r r r a re

aw a e o f on e anothe whe n they e in s om e imp o t ant w ay

r r, ar r

inte el ated I n th i s se n se a g o up i s no t the s am e th in g a s

rr r

an a gg eg ate of ind ivi du als The l atte i s a co llect ion a

.

r r

p opul ation o a cla ss A g o up i s a numbe of pe ople in

.
,

r r r

inte a ct ion wi th o n e ano the an d i t i s thi s in te action p o cess

.
,

r r, r r

th a t di stin gui shes the g o up f om an a gg egate r r r .

M o e imp o t ant ho weve i s the fa ct th at th group wh i ch

r r ,
r, e

we study i s no t only inte a ct ive i t i s als o dyn mi c I t is a r ,

a .

ro up wh o se m e m be s are in a c on t in u o usly cha n i n an d

g g g r

a d u t in
j g
s el a t ion sh irp w i th e f e e n ce t o on e ano the T he r r r

ch an ges o ccu f o seve al e a s on s F i st i t i s ch a a cte i s ti c

.

r r r r . r ,
r r

o f in te a ct in g in d i v i du a ls to be in a st a te of te n s ion t o be
r

a tt acted o epelled by on e anothe t o seek a es o luti on of

,

r r r r, r

the te n s ion s an d to est o e equilib ium amon g them selves

,
r r r .

While the c oncept of h om e o st as i s o th etu rn t o equ il ib i um ,

r e r r

afte an d i stu b a n ce c an be an d h a s bee n o ve st essed in

mo de n psycholo gy it i s useful in desc ib in g th i s ph a se of

r r r r
y ,

r ,
r

g o up develop me nt
Chan ges occu in the second place when the g oup mem
r .

r, ,
r

he ship ch an ges The p ese n ce absence of ce ta in m em

r r or r

be s the int o duction of n ew m embe s ch an ges in le ade shi p

.

r r r r

an d the like may affec t the s t uc tu e an d the ate of ch an ge

, , ,

r r r

of a dyn ami c gro up A change Of membe ship however . r , ,

O RI G IN S A ND DEVELO PMEN T
does not in itself necess arily p o duce ch an ges in a g oup
S om e g oups et ain the i s t uctur e in th e fa ce O f con tin u in g
r r .

r r r r

m embe ship ch an ges

The fo egoin g Observ ation p oin t s to a third e as on f o
r .

r r r

g oup ch an ges While we d o no t alw ays kn ow why s om e

r

t
.

ro ups ch an ge an d o the s te n d t o p s i s the fa ct o s of er r

g r

roup flex ib il it y a e im p o t an t d t
,

gr o up i g i d
r i ty an d g m i r r e er

n an ts of gro up ch an ge I t sh o uld be a pp a e n t t o the e a de r r r

th at a i gi d th at i s unad apt able g oup i s mo e esistant to

.

r , , ,
r r r

ch an ge th an a mo e flexible an d a d apt able one I de a s an d

r

infl ue nces e es i s t ed in the in te ests of main t ainin g equ i

.

ar r r

lib i um The need f o st ab ility ove sh adows the des i e o

r . r r r r

u ge ncy f o s o cial ch an ge Wh ile th i s i gi di ty fo est alls f o

r r r r r

a t im e b o th in te n al an d ext e nal p essu es f o ch an ge the

.

s t ab ility i s ofte n obt ain ed at th e p i ce o f un es olved tens ion s

r r r r r ,

r r .

G o up ch an ges are depe n de nt fi na lly on the deg ee of

r , ,
r

o g ani z at ion of a gro up The less o gani zed the g oup i s

r . r r ,

rel a t ively spe ak in g the less ma ked ar th o se s ocial psycho

,
r e -

lo gi c al fo ces whi ch make f o a hi gh level of mo ti vat ion

r r

fo gro up p a t i c ip at ion an d c oo pe at ion in te depe n de n ce

,

r r r r

an d a c on t uc t i ve mo a le
, ,

s r The le a de will be f ar less eti co

r r

tive in an un o gan ized th an in an o ganized group Alon g

.

r r

wi th these p o s it ive qu ali ti es h oweve the o gani zed g o up

.

r, r r

i s al s o subject t o a m uch gre at e num be a nd deg ee of f ru

,

r r r s«

t a ti on s n d a gg ess ions
r a r
1

On th e b asi s of the fo egoin g emarks we can n ow defin

.

r r e

group dynami cs as th at divi s ion of s o cial psych olo gy whi ch

inves ti gates the fo ma tion an d ch ange in the s t uctu e an d
r r r

fun cti on s of th p sych olo gi c al g oupin g of pe ople in to self

e r

d i ectin g wh oles The fo mation an d ch an ge of the g o up

r r r

do no t t ake pl ace a u t oma t i cal ly an d in ev it ably but are a

.

conseque n ce of the eff o ts of i ts m embe s to s olve the i

p oblem s and s at is fy thei needs A dyn amic g oup is thus in
r r r

r r . r

a c ont inuo us p o cess of es tru ctu in g a djustin g an d e a d

r r r , , r

Cf J FS g g g g fw C
1 R P h , Or
. . . . renc a n iz e d an d u n or a n iz e d rou p s un der ear an d
frus trati on
Uni v ers ity
, in
of Io w tu di es i n top olo i cal and
a Pres s ,
v ector p s y cho logy ( Io a i ty :
6 FOUNDATION S O F GROU P DYN AMICS
justin g m embe s to on e an o the f o the pu p o se of educin g
r r r r r

the te n s ion s eliminating th e confli c ts and s olvin g the p ob

, ,
r

lem s whi ch its me mbe s h ave in common r .

G o up dynamics is al s o inc e as in gly defi ned in a p ae

r r r

t i c al se nse I t i s co n ce ived a s a tech ni que of fo ste in g

”
r

con cil iation be twee n in d ivi du als an d be tween g o ups

.

r re

ga din g imp o t ant i s s ues an d p a c ti ces R ese arch in g oup

r r r r

dynami cs aim s to fo m ul ate no t only the abst a c t p in c iples

.

r r r

whi ch un de li e gro up beh avio but t o dev ise techni ques f or

r r,

effectin g g o up dec is ion s an d g o up actions

r r .

EARLY DEVELO PMENT O F G ROU P DYN AMIC S

Sci enti fic i de a s li ke mo s t i de a s h ave no s in gle o i gin r

P a cti c ally eve y imp o tant fo m ul at ion h as its equi val e nt o

.
, ,

p arallel in the p a s t E ve y a dvance in human knowledge

r r r r r

p o ceeds f om a bo dy of fac ts o a system o f i de as al e a dy

.

r r r r

impli ci t in thei p edecess o s Thi s i s no tably t ue of g oup

dynami cs whi ch eg et t ably i s too o fte n t e ated as a sub
r r r . r r

,
r r ,
r

ct of ve y ece n t o i gin
j
e r r r .

SO C I O L O C I CAL A NTE CE DE N TS NO a tt e m pt wil l be ma de in .

thi s section to wri te a c omp ehen s ive survey of s ociolo gist r s

’

cont ibution t o the o i gin an d g o wth of g oup dyn amics

r r r r

Only enough evidence will be p esented to make our asse

.

r r

tion con ce nin g the ole of s o ciolo gy mo e th an a b ald an d

r r r

un supp o ted st at em e nt
r .

From s t tic to dyn mic s o cio logy E ly s o c io lo gy no t

a a ar

ably a s it i s ep ese nted by such f mo us p ion ee s as A ugus te

.
,

Comte and He be t Spence was mo stly philos ophical an d

r r a r

r r r,

the s o ci ety whi ch i t desc ibed wa s l a gely st ati c An alys i s

,

r r .
,

desc iption and cl ass i fic ation ab oun d in its w it in gs While

Comte w o te vaguely about s ocial pl annin g an d hence by
r , r .

r ,

im plic a tion of s o c ial ch an ge an d s o c ial c ont ol he neve r , r

followed his own suggest ive le ad but b o gged do wn on th , e

i de a of s o c ial destiny Spence s con ception w as eve n mo e

.
2
r
’

1 8 75
2 Au g
u s te Cm o te , P ositi v e p h ilos op hy Vo l I I, .
( London : Tru bn er Co .
,
O RI G IN S A ND DEVELO PMENT 7

s t atic He beli eved th a t s o ci ety evolve s in a cco d an ce with r

fi xed l aws an d th a t an y effo ts t o ch an ge i t w as no t o nly

.

mi sguided but det im ent al in the lon g n

,

3
r ru

L ate in this s ame pe io d howeve Leste W a d in Ame

.

r r ,
r, r r r

i c a w a w itin g hi s Dyna mic S ocio lo gy H i s i de as ma ked a

d i st in ct shift a w ay f om Spe n ce s desc ipt ive s o c io l o gy an d
s r . r

“
’

C omte s sentim ental p evision to the concept of s ocial

r r r
’ ”
r

t eles i s the no tion of s oc iety a s a self di ect in g whole ‘

o r -
r

I t sh o uld be p ointed ou t he e th a t W ard s c on cep t o f

.
,
’

s o c ial self di ect ion wa s po s it ed an explanato y p inc iple

-
r as r r

o n wh i ch t o b a se e ffect i ve s o c ia l pl annin g I t w a s used to

expl ain the b a s i s on wh i ch t o di ect s o c i et al fo ces to p o g
.

r r r re s

s ive ends I t wa s not c once ived a s a p in ciple whi ch wo uld

. r

e xpl ain the beh av io of s mall fa ce to fa ce g o ups a s i s d o n e

r - -
r

in contemp o a y g o up dynamics We efer t o i t bec a use

, ,

r r r r

i t ma ked the fi st im p o t an t sh ift aw a y f om s t a ti c t o dy

.

r
“ r
“
n ami c expl ana t io n s f om the ge n et i c t o the tel i c an alys i s r
r
”
r
”

Fu the it is the fi s t explicit exp es

,

o f the s o c ia l p o cess r r r, r r

s ion of the no tion of di ected a s cont a sted w ith evo lut ion
.

y
r ,
r

ar
y ch
,
an ge in mo de n s o c io l o g r .

The p o s it ive fo ce in s o cial dyn amics cc o din g t o W a d

r a r r

w as in t ellect an d fo es i ght I n th i s v i ew we c an pe ce ive a

, ,

r r

t a tlin g s imil i ty be tween W a d s teli c o intelli ge nt s o c ial

.

“
’

s r ar r r

p ro cess an d the g o up w i sd om of ece n t g ro up dy nami cs

”
”
r r .

The w i sdom f the g o up e fe s to the g o up s olution of a

o r r r r

o ble m a s o lut io n esult i n g f om the c o m b in ed es o u ces

p r r r r r

w h i ch eve y m e m be of a gro up i s able t o apply t o i t J us t

,

r r

a s s o c i et a l ch an ge di ec t ed by the teli c p o cess i s effected

.

by adjustin g blin d fo ces t o u Inou nt Obst acles and secu e

r r

r s r r

f utu e e n ds so a g o up of int e a ct in g pe s on s b in gin g in t o

r ,
r r r ,
r

the p o cesses thei in divi du al es our ces is often able t o s o lve

r r r ,

its p oble m mo e e ffectively Thi s i s “because an in di

r r . so

v i du a l h am pe ed by h ab i tu a l le a nin g sets i s f eque ntly ”

,
r r ,
r

C f
H b t Sp
3 er F
eri p i ip l ( N w Y
en cer, k A pp l —C y
rs t r nc es e or : et o n e n tur

L F W d Dy mi i l gy ( 2 l N w Y k Ap p l —C t y
ro I ts , nc .
,

f wk fi
4 . . ar ,
na c s oc o o vo s .
; e or : e to n e n ur
C ro t s , I n c .
, Vo l I , p
. . 5 7 Thi s
. or w as rs t p u blis h ed in 1 883 .
8 FOUNDATION S O F G ROU P DYN AMI C S
less able t o evalu ate hi s wn i de a s an d i s Often bl in ded by hi s o

o w n suggest ion s
5
.

C o lle ct iv e determ inis m : Emi le Du rkh eim a nd o th ers

Pe h aps the mo st ep esent at ive exp on ent of the g oup fa c

.

in human psycholo gy i s Emile D u khe im Human b

r r r r

tor r . e

h avio acc o din g t o him c an be expl ained only by knowin g

r, r ,

the c ollective st uctu e of the gro up p a t i cul a ly by its rep é

r r ,
r r
’
r

s e nta ti o ns co lle ctiv es These c ollective ep ese nt at ion s . r r are

p o ducts of the union of in divi du al s in g oup lif e They

r r

ep ese n t the c ommon expe i e n ces of m e n in g o ups just s

.

r r r r ,
a

in divi du al ep ese nt ation s o i de a s sym b ol i ze the exp e i en ces

r r r r

of in divi du al m e n The union of in d ivi du als in t o a common 6

a ss o ciat ion i s no t h oweve an a dditive p o cess D khe im

.

r r ur

i s very emph ati c ab o ut th s The wh ole i s no t c omp o sed

.
,

7
i

f i ts p a ts ; i t in cludes them but als o d iffe s f om

.

of the s um o r r r

them Thi s fact is imp o tant in Du kheim s system f o i t r r

’

makes Cle ar the el at ion shi p of the in divi dual an d the g o up

.
,

r r .

Wh ile co llect ive ep ese nt at ion s are c omp o sed of in divi du al

r r

r ep ese nt ation s the co llective ep ese nt ati on s e at th

r r r ar e

s am e tim e di st inct f om them Thi s is D u khe im s w ay f

,
’
r . r O

emph as i z in g the imp o t ance of the g o up fact o in human r r r

beh avio I t sh ould be a dded howeve th a t in thi s em

r r,

ph a s i s he asc ibes an in depe nde nt exis t en ce t o th c o llecti v e

.
,

r e

r ep ese nt ation s an d thus etu n s by a diffe e nt o ute an d

r r r r r

wi th o ut inte n din g t o d o s o t o s om e th in g eminisce nt of

, ,

Hegel s Objective Sp i it
,
’

r .

S om e devo ted fo ll owe s of Du kheim exp an ded hi s ge n r r

e al i de a s a nd appli ed them t o the study of specific psych o

lo gi c al p o cesses L ucie n L evy B uhl s t u di ed the e ffect of
r

r .
-
r

the g oup on human th inkin g The e are no i nhe ent w ays

r . r r

o f th inkin g a cc o d in g t o h im ; the w ays d iffe

,
wi th diffe
r r r

Th e ev i de n ce, b oth th eoreti ca l a nd exp erimenta l , i n con rm a ti o n of thi s

5

con clu s i o n i s i m p re s s iv e W e sh a ll h a v e o cca si on t o ex a m in e som e o f i t in

.
fi .
,

l a ter ch a p te rs
6 Emi le Dur h eim
,
.

k
Rep res en ta tion s in di v i du el le s e t rep res e n ta ti on s col

1 25—
g
l ectiv e s , R ev de M et et de M on 6
.

7 L es re les d e la mé th o de s o ci o lo i u e
‘

2 8 Th e s tu den t sh oul d com are thi s

.
. 2 744 302
( P aris : A lca n
i th rece nt eld th eo ry
,

p g q
pp
w Ffi
.

.
,

.
IO FOUNDATION S O F GROU P DYN AMIC S
a n d f a gm e n t a y but a s a f un ct ional o in te a ct ive u ni t in a
r r r r

g o up it bec om es mo e unit a y f o now i t i s p a t of the

,

r r r ,
r r

flo w in g st e am of s o c ial eve n ts Thus wh i le the in d iv i du al s

’

r .
,

p os it ion appe a s supe ficially to be minimi zed it a ctu all y

r r ,

gain s in imp o t ance f o th o ugh p a ti cip at ion it gain s

r ,
r r r ao

c
pet an c an d a pp o v a l e r

The no tion f c onfli ct i s ve y clo sely el ated to the g oup

.

O r r r

dynami c concept of ten s ion g a di e nt s A con ce ived by b oth r s

S imm el an d g o up dynamic i sts confli ct i s no t necess ily

.

r ,
ar

n egat ive I t i any est uctu in g of field o gani z ation S im

. s r r r r .

m el in deed defines i t a s a fo m of s o ciali z ation

, ,
r .

Th e
n o ti on
min g ara dox i s
see

o f th e re l a ti on of O
p pp res o v e l
os i tion
d once

b et wf w e i ntro du ce th e di a l ecti ca l
e en con tr a ri e s . O pp p o siti on is
h i gh t en sion s ta te i nv olv in g s u cces s or a ilure b y a s oci a l grou i n
f
a

tra n s ce n din g th e b a rri ers t o re e dom of l ocom oti on Wh en th e con .

Th u s
s o ci e t
,

y
w
h i le it s u erfi ci a ll a
co n fli ct i s in a ctu a lit
p
flict en ds in th e tra n scen den ce o f th e b arri ers e qu ilibri um i s re s tore d
y pp
ear s t o b e a n el em en t o f di vi si on in

a n in te ra t in rel a ti on shi : th y
e res olu
,

p “
.

, g” g
t i on of th e t en s i on b etw ee n co n trari e s 1 3 .

L e ade ship— wh ich mo e sp a ce i s devo ted in the lite a

r to r r

tu e Of group dyn mi cs th an t o any o the c oncept—w

r a r as

al e a dy give n a mo de n fo m ul ati on by S imm el free from

mysti c i sm an d folk th inkin g C on ce ived in te m s of in te
r r r ,

. r r

a ct ion o ecip o city of el ationshi p the le a de an d the led

r r r r r

p arts of a s ingle wh ole I nflue nce t akes pl a ce in b o th

, ,

a re .

di ection s The le a de an d the led influen ce e a ch o the o

r r r, s

th at wi th o ut the on the o ther c anno t fun c tion L e ade ship

.

e r

i s no t a m ysti cal influe nce em natin g f om the pe s on al i ty

.

a r r

of the le a de The le a de s influen ce i s always limited by

r . r
’

the c on dit ion s of the t ot al g o up st ucture r r

14

Unde lying much cu e nt w itin g on g o“

.

up dynami cs is
m pl ic i t no t ion O f sp a t ial ity The te m s s o cial egion s
r rr r r

“
the i “
psych o lo gi c al sp a ce t op ol o gi c al b oun da i es an d the like ,
”
. r

r ,
r ,

13
B o nn er, F ie ld th eory an d s oci o lo g y, p 1 77 See al s o S imm el , S oz i

“
. .

o log ie , p

S
2 47 . .

m m e l emp loy e d the term s u p erordin a ti on

14 i ra th er th a n lea der
gg f k fi
“
,

ship ,

n e utral a n d th e re o re p re e rab le t o th e
, ol term f lea dersh ip
.

f
f o r th e mo s t p art W e su e s t th a t h is term i s s ci en ti cal ly m ore
,
-
.
O RI GIN S A ND DEVELO PMEN T 11

we e e i the fo esha do wed expli citly nam ed in othe t e m s

r r r or r r

in the w itin gs of S immel I n hi s ch apte D ie K euzun g

r . r, r

S o ziale Kre i se a foun d many c ontemp o a y i de a s The

r ,
re r r .

g owth f an in divi du al t akes pl ace in a s o cial sp ace whi ch

r O ,

ca n be des i gnated by a c i cle The ci cles f eque ntly inte r . r r r

sect a s whe n a pe s on h a s m embe ship in mo e th an on e

,
r r r

gro up He ma y belon g f o inst ance t o a club a chu ch an d

.
,
r , ,
r ,

a c o llege alumni a ss o ciation The wi de the a e a f s o cial . r r o

p a ti cip ation the mo e num e o us the inte section s of the

r ,
r r r

s o cial c i cles r

Anothe sp atial concep t found in S imm el s wo k i so cial

.

r r s

b ound a y a term used to desc ibe the natu e Of s o cial atti

r
”
r r

tudes B oun d a y sep arates one g oup f om ano the p

,

larly the in g o up f om the o u t g o up E th no ce n t i s m

. r r r r, ar

ti
cu -
r r -
r . r

and inte g o up p ejudi ce whi ch e vit al p oblem s in g o up

r r r ,
ar r r

dynamics c an be defi ned t op olo gic ally tha t is sp at ially a s

, , , ,

b o un d ari es to wh ich the beh avio of a gro up c n be o de ed r a r r

wi th espect to g o ups lyin g o uts i de G o up lif e i s eplete

r r . r r

w i th b o un d a i es of c i cles th at d o no t inte sect an d wh i ch

r r r

lim it o p eve nt f eedom of inte a ct ion W ith in the in gro up

,

-
r r r r

i tself these noninte sectin g ci cles est abli sh b a ie s t o p ar

.

,
r r rr r

ti i a ti o n in the fo rm of mo es cust om s l aws an d in s t itu

c
p r

t ion s L ike p ese nt d ay field the o i sts fu thermo e S imm el

, , , ,

r -
r r r

no tes the exi ste nce of b oun d aries within the in divi du al s ow n
.
, ,

“
’

i v a te pe s o nal i ty— th a t deeply i s o l ated eg ion of in t ima te

pr r r

expe i en ce the b oun d a y of whi ch n o on e c an c o ss I t i s the

r r r .

pl ane of e ality of the in divi du al s li f e sp ace to whi ch the

r
’
-

mult itude of hi s unf ulfilled d ives and in articul ate longin gs r

may be o de ed r r .
”1 5

The t op olo g ic al di st ibution f indivi du als in g o ups an d r o r

of g o ups them selves p ese nts us with a m ech ani s m of in di

r r

vidu al an d gro up diff e e nt iat ion I t expl ain s the pe s iste nce r r

a s well as the ch ange in s o cial g o ups A cco din g t o S imm el

.

r r

the con cep t of sp at iali ty i s thus an in teg a tin g elem ent

.
,

( B e is a m m e n s e in ) in the g o up p o cess r r .
16

15
16 S
B onn er,
im m el,
FS i eld th e ory
oz i o lo g ie, p
an

.
d
6 16
s o ci o o

.
l g y, p . 1 75 .
12 FOUNDATION S O F GR OU P DYN AMI CS
S ocia l process a nd the p ima y g ou p C ha les H C o oley
I t i s d ifficult t o u n de st an d the omi ss ion of C ooley s w o k
r r r : r . .

r r

o n the p ima y g o up by th o se wh o atte m pt t o a tt ibute the

r r r r

o i gin s Of g o up dynami cs t o ve y ece nt ese a che s Hi

r r r r r r r . s

ent i e app oach to b o th in divi du al an d s o cial beh avio w as

r r r

from the p oint of vi ew of the con cept of the p i n a y g oup

Cooley believed th at s ocial p ocess an d s o cial cont ol two
r r r r .

r r ,

fun d am e n t al fa ct o s f all g oup dyn ami cs h ave the i bein g

r O r ,
r

in the intimate an d fa e t o fa ce inte a ction s wh i ch the c - -

r a re

ma k of the p ima y g o up I n th i s g oup the indivi du al i s

r r r r r

sens it ive to the opini on s an d a ction s of o the s H i s

.

kee nly“ r .

ve y human nature th at i s h i s self an d h i s pe s onality is

r ,
”
,
r ,

developed he e The in divi du al le a n s t o expe i e n ce vi ca i

r r r r

V
.

ou l
ys the expe i e n ces of o the pe s on
r s in the g o up t o i ew r r r ,

him self th o ugh the eyes o t o pl ay the oles of othe p

r ,
r r ,
r er

s on s I n thi s p o cess symp athy i s devel oped an d pe s on s

. r ,
r

clo sely i de ntify them selves wi th on e ano the th a t wh at r, SO

h appen s to on e pe s on i s the intimate con ce n of all m em

be s of the g o up The p ima y gro up i s thus see n by C oo ley
r r

r r . r r

t o h ave a ps ycho logic l s tru ctu e as ep ese nted by th i s feel a r r r

in g of clo se i de nt ific at ion o in t ima cy An in divi du al s 17 ’

beh avio is thus dete mined no t o m uch by hi s pe s onali ty

,
r .

r r s r

make u p a s by the psych olo gi c al st uctu e of the g o up

-
r r r

Th i s psych olo gi c al st uctu e i s no t t o be c once ived a s exi st

.

r r

in g sep a ately an d in its o wn i ght ; athe it ep ese nts the

r r r r r r

fact th at indivi du als exist psych ologi c ally f o e a ch o the in r r

s om e w ay th at they are esp ons ive t o on e anothe s feel in gs

,
r r
’

a ction s an d op inion s
Whe n c ontemp o a y gro up dyn ami ci s ts spe ak of the in
.
,

r r

flu n e of the g o up on the in d iv i du al s beh a vio i n whi ch

’

pe ople of di sp a ate pe s onal iti es are led t o the s am e Op in ion s

e c r r,

they a e but est a tin g C oo ley s b as i c an d fru i t

r r

o beh av i o
’

r r, r r

ful i de as A st atem ent by Krech an d “

. C u tchfi l d typ ifies r e

th i s s imil a i ty They defin e a gro up as tw o o mo e pe ople

r . r r

17 Thi s th em e h ru n s th ro u g C
oo le y s th ree im p ortan t v o lum e s , n am el y ,
’

Y kS C SS S
g
Hu ma n na tu re a nd the s ocia l order ( New or : h arles cri b n er s ons ,
S kS C
’

Y
S k C S
'
ocia l o r a n iz a ti o n ( Ne w or : h arles cribn er s on s an d

Y
,

o ci al p roc es s ( New h arles cri bn er s ons ,

’

or :
O RI G IN S A ND DEVELO PMENT 13

wh o hear an xp licit p sycho logica l rela ti ons hip to o ne a n

e

o the They add th at eve n th o ugh the in d ivi du al s may

r
’

they bec om e m embe s of a s t on gly kni t g oup

.

diffe w he n “ r, r r r ,

whe n they exi st psych o lo gic ally f o e ach o the r in s om e r

s ignific ant w ay they fo m a dynami c g o up ,

r r .
18

G o up influen ce g o up cohes ion g o up deci s ion makin g

r r r -

whi le p ed ominantly a ss o ciat ed with ece nt g o up dyn ami cs

, , ,

ese arch a c on cepts whi ch ab o un d in diff e e nt te minol o gy

r r r

in C o oley s wr i t in gs I n desc i b in g the p ima y g o up

r ,
re r r
’

Cooley w ites
. r r r r

r :

f
Th e lt of in tim a te a ss ocia ti on
r esu s ch ol o i ca ll
g i s a cert a i n ,
pw y y ,

y f
yp p pw p
’

u s io n of in di v i du a l iti es in a co mm o n h ol e s o th a t on e s v er s el
f , ,

g
y
ro up
f or m an
P . p
erh a s th e s im le s t w a
y o f d p
ur o se s a t l e a st i s th e c o mm o n l i e a n d

“ e scri bi n
g t h i s
ur o se o f th e

h
,

o l e n e ss i s b
y
y p y
“
”
sa i n
g th at i t i s a w e ; it i nv olv e s th e sort Of s m a th
”
a n d mu t u a l

i den ti fica ti on f or w hi ch w e i s th e n a tu ra l ex re s s io n O n e l iv es in
f
th e e elin g o f th e w h ol e a n d fin ds th e ch ie a im s o f h i s i ll in th at f
p w .

f eelin
g
19
.

summa y th e p ima y g o up co nt ols beh avio ch an ges

In r ,
r r r r r,

attitudes an d le a ds t o c ommon deci s ion s A in the p imary

, . s r

g o
r up s o in the g o ups in vest i g ated by g o up dy nami cs
,
r r ,

s o cial o de i s ach i eved by o le pl ayin g by sym p ath et i c

r r r -
,

pe ception of ano the s i de a s an d se nt im e n ts by c onse n sus

r r
’

th o ugh collecti ve p oblem solvin g an d the like N o t fo ma l

s

r r -
, . r

in st um e nts but g o up p ocesses e used f o s o cial c ont ol

r ,
r r ,
ar r r

an d des i ed ch an ge r .
20

E AR LY DE VE L O P ME NTS WIT HI N PSYCH O L O GY U nti l the .

e n d of the l ast ce ntury psycholo gy h a d no t con ce ned i tself r

spec ific ally with the beh avio of g oups I ts c once n with r r . r

the beh avio of the in d ivi dual an d wi th ind ivi du al d iffe

r ,
r

18 D . Kr ech

Y k
and S
Cru tchfiel d, Th eory a nd p roble ms of s o cia l p sy
R . .

k
19 C
ch o lo g y ( N ew

oo l e y Sf
o ci a l or a n i z a ti on
, g g
or : M c Gra w Hil l B o o

p 23
Co , I n c , -
p 18
, . .
. . . .

F J w G
2 0 Th e
p ro e s si on a l s o ci o l o is t w h o m i s ses i n th is s urv ey s u ch im p orta n t

M
n am es a s TOn ni e s , Ra tz e nh o f er

gM
A B en tley , o hn De ey a n d ,

e a d i s remi n de d th a t th i s s ur v ey is n o t a hi s tory b u t a n a tt emp t to Sh o

th a t ro u p dy n ami cs i s n ot a s n e w a s s o m e en th usi as ti c oll o ers of L ew i n

.H .

f w
, .

w .

an d o f ore no s eem t o b eli ev e .

 FOUNDATION S O F G ROU P DYN AMICS
I4

emees h a d left g o up psych olo gy l a gely t o s o ciolog is t s “

21

N eve theless psycholo gists eventually c am e to g ips with

,
r r .

r r

l of the g o up We sh all n ow ex amin e thi s develop

e r .

ent b i efly r .

E fiect of th e g o u p s itu a tion on pe rfo ma n ce S in ce the

r r

es t abli shm ent of the fi st psych ol o gi c al l ab o at o y in L e ipzi g

.

r r r ,

in 1 879 psych olo gi sts h ave bee n st on gly mot iv ated t o put
,
r

thei hyp o theses an d ge ne ali z ation s to exp e im ent al test

r r r

Almo st to the e nd of the nin eteenth centu y n eve theless

.

r ,
r ,

expe im e nt al wo k in psych ol o gy c on ce nt ated on the b

r r r e

h avio of the indivi du al I n 1897 howeve N o man T iplett

r .
,
r, r r

init iated the fi st expe im ent al invest i g ation of s o c ial infl u

r r

e nc on in divi du al pe fo man ce I n a det ailed exp o s ition

es r r
22

f the ec o ds f b i cycle a ces an d the pe fo man ce f o the

.

O r r o r r r O r

mo to t asks an d an ev alu ation an d di scuss ion of these ec

r ,
r

o ds T iplett demon st ated th at a i de s speed w as s ig

r ,
r r r
’

nifi c n tl
yain c e a sed whe n he w a s p a ced
r th an whe n he w as

unp aced The p ese nce of ano the c ontest ant h i s d at a sh ow

se ves t o libe ate l ate nt e ne gy n ot o dinarily a vailable
. r r ,

r r r r .

The dyn amo geni c fa ct o —h ow mo de n thi s so n d l—i s ”

r r u s

a n im p o t an t i te m in the pe fo man ce of an a ct a s c om p ared

with the pe forman ce O f the s am e a ct in i s ol ati on f om

r r r ,

r r

o the s r
23

T iplett s investi gat ion le aves no do ub t in ou min ds th at

.

r r

an awa e ness of the p esence o abse n ce of o the human

r r r r

be in gs i s an im p o t ant fa ct o in pe fo man ce I t le aves no

r r r r

d o ubt in o min ds als o th at the g oup diffe e ntial w a s

.

ur , ,
r r

r ec o gni zed an d expe ime nt ally invest i g ated in psych olo gy r

four dec a des befo e the a dve nt of the di sciplin e of g o up r r

g g
Thi s i s co n si derab ly tru e ev en of reu d w h o des p ite hi s early in teres t
21 F ,

g
G g g wg
in th e p s y ch o lo y o f th e rou p , w as i n tere s te d i n i t to a re a t e x ten t i n s o
f a r a s it m i h t thro li h t u p o n th e rou p ori i n of th e h um a n e g o S e e h is
rou p p s y ch olo y a nd th e a n al y s is o
g g .

f t he eg o ( Lo ndon : I ntern a ti on al Psy

ch o a n a ly ti cal L ib rary , 19 22
2 2 Se e N o rm a n Tri le tt
p
P
Th e dy n a m o e n ic a ctors i n p acem a i n
, an d g —f kg
co mp e ti ti on A m er J
2 3 Th e
p res en t
,s y ch o l , 9

w W
.

ri ter i s i nde b te d to
. 5 0 7 33 .

H B urnh am f or th e citati on o f W g . .
.

S
i lli am H B urnh am , Th e
’
Tri p le tt s arti cle S e e ro u p as a s tim ul us to

7 61—
. .

m e n tal a cti v i ty , ci ence, 3 1 67 .

O RIG IN S A ND DEVELO PMENT 15

dynami s T iplett s inve ti gat ion sh owed wh at ece nt g o up ’

dynami cs an d s o cial psych o lo gy in gene al h ave suffic i ently

c . r s r r

demons t ated a s olit a y in d ivi du al an d the s am e in divi du al

r : r

in a gro up e tw o d iff e e n t psych o l o g i c al st uctu es

ar r r r .

M aye a Ge man educ ato des i gned an investi g ation in

r, r r,

which he tested sch o ol ch ild e n t o dete mine whethe an d r r r,

if s o u n de wh a t c on di tion s the wo k o f pup ils in a gro up

r r

gives bette esul ts than pup ils wo k in g alon e The pup ils
,

24
r r r .

we e ep ese nt at ive of diffe e nt ab iliti es an d tempe am e nt

r r r r r

an d the ma te ial on wh i ch they w o ked m e n t l a i th m e t i c

,

r r -
a r ,

m emo y tests w itte n a ithmeti c—wa s c a efull y ch o se n an d

r ,
r r r

w as fami li t o the pupi ls The p e fo mance of the pup ils in

ar r r

gro ups w as in ge ne al supe io to the i wo k

.

,
i s o lates
r ,
r r r r as .

Th i s d iffe e n ce ch a a cte i zed n o t only the amo un t of t im e

r r r

cons um ed in pe fo min g th t as k but the qu ality o f th e wo k

r r e r

pe fo m ed
r r

Du ing the s am e pe io d othe Ge man psycholo gists and

.

r r r r

educ at o s we e in vest i gat in g the p oblem M e m nn a

r r r . u a ,

p ion ee in i
rn tell i ge n ce test in g in Ge man y c omp a ed the r r

re t e n t ion of m e mo i zed mate ia ls of pup i ls whe n w o ki n g

,

r r r

al on e an d whe n w o k in g in a g o up The d iffe e n ce espe

r r . r ,

ci ll
a in ch il d e n u n de twelve ye
r a s of a ge w st ik in gly
r r as r
y ,

in favo of g o up pe fo man ce I n a dd i t ion he fo u n d th a t

r r r r

the maj o ity of child en p e fe ed cl ss oom wo k to indi

.
,

r r r rr a r r

vi du al wo k an d th at most of th o se w h o p efe ed s ol it a y
r ,
r rr r

wo k we e Ch i ld e n wh o in the nom encl atu e of to d ay

r r r ,
r ,

we e s om ewh at mal a djusted

r
25

Pe h aps the mo st i go o usly expe im e nt al wo k on the in

.

r r r r r

fl n ce of the g o up on in d ivi du al pe fo man ce p io t o 19 14

ue r r r r r

w as th a t of M o ede He in vest i g ated the ole f the g o up in

. r o r

in c e in g dec e as in g n in divi du al s speed an d vi go in

r as or r a
’

the pe fo man ce of m uscul a wo k He fo un d th at comp e ti

r r r r

tion tended to et a d the speed of fast pe fo me s and accel

.

r r r r r

c a te the speed o f sl o w on es
r I n te g o up iv al y in c e a sed . r r r r r

24
See Au us t g PM
a y er Ub er E in z e l- un d

2 7 6—
e s a m tl e i st un
, G g S kdes ch u l in de s ,

Arch f d G es
. .

e
s y ch ol , 1
25 E rns t M um a nn
.

S
,
.

Arch f d G es
4 16
sy cho l , 4
Haa s -a nd chula rbeit ( L e ip z i : K l inkh ardt ,
.

g
. . . P .

. See a ls o hi s
the in divi dual s ene gy o utput a s c ont asted wi th in te i ndi
’

r r r

vi du al c ompet ition whi ch h a d no no tice ble effect on the

,

s in gle ind ivi du al s expen ditu e Of e ne gy

,
a
’
26
r r .

E ffect b hth e r: F H A ll o rt
f g p o e a v i o rou
p o n cogni ti v e

D
. . .

i ss at isfied with the specul ative the ori es of s o cio logi sts an d
s o cial psych ol o gi sts llp ort s et him self th e t a sk of subject in g
,
A
the c ude ge ne al i z ation s of the p a st t o expe im ent al
r r r

tests H i s expe im e nts wh i ch n eed no t be desc ibed in

!7
r r

det ail est abli shed s om e in t e estin g an d imp o t an t esults

,

,
r r r .

He fo un d th at subjects p o duced mo e m e nt al th at i s ve b al r r , ,
r ,

a ss o c iation s in groups th an whe n i s o lated The p eed of . s

a ss o ciations in the g oup w s als o g e ate —espec ially in the r a r r

e a ly ph a se of the a ss o ciation p o cess Tow a d the en d f the

r r . r o

t ask h oweve whe n the subjects we e t ired bein g al on e

,
r, r ,

favo ed c on ce nt at ion whe e a s g o up w o k contri buted no

r r r r r

be nefi t t o the fi nal and mo e difli ul t st a ges o f the t a sk

,

28
r c

Allport next investigated expe im entally the influen e of

.

r c

the g oup up on the tho ught p o cess a s typ ifi ed in w i tte n

r r ,
r

a gum e nts He fo un d th at mo e i de a s we e p o duced in the

r . r r r

gr o up th an by in d i v i du a ls w o k in g al on e Whe n the i de a s r .

we e comp a ed f o thei qu ality howeve he fo un d th at

r r r r r,

those of supe io quality o ccu ed mo e f equently in th

,

r r rr r r e

s ol it a y wo ke th an in the group While mo e w o ds we e

r r r . r r r

“
used in the a gum e nts Of the g o up —p ob ably bec ause the
r

p esen ce of othe s induced a mo e c onve s ational an d ex

r r
r

r
r

fo m o f exp ess ion —the i de a s in the gro up we e of

”
a n si
p ve r r r

a lowe lo gic al o de I nte n se l o gi c al thinkin g w as m uch

r r r .

“
mo e r ch a a cte i st i c r
“
Of the in d ivi du al w o k in g in s o li tude
r

These esults Allp o t concludes appe ar t o be el ated t o

r r
r

r
.

the common obse vation that wo k equi ing ima gination

, ,

r r r r

W
p gff M
26 W f — M
S.k g o e de , Der ettei e r, s e in e tru t ur un d s e in A us m a ss , Z .
f
.

uda

f g gg
th e e g .

f
ect o f th ef
Ps y ch o l 1 5 . 3 53 68
, oe de a ls o i nv e s ti a t e d ex p e rim en t ally
.

o n s u ch s tan dard i n di v i du a l p e r o rm a n ces a s l earn

ro u p

F g S
in g , or e tti n a s s o ci a ti o n , a n d a tte n ti on

g
Mas s en p s y cho lo i e ( L e ip z i :
fl
,

Hirz el ,
Se e urth er h is E x p eri m en telle
.
.

g P— H Allp ort , Th e in uen ce of th e ro up u p on as s oci ati on an d

2 7 See

—
. .

th ou h t , J ex p s y ch o l , 3
. . 1 59 8 2 . .

2 8 I bid
, p p 166 6 7
. . .
 U LEWIN A ND CON TEM PO RARY G ROU P DYN AM IC S
K RT

TO le ap f om the sec on d an d th i d dec a des of th i s ce n t u ry

r r

t o cu e nt developm e nt may appe a a b it a y an d u nw ar

rr r r r r

r anted H oweve the e a av ail able studi es th at fill the r, r re

gap The imp o t ant fa ct i s th at th ough L ewin s wo k on

.

’
r r

field dynamics o the infl uen ce f g o up o fi el d fo ces w a s

.

r o r r -
r

fo m ulated an d publi shed in the l ate twe nti es i t w a s n ot

, ,

u nt il he settled in the U nit ed St ates th at he began t o apply

,

h is theo et i c al con cepts t o g o up beh avi o an d t o p t them

r r r u

t o é i l expe im ent al tes t s

é fie p ese nt w ite h as no des i e t o becom e a p a ti s an
r
u a r .

r r r r r

in the cu e n t c o n t o ve sy o ve the p io i ty of L ewin o

rr r r r r r r

M o e no in the est abli shm e nt of group dynami cs f or our

r

min ds th at n e ithe on e is the

,

survey le aves 11 r

fo un de of the r i s li ttle hi sto i c al j tifi c r us a

t ion f o To m n s a sse tion eg ard in g the o i g“

r e a
’

in of a ction r r r

r ese arch ( an d he n ce of gro up dyn mi cs ) th at i t w a s I L a ,

. .

M o e no auth o of Who S ha ll S u v iv e! A New App oa ch t o

r , r r r

t he P ro b lem of Hu ma n I n ter e la tio ns wh o many

ye ars be fo e them [ C oll ie and L ew in ] developed the
r
-

r r
”3 2
the o eti c foun d ation s an d inst um e nts of a ction ese arch
We Sh all m e ely p o int o ut in p a ssin g th at the L w in ian ar
r r r .

r e s e

mo e d i ectly a ss o c ia ted b oth in the i theo eti c al fo m ul a

r r r r r

t ion s and c on c ete appli c ation s wi th the g oup dyn ami cs

,

r r -

mo vem e nt th an i s M o e no an d s o c iom et y Thi s obse v ati on

,

r r r

in n o w ay de tracts howeve f om the imp o t an ce of M o e no s

.

,
r, r r r

The c on ceptu al schem e an d the b a s i c

THE O R Y
fo m ation s ega din g hum an beh avio wh ich
.

al r ul r r r,

h a s com e to be kn own as field the o y wa s fo m ul ated by r r

Lewin in Germany in the second and thi d dec ades of th is

,

centu y I n evi ewin g the g owth of g o up dynam i cs and

r . r r r

32 .
,

K
Z To em an i n a l e tt er cri ticiz in L a ura Thom s o n s im p u te d clai m
bu t den ie d by th e la tter th a t urt L e i n is t o b e cre di ted i th th e ori in
gw p ’

w f g ,

3 45 —
,

o f a cti on res e arch See S ci M onth ly 70

Th om p s o n A cti o n re se arch a mon
p p 34— 40
,

.
. 4 6 See urth er, L
.

Am eri ca n I n di a ns , S ci M o nth ly 70 ,
.
g , .

.
,
.
O RI G IN S A ND DEVELO PMENT 9

c omp a in g i t wi th ecent devel opm e nt s i t i s e asy to l o se

r r

s i ght of th fact th a t the dynami c l v ew of L ewin o one

,

e a i ,
r

ve y much lik e it i s a n ecess a y c on dition f o expl ainin g

r , r r

the natu e of human g oups n on itali tic lly

r r v s a .

ste a dy st ate m e ely nor a self c ont ained equil ib ium but r -
r

a cont inuo us p o cess of a d apt at ion o f in divi du als t o one an

, ,

an d t o the i m utu al p oble m s The result of th i s

,

o the r r r

mutu a l a dap t a tion i s a se t o complex of difl e ntiati ons

.

r re

integration s an d eve mo e complex p atte n s Of o gani z ation

,

r r r r

The b as i c co ncep t in thi s vi ew wh ateve te mino lo gy i s

.
,

r r

used i s act ion in a fie ld I n non s o cial action such a s th at

,

.
, ,

of many anima ls i t may be c alled s imp le beha v ior In the

,
.

human in divi dual w h o alw ays lives in a g oup i t i s s ym ,

r ,

bo lic i nter ctio n I n g o up beh avio it i s an int ica te net of

a . r r r

s m bo li c i n te a cti ons
y Whe n the g orup fi nally i s c o m p l i r

t d a s i t us u ally i s by cultu a l deman ds o expec t a t ion s

.
, ,

ca e r r

the beh avio c ons i sts of a n ctio ne d fo ms of s ymb o lic inter

, , ,

r s r

a cti on G o up dynami cs a s a sci e nce i s thus an inte di s

. r r

Cip lin ary in vest i g at ion I t IS the e mph a s i s up on an d exempli

fi tion of th is in te d i sc ipl ina y a spect wh i ch ch a a c t e izes
.

ca r r r r

all of L ewin s p sych olo gic al the o ies an d ese a ches

’

r r r

On e must p oint o ut against pe s is tent c iticisms of the

.

r r

fo egoin g view th at in thi s mo de o f analys i s the g oup i s

,

r ,
r

neve eifie d Th at eifi ation h a s bee n ch a a cte i st i c of

r r r c r r

m o st e arl i e v iews f g o up st uctu e c anno t be de ni ed B e

.

r O r r r .

cause indi vi dua ls a ct as if thei g oups we e m et aphys ic ally r r r

e l we te n d unwitt in gly t o loo k up on the m a s object ively

r a

e al In L ewin s vi ew h oweve the g o up i s n ot the sum

,
’
33
r .
,
r, r

33 F
g— f
Th e ro u p
Se e . H Allp ort
.

a ll a cy in
’

r el a t i o n
t ell in
to
g cri tici s

s o ci a l
m of

s ci e n ce ,
th e g ro u p -m in d
Ame r .
h yp o th esi s in
J Socia l , 2 9
.

6 68 7 06 .
20 FOUNDATION S O F G ROU P DYNAMICS
of i ts m e m be s I t i s a st uctu e th a t e m e ges f om the in te
r r r r r r

ac tion s of in divi du als a s t uctu e wh i ch itself p o duce

.

r r r s

ch an ges in the in divi du al m embe s R ese a ch h as sh own

,

th at it i s difficul t t o p edi ct the beh avio O f pe s on s in a

r . r

r r r

g o up f om p em e“
r r asu es of pe s onali ty v a iables The cle a
r r r r . r

fa ct e m e ges th at whe n in d ivi du al s e put t o ge the a s ys

r ar r

te m i s c e a t ed [ an d th i s ] i s the c i t i c a l fa c t wh i ch c ann o t be
r r
”34
ove lo oked
r

L ewin es olved an old difficulty ega din g the natu e of

.

r r r r

the g o up an d the eby b i dged th gap be twee n the g o up

r r r e r

o i e n ted hyp o thes i s an d the in d iv i du a l i st i c app oa ch

r Much r

thinki ng and specul ation ega din g the group h ad defin ed it

.

r r

as a c o llec t i ve e n t ity o g o up min d Thi s V i ew held th a t a ,

r r .

g oup of p e ople a cts feels an d thinks a s a di stin ct be in g

r

f o i t is a d i st in c t be in g The vi ew of L e B on w alm o st
, , ,

35
r as

but no t quit e out g own by M “ Do gall A cc o d in g t o the

.
,

,
r c u . r

l atte a g oup i s an o ganized system of fo ces g e ate

r, r r r ,
r r,

mo e p owe ful mo e c om p ehe n s ive th an n y s in gle in di

r r ,
r r a

vi du al o any m of in divi du als I t c an th ink w ill an d act

r su

in a manne s imil a t o th at of an in di vi du al w h o pe fo ms th
.
, , ,

r r r r e

s am e a ctivi ti es The chie f m “e i t of M cDo g l l

.
36

“ v i ew i s hi r u a
’

s s
”
ma ked stress on gro ups a s uni ti es an d o g ani c wh oles
r
”
r .

The in d ivi du ali stic app oach on the o the h an d as ep r r r re

se nt ed best by F H A llp o t wh o helped us t o b e ak aw ay

, ,

. . r ,
r

f om the vi t ali sti c th inki n g o f the p a st run s the d an ge of

r r

to an lem entaristi c fo m
,

reduc in g all g o up beh a vio r r e r .

G oup beh avio he held i s t o be expl ain ed by th e s am e

r r, ,

m ech ani sm s th at explain the beh avio of the in d ivi du al r .

R L
34

1 9 46—
. . SC ol om on

g M
a nd T N . . L e ma nn , R e p Sfort or th e firs t fiv e y ea rs ,
1 9 51
Uni v ers i ty ,
(
Th e ab ov e
a m b ri d e ,

f w gG F ,
a ss : . L a b ora to ry of ocial Rel at io ns
an a ly s is ru ns thro u h o u t th e or s g wk , Harv ard
Of L e in w
k
e s p eci ally a s ex p o un de d i n th e

G Sw
Y
ollo i n : i eld th eory a nd so ci a l s ci ence

M w
( New or : Ha rp er 8: B ros , 19 5 1 ) an d rou p decis io n an d s ocia l ch an e .

g g ,

in
p g
s ocia l

330—
.E a n son , T
. N e comb a n d E L Hartley
s y ch olo y ( 2d e d ; New
.

or : He nry Ho lt 8: C o , I n c Y k
R ea d in s i n
.

.
pp
,
. .

. .

44 .

3 5 S e e C L e B on Th e cro w d
.
( Lon don : T i sh er U n in ,
, o ri i . F w g
36

I nc ,
.
W pp
n al ly p u bli sh e d i n Pari s in 1 89 5
M cDou g a ll Th e rou mind ( New o r :
.

9— 16 .
, P Pu tnam s o n s ,
.
g p .

Y k G . .
’
S
O RIG IN S A ND DEVELO PMENT I

Th us in cont ast t o mo st e a ly psych olo gi sts an d s o ciol o gi sts

r r

who pl aced the g o up befo e the indivi du al Allp o t pl

, ,

the indivi du al befo e the g o up H i s asse tion th at if we r

“a ced r

r . r
,
r

t ake c a e of the in divi du als psych olo gi c ally spe ak in g the

r , ,

g oups will be fo un d t o t ake c a e of them selves i s su

r r ,
”
r

r si in gly un c i t i c a l in a psych o l o g i st wh o h a s sh o wn m o e
r r
p
than o dina y scientific acumen His View inste ad of b ing
r r .
,
r

in g the in d i vi du al an d the g o up t o gethe an d st ess in g the i r r r r

insep a abili ty vi tu ally elimin ates the g oup alt o gethe I t

r ,
r r r .

pl aces g o up phe nom ena in the in di vi du al an d by an d

r a

di ti e p o cess desc ibes the m a s the su m t o t al of the a ct ion s

Of e ach i ndividual taken sep a ately This in dividualistic ap
v r r

p oach go es c ont a y to a ge ne ally a ccepted sci entific p op o

.

r r r r r

s itiou nam ely th at a g o up p o ssess p o pe t ies wh ich a

, ,
r r r re

diff e e nt f om th o se of the in di vi du als t ak e n sep a ately

r r r

While Allp o t s “ vi ew h a s made an imp o t ant con t ibut ion in

.

r r r

exo cis in g the g o up min d f om psych ol o gy an d a guin g

r r
”
r r

f o the im p o t an ce of the in d iv i du al in g o up pro cesses he h a s

r r r ,

failed to give u an a dequ ate acc o un t f the c ucial el at ion

s o r r

betwee n the in divi dual an d the group .

P rop rti es of p s ych o logi ca l g ou p s U nt il ece ntly the

e r . r

fo cus in g oup dynami cs a s we h ave sh own wa s no t on such

r , ,

l a ge an d c omplex s o cial fo m s as cultu es nat ions an d

r r r

gove nm e nts but on s malle fa ce t o —fa ce gro ups wh i ch

, ,

r ,
r -
,

mi ght be called p s ych o logica l g o ups Wh ile it m ight be r .

a gued th at the e i s no essent ial psych ol o gi c al diffe en ce b

r r r e

twee n fo mal s o c i al o ganiz ation s an d psychol o gi c al g oups

r r r

thi s asse tion ests on dub io us p emi ses Whethe o no t

,

r r r r r

the psychol o gi c al facto s th at le a d a small g o up a commit

.

r r

tee f o in st n ce to a co llective deci s ion

,

,
r a ,
in p in c i ple th are r e

s am e as tho se th at im pel a nat ion t o e n ga ge in w the e ar, r

i s evi dence th at le ads on e t o d oubt th s imil a i ty of the two

p o cesses Thi s i s h oweve an Ope n i ssue
e r

r r,

A psycholo gic al group exists onl y when at le ast two con

. .
,

di ti on p ev ai l ( 1 ) the e m ust be a t le a st tw o pe s on s in
s r : r r

has
37 All p ort
alrea dy
’
s

b e en
sy s tem ati c

cit e d .
p os i ti on i s s ta te d in hi s S ocia l p s y cho lo y , g w hi ch
 2 FOUND ATION S O F G ROU P DYN AMIC S
r el at ion to e a ch ot“ he an d ( 2 ) they m ust be inte a ct ive r, r .

The psych olo gi c al fo ce wh i ch h olds them t o gethe an d r

”
r

fo m s an elem e nt a y g o up i s an intera ct A psych ol o gi cal

r r r

group i s thus ch ara cte i zed by at le a st m inimal aw a en ess in

.

r r

wh i ch e ach in d ivi du al esp on ds at le a st minim ally t o the r

o the M aximally e a ch pe s on pe ce ives the o the s no t only

r .
,
r r r

f om hi wn pe spect ive but f om the pe spect ive f all of

r s o r ,
r r o

the m I n te m s of i ts dynami c p ope t i es the psych ol o gi c al

r r r

g o up i s a st uctu e of beh avin g in di vi du als wh o

.
,

r r r c on are

s a
“
t n tly un de g oin g a ed i st ibut ion el at i ve t o on e ano the
r

I t fo m s a field no t in the se n se th a t i t h
r an exi ste n ce o f
”
r r r

as
r .

i ts ow n but in the sen se th at wh ile it d iffe s f om its m em

,

r r

be s the l atte beh ave in such a w ay th at the field

, ,

r r the or

psych olo gic al st ucture a s a whole bec om es the cru cial an d

, ,

deci din g fa cto in the beh avio of e ach A s in any G est lt

,

r r a

wh o le the in divi du als e no t obli te ated but they a ct

.

o r ,
ar r ,

now in a cc o d ance wi th the field o f fo ces ge ne ated by the

r r r

r esp onses f e a ch t o ll O a .

The upsh o t of the fo egoin g analys i s i s th at n e i the the r r

indiv i du al n o the psych olo gi c al g oup st uctu e h a s a sep a

ate exi ste n ce E ach im pli es an d fun ctional ly depe nds up on
r r r r

r .

the o the The gro up s beh avio always t akes pl ace betwee n
r .
’

o r amon g in divi du al s ; an d the beh avio of in divi du als i s ’

dete min ed by the st uctu e of the i inte el at ion shi p The

r r r r rr .

study of the g o up o the sc ie n ce of g oup dynami cs a cc o d

r ,
r r ,
r

in gly i s inte d i sc i pli na y I t a cc o u n ts f o g o up beh a v io

,
r r . r r r

by integr atin g elev ant dat a f om seve al d i scipl in es espe

y
r r r ,

ci lla
y psych o l o g s o c io l o gy an d cultu l an th o p o l o gy ra r
38

E X ER ME NTS W I TH G O UP S I t w a s ch a a cte i sti c o f

.
, ,

P I R r r

Lewin especially afte he settl ed in Am e ica t o put his

.

r r

i de a s t o expe ime nt al test and to wo k o ut the i p a ct i c al

, ,

r r r r

impli c at ion s H i s p ion ee ese arch in th i s c onnection w r r as

'

c a i ed o n at the U nive s ity of I owa with the able ass i st an ce

.

rr r

of R onald L ipp itt and R K Whi te Th i s expe im ent al study . . . r

i s n ow s o well known an d its main esults h ave bee n o c om , r s

a nd
38
S ee
K K w
L e in , A dy na mic th eory of p ers ona lity , tra ns by
E Zen er ( New
.
.

o r : M cGra w -Hi ll B oo
. Co , I n c , Y k k .
.

.
D . K . A dam s
ch a p i . .
O RI G IN S A ND D EVELO PMENT 3

p l t
e e ly a ss imi l a ted in c on te m p o a y s o c ia l psych o l o gy th a t r r ,

a det ailed p esent at ion he e i s unn ecess a y H oweve the

r r r . r,

followin g summa y may p ove useful r r .

S tu dy of oci l clima tes L ewin an d h i s c oll ab o at o s

s t o u t to in vest i g a te the e ff ect on i ts m e m be s O f s mall
s a . r r

e
“ “ r

“
”
g oups o gani zed l on g demo c at ic auth o i t a ian an d
r r a r ,
r r ,

lai ssez fai e p atte ns The th ee gro ups we e c omp o sed of

r r . r r

te n ye ar old b o ys I n the de“

- -
mo c at ic gr oup the le ade d i d r r

no t o de o d i ect n d w a s fa ct min ded in h i s ev alu at ion

.

”
r r r r a -

o f the b o ys a ct i v i t i es The b o ys f o the m o st p a t wo ked

’
r r r

o t the i o w n p o ble m s bu t we e f ee t o c on sult the le a de

.

u r r r r r

whe neve they des i ed In the auth o ita ian g o up p oli c ies
,

r r . r r r ,

an d a ct ivit i es we e dete min ed “ by the le a de

t ion of the b oys wo k w a s pe s onal I n the l ai ssez fai
r
’
an d hi al

r
r

r .
r, s ev ua

re

g o up the le a de n e ithe p a t i cip ated n o v olunt a ily gave

r r r r r r

sugges ti on s an d the b o ys we e give n complete f eedom to

,
r r

s olve thei p oblem s in the i own way

r r r .

The esults in beh avio an d wo k in these g o ups we e

r r r r r

st ikin gly diffe e nt These di ffe ences c an be b o ugh t o ut

r r . r r

by desc ib ing the auth o it a ian g o up only f o the othe

r r r r r r

two v a i ed f om i t in expected w ays The exp e im e nt cle a ly

,

r r r r

demonst ated th at the autho i t a ian atmo sphe e im p ai ed

.

r r r r r

initiat ive an d indepe n de n ce an d b ed h o st ility an d gg e

“

r a r s

i n
s ve The b oys we e self ce nte ed f ust ated n d h o s
ess . r -
r ,
r r ,
a

tile to a m uch l arge deg e th an tho se of e i the the demo r r e r

c at i c o l ai ssez fai e gro up They ten ded fu the mo e t

r r r .
,
r r r ,
o

be submi ss ive lifeless an d ap athet ic an d b o dily te n s ion

, , ,
s

we e f eque ntly manifested

r r .
39

Actio n resea ch in in dus try Whe n L ewin m oved t o th e

M a ss achuse tt s I n titute Of Tech nol o gy he beg an to apply h i
r .

s ,
s

39 K . Li p p itt an d R
L ew m , R
h av i or in exp erime ntally cr e ate d
.

oci al
hi t e P a ttern s o f a ressiv e b e
li m a t e s
”
I s oc
,
KS W C
s y ch o l 10
ggP . .
,

,
. .

2 7 1—
an d dem o cra tic

g ro u p a tm o sp h ere
.

g
99 See a ls o R Li p p itt An exp erim enta l st u dy of a u th o ri t ari an
in
.

w S
S
tu di es i n t o p o lo i cal a n d v e ct or
C
g
W f
,

“
,

p sy cho lo y V ol I ( Uni v ersity of I o a

g
,

R Li p p itt an d R
.

rou p s in R B ar er et a l
,
.

kk
hi t e Th e
tu di e s in h il d
s oci al clim at e
”
.
e l a re

C hi ld de v e lop ment a nd beha v i or ( N ew

. .
,
KW
No 1 6
of ch i ldren s

or
.
,
,

Y
.

k
’
,

McGraw -Hill B o o Co , I nc , . .
24 FOUN DATION S O F G ROU P DY N AMI CS
knowledge of g o up psych olo gy to in dust y I n a c on t o lled
r r r

expe ime nt whi ch he pe fo m ed befo e hi s un tim ely de a th

.

r r r r ,

he wa s able t o demonst ate th at p oo motiv at ion o c s ioned r r ,

ca

by the wo ke s ese ntm ent a gain st auth o i t ian m eth o ds in

r r
’
r r ar

a fa cto y w a s a ve y imp o t ant fa cto in the i fail u e an d

r ,
r r r r r

the i unp o ductivi ty Th auth o i ta ian mana gem e nt w

r r . e r r as

fo un d t o be the f ust atin g a ge nt in p o duction efli cien yr r r c .

Whe n the w o ke s we e pe mitted t o i the i wn vi ews an d

r r r r a r r o

make suggestion s they felt th at they we e— in deed they ,

r as

we e —p a ti cip ants in the deci s ion makin g p o cess an d the i

r r -
r , r

mo tiv ation im p o ved an d p o duction exceeded p evio us

r r r

levels .
40

G oup de cis ion in ch nging ttitu des The effect of the

r a a .

g o
r up on the beh a v io f the in d i vi du a l w a s de mon st a ted r o r

by L ewin s expe im en t in ch an gin g pe o ple s foo d h ab i ts D

’

r
’

. ur

ing Wo ld W I I whe n m e at f o civili an on sumption w a s

r ar r c

sc a ce L ewin an d h i s o ll ab o at o s we e able by m e an s of
,

r ,
c r r r ,

g oup self deci s ion to in duce pe ople t o e at m e ats whi ch

r -
are

usu ally ejected by A m e i c an h om e make s The in vest i

,

r r r .

gato s used i g o ups c ons i st in g of thi tee n to seventeen

r s x r ,
r

pe s on s in the expe im e nt Th ee g o ups we e e nco u a ged

r ,
r . r r r r ,

by m e ans of lectu es demon st ations n d p at io ti c ppe als r ,

r ,
a r a ,

t o e at ki dneys sweetb e a ds an d bee f he a ts The o the

,
r ,
r . r

th ee g oups we e given the s am e lectu es but they we e

r r r r ,
r

als o gi ve n opp o tuni ti es t o di scuss the subject f eely an d at

r r

len gth The esults we e cle a cut O f the wom en wh o

. r r r .

listened t o the lectu es with o ut p a ti cip atin g in any di scus r r

s ion only 3 p ce nt se ved any of the ec omm ended foo ds

,
er r r .

H oweve 32 p ce nt of the w om e n who no t only atte nded

r, er

the lectu es but als o di scussed the p oblem an d a ived at

r r rr

thei own deci s ion s ega din g the use of these m e ats se ved
r r r r

them to the i famil i es r

F om th is expe iment L ewi n concluded wh at subsequent

.

r r

r ese a ches an d expe ime n ts h ave bee n confi m in g Wh e n

r r r :

me mbe s of a g o up them selves h ave an opp o t uni ty t o get

r r r

S40K L wi R l i g i l fli ( N w Y k H p B C F g
J
ee e n, es o v n s oc a con c ts e or : ar er ros
—
. .
,

to
pp 12
g
5 41; L
ch an e , Hum R ela t
.

.
.

.
,
o ch an

1
d . R P
5 1 2—
32
ren ch ,
. .

.
Jr O v ercomin
.
,
res i s ta n ce
26 FOUN DATION S O F G ROU P DY N AMI C S
the o de in g of ch an ge t o the c on dition s of the field at the
r r

t im e Thi s wa y of conceptu ali zin g psych o lo gi c al c us tion a a

makes it p o ss ible t o a cc o unt f o in divi du al an d g o up b e

.

r r

h avio by m e an s f a s in gle p in ciple an d p omi ses t o b i dge

y
r O r ,
r r

th g p
e betwee n inad i v i du a l an d s o c ia l psych o l o g .
42

MO RENO A ND SOCIOMETRY
While M o e no s wo k in s o ciom et y i s well known i ts
r
’

r r ,

r elev an ce t o the develop in g field of g o up dynami cs h a s no t r

been wi dely ec o gni zed P a a d oxi c ally the L w in i n wh o

r . r ,
e a s,

s h o uld h ave bee n quick t o app eciate the el ation shi p h ave r r

bee n less ecept ive to its imp o t an ce th an s o c ial sci e ntis ts

,

r r

gen e ally H i s studi es of ole beh avio su ely sh oul d h ave

r . r r, r ,

bee n eco gni zed a s be in g d i ectly el ated t o g o up dyn ami cs

r r r r .
43

RO LE THE O R Y The subject of ole pl ayin g w as exte n

i ely d i scussed in ge n e al an d abst a ct fo m by C oo ley an d
. r -

s v r r r

G H Me a d The m e it of M o eno s wo k on the subject r r

’
r

i s th at he used it at on ce a s a mo de of an alyzin g in t a g oup

. . .

r r

beh avio an d s a m eth o d of m e a su ing s o c ial in te a ction

r a r r .

Takin g the ole of ano the i a ma k of the s o ciali zed human

r r s r

be in g S ince one in divi du l s o le t ak in g p esupp o ses the

. a
’

r -
r

r o le pl ayin g of ano the ole beh avio gives pe ople pp o

-
r, r r o r

t n iti
u t o accept an d t o be a ccepted by othe s R ole b
es r . e

h avio i p o ss ible only in a g o up Th e g oup p ese nts num

r s r . r r

o
er us s i tu ation s in whi ch the in divi du al c an d ispl ay hi s

s kills exe ci se h i s ab iliti es an d bec om e ec o gni zed f wh at

,
r ,
r or

e ve in divi du al m e its he may p o ssess and the g o up i will

r r r s

in g t o ec o gnize and ew a d G o up h a mony depe nds in

r r r . r r

goo d m e a su e on the ab ili ty and willingness of eve y in di

r r

vi du al t o pl ay h i s oles in such a w ay as t o e nable eve y r r

o the indivi dual t o pl ay h i s own ole success fully Much of

r r .

42

c o n ce p t
For a

of
c om p re h e n s iv e ,

th e p resent fi th ou
e ld, see
g w wF
h s om e

Le in ,
h a t te chni cal di scu s si on o f th e
ie ld the o ry i n s o ci a l s ci e nce,
pp 4 3
.
—59 .

M
4 3 Fo r a n earl
y s ta tem e nt o f role b eh a v i or a n d o f s o ci om etry s ee I L , . .

o ren o

in terre lat i ons (

CO
,

W g
W h o s ha ll s u rv iv e! A new a p p roach to th e p ro ble m of h u ma n
a s h in ton , D C : N erv o u s a n d en tal Di s ea s e P ub li s hi n

O u r Surv ey h as ma de clear w e h op e th a t t he a p p roa ch i s n o t

. .

,
M
,
g
n ew .
O RI G IN S A ND DEV ELO PMENT 7

the s ati s fa tion th at a pe s on fi n ds in belon gin g t o a g oup

c r r

i s de ived f om h i s opp o tunit ies t o play h i s o le a s on e f i ts

r r r r O

m embe s r .

M o e no desc ibed the inte a ct ive natu e Of ole beh avio

r r r r r r

in te m s of a tt a ct ion an d epuls ion Mutu a l att a ct ion

r r r . r ,
or

p o s i t i ve s o c iom et i c ch oi ce m k
r es g o up in te a ct ion p o ss i ble
,
a r r

an d f u i t ful ;
r m utu l epuls ion o n egat ive s o c iom et i c
a r ,
r r

choi ce i s inimic al t o inte pe s onal a ction The a tt action

,
r r . r

r epuls ion v ale nce i s in M o eno s system the fun d am ent al ,

r
’

p inciple f s o cial inte a ct ion an d in te in divi du al el at ion s

r o r r r .

S O C O M T Y M o eno was no t s atisfied with a fo mal

I E R r r

analys i s an d desc iption of ole beh avio bu t int o duced a

.

r r r, r

techni que f o m e a su in g the att a ction epuls ion dim e n s ion

r r r -
r

in human el at ion sh ips Th i s tech ni que he c alls s o c iom et y

r r

By this m eth o d att a ction and epulsion f m embe s of a

. .

r r o r

g oup
r ep esented by s o c io g m s th a t i s di g am s in
a re r r ra ,
”
,
a r

di tin g wh o i s a tt a cted by wh om on the b a s i s of sp on

ca r

t n o
a e usexp ess ion s of likes n d di slikes by in divi du als f o
r a r

“
one ano the The c on cepts of le a de sh ip an d i s ol at ion h ave
r r

als o been investi g ated by thi s t ech ni que espec ially by

.

Hele n J e nnin gs a cl o se c oll ab o ato of M o eno

Lik e field the o y s o c iom etry i s e min e n tly an in te d i s
,
r r r .

r ,
r

ci li n
p y ari n vest i g a t ion of g o up el a t ion s I t h a s a cc o d r r .
,
r

in gly bee n wi dely used by s o cia l psych o l o gy an d s o cio l o gy

, .

I n the in te ests f sc ie n t i fic o bject iv i ty h o weve i t sh o uld b

added th at the inte di sciplina y ch a a cte Of b oth the the o y
r o ,
r, e

r r r r r

an d the m eth o d of s o ciom et y h a s bee n a dve sely affected by r r

the p arti s an natu e of M o e no s influe n ce N eithe psych ol

r r
’

t
.

o i ts n o
g s s o c
r io l o g i sts h a ve bee n a s ecept i ve o M o e no r r
’

wo k a they mi ght h ave bee n bec ause f the sect a ian an d

r s o r

almo st cult ist d vel opme nt of the field e .

G OUP THERA P Y While M o eno s wo k is not di ectly

R . r
’

r r

ass o ciated with g oup psycho the apy the kin ship i s ve y r r r

obvio us The c oncept of “

. ole p l ay in g h a s bee n used by r -

M o e no in his techn i que of psych o d ama Thi s c on s i sts in

r r .

44 Se e
L on gma n s ,
Helen H
G ree n
. J e n n in

Co I nc
g s,

.
,
Lea ders hi p an d is ola ti on ( 2d cd ; New Yor . k
28 FOUNDATION S O F G ROU P DYN AMIC S
the ole enactment of individuals in a g oup in mo e o less
r -
r r r

sp ont ane o us exp ess ion s of emotional confli cts Thus a r .

,

husb an d an d w“ ife with the ai d if n ecess a y of o the in di ,

r ,
r

v i d a ls alled a uxi l ia y ego s wh o ep ese nt im p o t an t p

u c r ,
r r r er

s on s in the e a l l ife s itu ation s of the ma ied c o uple h ave an

r -
rr ,

opp o tunity t o exte nali ze the i h o stilit ies an d the eby le n

r r r r ar

to e them an d e ach othe mo e objectively The obj ctifi

s e r r e

c ation of the confli ct s th o ugh o le pl ayin g helps t o es o lve

.

r r -
r

them I n th i s w ay the o le e na ctin g g o up se ves

. n r -
r r as a

inst um ent of the apy f o ind ivi dual ten s ion s an d co nfli cts
r r r

L ike all g oup the apy psycho d ama is a fo m of s o cial e

.

educ ation in wh ich the in divi du al i s give n an opp o tuni ty

r r ,
r r r

r ,

th o ugh g o up p a ti cip at ion an d a pe mi ss ive g o up exp es

r r r r r r

s ion t o acqui e skill in ole beh avio an d t o inc e a se in di

,
r r r r

vi dual secu i ty by le nin g the ole expect an cy of o the s

r ar r -
r .

The g oup i a fo m Of s o cial t e atm e nt in th at g o up ex

r s r r r

p i
er e nc of i de n t i
es fic a t ion an d a ccept an ce ar the a peut i c e r

r e ali ti es .
45

C ONCLUSION
O su vey of the devel opm e nt of g o up dynami cs h we
ur r r as ,

h ope est abli shed its m ultiple o i gin I t h to we t ust

,
r . as , o, r ,

p ointed up the futility an d unf uitfuln ess Of attempts t o give r

p io i ty t o a s in gle pe s on t o a specific di scipline S o c io l

O
r r r or .

o
g i t
s s, by the ve y na tu e f the i in te ests
r we e wi th o ut
r r r r

d o ubt p ion ee s in the study of g o up phe nom e na O n ce

,

r r

they e man cip ated them selves f om the st ati c an d m et aphys

.

i cal speculat ion s of the p ecu s o s of sc ientific s o ciolo gy they

r

r r r ,

c on ce n t a ted l a gely on s o c ia l ch an ge
r r s o c i al c ont ol an d ,
r ,

c ollective beh avio I n ev alu at in g the i c on t ibut ion s t o th

r . r r e

e m e g in g sci e n ce of g o up dyn mi cs the mo st tellin g c iti c

r r a r

i sm i s th a t the i i de a s we e l a gely a bst a ct an d fo mal an d

r r r r r

ina ccess ible t o object ive an d expe im ent l invest i gation r a

Psycholo gi sts on the o the h an d th anks t o the est ab

.

,
r ,

l i h d t a d i t ion of expe im e n t al att a ck on psych o l o gi c al

s e r r

I n c”
45
S J L M P y h d m V l I (N w Y k B H
ee . . oren o , s c o ra a, o . e or : ea con o us e ,
O RIG IN S A ND DEVELO PMENT 29

p o
r ble m s ste mmin g f om Webe F ech n e an d Wu n dt we e r r, r, ,
r

qui ck t o subject g oup phe nom e na t o expe im ent al investi r r

g a ti n oT hus n.e a the e n d of the

,
nin etee n t h ce
r n tu y a s r ,

we h ave seen while s o cio lo gi sts we e di scuss in g s o cial

,
r

ch an ge and s o c ia l c ont o l in the fo m Of ve b al analys i s an d

emp i i al Obse v ation psych olo gi sts we e sett in g up p i
r r r

r c r ,
r ex er

ments un de cont o lled c on dition s r r

B oth s o ciologists and psycholo gists neve theless made us

.

,
r ,

awa e of the imp o t an ce of the p esence o absen ce Of o the

r r r r r

pe s on s in the beh avio of the in divi du al B o th h ave st essed

r r . r

th fa ct th a t an i s o l a te an d a g o up h ave d iffe e n t psych o

e r r

lo gi c al st uctu es an d th at acco d in gly jus t a s on e c an study

r r ,
r ,

the psycho l o gi c al st uctu e of an indivi du al s o on c an r r ,

e

investigate the psycholo gi c al st uctu e of a g oup S o cio l r r r .

o i s ts an d psych o l o g i sts a l ike h ave ec o g ni zed the p ote n cy of

g r

s o cial stimul at ion in th fo m of e n c o u a ge m e nt c i ti i sm e r r ,

r c ,

r iv l y an d the like They h ave su mi sed th at the esse nt i l

a r r a

diff e e nce betwee n the beh avio of an in divi du al an d th t of

.
,

r r a

a gro up i s th at the i s ol ated in divi du al if i t i s p o ss ible t o ,

d isc ove a ge nuine i s ol ate h a s no est abli shed el at ion shi p

r ,
r

wi th o the s whe e a s a g o up of in di vi du als a lw ays beh ave

r ,
r r s

in a s o c ial c on text
I f o ur su vey h a s held fa st t o h i st o i c al ev i de n ce an d
.

r r ,

if i t h a s bee n el a t ively f ee f om p a t i s an shi p an d pe s ona l

r r r r r

bias—an d we beli eve th at it h a s done b o th—the n it sh ould

be cle a th a t g o up dyn ami cs in it cu e nt fo m i s par e c l
r r s rr r x e

le nce an in di cip lin a y invest i ga t ion I f we h ave failed t

s r . o

include the c ont ibution s of o the s o ci al sc ie n ces no t ably

r r ,

p oli t ic l sci ence an d an th op olo gy t o g oup dynamics i t i s

a r r ,

not due t o a l a ck of app ec ia t ion of the i sh a e in b in gin g i t t o r r r r

its developed fo m bu t t o the l imited sc ope of o r in vesti ga ur

tion .
46

46 S e e f or ex a m p le , KW
De u ts ch P oliti ca l co mmu nity a t the i nterna
. .
,

g
h av i or ectio n SP F g
tion a l lev e l: p roblems of defin iti on a n d m eas u remen t O r a n iz a ti on B e
orei n P oli cy Pro ect

E D
,

C
N o 2 ( Prin ceton : Prin ceton U ni j , .
,

v e rsi ty re s s

CM
ti on of in di v i du a l s
,

Pg M
h a p p le Qu a n ti ta ti v e a n a ly s i s Of the i n tera c
roc N a t A ca d S ci ,
25
.

. 5 8—
.

67 ; E D
.

g h a p p le .
,

.
,

G . . C
p C
an d . . Are n s b er , h um a n re la ti on s
e a s ur i n ,
Ps y ch o l M on og r ,
en et . . .

Vol 22, . For o li ti ca l s ci en ce i de a s s ee , h ap ter 1 1 .

 0 OUN DATION S OF G ROU P DY N AMICS F

O su vey finall y h as suggested s om eth in g of the slow

ur r , ,

p o cess in whi ch g o up psych ol o gy h a s eman cip ated itself

r r

f om vi t ali sti c desc iptions of g o up phenom ena an d f om

r r r r

t h st on g influe n ce f the gro up min d fall a cy on the the o et

e r o -
r

ic al analys i s of g o up p ope t i es Fo s i gnifi ant w o k in thi s

manc ip ation s o ial psychol o gy an d g o up dyn ami cs owe a
r r r . r c r

e c r

s i gnal debt t o Floyd H Allp o t an d Ku t L ewin r r

A wo d of c aution should be inte je ted he e one th at

. .

r r c r ,

will be appli c able th ou gh o ut the exp o s ition of eve y ph a se r r

O f g o up dy nami cs
r The e i s a ten de n cy in many p ese nt d ay
. r r -

studies of g o up dynami cs t o ove st ess the infl uen ce of the

r r r

g o up on the in divi dual an d t o sub me ge the in d ivi dual s

r r
’

r o le in the g o up In s om e qu a te s thi s te nde n cy h a s been

r . r r

c a i ed to such le ngths a s t o make the indivi du al p acti c all y

in c onseque nt ial E xi stin g d at a and expe im e nt al ese a ch
rr r

. r r r

do no t supp o t the c on fide n t cl aim th a t the g o up i alm o st

r r s

always supe io to the in divi du al in s olvin g p oblem s a

r r r ,
o

q u i in
r g k no wled g e an d
n o t just ify the cl aim s ma de f
es o lv“in g s o c ia l te
,
n s ion
le ade less groups o f o the
s T hey dr o

or r
”
.

,
r r

a sse t ion th at le a de ship t o be justifi ed n a demo c ati c

r r i r

s o ciety m ust always be p a ssed a o un d f om pe s on t o pe s on r r r r

h i st o ic ally u n e al i sti c t o min imi e

,

l ike a p ipe of pe a ce I t . Is r r z

th e ole of sce n d an t ind ivi du als n the developm ent of

r a i

g ro ups an d the g ro wth f hu man in st i tut io ns G o up d o

y . r

n m a h
i cs no t de mon st ated th a t c e a t ive n ess i s l a gely if
as r r r ,

no t wh olly a g o up phe nom e non Just a s i t i a fo m o f

,
r . s r

e go ti sm t o ext ol the in divi dual beyon d wh at the fa cts the m

s elves pe mit o it i s a fo m of ty anny t o wo ship th e g o up
r ,
s r r r r

as if i t we e the s o u ce of all excellence The concepti on of

r r .

g o
r up dy nami cs p ese n ted in t hi s b oo kr the e fo e wh i le ,
r r ,

r evi ewin g a s many facts a s p o ss ible t o sh ow the eff ect—an d

even the f eque nt supe io ity—of the g oup ove the in d i
r r r r r

v i dual n eve impl ies th at the studi es he e desc ibed

,
r r r are

s uffici ent t o o ob o ate the cl aim s of ext emi sts S ince

c rr r r . o ur

fi nal ch apte howeve de als in det ail with th i s phe nom enon
r, r, ,

we m e ely voice u initial c ave a t he e h op in g th at the

r o r r ,

r e a de will be a it in min d a s he su veys wi th us th many

r r r e

p o blem s of g o up dynamics
r r .
G ROU P DEVE LO PME N T
DYN AMI C FA CTO RS IN
G ROU P BE HAVI O R
34 DYN AMIC FACTO RS IN G ROU P BE HAVIO R
THEO RETIC AL AN ALYS IS O F THE G ROU P

The g o up we h ave s ai d i s n ot an a gg eg at e o c o llect ion

r , ,
r r

of in divi du als No i s the g o up we h ave als o a gued s om e

. r r ,
r ,

th in g wh ich h a s an in depe n de n t exi ste nce ap a t f om the

indi vi du als wh o c omp o se it C oncepts
r r

as L e B o n s
“ such ’

c ollecti ve m e nt ali ty D“
.

u khe im s c ollective ep ese nt a r

’
r r

tion s an d M cDo g ll s g o up min d t o cite onl y the bes t

,
” ’

u a r -

known a sci e ntific ally unte nable To a gue a F H All

, ,

,
re . r s . .

p o t do es o n the o the h an d th at if we t ake c a e of the

in divi du al the g o up will t ake c a e o f itself ( C h apte 1
r ,
r ,
r

r r se e r

p 2 1 ) i s no t supp o ted by the facts N e ithe the in divi du al

,

r r

ex i ste n ce ap a t
. .

n o the g o up t
r e ite ate on ce mo e h
r ,
o r r r ,
as r

f om the othe I s ol ated

r c ompletely in depen den t b e
r or

h avio c anno t be m e ningfu lly defi ned an d a s s om ethi n g

.

r a ,

o ccu in g t of a s o cial c ontext i t i s non exi ste nt

Recent ese a ches in biolo gy so ciolo gy n d anth opolo gy
rr ou ,
.

r r , ,
a r

di sclo se th a t the evo lution of the in divi du al h a s depe n ded

on the ev olut ion of the g o up Wh at man mi ght h ave b r . e

com e o ve the mille nnia Of h i s evo lut ion o uts i de a g o up i s

r r

idle specul ation but the evi de nce suggests th at he i s wh at ,

he i s in no small deg ee bec ause he evo lved no t m e ely an r ,

r as

indivi du al but in a g o up The in d iv i du al h a su vived only

,
r . s r

be use he h a s f om the be ginnin g li ved in a gro up an d

ca r ,

g ro ups the m selves h ave ev o lved a s s o c ia lly fit o g ani z a t ion s r

of indivi du als B io lo gi c al fact o s e no t explan t o y of

. r ar a r

su viv l an d of p ese nt beh avio They have psych olo gi c al

r a r r .

m e anin g only in s o cial c ontext The e i s a g owin g c on a . r r

i tio n amon g b io l o gi sts b a sed o n expe im e n t al invest i

v c ,
r

g a t i on th a t a ll anima,
ls s o c ia l an d th a t the s o l i t a y a re ,
r

ind ivi du al i s non exi ste nt 1

g w g g w
.

W K k M
Th ere i s li terat ur e deali n ith th is p rob lem See es p e ci a ll y
1 a ro in .

5 3 4—
WC
B .

C g
gg g
un el
.

. g
e m b ers o n e o f a n o th e r

,
,
Sci M on th l y 4
All e e Ani m al A re at i o ns : A st udy of en era l s o cio lo y ( h ic a o :
43; , .
,

g C g
Y k W W C g
Th e Un iv ers i ty of h ica o Pre s s , Th e s o cia l life of a ni m als ( N e w

Y k S J S G
or : N o rton 8: C o I n c 1 9 3 8 a n d
. . oo p era t io n a m on
.
,
a n ima ls .
, ,

f
( rev e d ; New or : Ab ela rd ch um a n , L td

S
. .

— S
P co tt

o rm a ti o n det ermi n e d b y s o ci a l b eh av i or : a co m p ar a ti v e s tu dy o f tw o m a m
-
ro u p .
,
. .
,

g Y k
m a li a n s oci et ies o ci ometry

p ra ct i ce of rou p th era p y ( New

8 , 42 5 2 ; R Sla v son , The
o r : I n tern a tio n a l U ni v ersi ti e s Pres s I n c ,
. .

, .
PS YC HOLOG ICAL U CTU RE OF THE G ROU P STR 5

FIE LD DYNA M CS At the b asis Of eve y study of o gan icI . r r

r el at ion sh ip i the p oblem f o gani z ation Phi lo s ophe s n

s r O r . r I

seekin g t o un de st n d the natu e of t uth are inv a iablyr a r r r

“
,

conf onted with the p oblem of the

ar
r
“ el
p ti cul a an d the ge n e al wi th inte nal an d exte nal
r
a t ion betwee n the r

r
r

r
”
r

el at ion s B iol o gi sts n investi g tin g the natu e of o gan i c

,

r .
,
i a r r

lif e ,
fa ced with the p oblem of integ at in g the o gan
a re r r r

with the o gani sm Psych o lo gists in fo mul atin g a the o y of

r .
,
r r

o up beh a v io c om e up gain st the d ifficulty of el a t in g the

in divi du al t o the g o up E ach in h i s w n wa y must s oone
g r r, a r

r . o r

o l ate
r com e t o g ips with the p oblem of the el at ion ship
r r r r

of the p a t t o the wh ole H i sto ic ally the e h ave been th ee

r . r r r

di st in ct philo s ophi es of o g ani z ation—the m ech ani sti c the r ,

vit ali st ic an d the field dynami c The field dynami c wh i ch

,
.
,

alone c on ce n us he e affi m s th at wh ile we may th o ti

r s r ,
r ,
e re

c ally i s ol ate the in divi du al f om hi context o mili eu the r s r ,

two in e ali ty in sep a able and fo m a dyn m i c o o

a re r r r a r r

ni u ni ty T he e seve a l fa ct o s th a t a cc o u n t f the
O ganic unity
g a c a . r re r r or

r .

S o i l inte ction Th i s i s a typ of el tion sh ip between

ca ra e r a

aff ect ed
.

two mo e pe s on s in wh ich the a ct ion s of on e

or r r ar e

by the action s of ano the It t akes pl ace by m e an s f r . o

c ommuni cat ion anti c ip ation ole pe ception n d e nactm e nt

, ,
r -
r -
a -
,

an d s i gnific an t sym b o ls .

I n te a ct ion a s such wh i le i t m utu ally aff ects tw o

r ,
mo e or r

pe ople may emain el atively st ati c an d unp o ductive of

,
r r r

ch an ge in human el at ion s I t i s imp o t ant in the stu dy f r . r o

in divi du als an d g o ups bec use it t kes pl ace th o ugh r c o m f a a r -

mun i ca tion whe eby two o mo e in d iv i du als r e nabled t o r r ar e

r e ach common un de st an din gs an d effect coope ative b r r e

h avio A s inte a ction becom es mo e comm uni c a tive u n

r . r r ,

diffe e nt iated in divi duals an d the i beh avio t ke on a a

cle a e fo cus n d m e anin g E ach c an now mo e cle a ly

r r r

r r a . r r

a ti cul ate his ela tion t o th o the s an d a djust h im self t o

r r e r

them wi th g e ate skill I t i imp o t ant fu the mo e bec ause

r r . s r r r r

it i s th o ugh c ommu ni c ation th at the indi i du al expe ien ces

r v r

hi s initial feelin g of belon gin g t o the g oup pe ce ives its r ,

r
36 DYN AMIC FACTO RS IN G ROU P BE HAVIO R
c ommon cultu e an d d i sc ove s th at he h a s a p a ti cul p os i
tion in i t A n d fi nally a s will becom e cle a l ate g o up di
r ,
r r ar

.
, r r, r s

c io n g o up dec i s ion an d c o ll ect i ve p oble m s o lvin g

u ss r r -
a re

imp o ss ible in the absen ce of comm uni c at ive in te a ct ion

, ,

The c on cept f anti cip ation o expect ancy i s well “

.

o est ab r

li h d in psych o l o gy whe e i t i s ofte n c alled s t o a

s e r e r

e adin ess t o e a ct to stim uli All g o up beh avio is ch a ac

, ,

r r . r r r

“
t i e d by an t i c i p at ion o expect an cy Whe n the in fan t c i es
er z

he expec t s the mothe t o c om e to h im Whi le h is m othe

”
r

r
.

.
r ,

i s pe fo min g an a cc ommo d at ive a ct t o wa d hi m such a s

r r r

stimul atin g him with h b e a st whe n he i s hun g y he i

,

er r r s

a djustin g hi s beha vio tow a d h e in Such a manne a s t o

,

r r r r

le a d to the s ati s fact ion of h is hunge H i s anti cip at ion o f r

no u i shme nt i a step in the completion of the c ommun i

.
.

r s

c ative a ct An indi vi du al pe fo min g a g o up a ctivi ty w h o

. r r r

is un sk i lled in ant i c ip a t in g the o n c omin g a cts o f o the s will r

b equ a lly in effect ive in mo d ifyin g h i beh a vio t ow a d the

e s r r

g oup no m I n th i s c a se he n eve fully belon gs t o th e

o a djus t h im sel f t o the expect at ion O f
r r . r

g o
r up f o he
, fai ls t r

o the s r

F om anticip ation to ole pe ception and enactm ent is

.

r r -
r - -

"

but a s mall step M an i a s o c ial ami n al am on g o the . s r ,

r

r e as on s bec a use he c on st ntly v i ews h im self th o ugh anothe

,
a r r

pe s on s eyes bec ause he vi c a io usly expe i en ces th e

r
’

,
r r

th oughts feeli n gs an d a cts of ano the in divi dual O ur acts

, ,
r .

a re w ays of beh avin g whi ch we att ibute t o o the s be ca use r r

we pe ce ive them in o u selves Pe ce ivin g on e s ole is but

r r . r
’

n ph a se of the p o cess M an i s als o a o le p l ayin g ami n al

H
e r . r -
r .

e ena ct s the pe cept ion wh i ch he h a s of h i s el ation to

r r

o the indivi dual s I t i s th e e nactm ent of anothe pe s on s

r . r r
’

ole th at gives m e anin g to one s ow n ole ’

Communication anticipation and ole behavio each a

r r .

, ,
r r r

hi gh level of complex ity whe n they t ake pl a ce by m e an s Of

s ignific nt ym bo liz a t ion C omm u ni c a t ion in a g o up p o
a s . r r

coe ds th ough c onve n tional ized l an gu a ge th o ugh sym b o ls

r ,
r

whi ch w h il \th y f equently

,
no mo e th an mo to cues
e e r are r r

or gestu es h ave app o x imately the s am e m e anin g to every

r ,
r

on e in the g o up I n c omplex inte act ion such a s th a t tak

r . r ,
PS YC HOLO G ICAL STRU CTU RE O F THE G ROU P 37

in g pla ce in a dyn ami c g o up the cue o gestu e t akes o n a r r r

c on scio us o self c on scio us m e anin g ; it be com es a s i gn ific an t

,

r -

symb o l A s i gn ific an t sym b o l h the s am e effec t on the as

in divi du al us in g i t th at it h as on the in divi dual f o whom

.

it i s inten ded B y vi tue of communi c at ion anti cip ation

.
2
r , ,

r ole beh avio and sym b o li c inte action pe ople form com
r, r

mon pe cept ion s of one an othe and of the s itu at ion in wh i ch

they inte act Whe n they ee th e s am e Object o eve nt in
r r

r s r

ve y m uch the sa m e w ay they a e able t o wo k in un i so n

.

r r r

tow a d the s am e goal Whe n they h ave no c ommon p e

,

r r

s ecti e they w o k a t c o ss pu p o ses an d th e i

.

el a t ion sh i p
i s onfl ictu l athe th an c onsensu al E specially cle a in thi s
r r
p v ,
r r r ,

c a r r . r

an alys i s i s the ole pe cepti on an d e na ctm e nt f un ction in

wh ich e a ch pe s on a ssum es a cle arly s tructured p y ch ologi
r -
r - -
,

r s

c al a ctivity t owa d the o the s r r .

Ro le oi th e ind iv idua l in th e g ou p The el at ion b r r e

tween the individu al n d the g o up h as long been a vexing

.

p oblem in s oc ial psych ol o gy Although we h ave e ite ated

a r

r . r r

th e p o p o s i t ion th a t the in d iv i du a l n d the g o up ar i n

r a r e

sep arable the p oblem c anno t be st ated o s im ply Fo t oo

,
r s . r

long i t wa s th o ught—an d the i de a h a s bee n supp o ted by r

common sen se—th at the g o up i s a c o llection f in divi du als r O

an d th at whe n the e no in divi du als the e is no g o up

r are r r

Thi s inte p et ation g ave i se to the equ all y u nte nable Vi ew

.

r r r

th at an in divi du al emain s unaffected by g o up m embe r r r

ship f o the g oup c on s ists o nly of the in divi du l s actin g

r r a

Recent esea ches h ave howeve dispelled

,

in d iv i du ally . r r ,
r,

thi s conclus ion al on g wi th th e mysti c al notion of a g o up r

min d Whi le we c anno t in the p esen t st ate of ou knowl

,

r r

edge y w ith ce t i n ty th at e ithe Vi ew i s co ect the e i s

.

sa r a r rr r

a g owin g c on se n sus amon g s o ci l psycho lo gi sts th at in di

,

r a

v i du l beh a ve diff e e n tly in g o ups th an they d o as s oli t a y

a s r r r

pe s on s The e ar psycho lo gi c al infl uen ces in a g oup

r . r e r

whi ch ar diffe e nt f om tho se affectin g a pe s on in s oli

e r r r

tude The g oup po ssesses p ope ties un like tho se that are
. r r r

Y or k
2 See H B onn er,
: Ameri can B oo
. Sk oci a l
Co .
,
p sy ch olo y : g
pp .
an

42 4 6 —
in terdis ci lin a ry
.
p a p p roach ( New
38 DYN AMIC FACTO RS IN GROU P BE HAVIO R
p ese nt in the s in gle in divi du al The p ese n ce of o the
r . r r

pe ople eli cits a d iff e e nt p atte n of esp on ses th an th o se r r r

wh i ch ch a a cte i ze the beh avi o of an i s ol ate The co

r r r

o dinated beh avio of g o up m embe s 13 un like the inte

.

r r r r

g ated beh av io of a s oli t a y pe s on

The expe im e nt al investi gat ion s evi ewed in Ch apte 1
r r r r .

r r r ,

as well a l a ge b o dy of ece nt d at a le n d st on g supp o t

t o the fo egoin g O bse v at ion s P a t i cul a ly in te estin “
as r r ,
r r

r g an d r . r r r

convin cin g i s She if s well kno wn expe im e nt on th e auto r

’
-
r

kin eti c phe nom e non Whe n an in divi dual w as exp o sed f
”
. or

a few sec on ds t o a fixed p oint f li ght in a d a k oom he o r r ,

s aw it no t only a s a mo vin g p oint but est“ imated its mo t ion

in te m s of h i s o w n f am e of e fe e nce o an ch o a ge p oint
r r r r ,
r r .

Whe n seve al in divi du als e ach with h i s own anch o a ge

r ,
r

p oint we e pe mi tted t o c omp a e the i o wn an ge with th o se

,
r r r r r

of o the s in a g o up the in divi duals mo dified the i f am e of

r r ,
r r

r e fe en ce in the di ect ion of the g o up s no m They aw

r r r
’

r . s

the li ght in o the wo ds s the g o up a s a wh ole s w i t

,
r r ,
a r a ,

desp ite thei p i o indivi du ally est abli shed ancho a ge

r r r r

p oints .
3

The e i s an aspect of the el at ion of the in divi du al t o the

r r

g o up h oweve wh i ch i s mo st un e ali sti c all y o ve l oo ked

r ,
r, r r .

Stude nts f g o up dynami cs p a cti c al wo ke s in the field

O r ,
r r r

mo e th an ese a che s h ave ex a gge ated the g o up de

r r r r ,
r r -

pende n cy n eeds of in divi du als I t i s ce tain th at in d ivi du als r

des i e t o belon g an d t o be a ccepted by o the s B ut all

.

r r .

he althy in divi du ls pe io d ic ally get fed up wi th belon gin g

a r

and ar mo tivated by a st on g need f o indepe n de nce C o

e r r .

ope ation an d a g eem e nt e no t always a bless in g and in

r r ar ,

depe n de n ce di s agr eem e nt and ll o un d self exp ess ion e

, ,
a -
r -
r ar

the s o u ce of in divi du al c e ative ness n d goo d w ill I f the

r r a .

ext em e emph a s i s on gro up depe n dence bec om es a no m

r r ,

a s s om e w i te s seem t o th ink it i s doin g the fe a of ex

r r ,
r

p ess in g on e s in divi du al ity will be an inesc ap able on e

r
’

c s

q uen B ut incethe e.a ge des i e t o e a ch c onfo mi ty an d r r r r

a g eeme nt amon g ou selves we do no t necess arily es o lve

r r r

f f
,

3 MS . h eri , A s tu dy o f som e so cial a ctors in p p e rc e ti on , A rch . Ps y ch o l .

,

1 87
PS YC HOLO IC U CTU RE O F THE G ROU P
G A L STR

o ur conflicts O n the c ont a y we conce al th em an d in thi s

. r r ,

way they do d ama ge t o the g o up in a manne anal o go us r r

t o the w ay ep essed feelin gs inju e the indivi du al I n thi s

r r r .

manne the g oup c an no mo e fi nd o ut wh at t o ubles it th an

r r r r

c an the i s o l ated in d ivi du al The fact i s th a t c onfli ct i s an

Dependence an d independence
.

i nesc ap able p a t of life r .

need to be e o gni zed a s twi n des i es in ll he l thy in d i

r c r a a

v id l ua sThe c onfli cts ari s in g f om the twin n eeds f de r or

n the m selves ma y no t be h a m
.

p end n an e d in depe
ce n de n ce I r

ful b t the devious ationali ation whi ch a denial of them

,
u r z s

g e n e a tes r n e a s i ly be det im e n t al
ca r .

C o n clu i on g d isn
g t h e
p re rt w h o le
ar la ti o n hi
p T he a -
re s .

p ro ble m of the el a t ion of p a t t

r o wh o le i s an l d on e in r O

s cie n ce I t h a s pl a gued psych olo gy in the fo m of the el a

. r r

t ion of the in d i vi du al t o the g o up T mo st nin etee nth r . O

c entu y s o ciol o gi sts the g o up w a s a e a lity an d the in di

r r r

v i du al an abs t action To mo st psych olo gi sts of the s am e

r .

e io d on ly the in d i v i du a l w a s e a l the g o up be in g an b
ti n C a e ful ese a ch n the p a st qu a—te ce n tur h o w
r r r a
p ,

t
s ra c o r
. r r
y “ I A
r r- ,

eve h demon r,
— st
as a ted th a t the in d irv i du a l d o es n o t e x i s t —

W h
m ‘ w

p er buts e, in m“
utu a l “
h o m sh
— p w i th o t e s; th a t the i r

t
{E
-
r L ”
J
_ _ v ‘

o no in n n i n i a a
m

up depe de t ex ste ce but s p t

fl t u
m M N .
m

V h
N il

g r i v se as ,

t e n o f in te ct in g pe s on s p o ducin g an d p o duced by a
r ra r ,
r r

s itu a tional context The g o up i s thus a netw o k of p y ch o r r s

la t io n h ips no t a m yst i c al e n ti ty U s in g mo e c on
.

l o gi l ca re s ,
. r

ve n ti n l l an gu a ge
o a we mi ght y th at the g o up i s the
,
sa r

s timulus s itu at ion whe e as the in divi du al i s the o gani sm

-
,
r r

w h i s aff ected by an d a cts up on the st im ulus s i tu at ion

o -
.

Thi s w y of st atin g an old p o blem h m ked a tu nin g

a r as ar r

p oin t in the ana lys i s f g o up st uctu e I t

o de ni es a
r ut onom y r r .

t o b o th psycho lo gy an d s o ciol o gy in the nalys i s an d de a

s c iption of g o up beh avio The s o ciolo gi al c on ept of a

r r r . c c

g ro up min d h bee n epl a ced

as by th s o c i l psych
r o l o g i c a l e a -

vi ew of the g o up a s a field of inte acting and inte om

r r rc

m i ti n g in d iv i du als Whe n the n we spe ak in th i s b oo k

u n ca .

o f c o llect ive p o ble m s o lv in g rg o up dec i s ion makin g an d

-
,
r -
,

t h lik e we d o no t m e an th t th g o up a s an a ut onomo us
e ,
a e r
40 DYN AMI C FACTO RS IN G ROU P BE HAVIO R
bein g s o lves o di scusses anyth in g I t i s but a w ay of st atin g
r

th at in d ivi du als fo min g a psychol o gic al g o up s t uctu e

.

r r r r

h“
, ,

ave s o lved a p oblem t o gethe The s olution while a r r .

,

p o duct in the sen se th at i t n be denoted i s alw ays a

r
”
ca

p o cess of s o cial inte act ion an d c anno t ge ne at e in a

,

r r r

va cuum .

The old p o blem of p io ity—of whi ch com es fi st the

r r r r ,

ind ividual o the gro up !—f om u p oin t of view i s m e anin g

r r o r

less Thus i t seem s t o the p ese n t w i te th a t n e ithe th

. r r r r e

in divi du ali sti c n o the c o llect ivi sti c mo del is exclus ively r

v al i d To ay a s F H Allp o t an d J F D ash i ell h ave d on e

. s , . . r . .
,

th at in g o up c o gnit ive a ct ivi ti es the in divi du al is the unit

r -

of beh av io i s t o n ullify the i ow n demon st ation th at th

r r r e

ind ivi dua l s behavio i di ected by the g o up T a sse t on

’

r s r r O r

the othe h an d a s B ales an d St o dtb ck h ave don e th at

.
,

g o up p oblem s o lvin g is the p o to typ e f in divi du al s olu

r ,
r e ,

r r -
r O

t ions is only a p artial t uth O ne c an p edict the s o lution r .

4
r

o f a c ommon p o ble m n e i the f om the th inkin g of n yr r r a

s in gle in divi du al involved in i t no f om the g o up a a ,

r r r s

whole The only s ati s fa ct o y way of st a tin g the p oblem i

. r r s:

t o a sse t th at in divi du al an d g o up th ink in g t ake pl a ce in

r r

d iff e ent field c ontexts While ind ivi du al thinkin g i s n o

r .

d oubt t o s om e exte nt an in t o jection of the th ought p o cesse r r s

of o the s —psychoan alys i s would seem t o c onfi m th i s in the

r r
:

developm e nt of th inkin g in a child—the esse n ce of in divi du al

thinkin g i s th at the c ontext i s diff e e nt G o up th inkin g o r . r c

cu s in a ea l s o cial c ontext ; whe e a s in divi dual think in g

r r r

t akes pl ace in an ima gin ed em embe ed s o cial c ontex t A or r r .

gro up s o lution ep ese nts the s olut ion f a p oblem by in di

r r o r

v i d l in inte a ct ive c omm u ni c a t ion I t h a s no in depe n de nt

ua s r .

ex i ste n ce .

Whe n we spe ak of th g oup a cc o ding t o thi s app oach e r r r

we th ink of it no t a s a ge ne ali zed e nti ty a s s o iol o gi sts do

, , .

,
r ,
c

whe n they efe t o an in stitut ion but a s an inte a ction y

r r ,
r s s

tem a s a dynamic and o g ani zed t o t al ity Thi s way o f

,
r .

4 B a le s a n d
R . FL
I a bnorm s oc Psy chol , 46
.
.

. .
F
.
. . Stro dtbeck, Ph as es in
485—95 .
g ro u p p ro b le m -
s o lv in g ,
42 DY N AMI C FACTO RS IN G ROU P BEHAVIO R
nami c an lys i s We sh all p ese nt the esse nt ial c on cepts in
a r

the p esent section

.

r .

Top o lo gic l co ns t u cts I n p ese n t in g the inte a ct ioni st

a r . r r

p o si tion of S imm el we c alled atte ntion t o the c on cept of

s ocia l s a ce wh i ch ch a a cte i zes h i s v i ews o n th e human
p
g o up ( see C h apte 1 pp 9
r r

r The sp atial p ope t i es of

r ,
. r r

human el ation ships may be desc ibed by m e an s of t op o

r r

lo gi c al c onst ucts of wh ich the mo st im p o t ant e th o se

r ,
r ar

p ese nted belo w

r

A egion is a segment of s o cial sp ace an element of a

.

s o c ial field R egions diff e in s i ze sh ape an d b o un d a y

,

. r , ,
r .

I espect i ve of these d iffe e n ces they

rr t op o l o gi c ll y r are a

equ ivale nt A egion n be d ivi ded int o s u b egion

. r u ca r s, us

ally des i gn ated a s subg o ups wh ich f eque ntly pl ay r ,

r

p o t ant o les in makin g e ithe f h a mony o c onfl i ct in a

r r r or r r

g o up Di ss i de nt elem ents di s uptive ole beh avio mino i ty

r .
,
r r r, r

g o ups
r well known ex amples Sub egion s c e a te
a re -
. r r

p o t ant p oblem s of g o up b al an ce g o up h a mony an d th

r r r ,
r r ,
e

r ole of the le ad e in es olvin g g o up c onfli cts The b r r r . su

r egion s ep esent s o ial difl e n tion g oup im b al an ce and

r r c re s, r ,

c o llect ive e o gani z ation r r

A b r ie ep esents the deg ee of esist n ce t o inte

.

a r r r r r r a r

indivi du al c omm unic at ion I t h in de s g oup p a t i cip ation '

an d g o up a ction E x mples e num e ous If a g o up

. r r

r . a ar r . r ,

dete mined t o es olve its own ten s ion s eg din g y ac

r r r ar ,
sa ,
r e

r el at ion s i s dominated by p ejudi ce its attempt t o e a ch it r ,

r s

goal may be se iously imp ai ed ; the g o up unable t o sur

r
-
r or r

mount the b a ie may ce ase t o fun ction alto gethe

,

rr r, r .

Whe n a pe s on su mounts a b i e hi s beh avio i s o

r r ar r r, r r

de ed to a n ew s o cial e gion The n ew s o ci al egion i s in

r r . r

s t u m n t a l in
r e est uctu in g a pe s on an d ch an gin g hi s be
r r r r

h avio A pe s on s beh avio

r . we h ave see n i s infl ue n ce d
r
’
r, a s ,

by th e egion in whi ch he h a s m emb hip To epe at a

r e rs . r

fo m e a sse t ion whe n pe s on s a ct t o gethe they give i s

r r r r r r e

to a system of elationship so th at it i difficult to p edict

,

r s r

the i b h avio as a system o g oup f om p eme asu es of

,

r e r r r r r r
PS YC HOLOG ICAL STRUCTU RE O F THE G ROU P 3

pe s onal ity va i bles ( see C h apte 1 p

r r aThe i m em r ,
. r

he ship in a g o up est uctu es thei in divi du al beh avio

r r r r r r r .

Dyn mic cons t u ct s Sp at ial

a t o p o lo gi al c on st ucts d or . or c r

no t info m us eg a din g inte a ction communi c at ion an d

r r r r , ,

o the beh avio al manifest at ion s They d o n o t acc ount f

r r or

ch an ge an d act ivity Act ivity an d h an ge equi e f o the i

.

. C r r r r

desc iption c onst ucts wh ich in di c ate lo como tion o mob ility
r r r .

Fo th i s pu p o se we n eed dyn m i c c on st ucts

r r a r .

While a oci l field i s sp t ial o t op o lo gi c al its essent ial

s a a r ,

p ope ty i s mob ility I t i s dynami c th at i s a ch an gin g p at

r r

te n of inte a ct in g in dividu als A s o cial field i s any a ctin g

.
, ,

r r . or

ch n gin g g o up to wh ich the beh avio of in divi du als re

a r r ,

gion s an d sub e gion s may be o de ed r r r

Te ns ion i s ano the dynami c c on st uc t I t e fe s t o the

.
,

r r . r r

excit at ion st ate of a field a egion o an in divi du al I t i s r r

not i de ntic al with the psych op ath olo gi st s no tion of st ain

.
, ,
’
r ,

anxi ety o emo tiona l di stu b an ce“but with t ; expect an cy

r r se

eceptiven ess Abst actly i t is a te n de n cy f o ch an ges in

, , ,

r . r ,
r

the di ection of equ al i z at ion of the st ate of n e i ghb o in g

r r

system s Thus to cite L ewin s ex ample in studyin g mo ale

.
”6
,
’

,
r

in the army i t i s imp o t an t to kno w W hethe the l oy alty of r r

the in divi du al s o ldi e i s di ec t ed t o h is squ a d h is pl atoon

,

r r

hi s egim e nt o to the wh o le a my
, ,

7
r ,
r r .

The concept of ecto h a s an imp o t an t pl a ce in phys i cs v r r ,

whe e it i s defin ed a s a fo
n it d u
r

e .
“ ce h a v in g b o th d i ect ion
I f we defi n e a fo ce as a d i ected exc i t at ion st a te
an d ma g r

r
”
r
r

we c an use the c oncept of vecto t o desc ibe the beh avio of r r r

a g o up I nte a ctin g in divi duals t yin g to s olve a p oblem

r . r r r

o d i ect in g th e i a ct ion t o w ard a c ommon g o l

r r beh aving
r a are

vect o ially ; th at i s they a mo vin g in a ce t ain di ect ion

r ,
re r r

with all the psych olo gi c al e ne gy whi ch i s av ai l able t o them r

by the ch a acte of the field s itu a tion a t the mom e nt A

r r .

vecto thus ep ese nts lo c omot ions in a field ch an ges in field

r r r ,

st uctu e th goal of in d ivi du l s wo kin g t o gethe etc

r r e a r r,

When st on g ba ie s to inte action exist the magnitude of

.
,

r rr r r

K L wi Fi ld h y i i l i ( N w Y k H p B
,

6 t e or n s oc a s c e n ce
. e n, e e or : a r er ro s .
,

p . 11 .

7 l bid .
, p . 1 62 .
44 DYN AMIC FACTO RS IN G ROU P BE HAV IO R
the vecto s di ected t owa d a goal will be g e ate th an when
the field i s flui d the b a i e s a f ew C onve sely a field
r r r r r

or rr r re r

g oup of inte a ct in g pe s ons i s the mo e flui d the smalle

.
,

o r r r r r r

the fo ces whi ch

r n ecess a y o the th ings be in g equ al t o
a re r ,
r ,

p o duce a give n ch an ge in the s itu ation The success o f a

r .
8

g oup in s olvin g a p oblem f o in st ance will depen d amon g

r r ,
r , ,

o the th in gs up on the numbe an d magnitude of the b a i e s

r ,
r rr r

whi ch impede the f ee c omm uni c ation of i de a s n d fe elin gs

r a

amon g the m embe s The s itu ation a wh o le i s desc ibed r . as r

by a psych o lo gi c al vect o by the st ivin g of in divi du als f o r, r r

a specific goal .

The c on cept f v le nce ep ese nts the att a ction o e

o a r r r r r

puls ion value of an objec t f o an in divi du al a g o up I t r or r .

desc ibes cohes ive an d di s uptive fo ces in g o up el ation

r r r r r

sh ips o coope ation an d c onfli ct A p os itiv e v al e n ce d si g

,
r r . e

nates m embe ship ch a a cte g o up belon gin gness a vect o

r -
r r, r r

di ected t ow a d the s am e e gion A nega ti e v ale nce d ig

,

r r r . v es

nates i s o l at ion le avin g the field ( o g o up ) a vecto di ected

,
r r ,
r r

away f om the s am e egion

r r .

The el ation of the p a t t o the wh o le o of th in di

r r ,
r e

vi du al t o the g oup may thus be analyzed top ol o gi c all y an d

dynami c ally Top olo gy i s the ge n e al scie nce of sp a tial el a
r ,

r r

t ion s Dynami cs i the gen e al sci e n ce of the mo tion of

.

b o di es To p ol o gy an d dynami cs t o gethe give

. s r

. a non r us

m et i c al desc iption of e ality the one the p o s ition s f

r r r : ,
O

b o dies in a field ; the o the the i motion th ou gh it

“
r, r r .

CO NCLUDI NG R MA RKS The v alue of the c on st ucti ve

E . r

an alys i s of g oup phe nom ena li es in its emph a s i s of dyn m i c

r a

r el ational c on cepts theo y of g oup beh avio on the

. r r r,

b as i s of th i s app oa ch el ates con cepts to one ano the thus

r ,
r r,

fo min g a system I n de ali n g with e al g oup activiti es in

r . r r

c onc ete g o ups it enables us to see the a ction s of in d ivi du als

r r ,

in the i t n cti r rael at ion w i th n an o the To gethe

sa ve r o e r . r,

the o y an d p a ct ice give us a vi ew of g o up beh avio that

r r r r

t akes c o gni z ance of the indivi du al ca se an d of gen e al l aws r

8 S ee K L wi P i ip l f p l gi l p y h l gy ( N w Y k
McGra w Hill B oo
-
. e

k n,

Co .
r nc

Inc
es o

p to
. 87
o o

.
ca s c o o e or

,
PS YC HOLO G ICA L STRUCTU RE O F THE G ROU P 45

a t the s am e t im e Thi s i s in subst ance the m e anin g of

Le win s imp o t an t d i st in ct ion betwee n the A i st o tel ian
.

“
’
r r

no t ion of subst an ce an d the G alile an c on cept of fun c

t ion The analys i s o f g o up st uctu es i s dyn ami c in p o
.
”9
r r r r

p o tion to the use of const ucts by wh i ch emp i ic al d at a

r r r

are o gani zed into a cohe e nt system B eh avio itself

r r . r ,

whe the in divi dual o co llect ive i s dynami c if ch an ges o

followed b y ch an ges a djust
r r ,
r

a djustm e nts in n p a t o e r
”
a re or

m ents in all the othe s We n eed no lon ge wo y f om th i s r r rr r

p oint of Vi ew b o ut the e ali ty f the g o up I t i s e al no t

.
,

,
a r o r . r ,

in the sen se th at a subst ant ive e ntity is e al but a s a dyna mic r ,

w h o le a s an i nt dep enden ce of p ts a s an i de nt ific at i o n o f

,
er ar ,

in divi du als with o the s in a t n cti o co ope ative ela r ra sa ve r r r

ti o n sh ip .

A dynami c gro up the n i s no t a c o llection of in te depen d r

e nt in divi du als m e ely but a gro up of pe s on s wh o a

, ,

,
r ,
r re .

p y
s ch o lo i c ll

an d wh o
g y a w a e of the ia in te in d i v i du a l
m o ing tow a d a go l tha t th e y ha e a g e dJ
a re v
el a t ion sh i
r ps \ r
r

a
r r

v r e
/

u o n co lle ctiv e l
p y T he in te a ct ion of on pe .s on w i th o the s r e r r

fo m s a W b of el ation sh ips in wh i ch the a ction o f e a ch

r e r

t akes pl a ce mo e o less sp ont an e o usly The i inte a ct ion s

r r . r r

ar

s ion s a sh a ed The t o gethe“

re
“
e in teg a ted in such a w ay th a t the ir psych o l o g i c al te n
r

n ess o f the g o up a s a
r . r
”
r

dynami c st uctu e i due t o a c ircul a e a ct ion in wh i ch

r r s r
”
r

r
“
the e i s a h i gh deg ee of self in t n ific tion in e a ch m embe
of hi s own excitem e nt a s he fin ds it eflected in o the s I n
r
”
-
e s

r
a

r .
r

th i s p o cess sh a ed f eelin gs an d te ns ion wh i ch in e a ch m em

r r ,

be sep a ately h a d no a dequ a te o utlet

r r e f eely exp essed ar r r

When a pe s on s esponses to othe s is sha ed by them when

.
,
’

r r r r ,

these expe i e nces bec om e ecip o c al o inte a ctive the e

r r r r r ,
r

exi sts the b as i c con dition f g o up beh avio o r r .

9 Kg . . w g
L L e i n Th e , co nfli ct

Pg w
b et e en Ari s to teli a n an d G a lil e an m o des of

w
th ou h t in p sy ch o l o y , 1 g en

w w
s y ch o l , 5 1 4 1 - 77 Thi s con tra s t i s
L e in s a p p licati on to p s y ch olo y of a di sti n ction m a de by
fl
’
.

a ss ire r, w h o
.

f
.

fi C
C
in u ence d L e in , be t e en s ub s t an ce a n d un cti on in s ci en ti c an d m a th e
m ati ca l th eo ry
( B erlin : erl a VC g gC . Se e
a s s irer,
E .

C
a s s irer,

P g
tra n sl a t e d i n to E n li sh as
u b li s h in
g
Su bs ta nz beg rifi a n d Fu n kti ons beg rifi
u bs ta n ce a nd S
fun cti on ( hi ca o: O p en ou rt Co , .
 OME O BS E RVATION S REGARDIN G G ROU P DEVELO PMEN T
S

On the b asis of u analysis thus f and as suggested o r a r,

by emp i i c al studi es of g o ups in p o cess s om e s i gnific ant

r r r ,

p op o s ition s em e ge These p op o s ition s wh ile invol in g

r r r v

no t i de n
.
,

c oncepts wh i ch h ave al e a dy bee n exp o un ded r ,

a re

ti c al with them We h ave f ex ample di scussed the c on or

cept o p o cess of inte action on seve al o cc a s ion s B a s i c

.
, ,

r r r r .

th o ugh it i t o gro up fo mat ion inte a ction helps t o a cc o un t

s r ,
r

fo r a n
y k in d of g o up p o cess f om r the c a su a l gr eet i n g of ,
r r

tw o n e i ghb o s a s they p a ss e a ch o the o n the st eet t o the

r r r

c omplex inv olvem ent of pe s on s in a dec i s ion makin g g o up r -

r

t yin g t o s olve a common p oblem

r r

M O TI VA TI O N I t i s a c ommonpl a ce th at human g o ups

.

. r

exi st bec ause in inte a ctin g wi th o the s in a cc ommo d ative

r r

ways a pe s on c an bett e s at i s fy h i ow n n eeds des i es an d

r r s ,
r ,

wi shes H i s b a s ic an d de ived n eeds c an be s at i sfied onl y

. r

th o ugh the a cc ommo d ation o c oo pe at ion of at le a st on e

r r r

othe pe s on Su vival secu ity f ie n dship affection an d

r r . r ,
r ,
r , ,

the like c an be g atified only in g o ups Th o u gh c on

,
r r . r

cer e t d effo t man c n a tt ain goa ls wh i ch he c anno t e a ch in

r a r

i s ol at ion .

G oup a i e a nd fu nction beca us e of commo n m oti es

r s rs v

When m e n a c t at c o ss pu p o ses it i s bec ause they

.

r -
r im a re

p e l l d
e by in d i v i du a l a the th an c ommon ,
mo
r t i ves o rby , ,
r

motives which inc omp atible an d i econcil able Whe n

a re rr .

a pe s on s esp onses t o o the s e sh a ed by them the e

r
’

r r ar r ,
r

exi sts the b a s i c c ondi tion of g o up beh avio M o de n p y r r . r s

ch o lo i l ese a ch h a bu n d an tly de mon st a ted th a t hu man

beh avio a cqui es m e anin g only in el ation t o a f am ewo k
g ca r r as r

of fa ct o s Ope at in g in a s o cial settin g Th i s s o cial sett in g

r r r r r

r r .

cons i sts amon g o the dete minants of human n eeds an d the r r

s ati sfied O n the b a s i s of

, ,

w ays in which these needs a re .

th i s ese a ch we c an s ay c a te go i c a lly th a t mo st pe o ple if

r r r

no t all des i e an d enj oy belon gin g to a g oup B ec ause of

,

,
r r .

the natu e of e a ly s o c iali z ation with it inesc ap able ch ild

r r ,
s

hoo d depe nde nce on o the s all no ma l human be in gs are r ,

r
PS YC HOLOG ICAL STRU CTU RE O F THE G ROU P 47

r esp ons ive to one anothe F om the e a ly secu ity of family r r r r

el at ions o the attitudes develop such a s lo yalty affect ion

.

r r , , ,

an d p i de These needs will d iffe f om in divi du al t o indi

r . r r

vi du al an d the g o up d o es n ot s ati s fy them in the s am e w ay

r

all pe s on s N eve theless the e

,

for r many ecu e nt t i

. r ,
r are r rr s r v

in gs an d mo des of di sch a gin g them S om e of these we sh all r .

ex amin e b i efly r

B ein g a s ocial animal man de ives s atisfaction f om

.

,
r r

be longingne s a s such I s o l at ion i s a m yth whe e a s b e

s .
,
r

lon gin gn ess i s a fa ct The e are v a io us expl anat ion s f thi s . r r o

ple a su e of bel on gin g but ch i ef amon g them i s th at i t

r ,

e ngen de s gene al well be in g I n a ss o ciation s l ike th family

r r -
e

an d f i e n dship g o up f inst ance te ns on i s educed to a

.

r r ,
or ,
i r

minimum To the extent th at m embe s

. enabled t o t ake r a re

one ano the f o g anted they c e ate a elaxed atmo sphe e

r r r ,
r r r

f o the m selves T e n s ion an d in secu i ty

r .
g e a tly educed r a re r r

o reliminated alt o gethe The epe t oi e of defe nses c on r . r r r ,

c lm en t an d decept ion s wh i ch pe v a de
ea s, many of u r r so o

d aily el at ionships c an be di spe n sed wi th an d an atmo s

,

r , ,

h e o f m utu a l t ust an d a c ept an ce i

er f eely ge n e a ted
p r c s r r .

We a e no t o f co u se unmin dful of th opp o s i te c ondit ion s

r r e

that p evail in some g oups—of the conflicts antip athi es an d

, ,

r r

ge ne ally unh appy c ondition s th at well ni gh dest oy it s

, ,

r -
r

m embe s psych olo gi c lly S om e of these c on diti on s we sh all

r a .

desc ibe l ate especially in o u di scuss ion of inte g o up

r r, r r r

te ns ion s an d confli cts To the exte nt h oweve th at any .

,
r,

g o up t akes on fa ce t o face ch a acte i sti s as i s t ue of a

r - -
r r c ,
r

p ima y g oup a committee a d i scuss ion g o up

r r r ,
a club ,
r ,
or ,

it p ovi des its m embe s with th c on dit ion s in wh i h the

r r e c

n eed f o self de fen se n d self j tifi ation i s g e atly educed

r -
a -
us c r r

Not all individuals h weve

.

s at i sfied wi th g oup ,
o r, a re r

belon gin gn ess a s su h S om e d i e not o n ly to be long bu t c . es r

e en m o
v to i nflu n cre e u d o l e d oth e s I n s om e
e e, rs r a r
p a e, .

pe ople these mo tives exceed the n eed f a cept ance B e or c .

longin gness a su h i f o them only a m e an s whe eby they

s c s r r

may di ect and influe nce o the s Whe n th n eed t o d om

r r . e

i n te i s all p o we f ul a uth o i t a ian c on t o l bec om es the ce n

a -
r ,
r r r

t al g ati fic tion Whe n it i s s oftened by a cons i de ation f o

r r a . r r
48 DYN AMIC FACTO RS IN G ROU P BE HAVIO R
the well bein g of o the s demo c ati c le a de ship i s a no mal
-
r ,
r r r

con seque nce I n the l atte c a se dominance lo se i ts a gg e

. r ,
s r s

s ive p ope ti es an d the indivi dual fi n ds s at i s faction in bein g

r r ,

an in st um ent f o the a ch i eveme nt of goals c o llectively

r r .

Hu m a n beings a re m otiv a te d to be lo ng t o a grou p be ca us e

i n p la yin g t he ro le of a n

S in ce on e in divi du al s ole t ak in g p e p ’

r -
r su

p o ses the ole pl ayin g f ano the ole beh avio gives pe opl e
Oppo tunities to accept and be accepted by oth J Role
r -
o r, r r

r e rs

beh avio i s p o ss ible only in a g oup The g o up p ese nts

r r . r r

num e o us s itu ation s in whi ch the in divi du al c an di spl ay hi

r s

skills exe ci se h i s ab ilit i es an d bec om e eco gni zed f

,
r ,
r or

wh ateve in divi du al m e i ts he m y p o ssess an d the gro up i s

r r a

willin g to eco gn i ze an d ew a d G oup ohes ive ness de

r r r . r c

pen ds in goo d m e a su e on the ab ility an d will in gness f r o

eve y in divi dual t o pl ay h i s oles in such w ays a s t o enable

r r

o the indivi du als t o pl ay the i o wn oles successfully I n

r r r .

sh o t m uch of the s ati s fa ction th at a pe s on fin ds in belon g

r ,
r

in g t o a g oup i s de ived f om hi s opp o tuni ti es t o pl ay h i s

r r r r

role a s on e of its m embe s r .

I n div idu a ls p a rti cip a te i n s o m e grou p a cti v ities be ca us e

th ere is n o o ther w a y to p er o rm t h es e a cti v itie s f . D e fe n d
in g on e s vill age o on e s na tion di scussin g o deb atin g an
’

r
’

,
r

i ssue s in gin g in a ch o us pl aying a gam e an d the like e

,
r , , ar

pe fo mances the s ati s fa ct ion of wh ich c an be achi eved onl y

r r

by g o up m embe sh ip M any a ctivities give s t is fa cti on

r r . a

pu ely th o ugh the i co llect ive p ope ties th o u gh th fa ct

r r r r r ,
r e

th at they e pe fo m ed in f i en dly c on ce t wi th o the pe o

ar r r r r r

ple B ec ause these s ati s fact ion s a e c ommonpl ace we must

. r

n o t i g no e the i imp o t ance f o they a cc ount f o a l a ge

r r r r r r

a e a of human beh avio at eve y st a ge of indi i du al an d

,

r r r v

s o cial develop m ent .

I n d ivi du a ls motiv ated t ow ard g o up belon gin gn ess

are r ,

fu the bec ause it g tifie th ir need fo ocia l t tus f o

r r, ra s e r s s a ,
r

r eco gnition by othe s especially by o uts i de s S o cial sta tus r ,

r .

i s a p o te nt fa cto in the ima ge wh i ch o the s fo m of us r r r

a n d in o u image of o urselves Not belon gin g c an be a

r .
50 DY N AMI C FACTO RS IN G ROU P BE HAV IO R
G O UP N O M S I t i s difli lt t o con ceive the fo mation
R R . cu r

an d p ese v tion of a g o up in the abse nce of st an d a d fo m s

r r a r r r

of beh avio While the e may be no expli cit st an d ds p es

e nt in the e a ly inte a ct ive ph a ses Of g oup fo mation a t
r . r ar r

r r r r se

of no m s s oon develops givin g the inte a ctive s tructu e a

,

r ,
r r

deg ee of st ab ility with o ut wh ich i t co uld n t l on g funct ion

r o

a s a g o up J ust a s s o ci ety a wh ole c o uld no t exi st w ith

r . as

o t c o des o
u est abli shed ules of beh avio r a dyn ami c r r, so

g o up w o uld be im p o ss ible wi th o ut st an d a di zed mo des of

r r

inte a ctin g with one anothe These st an d a ds o no m s

r r . r ,
r r ,

se ve a s f am es of e fe e n ce f the beh avio of on e in di

r r r r or r

vi du al in h i s el at ion s t o o the in divi du als Whe n an r r .

11

in divi du al becom es a m embe of the g oup hi s m embe shi p r r ,

r

i s dete min ed by the fa t th at he a ccepts at le st p ovi s ion

r c ,
a r

ally the efe e n ce f am e of the g o up He d o es no t beh ave

,
r r r r .

as he ple a ses an d he do es no t s a ti s fy hi mo tives a b i t a ily

, s r r r .

The d ominant no m s of the g o up give h im a st an d a di zed r r r

inte p et at ion of h i s ow n expe i en ces an d a s lon g

r r he r as

emains a p a t of the g o up he a dhe es t o the m e an in gs

,

r r r r

wh ich its no m s p ovi de O n e c annot expl ain the s imil a i ty

,

r r . r

of beh avio of pe ople in gro ups on any o the g o un d We

r r r .

h ave a l e a dy c alled a tt e ntion t o the fa t th at o n c ann o t

r c e

expl ain the beh avio of in divi du als in g o ups by the i p r r r er

s onal b io g phi es only an d th at on e c anno t p edi ct g o up

ra ,
r r

beh avio f om a knowledge of in divi dual beh avio alon e

E a ly s ociolo gical studies of gan gs such a tho se of Th ashe
r r r .

r ,
s r r,

Sh aw an d L n d s c est abli shed thi s fact at le a st th i ty

,
a e o, r

ye a s ago The g oup no m s of off e n din g gan gs juvenile

r .
12
r r ,

delin que nt gro ups f ex ample ar in fa ct o b in di n g up on ,

or ,
e s

the i m e mbe s th at they c on st itute a ch allen ge t o the est ab

r r

11

w
Fo r
g w
M S f an im p
di s cu s s io n of th e h ol e p sy ch ol o y o f n orm s th e
ortan t g M
SJ fW SC
h eri a n d H g MS f
s tu de nt s h o u ld co n s u l t th e

a n tri l
riti n s o f h eri See f o r ex am p le
Th e p sy ch olo y of eg o i nv o lv ements ( Ne w
.
, or
.

-
.
,

C WS f k Y
, .

oh n
g
i le y 8:
Y k
on s , I n c ,

o u t li n e of s ocia l p s y ch o lo y ( re v
p as si m;
c d ; N ew
h eri a n d .

o r : Harp er 8: B ro s
h eri A n
. .
. . .

.
,
,

F JM
ch a p v iii
12
.

g g .g C g
C g
.

Th ra sh er Th e a n ( h i ca o : Th e U n iv ers ity o f
.
, h i ca o Press , C g
C S
C S w q C g
L a n de s co Or a n iz ed crime i n h ic a o; Th e I lli nois
.
, ri m e u rv ey ,

C g P
1 9 29 ; R . ha Th e na tura l h is tory of a delin ue nt career ( h i ca o :
.
,

Th e U ni v ers i ty o f h ica o re ss ,
PS YC HOLO I C L STRU CTU RE O F THE G ROU P
G A 51

li h d c o des of the l a ge c omm u nity ; in fac t they fo m a

s e r r r

subg o up t a di tion h avin g it o wn inte nal st uc tur e mo ale

,

r r ,
s r r ,
r ,

esp it de co p s an d st on g s o li d a i ty They p ovi de the ir 13

r r ,
r r . r

m embe s w i th a f am e of efe ence a p atte n of beh avio in

r r r r ,
r r,

de aling with m embe s of the in g o up an d with m embe s of r -

r r

th O t g o up
e u The p at te n of delin quent beh avio i s such
-
r . r r

th at altho ugh it may no t be d is o g ani zing of an in divi dual

,
r

a s such whe n exp essed in the context of the gan g s t o t al r

’

subcultu e i t c an make f o a Vic io us c iminal o delinque nt

,

r r r r

the p atte n con s i s ts of g ambl in g s mo kin g d in k in g

.
,

F or r , ,
r ,

obscenity p omi scu ous sexu al el at ions an d the speci fic

,
r r ,

ski lls of p i ckp o cketing bu gl a i zin g j ack oll in g and the ,

r r ,
-
r ,

like 14

Ou p ima y t a sk he e h oweve i s no t t o d ia gn o se ant i

.

r r r r ,
r,

s o c ial beh a vio but t o demon st ate the effect ive n ess of g oup
r, r r

no m s in dete minin g the beh avio of in d ivi du als a s g o up

r r r r

m embe s Pe s on s in g oups e gul ate o c ont ol the i b e

r . r r r r r r

h vio th o ugh the no m s whi ch they h ave collect ively

a r r r

est ablished A pe s on s st atus in the gro up h i s accept an ce

. r
’

or r ejection by othe m embe s i s l a gely depen de nt on hi s r r r

a dhe ence to its co de S e lf regu la tio n i s an imp o t an t p op

,

r -
r r

Rewards fo adhe en ce t o and

.

er ty of dy nami c g o ups r . r r ,

puni shm e nts f o deviat ions f om the g o up n o m s maint ain

r r ,
r r

an d p e petuate the g o up S om e of the mo st c ucial demon

r r . r

t ti on s of th i s fa ct h ave bee n ma de by stud i es of in dust ial

s ra r

an d o the wo kin g g o ups I f the g o up sh o uld f o in st ance

r r r . r ,
r ,

deci de t o pe form only a specified amo unt of wo k in di

r r ,

vidu al wo ke s will ge n e ally ab i de by the g o up s wi shes

r r r r
’

A“ pe s on wh o deviates f om the expected no m i s l abeled

r
”
r r

a ate buste i s i gno ed a s a pe s on is i di culed o may

r -
r, r r ,
r ,
r

eve n ece ive phys i c al puni shm ent Th o se in divi du als h ow

r .
15
,

eve wh o deviate f om th no m s by pe fo min g in sufficie nt

r,

wo k a als o s o c iall y ejected They

r re
“
c on s i de ed chi s
r

r
e r

. are
r r

r
”
l
e ers an d sc o ned a s m uch a s the ate buste s
are r r -
r

g g
.

13
Th ra sh er Th e a n , p 5 7 , . .

FC WJ k g
1 4 I bi d
p 3 88 .
, . .

g M
Di c so n , M a na
1 5 S ee
J Ro e thli s b er g er an d
. . . . ment
e a nd th e
worker ( amb ri d e , a s s : Ha rv ard U ni v e rsi ty Pre s s , .
 52 DYN AMIC FACTO RS IN G ROU P BEHAV IO R
Studies li ke the ab o ve of g an gs an d of fa ct o y wo ke s ,
r r r ,

in dic ate the c ont o ll in g fo ce of s o cial no m s G o ups desi gn

r r r r

evolve expli ci t c o des f expected beh avio an d th o se

.

o r o r,

w h o emain m e m be s beh ave in a cc o d an ce w i th the i d i c

r r r r

t ates M o st membe s even tho se who deviate f om the r r

g o up s deman ds e aw a e of the no m s an d the i b in din g

.
,
’

r ar r r r

fo ce in the ind i du al beh avio These c o des o gro up

r lv
’

s r .
,
r

no m s make fo ec onom y in inte in divi du al beh avio f o

r ,
r r r, r

they are expli c it in di cat o s of h ow a pe s on i s expect ed to r r

a ct in el ation to othe pe s on s in a g oup c ontext

r r r r

FUNCT O NA L HIE A C HY Our discussion thus f h as

.

I R R ar

desc ibed int a g o up el ations a s a st uct ure of mot iv es

.

r r r r r

NO g o up ex i s t s f o a pe io d of t im e h o w
,

o les an d,
n o ms
J eve with o u t o g ani zin g its inte depe n de n t m e mbe s in to a
r . r r r ,

r, r r r

functiona l hiera chy The oles wh ich a pe s on ass um es in

r r r

h i s gro up ca y wi th them a speci fied fun ction such a s th at

.

rr ,

of a h a moni ze a d ominato an d expedite o a dem oc at i c

r r, r, r, r r

le a de The p o s ition of e ach in dividu al i dete min ed by

r . s r

h i spec i fic c o n t ibut io n t o the a ch i eve m e n t of a c o llect ive

s r

goal Diffe e ntiation no less th an integrat ion of f un ction

. r , ,

ch a a cte i zes a ll inte a ctive el ati on s amon g in divi duals

r r r r .

P o te ntia ls f pl ayin g oles in a g o up f o s olvin g c ommon

or r r r

p oblem s f o e ffective le a de ship an d the like are no t

,

r ,
r r ,

equ ally di st ibuted th o ugh o ut a g o up Wh ile i t i s t ue

r r r . r

th at in a demo c at i c g o up le a de shi p may p a ss from on

r r r e

in divi dua l t o ano the the e i s a s t on g ten den cy f o th at

,

r, r r r

impo tant fun ction t o be di sch a ged by those in divi du als

r r

on ly wh o a e ec o gni zed by all o the s a s c ap able o f assum in g

r r r

the exp ected ole ; the ole that is of patt erning the beh avio
r r r

o f a g o up o f fa ci li t ti n
, ,

r
g a ct ion t o w a d a g oa l a r

S om e w ite s on g o up dynami cs in o de t o s t ess the

.
,

r r r ,
r r r

democ ati c natu e of g o up deci s ion makin g h ave de em

r r r -
,
-

h as i ed the h i e a ch i c a l f e a tu e of in tr a gr o up el a t ion s
p z r r r r

The two are no t h oweve inc omp ati ble an d the fa c ts them
.

r,

selves com pel u s t o eco gni ze the exi s t ence of h i e archi c al

, ,

r r

A W G ld S di i l d hip ( N w Y k H p
pp
13
S ee ou n er tu es n ea ers e or ar er
. . :

8: B ros .
, . 1 7- 1 8 .
PS YC HOLO G ICAL STRUCTU RE O F THE G ROU P
rel at ion sh ips S o cial sci enti sts p a ti cul a ly an th op olo gists
.
,
r r r ,

h ave sh own th at b oth a ch ieved an d a sc ibed st atuses in r

gro ups a contin ge nt up on the g o up s esp onse to an in di

re r
’

v id al u c ap ac i ti es The ela tion of one pe s on t o anothe

’

s . r r r

i s st uctu ed by th e ole an d st atus of e ach The o le an d

r r r r

s tatus of eve y m embe a e con dition ed by the exi stin g

.

r r r

no m s o the m m be s may ge ne ate n ew no m s Thi s

r r e r r r

st an d a d i z a tion of expected beh avio t ow ard o the s thi s

.
,

r r r ,

hi e archic al g o up in g of in divi du als p oints u p the inte

r r r

el ation an d inte pe net at ion of mo tives o les no m s an d

,

r r r ,
r ,
r ,

d iffe e nt ial fun ction in a cc o untin g f o the beh avio of

r r r

g o ups The object ion t o inte p etin g g oup beh avio in

r
17
r r r r

te m s of h i e archi c al dim e n s ion s ests it seems to the p esen t

.

r r r ,
r

w i te not up on e mp i i cal evi de nce but up on the te n de ncy

r r, r

t o think o f the h i e arch i c al p o s ition s as st able an d el a tively r r

pe mane n t U nless we a ssum e th at a g oup i s a set of de

r . r

te min able el at ion shi ps ho weve flee tin g an d te nuous we

r r ,
r ,

c anno t spe ak of a gro up at all Wh ile no t eve y m e mbe . r r

o f the g o up ma y b e a w a e of h i s p o s it i o n in
r el ati on to r r

o the s he c an a c t a s on e of its m embe s o nly by h avin g s uch

r ,
r

a p o s it ion .
18

S ince in man y small g o ups le a de sh ip i s t ans mitted to r r r

v a i us m mbe s the illus ion th at no h i e a chi z ation exi sts i s

r o e r r r

ofte n developed Alth o ugh s om e write s on g oup dynami cs

,

. r r

spe ak of le ade less g oups the e i ste nce of the l a tte m ust be
r r x r

se io usly ques tion ed Wh ile in the initial ph a ses of g o up

,

19
r . r

fo mat ion no dis ce nibl st uctu e of expect an ci es amon g

r r e r r

m e m be s ma y ex i st pe ceptu al an d in tellectu al j o ckey in g

r r

d o es non etheless t ake pl a ce G a dually the expe ct anc i es

,

, ,
. r

becom e mo e specific ol es e mo e cle a ly defi ned no m s

r r ar r r ,
r

g
,

g W F W
Th is hi erarchi cal rela ti onsh ip o f me m b ers o n e to an oth er i s i n teres tin ly
S C g
17

C g
h yt e s tre et corne r s oci ety ( hi ca o : Th e U ni
’
b rou ht o u t in . .

v e rs ity o f hi ca o Press ,

M F
y ex p erimen ta l trea tm ent of th is p robl em , s ee W
M NW G
1 8 For an e arl I . .

Ne w stett er ,

g
I eldst ein, a n d T .

i n ex eri m en tal s ocio lo y ( Clev elan d :

19 3 8 p
. ew co m b , ro u p a dj us tm ent : a s tu dy

es te rn R e s erv e U n iv ers i ty Pre s s ,

. .

g g
dis cuss ion of lead erl e ss g r ou p s , see H An s ba ch er Th e h i st o ry
M
1 9 For a

3 83—
.
,

o f th e le a de rle ss roup di s cu s s i on , P s y chol B u ll , 48

B a s s , Th e lea derle ss roup di s cus si on , sy chol Bu ll , 5 1
91 ; B
46 5— 92 P .

.
.

.
.
54 DYN AMIC FACTO RS IN GROU P BE HAVIO R
are c yst alli zed r an d a ction s t ow a d a goal are m utu ally
,
r

fo ste ed A d iff e entiat ion of fun ction th at w a s initially only

r r

in cip i e nt h a s becom e a c tu ali zed

.

20
.

The fun ctionin g of the h i e a chi z ation p in ciple c an be r r r

see n espec ially in o le c onfli cts Wh e n fa ced with the c on r .

fli t of o les an in d ivi du al wi ll a sce t ain c o n scio usly

c r , un r ,
or

c on scio usly a p io ity betwee n them S om e thin gs will then

,
r r .

be vi ewed as mo e u ge nt th an o the s A fo eman in a fa c r r r r

to y f o instan ce is given o de s by h i bo ss He will p ass

.

r r r r s

these o de s in t u n to the wo ke s in hi s dep a tm e nt He

, , .

c anno t wi th im punity beh ave othe wi se A ch ain Of c om

r r r r r r .

r .

m n i ca ti on ope ates in wh i ch e ch in d iv i du a l will e na ct the

u r a

role expected of h im If the o le which he e na cts vio lates . r

the no m s of the g oup he w i ll be fo ced in t o lin e by its

r r ,
r

m embe s I n a no mal family c a e of the ch ild en t akes

r r r r

p io i ty ove the c a e of dom es ti c animals F students

.
,

r r r r . or ,

a tte n d in g cla sses h a s p io ity ove the affai s of on e s f ate r r r r

’

r r

n it
y T he subject in e a ch c a se m ust ch oo se betwee n a lte na r

tive oles Of cou se we eco gnize the fact th at ole confl icts
.

r . r ,
r r

a re h andled o es olved by m e ans othe th an hi e a chi z ation

r r r r r .

Fo ex am ple they a
r ofte n es olved by e na ctin g e a ch ole re r r

sep ately an d at a diffe e nt t im e An in divi du al may

,

ar r . re

di t e on ea ole tem p o a ily wh ile he i s e na cti n g an o the

r r r r
p u

Anothe pe son may le ad a double li fe an d o on Ou

.

r r ,
s . r

c on ce n he e h oweve i s with the enactm e nt of confl i ctin g

r r r,

oles in a s in gle g oup th ough it temp o al durati on

,

21
r r r s r .

A ve y inte estin g c onfi rmat ion of the p in ciple of hi e

r r r r

archi c al g oup ing i s fo un d in Mun ch s anth op olo gi c al de

r
’
r

sc ip tion of the inte act ion s of th ee m e n o n the isl an d of

T i st am d a C unh a ofl S t Hele na When they a n i e d on
r r r
'

r r ,
. . v

the i sl an d they e no unced any des i e f o o cl aim t o h i e r r r r r

arch i cal el ation sh ips beli ev in g th at they c oul d live t o geth e

,

r ,
r

effect ively wi th o ut the supe o dinat ion sub o dinati on el a r r -

r r

20
See M
2 7 5—
. . g
E Ros eb oro u h , E xp eri m ental s tu di e s o f s m all ro u p s , s y ch ol g P .

B u ll , 5 0
2 1 S ee S
3 03
A Stoufl er an d I Toby , Role con i ct an d p erson ality , A mer J
.

S fl
J
. . . . .

Soci a l , 5 6 ( 19 5 1 39 5 —
406 ; Toby , om e v ariables in role-confli ct ana ly sis ,
3 2 4—
.

Soc Forces, 3 0
. 27 .
PS YC HOLOG ICAL STR U CTU R E O F THE G ROU P 55

ti n h ip t o wh i ch they h a d bee n a ccust om ed

o s I n ste a d c om
A
.
,

p l t
e e equ a l i ty w a s t o g o ve n the i in te a ct ion s fte a t imre r r . r ,

h oweve an d desp i te thei beli ef in the ethic l desi bility

r, r a ra

of th cu ent a an gem e nt they s oon fo un d it u nwo k able

e rr rr ,
r .

Fo the p o pe an d effi c i e n t d i sch a ge of h i s dut i es e a ch

r r r r ,

pe s on h a d assum ed a ce t ain ole an d st atus t ow a d the

r r r r

o the s an d ll of the m ec o gni zed the n ecess ity of thei

r ,
a r r

fun ctional p o s it ion s in the f am“ ewo k of the wh ole Thu r r s

wh a t avowedly st a ted o ut a s a le a de less g o up g du lly

.

r r r ra a

t ook on a h i e arch i c al st ctu e in wh i ch e ach m embe w

r ru r r as

obse ved t o pe form a definable an d n ecess a y fun ction

r r r
!2

B eginning as an undiff e entiated an d unst uctu ed ass o ci r r r a

tion of in divi du als it devel oped int o a psych o lo gic al o gan ,

r

i ti o n of d i st in ct o les an d expect a t ion s

z a r

Fu the confi mation of the p inciple of hie a chization

.

r r r r r r

is fo u n d in an expe im e n t al invest i g at ion by O J H a vey

23
r . . r .

I n th i s expe im e n t wh i ch c anno t be desc i bed an d analyzed

r ,
r

in detai l he e a dolescent cli que m embe s we e a sked t o

r ,
r r

estimate the futu e pe fo man ce of diffe ent in divi du als r r r r .

Th ee m embe s we e ch o se n f om e a ch of te n cliques acc ord

r r r r

in g t o the s o ciom et i c p o s ition whi ch e a ch held in h i s g o up

r r ,

nam ely the le a de the in divi du al o ccupyin g a mi ddle ank

,
r, r ,

a n d th e m m b wi th the lowest st an din g in the g o up

e er r .

The level of a sp i ation of e ach m embe w a s als o dete mined

E ach clique membe th ew a da t estimated h i w n p
r r r .

r r r ,
s o er

fo m n
r on the n ext t ial an d estimated the pe fo manc
a ce r ,
r r e

of the othe s r .

“
T he esults eve arled a st a t i st i c a lly
r s i gn i fic an t p o s i t iv e

r el ationsh ip betwee n the in divi du al s st an din g in h i s cli qu e ’

an d the m embe s est imation s of hi s pe fo man ce Membe s

r
’

r r . r
’

estimates we e h i ghest f o the le ade n ext f o the m embe of

r r r, r r

mi ddle ankin g an d lowest f o the m embe of lowest st an d

r ,
r r

in g St a t in g the esults in the fo m of a ge n e al i z a t ion we

r r r

g w
.
,

22

Dy bw a d
P . A . M un ch , S
da C u nha ( O sl o N o r a y : a cob
oci o lo y of Tri stra n
Th e a bov e i s co n rm e d i n a s tu dy o f a a p a n ese p ri s on fi V g ,

J J
,

ca m p in th e Ph ili p p i n e I sl an ds Se e E H a u h a n C omm u nity u n der s tres s

. . .
,

( Prin ceton : Prince ton U ni v ersi ty Press

23 O
J
f g
Harv ey An exp erim en ta l ap p ro a ch to the s tu dy o f sta tu s re la ti on s
. .

in in orm al ro u p s Amer s oci a l R ev 1 8

,

, 3 57—67 . . .
,
,

.
56 DYN AMIC FA CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
m a y s a y th at the level of a sp i at ion of a m em be o f an r r

i nf o mal cli que an d the est imat ion of th a t m embe s future

’

r r

pe fo man ce by o the g o up m embe s on a t a sk f s ignifi

r r r r r o

c nce to t he g ou
a
p be a s a p o s i t i ve el a
r t ion sh i p t o h i el a tri ve r s r

p o sition in the g oup h i e a chy r r r .

”24

The exi stence of a hi e a chy in a g o up no t only o gani zes r r r r

i t m e m be s in the i in te a ct ive el t ion s —an d i s thus c on

s r r r r a

d u ci e t o c o hes ive n ess —but i a ls o the s o u e of g o up te n

v s rc r

s ion s an d imb al ances The fl w of comm uni c at ion between

o f h i gh an d l o w st a tus i s O fte n a d e sely affected
. o

p e sron s v r .

A p e s on a t the b o tt om of the hie a chy i s less likely t o

r r r

influen ce on e a t the t op an d hi c it ic al a ssessm ent of the s r

l a tt e s cont ibut ion t o the g o up inv a iably suff e s The

,
’
r r r r r .

p e sron a t the b o tt om ma y pe ce i ve th o se a t the t o p a r as

t h e a t t o h i s o w n p o s i t i o n an d f eed om
r O n the othe h an d r . r ,

h i gh st atus e nables an in d ivi du al t o in dulge mo e f eely r r

an d with o ut a pp ehen s ion in c iti c al evalu at ion of the pe s on r r r

b elo w h im B ut H a o ld H Kelley h sh o w n in r
p i as ex er

m e nt ally c e at ed h i e archi es the e i s a ls o ge n e al te n de n y

. .

r r ,
r a r c

for hi gh st atus in divi du als t o est i ct communic ati on whi ch

-
r r

w o uld te n d to l owe the ir st atus wh ich would make them r or

appe a in compe tent in th hi gh st atus p os i tion Als o a s he

r e -
.
,

h a s sh own h i gh st at s pe s on s inh ib it the i commun i ca tion

,
-
u r r

o f c i ti c i s m of the ir o w n pe fo man ce t o the g o ups bel o w

r r r r

them !5

The a dve se effects o f h i e a ch i c al el ati on s r fu the r r r a re r r

b o ught o ut in a study of p o we el at ion s am on g g o up m e m

r r r r

“
be s r T .he esults sh o w th a t g r o up m e m be s of lo w st a tus
r

will pe ce ive an d beh ave t ow ard h igh sta tus m embe s in

r
r

a n esse n t ially ego de f e n s i e mann e th a t i in w ays c al

-
v r, s,

c ul t d t o
a e educe the feelin g of un e a s in ess expe ie n ced in
r r

the i el ations with highs

r r B ecaus e of thei ego defensive .
”2 6
r -

24
25
I bid
H H .
.
,

.
p
K C
. 3 67 , it a lics in th e
e ll ey , o mm u ni ca ti on i n
o ri g in al .

exp er i m en ta lly crea te d hi e rarchi es ,

Hum R ela t 4

on
23 I Hu r
th e
J
.

. .

rel a ti o n s
.
,

w gF g i tz
a
,

m on
A . .
39 —5 6
Za nd er,
m em b ers in
ro u p
.

an d

art ri h t an d A
B .

Zan der,
,
S
D C w g
Hy m ov itch
.
, o m e eff ects o f

.
po w er

G rou p dy n a mi cs : res e a rch a nd th eory ( E v an s to n , I ll : R ow , P eterson 8: C o , . .

p 49 1 . .
58 DY N AM IC FA CTO RS IN GRO U P BEH AV IO R
imp o t an ce o f inte g o up el ation s h a s bee n vividly fo ced
r r r r r

up on us by the e ali z tion impli c itly p ese nt f o ge ne ations

r a r r r

but only r ecently bec om e the fo cus of sci e ntific fo mul ation
,

r ,

th at just a s no in d ivi du al ex i sts in i s o l ation s o no gro up

funct ion s by i tself N o egi on of s o c ial sp a ce i s a clo sed . r

system but a s we p ointed o ut in the d i scuss ion of top o lo gi c al

,

an d dynami c const ucts inte a cts with o the egion s The r ,

r r r .

inte section of s o c ial ci cles i s a ub i quit o us fe atu e of human

r r r

s o ci ety S o g e at i the inte d p en dence of g oups t o d ay

. r s r e r

tha t eve nts in one almo st inv a iably t an smitted t o o the s

a re r r r ,

p o duc in g e i the h a mony o di sc o d betwee n them

r r r r r

I N G O U P A N D OU T G O UP R L A TI O N S A lth o u gh in gro up
.

-
R -
R E .
-

an d o ut g o up elation s a a s old a s man an d h ve f o cen

-
r r re a r

tu i
r es bee n ec o gni zed t o exi st the i c onscio us fo m ul at ion
r ,
r r

in to c on cepts wa s ma de a s f a s on c an dete min e by ar e r

William G ah am Sumne This distinction is now o well

, ,

28
r r . s

kn own t o the ge ne al e a de th t it i s no t necess y t o give r r r a ar

a det ailed desc ipt ion of it The e s om e fe atu es h ow

r . r a re r ,

eve whi ch justify a b i ef eluci d at ion

r, r .

E th no cent i sm desc ibes the se nt im e n t of a ccept an ce by

r r

m e mbe s of the in g o up of one ano the an d im plies the

r -
r r

a tt itude of ejection by the in gro up of m embe s of th o ut

r -
r e

g o up While these a tt itudes are ce t ainly p onoun ced in

r . r r

mo de n s o ci ety in s om e an ci en t an“
r d p imit ive s o ci et i es they
,
r

we e c a i ed t o the p oint whe e o uts i de s we e no t eve n

r rr r r
”
r

cl a ss ified a s human be in gs Sumn e desc ibes thi s s itu a tion . r r

vivi dly He w ites r

w w w
.

W h en k y y “ W
p p
p p k pp k
a l on e a re e o le
”
”

“ w “ p h en ce th e came th e a n s ere d
C a rib s ere a s

Th e m ea n in g of th e n am e K i o a i s rea l or rin
.

”
ed e

”
, ,

ci a l
p eo le

pf
T h e La s ca ll th em selv e s
. m en or h u m a n b ei n s

Th e Gre en la n d E s imo th i n th a t E u ro ea n s h a v e b een s e n t to Green

g , .

f p p w
la n d to l ea rn v irtu e a n d go o d m a nn ers rom th e Green la n ders Th eir
h i gh est orm o f ra i se f or a E u ro ea n i s th a t h e i s or s o on
f
ill b e
.

“
, ,

p p
as
g o o d a s a G ree n la n der

e o le s c a ll th em se lv es

y
n ot defin e d—bu t n o t rea l m en
p
m en p A s a ru l e i t i s ou n d th a t n a ture
.

O th ers are s o m e th in g e l se— erh a s

I n m th s th e ori gin o f th eir ow n trib e
.

y
.

i s th a t of th e rea l h u m a n ra ce Th e do n ot a cc ou n t f or th e o th ers ”

WGS F
. .

28
29 I bid
. . umn er, o lkwa y s ( Bos ton : G inn Co .
,

.
, p . 14 .
P SYC HO L O G IC A L STR U CTU R E O F THE GR O U P 59

O c on ce n i s of c o u se wi th eth no ce nt i sm in c on
ur r r r

tempo a y g oups Although in contempo a y g oups it does

, ,

r r r . r r r ,

no t usually involve the alm o st t ot al eject ion o f the o t r u

gro up ethn o ce n t i sm is neve theless p ono un ced L in es f

r r r o

cle av a ge exi st be twee n a v ari ety of g o ups especially b

.
,

r e

tween nations classes aces and ethnic and eli gious sub
,

r r

cultu es An tip a thy p ejudi ce an d othe att itudes f ex

, , ,

r .
,
r ,
r o

clu i o n ch a a cte i ze a ll these g o ups t o s om e exte n t c o upled

s r r r ,

with p efe e ntial sent im e nts f o m embe s of the i w n g oup

r r r r r o r

Dynamically spe aking the in g oup i a so cial field o egion

.

,
-
r s r r

in wh i ch m em be s ar fai ly h omo ge n e o us in att i tudes an d

r e r

feelin gs ; the o ut g oup i s a s o cial field o egion with e fe

-
r r r r r

e n ce t o wh i ch th s o cial and psych olo gic al b oun d a i es of the

e r

in g o up
-
r el atively im pe m e able They a e s o cial c i cles
a re r r r r

wh o se b o un d a i es do no t inte sect
.

r r .

I n g o up an d o ut g o up el a t ion s h ave als o bee n desc ibed

-
r -
r r r

by the deg ee of s ocia l di t nce o bt ainin g betwee n on e

r s a

g oup an d ano the Th i s c on cept m e a sures the extent of

r r
”

accept an ce o eject ion o f pe s on s in g o up el ation ships

.

30
r r r r r

I t i s a ls o used t o des i gnate cle av a ges be twee n g o ups an d

.

the e fo e se ves well t o desc ibe in te g o up el at ion s Thu s

,

r r r r r r r

tho se g oups between which confli ct is at a minimum a e

.

r r

desc ibed by less s o cial di st an ce th an th o se betwee n wh i ch

r

symp athy n d accept ance e el at ively abse nt Ge n e ally

a ar r r

the e is mo e s ocial dist ance f o example between labo

.
,

r r r r

an d mana ge m e n t th an betwee n g o ups of w o ke s the m

, ,

r r r

selves .

I n g o up an d o ut gro up el a t ion s a s m e a sured by s o c ial

~ r -
r ,

di st ance e alw ays dete mined by s oci l no ms Whethe

,
ar r a r . r

t w o g o ups w ill a ccept o

r eject e a ch o the i s depen de nt on r r r

whethe not they a g ee on a st an d a d of beh avio

r or c om r r r or

m on no m s They a cc ommo d ate the m selves t o e a ch o the

r . r

an d p o duce h a m o n y betw ee n them selves whe n they e i the

r r r

sym p athet i c ally espect e ach o the s v alues o evo lve a p at

r r
’

te n f inte a ct ion b a sed up on m utu ally a ccepted st an d ards

r o r

of beh av io I n the a bse n ce of ec ip o c al norm s d i sh armony

r . r r ,

3° B onn er, S o ci a l p sy ch olog y , p . 30 .

 60 D Y N AM I C F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
an d confli ct e as ily a i se N ume ous studi es of s o c ial d i st an ce
an d ethni c attitudes in p a ti cul a confi m thi s Vi ew They
especially b in g o ut the app alli n g exte nt of inte g oup h o s
r
r .

r
r

r r

r r
.
“
t i li ty in Am e i c an l if e Sci entific ally i t i s un ewa din g t o
r r r

m e ely c all atte nt ion to th i s fa c t an d condemn i t B e fo e

.

r r

inte g o up h o stility c an be de alt with effectively it i s n

.

s a y t o un de st an d its natu e and its s o u ce E conomi c

r r ,
eces

r r r r .

st atus p a ent al influen ce educat ion an d s imil a fa ct o s

r r r

pl ay s i gnificant oles in i t o i gin an d p op a gation B a s i c t o

, , , ,

r s r r .

all these h oweve i s the fa ct th at a g o up lives in acc o d

,
r, r r

ance wi th it dominant mo es I n g o up an d o u t g o up el a
s r .
-
r -
r r

t ion s whethe manif ested in ethno cent i s m s o cial d i stan ce

,
r r , ,

o utri ght c onfl i ct e a cc o din gly p o ducts f the cla sh

C on
o r ,
ar ,
r ,
r o

o f s o c ia l no m s no t of the pe ve s i ty of hu man na tu re
r ,
r r .

fo mity i s a unive s al s o cial p essu e an d in the ir atti tudes

r r r r ,

o f exclus i ve n ess t o w a d on e ano the m e n a s imply b owi n gr r re

t o it s o ve e i gn influen ce
s r

““R O LE OF P R SO NA LI TY VARI AB LE S O n seve al occ as ion

.

M -
E r s

we asse ted th at on c anno t depen d ably p edi ct the beh avi o

n
.

r e r r

o f m e m be s o f a g o up f om a k no wledge of the i
r pe s on
r r r r

a li ti es Pe s onali ty v ariables c ann o t ho weve be s afely

. r ,
r,

i gn o ed The p oblem faces us a gain whe n we con s i de the

r . r r

ch ara cte of inte g o up el at ion s Wh ile the esults a e

in con s i ste nt the e i s s om e evi de n ce t o justify the hyp o thes i s
r r r r . r r

,
r

th a t h mony an d h o st ility betwee n g o ups are fac ili t ated

ar r ,

e ve n if they no t gen e ated by pe s onali ty fa cto s Thi s

a re r ,
r r .

i s especially t ue in inte g o up p ejudice Al th o ugh the r r r r

investi gation s of Ad o no F enkel B u n w ik an d o the s on

.

r ,
r -
r s ,
r

the auth o it a ian pe s onali ty h ave ece n tly been subjected

r r r
”
r

t o seve e c iti c i sm thei c on clus ion s a g ee wi th the fi n d in gs

r r r r

o the invest i gat o s These c on clus ion s a ssert th at a

,

of r r .

p ejudi ced pe s on i s excess ively igi d b o th afl ti ly n d

C
r r r ec ve a

“
intellectu ally o gn it i vely the p ejud i ced pe s on te n ds t o

be int ole ant of amb i guity th a t i he c anno t a ccept p op o

r
. r

s,
r

r
,

31 gP
For th e b e in n er a goo d re v i e w of th i s w Y k K j g wC w f
h o le su b ec t i ll b e o un d

G W g M
L Hartley ro ble ms in p rej u dice ( N ew
j
’
in E . .
, or : in s ro n Press ,

A ddi son -
an

W d . Allp ort , Th e na t u re
e s le y P u b lis h in
.

C o , In c , g . .
o f p re udi ce ( Rea din , as s : .
P S YC HO L O G I C A L STR U CTU R E OF THE GR O U P 6T

s itio n s th t no t cle ly st uctu ed an d p ope ly c ate

a a re ar r r r r

g o i d an
r z e d p i ge on h o led A fl t i ly he i gi dly ep esses h i s . ec ve ,
r r r

ho stility towa d fi gu es in auth o i ty su h s h i s p a e n ts

r r r ,
c a r .

The h o stili ty i di pl a ced even tu lly fin din g i ts exp ess ion

s s ,
a r

in ant a goni sm t ow a d the o ut g o up The amb iv alen ce wh ich r -

r .

r esults f om hi s submi ss ion t o autho i ty an d the ep ess ion

r r ,
r r

an d exte n l i z a t ion o f the n eg a t i ve s i de of th i s am b i v a le n ce

r a ,

le a d h im t o an un c iti c al a ccept an ce of the in g o up an d a r -

r

violent ejecti on of the ou t g oup M o e ove the exp es

r -
r .
32
r r, r

s ion of hi s s upe ego i s di ected f the mo st p a t t ow ard

r r or r

c on demnation puni shm e nt n d ejection f o the s He i s a r o r

o i e n t ed t o w a d p o we o ve
:

.
, ,

r o the s athe th an affection f o

r r r r r r r

them He judges pe ople less on the b as i s of the i int ins ic r r

wo th th an on the b as i s of the i s o cial c onfo mity H i s fe a

.

r r r . r

of puni shm ent an d et alia tion ge n e ated by the neg ative an d r ,

r

th e ate nin g inte pe s onal el ati on s whi ch ch a acte i zed h i s

r r r r r r

ea ly hom e l ife impels h im to app o ach o the s e pecially

r r r s

th o se wh o do no t confo m to h i s own st an d a ds with c ate

, ,

r r ,

go ic an d h o stile attitudes H de als with them no t p i

r . e r

pe s on s but as ep ese nt atives o“

ma ily r

catego i zes them r

as
“ “ r

D agos Ni gge s
f a g o up He
Kikes
as
r

,
”
r

r ,
or
r

.
”33
.

We st ated th at inte g o up atti tudes e faci li t ated eve n r r ar ,

if no t a o used by pe s onality v ariables The i o i gin lies

r ,
r . r r ,

as we h ave sh own in p ass in g in the g o up e ithe the family ,

r ,
r

o s om e o the s o c ial st uctu e such a s the s h oo l chu ch o r

efe e n ce g o up Child e n g ow in g up in an atmo sphe e of

r r r r ,
c ,
r ,

r r r . r r r

rejection an d mo ali sti c c ondemnati on a e un able t o est ab

r r

li sh clo se pe s onal c ont acts wi th th o se wh o diff e f om them

r r r

selves H aving ece ived l ittle o no affection f om the ir

. r r r

fam ily g oup they c anno t a s a dults give affection t o o ther

r

WY k
32
T F k
A dorn o , E
. . re n el —Brun sw ik et a l , Th e a uth ori ta ri a n p ers ona l
. .

g
ity ( N ew
M w
or : Harp er 81 B ro s ,

da ti n thi s is A H a slo .
p 4 8 2 A n i m p o rt a n t s
.

Th e au th ori tari a n ch ara cter s tru cture I s oc

.
,
t udy a n te . .

,
. .

Ps y ch ol , 18

g g
. 40 1 —1 1
33 Thi s ob s erv a ti o n i s h a rdl
y n e w h a t m a n y
.

s y ch o lo i sts h a v e onl y . W p g w
kG w g g
recen tly be un to in v e s ti a te s y s t em a ti ca ll y a n d ex p erim e n ta lly w a s
.

n o n to s o ci o lo is ts an d a n th rop olo i s ts a t l ea s t s i x ty y e ars a g o S ee

i ddi n s, The p rincip le s of soci olo y ( New o r : Th e
e ll

H
a cmill an C o ,
gg Y k M
. F .

.
.
62 DY N AM I C FA CTO RS IN GRO U P BEH AV I O R
g o ups They c an el ate them selves a cceptin gly only t o
r . r

m embe s of the i own cli que wh i ch bein g mo e like th an

r r ,
r

u nl ike them sel es c on st itute no se ious th e a t t o thei ow n

v , r r r

s afety Thi s i s the psych olo gi c al dynami cs of the in g oup

.
-
r

o u t g o up d i h o t om y
-
r c

EX PE ME NTA L INVE STI GA T O N Until ecently the study

.

RI I . r ,

o f in te g o up el tion s h a te nded t o be e ithe m ch air

r r r a s r ar -

o nai vely e m p i i c a l
r The empi i c al wo k ons i sted of anal
r . r r c

y ses of the n tu e o f
“
p ejud i ce desc
a i pt ion s
r f
o ut g o up elation s m e a su em ents of s o ci al di st an ce as
-
r r
i n g o up

,
s r

r
,
r o -
r

,
v .

e t i n m e n t of the fa ct o s in a tt i tude ch an e an d
c r a fo th
g r ,
so r .

I f these invest i g a t ion s appe a t o be expe im e n t a l in ch a

”
r r r

a cte it i s bec ause they h ave bee n c a st int o n e p o t f ct o

r, a x s a

expe im ent al mo ld O n the o the h an d s om e of the e p i

r . r ,
x er

m ent al invest i gat ion s imp ess n a s bein g in c on seque nt i al r o e .

The study of g o up beh avio by ep o ducing s o cial s itu ation s

r r r r

in the l ab o ato y i s unquestionably des i able ; but it i s a

r r r

fai question t o a sk t o wh at deg ee the l ab o at o y an d e al

r r r r r

l ife s i tu ation s a if no t i dent ic al at le ast ve y s imi l a S in ce

seldom S im ple a s th o se p o duced
re , ,
r r .

gro up phe nom e na a re as r

in the l ab o a t o y on e i s ofte n le ft w i th the u n e a y f eeli n g

r r s

that too many conditions in the latte s ituation a not ade

,

r re

q u t la e
y c on t o lled N eve thelessr an d whe n due p. ec a ut ion s r ,
r

a re exe c i sed the expe im ent al study f small g o ups h

r ,
r o r as

deci ded a dvant a ges ove the emp i ic a l m eth o ds by m e an s of r r

whi ch many ge ne ali z at ion s h ave t a ditionally bee n f o m u

l ated S ince an exh austive analys i s of m eth o dol o gy an d the
r r r

v a iety of expe im e nt al investi gation s of inte g o up el ati on s

r r r r r

i s no t he e c ontempl ated we sh all select only o n in st an ce

r ,
e

t o illust ate the expe im e n t al a pp oa ch

r r r

I n an expe im e n t des i gn ed by She if the p o cess f i n

.

r r ,
r o

g o up an d o ut g o up fo mation and p a ticul a ly of in te

r -
r r ,
r r r

g o up h o stili ty i s ni cely illust ated an d objecti vely c on

r ,
r

fi m d
r e She if selected 24 well a djusted b oys twelve ye a s
.
34
r -
, r

o f a ge w i th s imi l a ec onomi c an d educ a t ion al b a ckg o u n ds

,
r r ,

Y or k
34

:
See
Harp er 8: B ros
MS . h eri f an d

.
,
C . WS fG
. h eri ,
rou p s i n ha rmo ny a nd tens io n ( New
P SYC HO L O G I C A L STR U CTU R E O F THE GRO U P
an d pl aced them in a sum e c amp in no the n C onnecti cut
Conditions we e fu the cont olled by p ohibiting vi sito s
r r r .

r r r r r r ,

keep in g the b oys i gno ant of the expe im e nt al natu e of the r r r

c mp an d by p eve nting othe exte n l influe n ces f om

a ,
r r r a r

affectin g the expe im e nt al on dition s While r inte est c . our r

he e i s in the inte group el t ion s i t i necess y t o p oint o ut

r r r a ,
s ar

th at the b oys fi st developed into info ma l g oups n d t ook

r r r a

o n defi nite i n g o up att i tudes -

The gro up fo mation s “
r we e r r

lf the B ull
.

ma de mo e e plici t by r
“ on e ofxthe m
Do gs and the othe Red D evils Among the many ti
”
namin g i
r
tse
ac v

ities in wh i ch they e n ga ged we e c ompeti tive g am es A s

.

r .

in g o up an d o ut g o up a tt itudes c yst all i zed the b o ys

-
r -
r r ,

des ibed them selves and e a ch o the by famil ia“ste e o types

cr r r r .

Membe s of the in g o up we e desc ibed a s pl ayin g “

r -
r fai r r r,

whe e a s th o se in the out g o up we e pe ce ived a s di ty

r r r r r

pl aye s A s the c ompeti tion be twee n the two g o ups in

-

r . r

c“
r e a sed f i ct ion an d h o stili ty als o inc e a sed Th winni n g
r r e

B ull Do gs playe s developed st on g identific ation with one

.
,

r r

anothe an d a no ti ce able p i de in the i supe io ity The

r r r r r

lo s in g R ed D evils m embe s suffe ed no ti ce able f ust a

.

r r r r

tion whi ch exp essed itself in ec imin ation an d m utu al

,
r r r

bl am e ; the i vin di ctiven ess w a s d i ected p a ticul a ly a gain st

r r r r

the i w n in g o up m embe s wh o held lowe p o s itions in the

r o -
r r r

st atus hie a chy H o stility w a s now di ected by them no t

r r . r

only t o the o ut gro up but t o m embe s of thei own g oup

-
r r r

Agg ession was ch annelized int o othe activiti es including

.

r r ,

e atin g whe“ n a,
g e a t amo u n t of o ve “
t h orst
by the R ed D evils a gainst the B ull D o gs A ge ne al
i l i ty w a s exp essed r
”
r

p andemonium p ev ailed the tw o g o ups th ew foo d an d

.

r as r r

e ating ute ns ils at e ach o the in te l a ded wi th c atc alls an d r, r r

uncomplime nt ary ep ithets

The expe im e nt confi m s the hyp othes i s th at whe n two
.

r r

g o ups a in inte a ct ive compet i tion with e ach o the

r re r in r, o r

s ituations whi ch ar f ust atin g to one g oup o the o the e r r r r r,

they tend t o devel op h o st il ity an d c onfli ct in the i el at ion r r

t o e ach o the Thi s i s t ue eve r

“
. n whe n the m e m be s r a s r a re ,

in the fo egoin g expe im e n t

r no ma o well a djusted p r r r -
er

s on s As befo e we fi n d it necess ary to con s i de b oth the

,

. r ,
r
64 DY N AM IC FA CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AV I O R
in divi duals and the st uctu e of the i inte el at ions h ip in the r r r rr

g o up t o acco unt f o inte g oup el ati on s

r r r r r .

CONCLUSION I

I n th i s ch apte we h ave d i ssected the g o up in o rde t o

%
r r r

dete min e the nature of i ts o n i tion an d fM o

r an d r a z a

to in d i c a t e the chi e f s o c ial psych o lo g i c al fo ces th a t o pe a te r r

in inte g oup el at ions Ou analys i s h a s sh own th at whe n

r r r . r

two o mo e pe ople e conf onted by the s m e p o ble m but

r r ar r a r

h ave no est abli shed w ays of de alin g wi th it they ten d t o

evolve o c on st uct mo e o less effective m e an s of s olvin g it
r r r r .

The ways of de alin g wi th the s i tu ation d o no t t ake pl a ce in a

v a cuum an d even if they novel they est t o s om e exte nt a re r

up on exi stin g st an d a ds Within thi s substructu e of exi s ting

, ,

r . r

St d
g gg
a d L n e m m s n d egu l a t ion s a a s a r re

t the mem
g fi m

sum ed“ by b rs h i rar ch i c l el at io ns _ o .

e r
e a r

s om e d ff nt t on of st atus “an se an d m embe s I

F a -s

1nv l n
o v1 1 e re 1a i r

themselves inTa tion t o o the s an d to

,
,

b g n t o p cféi
"
fi v
”

e l er ve a r

o wn psych o lo gi c al h is
but h i s s o ci ety a a st uctu e of no m s an d st an d a ds
s r r r r .

he ente s int o ecip o c al el at ionship wi th o the s h d o es

r r r r r ,

no t completely unle a n wh at he h a s l e a dy a cqui ed but r a r r ,

mo difies it in a cco dance wi th the expect at ion s th a t a ise r r

in the new s ituation ) .

The psycholo gy f in te g o up el ation s d o es n ot in vo lve o r r r

a diffe e nt t of p in ciples f om th a t of int ag o up elation s

r se r r r r r .

The o eti c al and expe im ental evi dence supp o ts the onclu
r r r c

s ion th at inte g oup el ation s ar n ot indepe nde nt of int a

r r r e r

g o up attitudes an d beh avio s Thi s d o es no t im ply th at

r r .

o n c anno t a cc o u n t f
e inte g o up el at ion s by c once nt a tin g or r r r r

h i s atte ntion s olely up on el a tions wi th in a g o up The field r r .

dynami c vi ew which we h ave desc ibed d o es no t pe mi t r r

such a c on clus ion Human el ations we h ave s ai d . hol r , , are

i s ti n o t a dd i t i ve The fo ces a t w o k in g o up el a tion s a e

c r r r r r

influe nced an d mo dified by pe s onal cultural an d c ollecti ve

.

r , ,

t en ds wi thin g o ups an d betwee n them The p op ti es of

r r . r er

groups ar tran sfe ed t o inte gro up cont a cts whe e they

e rr r ,
r
C HA P TER

Cohe sive an d Dis rup tive

Force s in Group Be ha v io r

Alth ough aim in C h apte 2 w a s n t t o analyze th e

ou r r o

n atu e of o up c ohes i ve n ess we n eve theless d i scussed i t

g
r r ,
r

in di ectly n desc ibin g th e psych o lo gi c al st uctu e of the

r i r r r

g oup B y g o up cohes ive n ess we m e an the t o t ality of fo ces

r . r r

whi ch in duce m embe s t o emain in a g o up G o up cohes ive

r r r r

ness t akes pl ace in p a t bec ause g o ups s ati s fy n eeds an d

.

mot ives wh i ch c anno t be e ali zed in i s ol ation ) C ohes ive n ess

r r

i s a fun ction fu the mo e a s we s aw of the Ope ation of

r .

,
r r r , ,
r

est abli shed ules of beh avio c all ed norm s S o cial s an ctions
r r .

in the fo m of ew ards f o c onfo min g t o the st an d a ds o f the

r r r r r

g o up an d puni shm e nts f thei viol ation e well—kn ow n

r or r ar

and well est ablished s our ces of g o up s oli d a ity I f we ana

-
r r .

lyze g o up c ohes iveness a we sh all d o at len gth in te m s of

r , s
‘

,
r

a g o up s att a ct iven ess f o its m embe s we

r
’

r c onfronted
r r ,
are

by the obvio us fa ct th a t wi th o ut at le a st a m ini n al att a ction i r

of m embe s to e ach o the a g oup c anno t exi st at all

r r r .

S ince c ohes iveness i s el a ted t o many p oblem s of g oup

r r r

dynami cs it con ceptu ali z ation t akes on an in 0 sin g im

, s 1 ea

p o t ance The influe nce of the g o p in ch an gin g the b

r . i u e

h avio of i ts m embe s i s clo sely elated to the i att acti veness

r r r r r

66
C OHES IV E A ND DI SR U IV E FO RC ES PT 67

t o e a ch othe The ch an ges wh i ch the gro up c an in duce c an

r .

n eve exceed the deg ee of att a ctiveness t o e ach o the of

r r r r

its consti tue nt m embe s The g oup s att a ctive ness t o its r .
1
r
’

m embe s affects the ope ation of i ts no m s an d c e ates

r r r r

p essu es tow a d unifo mity in the i beh avio The p essu e

r r r r r r . r r

towa d unifo mity h oweve i s co unte ed by fo ces makin g

r r ,
r, r r

for dis upt ion an d di ss olution of g o ups These fo ces imp ai

r r . r r

O dest o y the lin es of c omm u ni c a t ion w ith in o betwee n

r r r

g o
r ups d ama ge
,
m utu a l t ust an d a tt a ct i ve n ess an d d i st o t r r ,
r

the pe ception s of m embe s t o the p oint whe e h o stility

r r r

r a the than a ccept an ce di spl aces the expect ation s of all Go

r .

h i n
es v e in sh o t suggests th at the e i s als o di sh a mony
ess , r ,
r r

in human el at ion sh ips So th at i t i un e ali sti c t o di scuss

r ,
s r

g oup c ohes ion with o ut c a efully c on ceptu ali z in g g o up di s

r r r

r uption Th i s i s the t a sk th at we t f o o u selves in the

. se r r

p ese nt ch apte
r r .

N ATU R E OF GR O U P C O HES IV E N ESS

Consensus g oup s olida ity esp“ ,
it d co p s an d the l ike
r r ,
r e r ,

a re well kno wn ch a a cte i sti cs o f he althy g oup life an d

-
r r
”
r

h ave bee n invest i g ated by o c l sc i ent i sts f o many dec a des S Ia r .

G o up cohes ive ness o g o up s oli d a ity p esupp o ses th at

r r r r r

m embe s of a g o up h ave s om ethin g in c ommon D iffe en ces

r r . r

te n d to ge n e ate insecu ity an d imp ai c on ce ted a ction I t

r r r r .

i s app a e nt th at pe ople wh o h ave h a d common o at le a st

Simila expe iences tend to be mo e cohesive If this ci cul ar
r r

r r r r

mo de of a guin g i s unp al t able it i s no t a c a se of b a d lo gic

.

r a ,

but an o gani c n ecessity f o i t st esses a well known fact

r ,
r r -

nam ely th at the fo ces makin g f o cohes ive n ess

,
r them r a re

selves e info ced by cohes ive n ess Pe ople who h ave sh a ed

c ommon o S imil a no m s o v alues a al e a dy by definition
r r . r

r r r r re r , ,

mo e cohes ive th an p e ople wh o diffe wi dely f om one

r r r

ano the Thi s c alls attent ion to the fi st c on dit ion of g oup
r . r r

c ohes ive ness

S HARE D N O M S I n the p ecedin g ch apte we stressed the
.

R . r r

imp o t ance of o le beh avio in g o up fo mat ion I t is n ces

r r r r r e

K kS
.

g Se e L Fest in g er
1

ro up s ( N e w
. ch a ch te r a n d

Y
o r : Harp er 8: B ro s , k S S , .
,

.
. B ac ,
o cia l p res s ures i n i nforma l
68 DY N AM IC F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AV IO R
s ary now to in di c ate th at the pe ception and e na ctme nt of r

oles a defined by the no m s wh i ch m embe s o f a g o up

Sh a e in common Playin g a equi ed ole p esuppo ses a
r re r r r

r . r r r r

knowledge of th e g o up no m s wh i ch defi n e i t I n pl ayin g r r .

h i s ole in the g o up a pe s on m ust be ble to anti ci p ate

r r ,
r a

anothe s esp on se t o h i s o wn ole He c an do th i s only if he

r
’
r r .

alr e a dy knows th values an d st an d a ds whi ch mot iv ate e r

othe s t o pl ay th ei o les The te n s ion anxi ety an d lum i

r r r .
, ,
c s

n ess with whi h n ew an d ma gin l m embe s pl ay the i o les

c r a r r r

i f u the
s onfi mation of thi s p in ciple O the thin gs be in g
r r c r r . r

equ al then the mo e norm s and st an d ards

, , m utu ally r a re

sh a ed the g e ate will be the esultin g c ohes iven ess f the

r r r r o

g o up O n the o the h an d the mo e pe ople d ive ge in the ir

,

r . r ,
r r

pe ception s of life an d of the i el ation sh ip to on e ano the

r r r r,

the less c ommuni c ation t akes pl a ce betwee n them an d th e ,

less wi ll they be able t o esp on d p o s it ively a cceptin gly t o r or

one no the Thus the e c an be no g o up c ohes iven ess in

a r .
,
r r

the absen ce o f sh a ed v lues and a depen d able an ti c ip at ionr a

by e a ch m embe th a t o the s will a ccomm od ate the m selves t o

r r

h im .

H oweve thi s i s sc a cely a novel di sc ove y

r, on t o be r r ,
or e

ass o ciated exclus ively wi th the ese a ches in g oup dyn mi cs r r r a

Fo ex ample D e To cqueville wri t in g on Am e i c an s o c i ety

.

r , ,
r

in 1830 w a s keenly awa e of its imp o t an ce He obse ved

,
r r . r

th at a s o ci ety can su vive only when th e e c ommon r r are

un de st an dings o when people Vi ew a g e a t numbe of

r

r
,
r

thin gs f om the s am e pe spective I n sh o t it h as l on g bee n

o bvio us t o tho ughtful m e n th at s ocial o gani z at ion c anno t
r .
2
" r
r ,
r r

exi st an d c ontinue w ith o ut c onsen sus so th at c ohes iven ess ,

i s a fun d am enta l ch ara cte i sti c of any cont inuo us o gani zed r r

s o cial life I n its absen ce s o cial di s o gani z ation i s an in

.
,
r

evi t able con seque nce

Fu the mo e when defined by s ocial no m s cohes iveness
.

r r r ,
r ,

i s not e na cted o efl ct d by fi at o c ompul s ion Wh ile ar e e r .

g oup may be held t o gethe a s a phys i c al e n ti ty by fo ce as

r r r ,

in a di ct at o sh ip i t i s no t the k ind of g oup whi ch we e

r r ar

g M
,

q C mb
S De
F u e v ill e , Demo cracy i n Ameri ca v o ls
2 d
A . Toc (2 . a ri e, ass

e v er an d ran cis ,
C OHES IVE A ND DI SR U IV E O RC ES PT F 69

he e desc ibin g C ohes ive n ess a s i t i s he e defined i s a sys

r r . r

tem of inte lo ckin g oles initiated an d sust ained by st an d a ds

r r r

e ithe al e a dy exi st in g evo lved by m embe s of a g oup in

the cou se of st ivin g f o a c ommon goal E ven if n ot every
r r or r r

r r r .

m embe s beh avio coin ci des wi th the no m s of the g oup i t

’

r r r r ,

must t o s om e deg ee a dhe e t o them Sh a in g of g oup r r r r

no m s i s a cco din gly an imp o t ant in dex of group c ohes ive

.

r ,
r ,
r

ness .

The fo ce of g o up no m s in the inte a ction s of in divi du als

r r r r

i s made p art icul a ly vivi d when pe s on s deviate f om them r r r

Deviations e not e adily countenan ced When deviations

.

ar r .

,
r
“
ex i st the ir an ge an d deg ee e them selves defi n ed by the
group Pe mi ss ive beh avio i s itself des i gn ed t o p eserve
. r
r

r
ar
”
r

the no m s an d maint ain the st ab ility of the gro up No g oup

r r

is abs o lutely infl exible Thus f o in st ance a lth o ugh in the o y

.

r r

all m embe s of a Zuni h o useh old ar expected t o li ve ami c

.
, ,

r e

ably to gethe the e a many c a ses o f confl i ct Alth ough in

r, r re .

M anus s o ci ety eve yone i s expected t o a ssum e ec onomi c e r r

sp ons ib ility except ion i s ma de in the c a se of indep end nts

,
e ,

wh o se i esp on s ib ility i s s o cially t ole a ted M an y ex amples

rr r .

of such pe mi ss ive beh av io a e fo u n d in d iffe e n t g o up s

r r r r r

in o u o w n s o c i ety
r
3

P a ti cul a ly s i gnific ant f o the s tudy of g oup dynami cs

.

r r r r

are the dev iat ion s an d the i effects in min iatu e s o c ial s i tu a r r

tion s Tb a she s study of the gang an d Whyte s desc iption

.
4
r
’

r
’

of the st eet c o m e b o ys t o wh i ch we h ave alre a dy e fe ed

The controllin g fo ce of Sh a ed no m s h a s
r -
r , r rr ,

are c a ses in p oin t . r r r

bee n ve y well est abli shed in the co des of c iminals an d the

r r

unde wo ld in gen e al I nc a ce ated c iminals e ect c o des

r r r . r r r r

of c on duct t o go ve n the ir life in p i s on I n th i s s i tu at ion

r r .

mo st inmates c onfo m to the i ow n est abli shed no m s and r r r

those who i gno e o eject them not onl y are ejected by th

,

r r r r e

k
Se e H B o nn er
3 Sk
o cia l p s y ch o lo y : a n i nt erdi s cip lina ry a p p roa ch
( New g
—
“
.

Y
,

or : Am eri ca n B oo
4 W e are us i n
Co ,

gg g pp 2 3 6 41 .

”
th e t erm m in i a ture s o cia l Si tu a tion in a bro a der s en s e
.

W wg
.

than th a t s u

F
est e d b y Vi n a cke
s ocia l s i tu at i on ( Ho n ol ul u : U ni v ers i t

br uar y ,
e
S ee E d ar Vin a cke , Th e m in iat ure
.

y of Ha aii , P sy ch o lo i ca l L abora tory ,

.

g
70 D Y N AM I C F A C TO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
o the s but they usu ally suffe psych o lo gi c al di s o de s as
r r r r

well 5

I n hi s d i sce nin g analys i s o f sec e t s o c i et i es S imm el

.

r r

showed at le a st fifty ye a s a go th at the s am e uli n g fo ce

,
r ,
r r

of g o up no m s d ominates them Sec ets of the g o up or

r r . r r ,

a ct ivities whi ch ch alle n ge est abl is hed no m s m ust be c a e r ,

r

fully gu a ded an d tho se wh o viol ate i ts expect ation s are

r ,

seve ely puni shed o eve n ki lled The demand f sec ecy
r r .
6
or r

i s sp e a din g t o o the a e as of g o up beh a vio in c ontemp o

r r r r r

a y s o ci ety an d eve als the s am e cl aim t o conf o mi ty th at

r r r r

i s foun d in the g o ups a l e a dy desc ibed B u e auc a cy in

,

r r r . r r

its v ar io u fo m s i s a goo d ex ample I n deed a s M a x Webe

s r .
,
r

p ointed o ut the con cept of the official sec et gove ns

,
r
”
r

many a spects of bu e auc ati c lif e f om c omm e cial p o li cy r r ,

r r

to con st itut ional go ve nm e nt ; an d its int ole an ce of devia r r

tion i s equ ally fanatic al 7

M O RA LE I t i p a a do xi c al but n eve theless t ue th at

.

. s r r r ,

desp ite the vo lumino us publi c ation s on thi s subject the ,

natu e o f mo ale i s st ill difficult t o un de st an d Thi s s i tu a ti on

r r r .

i s comp ehe n s ible whe n we c on s i de i t in the li ght of e a ly

r r r

specul at ive an d ana lyt ic al attempts t o di sclo se th natu e of e r

mo ale Such cl a ity an d ce t ainty ega din g it we now

r . r r r r as

p o ssess small tho ugh they may be h ave bee n ma de p o ss ible

, ,

l a gely by the effo ts of sci entific ally min ded investi gat o s
r r r

especially in the field of in dust ial el ations N ob o dy do ubts

,

r r .

its exi ste nce an d eve y stude n t of the subject i imp essed
,
r s r

by it imp o t ance f o g o up c ohes ive n ess

s r r r .

M ora le a nd es p it de co ps T a d it ion al ly mo al e h a s r r . r r

bee n d iscussed o n the b a ckgro un d of the feeli n g of app o t r r

known a s esp it de o ps Thi s i s an ex ample of defini n g

r c r .

igno tu m p e i gno tius f o o u u n de st an d in g f es p it de

r ,
r r r o r

co r
p i s a s v
s a gue a s u u n de st an d in g of mo ale We k no w o r r r .

5 See D . C lem m er, Th e p ris on co mm uni ty ( B o s ton : C hri s top h er Pu bli sh

S
in g Ho u s e
6 G
44 1 —
.
,

imm el , Th e so ci ol o g y of

WS s e cre t s o ci e ti e s , A mer J . . SG Socia l , 11

M S
9 8 ( tra n s l a t e d by A m all ) See
s oci e tie s : a cu ltu ra l s tu dy of fra terna l is m i n th e U n ite d
is t, e cret
.

tat es ( U ni v ers i ty of
. . a ls o N

SP . .

MW g G C WM
i s s o uri tu di e s V ol X V, No 4 , , . .

k f
e b er Es sa y s i n s o ci o lo y , e di te d b y H H
7 e rth an d ills
—
.
,

Y
. . . .

( N e w o r : O x o rd U n i v e rs i ty P re s s pp 2 3 3 35 , . .
C OHES IVE DI SR U PTIV E F O R C E S AND 7l

only th at th i s feelin g of belon gin g t o gethe of i dentifyin g r,

on e s self with othe s i s a p e equ i s ite of gro up p a ticip ation

’
r ,
r r r .

I n i ts a bse n ce the ini t ial step t o w a d g o up c ohes ive n ess c an r r

n ot be t ake n f o in thi s con dition pe ople a e ma ked by

,
r r r

r ese ve unfamilia ity eve n ali e nation When the ese ve i s

r r r r

b oke n down an opp o tunity f o att a ct ion t o on e anothe

.
, ,

r ,
r r r r

a i ses s om e i de ntific ation t akes pla ce an d a pe ception o f

r , ,
r

them selves in el ation t o on e ano the begin s t o c yst alli ze

r r r .

Wh at thi s e ally m e ans i s th at esp it de co ps i s b o th a c ause

r r r

an d a c on seque n ce o f an ini t ially ex i st in g st uctu e h o weve r r ,

r

v a gue an d eleme nta y i t may be The fo ces as we h ave r . r ,

s ai d befo e m akin g f o s o li d ari ty e e info ced by th f eel

r ,
r ar r r e

in g of s oli d a ity M o ale se ves a s a c at alyze an d e info ce

r . r r r r r r

of esp it de co ps an a gent makin g f o pe s i ste n ce an d g oup

r r r r r

self mainte nan ce in the face of difficult ies an d d i s upt ive

,

-
r

te n s ions I t fo ste s in g o up o gani z ation an d unifo mity Of

. r -
r r r

beh avio I t i s unive s ally ch a a cte i zed by attra ct ion t o

r . r r r

and likin g amon g m embe s of a g o up r r .

M o a le a nd g ou p a tm osp he e I n u desc ip t ion of

r
“
demo c ati c auth o it a ian an d l ai ssez fai e s o cial climates
r
r

r r
r . o

r
r r
”

atte ntion w a s c alled to the g e ate s o cial s o li d a ity of the

, , ,

r r r

demo c ati c g o up The mo ale of the demo c at i c gro up the

r r . r r ,

re a te a ccept an ce of the m e m be s of on e ano the in clud i g

g r n r r,

the le a de w as h ighe th an the mo ale of the o the g oups

r, r r r r .

M o ale h owever ch a a cte i zes any g o up p o ssessed of s o li

r , ,
r r r

d a ity eve n the mo st auth o i t arian Thi s is cle a ly eve aled

r ,
r . r r

i n a well kno wn study ma de du in g W o ld W a II by the

'
-
r r r

M o ale D iv is ion of the U S St ategic B omb in g S u vey

r . r r .

Thi s s u vey w a s an attempt t o dete rmine the effect of b omb

r

in g on the c ivilian p opul ation of Ge many The su vey d i s r . r

clo sed a co el ation betwee n mo ale o i ts absence a s rr r ,

r ,

m e asu ed by willin gn ess t o su e n de unc on ditionall y an d

r rr r ,

the ab ility of u b an p opulation s t o e n du e the wi desp e a d r r r

dest uction of publi c ut iliti es especially t an sp o t at ion Fo

r r r r

the ab ility t o t ole ate the dest uct ion of t an sp o t at ion fa cili
.
,

r r r r

i s the c o el at ion w a s
e rr

S g gW S g g
,

G G
i c bom bi ng
g fi
8 tra te i c B omb in Th e
US . urv e y , e flects f
o s tra te on
er ma n mora le, Vol 11 ( . as hi n ton , DC . . : o v ernm ent P rintin Of ce ,
1 946 )
 DY N AM IC F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
I

72

P a ti cul a ly imp o t ant in supp o t in g ou cl aim f o the

r r r r r r

r ole of g oup atmo sphe e in mo ale an d cohes iven ess wa s the

r r r

fi n din g in thi s s am e su vey a s t o the diffe e nt ial effect of the r r

b omb in g up on the N azi an d non N z i p opul ation s The -

a

N azis displayed st onger mo ale than the non N azis as

.

r r -

shown in the attitude of e a ch t ow a d the Alli ed b ombe s

,

r r

S ixty e i ght p cent of the N a zi s c on demned the Alli es

.

-
er

whe e a s only 26 p ent of the non N a zi s c on demn ed them

,

r er c -

The N a zi s in o the wo ds sh owed mo e in g oup s o li d a ity

.

r r r -
r r

cohes ive n ess th an the n n N azi s The i h i ghe mo ale

, ,

9
or o -
r r r

sust ain ed the N az i s in the fa ce of c al amit ies th at we e

.

he aped up on N az i s an d non N azi s a like D iff e en ces in - r

o up i de n t i fic at ion betwee n the tw o g o ups ma de f

.

g r di f r or

f en c s in the m e anin g of the ai ds f o e a ch an d in th e

er e r r ,

diff e e nces of the i e a ctions t o a dve si ty

Studi es of the el ation be tw een mo ale an d p o duct ivi ty
r r r r .

r r r

yi el d s imil a esults K atz an d Hyman in the ir study of th i s

r r .
,

p oblem in five sh ipy a ds foun d th at d ive ge nt attitudes

r r ,
r

exi sted amon g the wo ke s in the d iffe e nt y a ds t ow a d such r r r r r

aspects of the i w o k a s the attitudes an d c onduct of the

r r

manage s wa ges p o duction eco ds an d the like I nvest i

n Y a d C h a d g oo d mo al e
r , ,
r r r ,
.

t i eve a led th a t the m e n i

while tho se in Y a d E h a d p oo m o ale E ighty thr ee p
g a on r r r ,

cent of the wo ke s in Y a d C we e s ati sfied wi th the ir w ages

r r r .
-
er

r r r r ,

67 p e ce n t h a d c on fide n ce in the mana gem e nt an d 1 6 p

r er

ce nt we e d i ss at i sfied w i th thei p o duction eco d I n Y a d

,

E on the othe hand 47 p cent of the wo ke s we e s atis

r r r r r . r

r er r r r

cent f elt di ss ati sfied wi th the i

, ,

fi d w i th the ir w a ges 54 p
e ,
er r

p o duction eco d an d only 20 p cent h a d c onfi de nce in

r r r , er

th e mana gem e nt —desp i te th e fa ct th a t b o th we e un de the r r

s am e m an a gem ent l l0

M orale a nd s e lf in v olv em ent M o ale an d i ts el a tion sh ip

-
. r r

to g o up c ohes i ve n ess c anno t be un de st oo d wh o lly

r s a r a

9 H Pea
PK k
Obs erv a tion s on th e ch ara cteris ti cs an d dis tri bu ti on of e rm a n
.
, G
N a z is sy ch ol M o no g r , 5 9 , No 6
10 D
,

a tz a n d H Hy m an ,
.
. .

o ral e in w ar i n du s tri es i n T

a n d E L Hartley , R eading s i n so ci al
.

sy cho lo y ( New
M
N e com b
or : Henry Ho l t
.

p g ,

Y k
. M . w
—
. .

Co , .
pp 4 3 7 47 . .
74 DY N AM I C F A C TO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
The e i s a ten den cy in s om e qu a te s t o de em ph i e the
r r r - -
as z

r o le f the le a de in demo at i c g o up devel o p m e n t I t i s

o r cr r .

un e ali stic h oweve no t t o ec o gni ze th at pe o ple in all

r ,
r, r

g oups whethe demo c ati c auth o it a i n o l ais sez fai e

r ,
r r ,
r r a ,
r r ,

depe n d at le ast initi lly up on e i the an inf o mal o an est ab

,
a ,
r r r

li h e d le a de sh ip Th i s i s t ue no t bec ause o n pe s on i s
s r . r ,
e r

necess a ily e n do wed with g e ate supe io ity th an o the s in

r r r r r r

a g oup n bec ause o f any inhe ent o inevit able n eed f o

r ,
or r r r

s om e t o le ad an d o the s t o fo ll ow but bec ause a g oup can r ,

r

no t fu nction a s such with o ut cente of p o tential wi th o ut a a r ,

sen se of di ection The le a de sh ip may be exp essed in the

r . r r

beh avio of a s in gle pe s on o a s a ch ain f c omman d o

r r ,
r o ,
r

a s a p o ductive activity t an smitted t o seve al all pe s on s

r r r or r

in th g oup du in g its life hi sto y I t do es not n ecess a ily

e r r r . r

imply any p owe el ation sh ip betwee n the le de an d the r r a r

led no t a helpless depen de nce of the l atte up on the fo m e r r r

A pe s on is the le ade of a g oup when he invests h i emo

.
,

r r r s

t ion s an d n g n such a w ay a s t o c on tribute t o the

e er 1 es 1

g o
r up s main te nan
’

ce an d e n h an ce m e n t A g o up i s the mo e . r r

cohes ive the mo e eff ectively the le ade i able th o ugh r r s r

p a ti c ip ation t o gu i de the m embe s pe ception s t ow a d a

r r
’
r r

c ommon goa l G o up c ohes ive ness—a s oli d a i ty integ a

. r r r ,
r

t ion g o up mo ale—i s demon strably influen ced by the g o up s ’

le a de Altho ugh C attell s analys i s of le a de shi p c ann o t be

,
r r r
’

r . r

t aken as c on clus ive hi s c on cept ion of i t espec ially as i t , ,

appli es t o g oup cohes ive ness o t o use h i own t m g o up

r ,
r s e1 ,
r

synt ality i s imp o t ant an d hi ghly elevant He h as sh own

, r r .

th a t the le ade h a s m uch t o d o wi th develop in g g o up yn tal

r r s

ity ; and he h as m e as u ed the “ effect ive ness of the le a de in r r

influe ncin g g o up synt al ity by the m gnitu de of th e s y nt l

r a a

ity cha nge ( f om t he m ea n ) pro du ced by t h t p e o n i

r by a rs ,
. e .
,

the diff e e nce in synt al ity unde h i s le a de ship an d the

r r r

synt al ity un de the le a de ship of the ave a ge o mo d al r r r r

le a de r

R ese arch has shown th at g oup cohesiveness depends

.

e no m ously on m embe s ati sfaction Membe s atis faction

r r r

g g
.
,

11 R B C
ll , Ne w co n cep ts f o r m ea surin
a tte lea ders h ip in t erms of ro u p

161—
. .

s y n tali ty , Hum R e la t , 4 84 . . .
C OHES IV E D ISR U PTIV E F O R C E S
AND 75

in tu n i s hinde ed e nh an ced by the qu ali ty of le ade shi p

r r or r

wh ich i s p ese nt in the g o up The esults of num e o us in

,

ti ga ti o n S h o w th a t m e m be s a t i s fa ct ion a nd he n ce g o up
r r . r r

v es s r ,
r

cohes iven ess i s g e atly facilit ated by p a ti cip ato y o g oup

cente ed le a de ship beginnin g wi th the cl ass i c study b y
,
r r r ,
r r

r r

Lewin Lippitt and White which we h ave al e ady cited to

, ,

ve y ece nt ese arches P est on an d H eintz fo un d th at n ot

, , , ,

r r r . r ,

onl y we e ch an ges in g o up op inion mo e e as ily effected by

r r r

me an s of p a ti cip ato y th an by supe vi s o y o d omin at in g

r r r r r

le a de ship but th at the g oup m e mbe s we e mo e s ati sfied

r ,
r r r r

“
wi th the ch an ges esultin g f om m embe le a der deli be a
tions The followe s we e a ls o less s at i sfied w i th the
r

r r
r r- r

supe vi s o y le ade an d mo e s at i sfied with the p a ti cip at o y

.

r r r r r r

le ade Alth o ugh b o th the p articip ato y an d supe vi s ory

r . r r ,

g oups ated the ir d i scuss ion s a s ge ne ally f ie n dly e nj o y

able an d p o duct ive the p a tic ip at ory subjects b o th le a d
r r r r ,

,
r ,
r ,

e rs an d foll owe s ated the i di scuss ion s a s be in g m ore r r r

f i en dly e nj o yable in te estin g an d p o duct ive Als o the

,

r , ,
r ,
r .

p a ti cip a to y le a de s fo un d the g oup atmo sphe e mo e eu

r r r r r r

b l e th an the i fo l l o we s wh i le supe v i s o y fo ll o we s
j y
o a r r ,
r r r

fo un d the atmo sphe e mo e enj oy able th an di d their r r

le a de s r
‘2

The esults o f th P est on an d He intz study we e l at er

.

r e r r

confi m ed by an investi gation by H are wi th seve al t oops

r r r

of Boy Sco uts The b oys wh o se ave a ge a ge w a s th i tee n r r

ye a s we e a sked t o ank te n item s of c amp in g equ ipm e nt

.
,

r , r r

in the o de of the i imp o t ance f o a hyp o thet i c al c ampin g

r r r r r

t ip They we e next divi ded into g o ups of five follo we s

r . r r r

an d a le a de f o a twe nty minute di scuss ion pe io d Wi th o ut

r r -
r .

goin g into fu the det ail eg a din g the des i gn of th in

esults Sh ow no t only th at p a ti cip ato y
r r r r e

v es ti g ti on the a ,
r r r

le ade ship w a s mo e effective th an supe vi s o y le a de ship in

ch an ging the b oys Op inion s but th at the b oys in the p
r r r r r
’

, ar

ti i a to
c
p y g o up we er ge n e a lly mor e s a t i sfied w i th the r r r

vis
12
M GP .

lea de rsh ip
. re sto n and R .

j K Hei ntz
.

u dg me n t
, Ef f
a bn or
e cts

m
of p arti ci p a tory

Ps y ch ol , 44
vs . s up er

gg
on g ro u p ,
. sac . .

34 s
76 D Y N AM IC FA CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
gro up deci s i on th an we e the b oys in the supervi s ory r

g o ups
r

Although we h ave b iefly desc ibed a few tellin g e

.

r r r

se arches an d expe im ents on g oup cohes ive n ess ou de r r , r

sc iption h a s been on the whole mo e emp i i c al th an

r r r

ope ational mo e analyti c al th an beh avio al A s a fi st ap

r ,
r r . r

p ox imation thi s app oa h h a s sh own th at c ohes ive ness i s a

feelin g of w e n ess of f i en dlin ess Of m embe s t ow ard on e
r r c
”
-
r r

an o the an d of loy alty to the g o up A c ohes ive group i s

,

r, r

in whi ch m embe s ac t in c on ce t t ow a d an a g eed

.

on e r r r r

up on goal in wh i ch eve yon e a ssum es a p o s it ion of

, r re

sp on s ib il ity with espect t o its a ch i evem ent These ch ara c

r .

t i ti cs
er s eflected in an d e info ced by the exi ste nce of
a re r r r

sh a ed no m s mo ale an d its inte el ated p ope ti es o f

r r ,
r ,
rr r r

es rit de co
p p g o up a tmo sphe e
r self in
s, v o lve mre n t an d an r ,
-
,

e ff ective le a de ship r .

The e i s a con dition of g o up c ohes ive ness h oweve

r r ,
r,

wh i ch we h ave no t yet desc ibed but whi ch h a s bee n ex r ,

t n iv ly expl o ed o pe at ionally To th is we no w turn our

e s e r r .

atte nt ion .

N E R PE RS O N A L A ND GR O U P ATTRA CTIV E N E SS
I T

The c oncep t of v ale n ce h a s alre a dy bee n defin ed the as

att a ct ion o epuls ion v alue of an object f o an in divi dual

r r r r

or a g o up I t may b e used t o desc ibe the cohes ive an d

r r

di s upt ive fo ces in g o up beh avio A p o s iti ve vale n ce we

.

r r r r

s ai d ep ese nt s g o up belon gin gn ess o g o up cohes ive n ess ;

.
,

,
r r r ,
r r

whe e a s a negative valence des i gn ates i s ol at ion o a dim in u

tion o destruction of c ohes iveness ( see Chapte 2 pp 44
r ,
r

r r , .

S ince ou c on ce n in th is sect ion i s wh o lly w i th g o up

r r r

cohes ive n ess the concept of p os it ive v alen ce may be used to

,

desc ibe it S in ce howeve th e bulk of ese ch on group

r .
,
r, r ar

c ohes ive ness h a s bee n pe fo m ed by invest i ga tion and r r

13A P Hare . .
, S
m all ro u p dis cus s ion g P w i th p a rti cip a to ry an d s u p er v i s ory
2 7 3—
k
le a ders h ip , a bn orm

wf
s oc s y ch o l

mar e d, h o ev er, th at un li e th e re su lts

48

m emb er s a ti s a cti on , Ha re s di f eren ces

.

k f
.

’
.
,

w P of
75 I t sh ou ld b e t e
res to n a n d He in tz re g ardi n

ere no t s ta ti s ti ca l ly s i ni ca nt
.

gfi .
g
C OHES IV E A ND DI SR U IV E FO RC ES PT

“
m e a su em e n t of
r
grouwe sh all emplo y th i s
p attra ct i v e nes s

c oncept athe th an its equiv ale nt te m p o s itive v alen ce

,

r r r ,
.

The o ganic ch a a cte f the sci ence of g o up dynami cs

r r r o r

i s again demon st a ted by the fact th at g oup att act ion wa s

r r r

lo gi c ally p esupp o sed in the p ecedin g ch apte The e we

r r r . r

li sted and desc ibed b i efly s om e of the e a s on s why pe ople

r r r

j oin o bel on g to g oups We st essed the fa cto s of b

r r . r r e

lon gin gness a s such the need t o pe su a de t o le a d o the s,

r or r ,

to pl y oles t o belon g bec ause the e i s no o the w ay t o

a r , r r

pe fo m c e t ain fun ction s except in g o ups the g tifi

r r r r ,
ra ca

tion of the n eed f o s o c ial st atus nd the des i e f o self r ,

a r r

a ctua li z ation While these un de li e a s p owe ful mo t ive

fo ces the att active n ess of g o ups we Sh all no t di scuss the m
. r r

r r r ,

fu the he e I n ste a d we sh all ex mine g o up att action

r r r . a r r as

a psych olo gi c al c oncept an d elat ionship desc ibe imp o t ant r ,

r r

expe im e nts on the subject an d in di c ate the p o ss ib ility of “

r ,

its m e a su e m e nt I n d oin g we
r . mo“vin g wa y“ f om the
so a re a r

“
fo ma i i i ion of o i n s mo a le i i ”
r l st c d scuss c hes ve ess sp t o a r ,
”
r ,
r

g o up atmo sphe e wh ich h a s ch a a cte i zed mo st w itin gs

r r
”
r r r

o n the subject t o w a d c on ce iv in g i t a s the field of fo ces

,
r r

whi ch impel m embe s to emain in the g oup r r r .

CONCE PT O G OUP ATTRA CTIV NE SS The att activeness

F R E . r

o f the g o up may be c on s i de ed in t w o d iff e e n t but

r e r r r

l ated w ays O n e efe s t o the g o up s m embe s the o the t o

. r r r
’
r ,
r

its goals The fi st desc ibes inte pe s onal a tt act ion ; the
. r r r r r

second the att a ctive p o we of the g o up a s such t o its

,
r r r

m embe s r .

I nte p e s on l tt ctio n
r r a I n h i s ve y excelle n t b oo k
a ra .
14
r ,

Th e Huma n G a H m n desc ibes th i s a tt a ct ive n ess by

r

m e ans of the c o sp
/
o a s r r

ept of inte a ct ion Men h ave t o be su e r .

,
r ,

known the f I f inte a ct ion in g o up el at ion s intu it ively

orce o r r r

a n d p a gmat i ally f o
r a ve y lon g tim e H oman s on the
c r r .
,

b a s i s of a study of wo ke s in an in dust i l pl nt st ated thi s

Obse vation in the fo m of an explicit hypoth esis He noted
r r r a a ,

r r .

14

p re di cti o n of in terp ers on a l at tr acti on Am er

g
Th i s term w a s o ri i n a te d b y N e com b ; s ee T H N e
s y ch o l o is t 1 1 ,
w P . g
.

,
. w co m b , Th e
5 75
86 .
78 D Y N AM IC F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
th at whe n pe s on s inte a t f eque ntly with on e anothe they
r r c r r

te n d t o fo m p o s it ive esp onses of liki n g f i en d h ip a ccept

r r ,
r s ,

an ce o app o t wi th efe en ce t o on e ano the !

,
r r r r r r
l5
s

It i s well t o no te in the fo eg oin g hyp o thes i s — an d H oman s r

d uly c a ut ion s the e a de t o d o so —th a t liki n g an d fri e n d r r

sh ip a s well a s the ir opp o s ites

,
t o be un de stoo d a s con ,
are r

t in u o u g a d a t ion s a s el a t ive an d no t abs o lute v alues

s r The ,
r .

deg ee of the likin g which indivi du ls be a tow a d on e

r a r r

ano the will in c e a se o dec e ase cc o din g t o the f equen cy

r r r r a r r

of the i inte a ction M o eove a s the p o s it ive v alen ce t o

r r . r r,

wa d the i ow n g oup m embe s inc e a ses the g e ate on

r r r r r ,
r r,

the who le i s the i n egative v alen ce tow a d m embe s of the

,
r r r

o ut g o up The likin g of on ano the w ithin g oup

-
r e r a r

i es wi th it Om ejection di sl ike of m embe s o uts i de the

.
_

r S e r or r

g o up Th i s i s see n in the c ase of the B ank Wi em e n in

r r

H om n s study wh o afte s om e tim e in the Obse ation

.

a r rv

Room developed ant agonism towa d th men emainin g on

,

r e r

the i egul a j obs ; an d who mo e o ve exp essed the ir h o s

r r r ,
r r, r

t ility by a ccus in g the m e n on the egul a j o bs o f dis c im i r r r

natin g a gainst them ‘6

Again H omans data on the B an k Wi eme n makes it po s

.

s ible t o el ab o ate the hyp othes i s t o m e an th at a s the in te

,
r

r r

a ction s Of m embe s in c e a se they ten d t o le a d to p rticipa

Thus gene all y Spe aki n g an d
r r a

tio n in a c ommon a cti vi ty .

,
r ,

o the th in gs be in g equ al the mo e pe ople in te a ct the

r ,
r r ,

mo e they sh a e on e anothe s feelin gs se ntim e nts an d

r r r
’

, ,

attitudes n d the mo e ar they likely t o beh ave s a gro up

,
a r e a

wo kin g tow a d the s am e e n d

r r

Wh a t h appe ns to inte a ction an d m utu al liki n g h oweve

.

r r,

whe n o the thin gs a no t equ al ! Homan s beli eves th at in

,

r re

t e a ti n an d m utu a l a ccept an ce a e affected by th p ese n ce

r c o r e r

of int us ive f ct o s such a s i it ants auth o i ty an d failu e

r a r ,
rr ,
r , r

to ach i eve the g o up s goals I nte a ctin g pe s on s l ike on e r

’

. r r

ano the only if the activiti es whi ch e ach pe fo m s are no t

r r r

G C H m Th h m g p ( N w Y k H t B 8 C
15 . . o a ns , e u an rou e or : arco ur ,
ra ce : o .
,

In c .

16
,

I bid .
, p p
.
. 1 11
1 13 .
.
 C OHES IV E AND DI SR U IV E FO RC ES PT 79

m utu all y i i t atin g I elevant rr as h o sepl ay . rr r

0 the j ob i s anothe int us ive fa ct o tha t may c ause n

11 ,
r r r a

tag ni m Pe
o gg m al i ty—s f a c to s. h a s
_
d ominan ce o l a z i r r su c r

ness may aff ect the el ation ship P o s it ive inte act ion o
,
r . r ,
r

likin g t akes pl a ce fu the mo e whe n inh ib itin g auth o ity r r r r

d o es no t e nte the el ation ship If whe n two pe s on s are

, , ,

r r . r

wo kin g to gethe on e h a s auth o ity ove the o the liki ng

r r r r r, 6 1
4.
“
l

may be inhib ited bec ause “of th e el ation of inequ ality o a r r _

T él t need by th sub o rd inat e of espe ct fo r o eve n fe a— “

. ”a _
_ n h m m ,

of
e r r r

the supe io A sup e io and a sub o dinate e less likely t

e A

r r . r r r ar o
"

gene ate f i endlin ess th an if the tw ogp son s h a d the s ame

n n an
. . h -u ~
.

r r fi
er

‘
a us
S
w
e el at ionship acc o din g t o H oman s is likely to
n nw
'
. r ,
r ,

be amb iv le nt f the e are two influen ces at wo k—one of

a ,
or r r

f i endliness and on e of c on st aint The el at ion ship of an

r r r

office t o h i s m e n i s a goo d ex ample Anothe int us ive

.

r
”
. r r

facto fin lly i s the failu e t o a ch i eve the g o up s goals If

r, a r r
’

the g oup fails in its pu po se m utu al anta gonisms and

.
,

r r ,

ec imination s a i se wh i ch may no t only dest o y f i en dsh ips

r r r r r

but esult in the di s integ ation f the g o up We h ave s ai d

r r o r

befo e th at whe n pe ople a s a g o up fa ce a c ommon p oblem

.

r r r

“
o d an ge an d especially whe n they succeed in s o lvin g on e
r r,

o o ve c omin g the othe thei feelin gs f o on ano the b

r r r, r r e r e

c om e p o s itively t oned w arm an d f i e ndly r

num e o us s tudi es bes i des th at of H oman s th at

.
, ,

The e r are r

supp o t the fo egoin g obse vat ion s They an ge f om the

r r r r r

wo k f R th li b e g an d Di cks on on wh ich H oman s ge n

.

’
r o oe s r er

la gely b a sed th o ugh Wh yte s s t eet co ne

,

li ti n
’
e ra z a o s are r r r -
r r

g o ups to the ese a ches of F tin g Sch a chte an d B ck

,

r ,
r r es er, r, a ,

and the mo e e ent investi gation s o f She if on the s o c io

r r c r

m et i c choices f y fi ifi gst in a b o ys c amp All of them ’

Show clea ly th at inte action and p a ticip ation inc ease the
r o e rs .

r r r r

d eg ee of in te pe s onal att a ct ion I t i s in te est in g t o no te

r r r r . r

in th i s conn ect ion h oweve th at m at le a st on e study likin g , r,

f o o n ano the
r f i e ndsh ip led t o in c e ased inte action
e r, o r r ,
r r ,

thus making likin g o f i e ndsh ip a the th an inte action the r r ,

r r r ,

17 I bid .
, p . 1 16 .

18 I bid .
, p . 1 17 .
80 D Y N AM IC F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
dete minin g v ariable Wh ile th i s study i s O pe n t o c i tic ism
r
!9
r

it at le a st c alls a ttention t o the g e at p ob ab ili ty th at the tw o

,

r r

va iables inte a ct ion an d likin g of on e ano the a e inte

r ,
r r, r r

depe ndent m utu ally supp o tin g an d m utu ally mo dify in g

,
r ,
.

The natu e of g o up att a ct ion h a s thus f a bee n de

r r r r

sc ibed a s the p o s it ive v alen ce of g o up m embe s t o on e

r r r

ano the I t i s foun d t o be embedded p ima ily th o ugh not

r . r r ,

exclus ively in the in divi du al The desc iptive u ni t of gro up

, . r

att a ctiven ess an d hence of cohes ive n ess i s the in d ivi du al

r , ,

m embe in hi s inte a ction s with othe m embe s The p y

r r r r . s

r eject ion “
h olo gi l p ope t i es of li k in g o f i e n dsh ip a ccept an ce o
ca r r

l o c ated in the in divi du al in h i s in te a ction s

,
are
”
r r ,

r
r

w i th o the in d ivi du a ls Th i s analys i s h o weve i s on e s i ded

r .
,
r, -
,

f o i t t a kes in t o cc o u n t only wh a t i s pe s ona lly o in di

r a r r

vi du ally m e anin gful S ince the pe s on an d the g o up . r r are

in te depe n dent we m ust als o t ake in t o a cco unt the object

r ,

t ow a d whi ch the m utu al likin gs e ult imately d i ected

r ar r

nam ely the g o up Attra ctive ness t o the g o up n d g o up

,

,
r . r a r

c ohes ive n ess c anno t be defin ed exclus ively in te m s of in te r r

pe s onal a tt ction n o in te m s of attra ction t o the g oup

r ra r r r

c once ived a s an o g aniz ation of two o mo e in divi du als r r r

seekin g a common goal We sh all a cco d in gly ex amin e n ext .

,
r ,

the natu e f g o up att active n ess in te m s of th e elati on

r o r r r r

of the in divi du al t o the group .

Grou p tt a ctiv en es s G oup c ohes iveness i s e nh an ced

a r . r

by a type of a tt a ct ion wh i ch i s no t d irected t ow a d in dir r

v i du al p ima i ly but t ow a d the g o up I t i s due t o the

s r r ,
r r .

v ale nt p ope ti es of the g o up i tself I f we defin e gro up

r r r .

cohes iven ess a s we h ave don e a s the esult ant of fo ces

, ,
r r

actin g on the m embe s t o emain in th g oup we fi n d th at r r e r ,

common pe ceptions expect at ion s an d sh a ed no m s pl ay

r , ,
r r

a vi t al p a t in the p o cess H ow st on g the fo ces a ct in g on

r r . r r

the m embe s t o emain in the g oup r howeve w ill de r r are , r,

19

w
Se e R P o ta shi n , A s oci om etr i c stu dy of ch il dr en s ri en ds h ip s , a ci am
48—
.

k
’
f Sk
WS f
e try 13
, 7 0 Th e o r s o f R oeth l i sb erg e r a n d Di c s on , o f

f
.

hy t e an d o f Fes tin g er, ch a ch ter, a n d Ba c h av e a lre a dy b een ci te d

,

h eri s s t u dy i s oun d in
’

H Ro hrer an d h eri
S
J Yk
o cial p s y . .
kM S f . S . M .

ch olo g y a t th e cros sro a ds ( New o r : Harp er 8: B ro s pp 3 88 —424 .

, . .
82 DY N AM IC F A C TO RS IN GR O U P BEH AV IO R
the e nmi ty of o the s a gain s t h im S ince i t i s beyon d the
r
20

ce nt ality of ou r subject matte t o s t ess in divi du al p ower

.

r r r

an d s ince we sh all give due atte ntion t o the o le of h o s til ity

,

l ate we emph as i ze the imp o t an ce of group no m s wi th its

r, r r ,

con duc ive n ess t o f i e ndli n ess a s an indi spe n s able ge ne ato
r , r r

o f g o up a tt a ct i on
r M o st of the i de a s an d d at a whi ch we
r

h ave d i scussed thus f in th i s b ook give deci s ive if no t el o

.

ar

que nt testimony t o the supp o t ive p owe of g o up st an d ards r r r

f o r i ts in d i vi du a l m embe s G o ups wh i ch a h i gh in the r . r re

att a ct ion v a iable ar th o se whi ch supp o t the in di vi du al

r r e r

m embe influe n ce h is beh avio tow a d in c e a s in g on

r, r r r c

fo mity to its st an d a ds an d nullify the effect of th o se v ari

r r ,

ables whi ch ge n e ate h o st i li ty an d avoi d an ce r .

EX PERI ME NTA L I NVE STI GA T O N O G OUP AT TRA CTI O N The I F R .

expe im e nt al manipulat ion of g o up phenom ena h a s ece ived

r r r

much attent ion in the la st dec a de Much of the wo k ex r

p oun ded thus f h a s been analyt i c al desc ip tive an d sy

.

ar ,
r ,
s

t m ti c o bse v at ion We sh all no w ex amin e s om e l ab o at o ry

e a r . r

r ese a ch investi g at ion s of g o up cohes ive n ess wi th p rti cu

r r a

attention t o the att a cti ve ness of the group

,

l
ar r .

I n a study of the e ff ect of s o c ial c omm uni c a t ion on in d i

vi du al m embe s B a k des i gned a l ab o at o y expe im e nt in
r ,
c r r r

whi ch att a ct ion of m embe s t o e a ch o the an d att a ction t o

r r r r

the g o up we e b o th investi g ated U s in g voluntee s t o p

r r
!
r ar

ti cip a t in two pe s on di scuss ion gro ups B a ck submitted

e -
r ,

question s des i gn ed t o p o duce “ st ong an d we ak vale nces r r

betwee n the m embe s To th st on g g o up he s tressed r . e r r

the fict it io us info mat ion “ th a t they we e gre a

e a ch o the an d t o the we ak g oup he gave the imp ess ion
r,
tly a ttr a cted t o
”
r
r r

th at they we e no t unusu “ l ly att a cted t o e a ch o the

r

fu the a ss i gned t o the st on g gro up the t a sk of interp et

r r
He a

r
r r .

in g a t of p i ctu es st essed the imp o t ance f th ta sk a s

se r ,
r r o e

a test of the i imag ina ti ve c ap acity an d in a ddition off e ed

r ,
r

20 D w
F g—
.g C h t , E m ot ion al dimen s i on s
a rt ri

e e li n s a n d emot io ns ( New or Y k g of

:
ro u p li
M cGra w -Hill B oo
f Mk
e, in . L R ey m ert
.

Co .
, I nc .
,

21 KW k
p p 439 4 7
.

Ps y ch o l , 46 .
.

9— 23
.

fl
B a c , I n u en ce th rou h s oci al
.
g co m m un i ca ti o n , a bn orm . soc .
C OHES IV E AND DI SR U V E FO RC ES PTI 83

a c ash ewa d f the bes t s olut ion He ass i g ed the s am e

r r or
”
. n

t ask to the we ak g o up st essed the m e asu e of ima gina r r r

tive c pacity but of“ c a sh awa d He f un d th at

,

a fe ed i t ,
r no r . o

h m em be s of the st on g g o up we e mo e influe n ced by

”
t e r r r r r

mutu al di scuss ion an d st“ve h de to e ach a g eem e t ro ar r r r n

th an the membe s f the we ake g oup Att action the r o r

”
r . r to
gro up in sho t i s aff ected no t only by the m embe s knowl
,
r ,
r
’

edge of h ow m uch they li ked e a ch o the but by the im r,

p o t an ce of goo d pe fo man ce on a t a sk and by the s tatus

r r r

o f the g o up a s m e a su ed by the subjects l ik in g i t bec a use

’

r r

of its p esti ge va lue —in o the w o ds by the att a ct ive n ess

r -
r r r

of the g oup itself

,

I n an expe im e n t a l in vest i g a t ion of the eff ects of le a de

.

r r

cente ed and g o up cente ed techni ques on inte pe s onal

r r -
r r r

affect B o va d gives fu the supp o t to our desc ipt ion of

,
r r r r r

g o up att a ct ion He devi sed a at in g sc ale f o m e a su in g

r r .
22
r r r

the anonymo usly exp essed feelin gs of m embe s f o on e r r r

anothe o n an 1 1 p oint sc ale an gin g f om — 5 f o st on g

r -
,
r r r r

d i sliki n g t o + 5 f st on g likin g The eliab ility an d v ali dity or r r

of the sc ale we e a dequ ately est abl i shed

.

“ T he
a dmini ste ed t o i st able g o ups with a p opul ati on of 55
r
sc a le
r w
S x
a s ”
r
.

“
th a t h a d m et t o gethe f o an ave a ge of 23 1 h o u s an d seve n
tempo a y g oups with a population of 53 that ha d m et
r r r
r r r r ,

f o an ve a ge o f o n ly
r a h o u s Omittin g the det ails of
r r .

the desi gn of the expe im e nt an d conce nt atin g only on the r r

r esults we c an s ay th at B“
,
ov a d est abli shed amon g o the r ,
r

things the hyp o thes i s th at m embe s of the g oup ce nte ed

,
r r -
r

p opul t ion wo uld ate ach o th e hi ghe on an aff ect sc ale

a r e
r

r r

th n m embe s of a c omp a able le a de cente ed p opul at ion

a r r r- r

wo uld ate e a ch o the He als o fo und in b o th p opul ation s

r r .

th at the g oup w a s ated s i gni fic an tly h i ghe th an we e the

r r r r

sep arate in divi du als fo min g it r .

23

22 E .

P W . B ov ard , Jr Th e
.
, ex p eri m ent al

— g
p ro du cti on o f in terp ers on al af ec t, f
a bno rm

inv e sti
to o ur
g gg a ti n

p rob l em
. s ac .

ro u p

.
s y ch o l .
,

a ttra ct iv e n e s s
46
fi fi g
52 1 33 Alth ou h B ov ard w a s n ot
s p eci ca lly , h i s
.

n di n s ar e u lly relev a n t f
I b id
g fi p
23 524 B ov a rd s ex p eri m ent s u p p orts n o t only th e hyp oth e s is th a t
’
.
, p . .

g w
p erson s are a ttra cte d t o th e ro u p f or th e rea so n s a lrea dy s tate d, b u t th at
th e rou p a s a h o le is a n i den ti able erce p tu a l ob ect j .
84 DY N AM I C F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AV IO R
An extensive and i go ous use of expe im ental techniques r r r

f o r the study of g oup att a ct ive n ess w a s ece ntly ma de by r r r

L ib o I t is unnecess ary t o give mo e th an a ve y b ief

24
r r r

evi ew of i t he e A fte a b i ef di scuss ion of the expe im ent al

.

r r r r r

sett in g L ib o p esents a det ailed desc ipt ion of t w o m e a su es

.

r r r

o f a tt a ct ion nam ely the At t a ct ion ues t ionnai re an d the

r
Q , ,
r

G o up P i ctu e Imp ess ion s tech nique ( G P I ) The ques

r -
r -
r - -
.

ti o nn i contained th ee i tem s e fe in g t o the in d ivi du al s

a re r r rr
’

wi sh to emain in the g o up ho w ofte n he w oul d like t o

r r ,

c om e t o its m eet in gs an d sh o uld the g o up b e ak up an d r r

s om e on e t i ed t o evive it whethe he wo uld w an t t o ej oin

, ,

r r ,
r r

it The G P I i s a p o jective techni que c on si stin g of a b ook

.
- -
r

let con tainin g th ee p ictu es c on ce nin g whi ch sh o t st o ies r r r r r

we e t be w itte n by e a ch subject B o th the A tt act ion

,

r o r r

t t
.

Q uest ionnai e an d the G o up P i c u e I m press ion s echn i que r -

r -
r

di sc imina ted s i gnific antly betwee n the h igh att act iven ess
r -
r

c on di tion n d the low att act ive n ess condition

a -
r

Libo s findings may be summed up b iefly The xp e i

.

r . e r

m e nt al manipul ation of g o up att a ct iven ess w as fo un d t o r r

be v ali d a s sh own by the fa ct th at th o se in the h i gh ttrac

,
-
a

ti ve n c on dition te n ded on the wh ole t o emain in their

ess r

g oups whe e a s tho se in the l ow att a ct iveness con di tion

r r -
r

te n ded t o le ave thei g o ups The Att active ness Question

,

nai e no t only disc iminated S i gn ific antly betwee n the two

r r . r

r r

sets of c on dition s but w a s fo un d t o be a val i d p edi cto of r r

whethe a m embe wo uld le ave r emain in h i s g o up The r or r r .

G oup Pi ctu e Imp ess ion s test yi elded s i gn ifican tly hi ghe
r -
r -
r r

sc o es f o the hi gh att a ct ive n ess th an f o the l ow ttrac

r r r r a

tiv en s c on d i t ion s f o th o se wh o e main ed th an f o th o se

e s ,
r r r

wh o left the ir g o ups S in ce b oth the Questionnai e an d th r . r e

G P I we e v a li d m e a su es of g o up a tt a ct ive n ess a s i gnifi

- -
r r r r ,

c ant el ationship betwee n them w a s p edicted The co e

r r . rr

l at ion betwee n them w a s fo un d t o be f o m al es r ,

f o f e males an d
r f o the c omb in ed s am ple e a ch hi ghly
,
r ,

s i gnific ant ( P

s e arch
24 L
en t er
.

C
M .

for ro u
,

G p
L ibo M eas uri n g g ro up
Dyn am ics U niv ers ity
coh es iv en es s
of
( Ann
M g
A rbor,
i ch i an ,
M ich . : Re

—
,

2 5 I bi d .
, p p 47 4 8
. .
C OHES IV E AND DI SR U V E FO RC ES PTI 5

The e a de i s aw a e no do ubt of a tellin g we akn ess o f

r r r , ,

the v a io us m e a su es of g o up att a cti ve ness We h ave l

r r r r . a

r e a dy ca lled attention t o thi s we akn ess by emph a s i z in g the

conti nu o us a da t io n of l ik in g f i e n dsh i p d o the p o s i t i ve
g r n ,
r , a r

vale nces in c omme ntin g on H omans di scuss ion f the o le ’

of inte action in c ohes ive ness ( see C hapte 3 p 77 f )

o r

r r

S ince we h ave defi ned gro up a ttra ctiven ess a s a c on seque n ce

. .
,

of the fo ces i np llin g a pe s on to emain in o t o le ave hi s

r r e r r r

g o up the esult in g cl ass ific ation of beh avior i s d ich ot omous

r ,
r .

I t seem s t o le ave no oo m f o wh a t o n the b a s i s of o the ev i

r r r

dence we kn ow t o be t ue the fa ct th at beh avio t akes pl acer : r

o n a c on t in uu m in v o lv in g a g a du a l t an s i t i on f om on e e n d r r r

of a sc ale t o the o the B o th att act ion to an d epuls ion

,

r r r

f om g o up m e mbe ship a s d i s tin ct c i te ia of m e asu em e nt

.

r r r r r r

Violate the p inciple of continuity While this failu e to

r . r

p ovi de f o contin uity of att a ction t o the g oup n eed no t

r r r r

an d will no t be pe mane nt it m us t be ec o gni zed a s a se i

r ,
r r

o u s limi t a t i on

CONCLUDI NG RE MARK S In the p ecedin g p ages of this

.

. r

chapte we h ave evi ewed the c ohes ive fa cto s in g o up

r r r r

beh avio We h ave fo un d th at cohes ive ness defi n ed a s the

r .
,

p oduct of the fo ces a ctin g up on in di v i du als t emain in

r r o r

the g o up is a c omplex phe nom e non While a knowledge

r ,
.

o f the fa ct o s of sh a ed no m s mo ale an d le a de s h ip tell s

r r r ,
r ,
r

us m uch conce nin g the na tu e of cohes ive n ess th con cept

r r e

of g o up a t t a ct ive n ess i s mo e in c i s i ve
,

r r G oup att a ct ive r . r r

n ess h a s bee n subjected t o in te n s i ve study an d expe im e n t a r

tion in the l a st dec ade I nvesti gation s h ave sh own th at the .

mo st f ui tful w ay t o study the phe nom enon i s th o ugh the

r r

m e asu em e nt of inte pe s onal att a ctio n an d the v alent ch a

r r r r r

a te of the g o up itself N e ithe one n o the o the alon e

c r r . r r r ,

but the two a s inte el ated phe nom e na yi eld a mo e c omrr ,

r

p l et e well
as a s a c on ceptu al ly mo e efi n d analys i s o f the r r e

natu e of g o up c ohes iven ess The ope a tional test of g o up

r r . r r

c ohes ive ness whi ch h a s em e ged f om the expe im e nt al i r r r 11

v es ti g ti n of the subject i th a t g i ve n a ch oi ce an in di
a o s , ,

vi du al w ill emain in th g up The m embe wh o emain s

r e ro . r r
86 D Y N AM IC FA C TO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
in the gro up i on e wh o h a s a st on ge fo ce actin g up on him
s r r r

to emain th an one who withd aws f om it

r r r .

The e o the c on clus ion s suggested by the ese a ches

r a re r r r

whi ch we h ave desc ibed only s om e of wh i ch st ated r ,

a re

he e I t h bee n fo un d th at in hi ghly c ohes ive g o ups m em

r . as r

be s e mo e ecep tive t o inte pe s onal influen ce th an in di

r ar r r r r

v i du l in non c ohes i ve g o ups W i th the in c e a se in infl u

a s r . r

e n ce go es an in c e ase in confo mity—o bette unifo mi ty r r r r, r

o f a tt i tudes an d o p inion s The e i g e ate unifo mi ty in . r s r r r

p ti cip ation als o an d p a ad oxi c al th o ugh it may seem a

ar ,
r

g e ate amount of ch an ge in m embe s th an in less oh e e

r r r c s 1v

g o ups I n sh o t the mo e att active the g oup i s t o i ts

,

r . r ,
r r r

m embe s the g e ate i s its p owe t p o duce ch an ges in its

r ,
r r r o r

indivi dual m embe s such a s s olut ion s of p oblem s in a r ,

r ,
cre s

in gly eff ect i ve d i scuss ion p o duct iv i ty o n a t a sk an d the ,

r ,

like The amount of ch an ge h oweve it sh ould be a dded

.
,
r, ,

whi ch a g oup c an effect in its m embe s c an n eve be

r r ,
r

g e ate th an the fo ce a ctin g up on them t o emain in the

r r r r

g o up
r
26

On seve al o ccasions we asse ted th at accept ance liking

.

r r , ,

an d f ie n dship c onducive t o g o up c ohes ive n ess Whil e

thi s i gen e ally t ue s om e investi ga to s h ave Sh own th at
r a re r .

s r r ,
r

inte pe s onal likin g may als o im p ai an d d i s upt the

r r r r

c ohes ive ness of g o up beh avio H oman s s tudy of the r r

’

B ank Wi eme n (see above pp 78 h as shown th is t o be

.

r ,
.

t ue S om e fo m s of g oup a ctivity
r . a dve sely aff ected by
r r a re r

clo se f i e n dship P oblem s olvin g c an be imp ai ed by the

r . r -
r

inatte ntion gen e ated by excess ive s o cial comm unic at ion b e
r

tween m utu a lly att a cted in divi du als H o sfall an d Are ns r . r

be g f o ex ample fo un d th at w o k groups whi ch en ga ged

r ,
r ,
r

in an excess ive amount of s o cial activity we e le a st p o duc r r

t ive Th i s i s but one mo e confi mat ion o f the beli e f th at

.
27
r r

g oup phe nom e na a v a iable—th at we c anno t spe ak w i th

r re r

c omp lete assu an ce eg a din g the beh avio of pe s on s in

r r r r r

g o ups
r .

26 Festin g er , Sf
h ach ter a n d B a c
c

CM
k S g
o cial p res s u res i n i nform a l
, rou p s
,

wk g .

sh o e
27

f A B Hors
. .a ll a n d Aren sb er
a cto ry , Hu m O r a n iz at ion , 8
. g Team or an d p ro du cti v i ty i n
1 3—25
. .
,

.
a
COHES IVE AND DI SR U IVE FO RC ES PT 7

DI SR U I O N GR O U EH AVI O R
PT OF P B

View of the existence of int us i e facto s

In i it ants an d r v r ,
rr ,

o the imp ai m e nts f c ohes iven ess i t i s n ecess a y t o ex

r r o ,
r

amine th o the s i de of the g o up p o cess nam ely the di s

e r r r , ,

r upt ive fact o s in g o up beh avio To thi s we now tu n

r r r r

A supe ficial obse vation of contemp o a y life le ads to

. .

r r r r

the wi desp e a d belie f th at lif e i s c omp osed l gely of c on

r ar

fli ts an d d i sh a moni es I f th i s we e t ue i t w o uld be ditfi

c r r r

cult t o un de st an d h o w g oups c o uld su ive at all O n the

.
,

r r rv .

othe h an d many studi es whi ch we h ave thus f eviewed

r a r. r

le ad one t o the equ ally d i sto ted Vi ew th at coope ation an d

,

r r

cohes iven ess a the mo st adequa te an d effic ie nt ways f o

re r

g orups t o d i sch g e the i f u n ct ion s arT he e i s an im pl i c i tr b ia s . r

in many studies especially th o se de alin g with in dust ial r

p oblem s in favo of the View ( wh ich p ob ably h as an eth i

,

r ,
r r

c al mo ti va tion ) th at c oope at ion i the mo st des i able wa y r s r

f g o ups to fun ction The t uth p ob ably lies s om ewhe e

in between the two ext em es C ohes ive n ess i s no do ub t
or r . r r r

necess a y f o g o up functionin g an d su vival but c ompet i

.

r r r r ,

tion h o sti lity and dis uption als o in esc ap able a spects
of g o up beh avio C ompet ition and conflict
, ,
r are

r r . no t alw ays are

negative dest uctive ; they can als o be stim ul ating an d

or r

const uct ive The ve y fact of int a ct io n an d inte depen d

r r er r

e nce of g o up m embe s wh i ch i s b as i c to g o up beh avio

.

r r ,
r r,

suggests c ompet ition an d c onfli ct with an d f ust ation by r r

m embe s f the g o up G o up di s uption i s impli ed by g o up

r o r . r r r

cohes iveness a s lon g a s m embe s depe n de n t up on n e r a re o

ano the The e i s goo d e a s on to beli eve mo e ove th at the

r . r r ,
r r,

g era te the rsel f in v o lve m e n t of m e m

-
be s in g o up a ct i v i t i es r r

the g eate the p ote ntial f o gro up di s upt ion a s well a s f o

,

r r r r r

g o up c o hes ion A n in d ivi du a l wh o se in te est in the g o up s

’

goals an d a ctiviti es i s only lukewa m o who se self i s only

r . r r

r ,
r

p artly involved in its a sp i ations i s no t likely t o be a cutely r ,

a oused by its coll ective effo ts n o deeply f ust ated by its

r r r r r

failu es D is uption esults finally f om diffe e n ces in in di

r r r r r

v idu al and c ollective goals an d the c onfl i cts they gen e ate
.
, ,

All membe s of a g oup e no t likely to ag ee on all issues

.

r r ar r
88 DY N AM I C F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
n o st ive f o the s am e g oal
r r t a ll t im es
r G oup dis uption a . r r ,

in fine i s a p o tential c on sequen ce of s o cial livin g

,

TY PE S OF G O UP DIS R UP TI O N S in ce ou k nowledge o f thi s

.

R . r

subject i s f ar f om c omplete we sh all desc ibe onl y th o ser ,

r

fo m s of g o up di s uption wh ich h ave bee n d isclo sed by

r r r

c a eful e e a ch p a ti cul a ly by expe im e nt al investi gation

r

I n an expe im e n t a l study O f the subject F e n ch d i i ded

r s r ,
r r r .

r r v

g o up di s“
r rupt ion in t o tw o main c a tego i es One cl ss con r .
,

28
a

s i sted of a e al splitt ing of the g oup by the fo mat ion f ”

Oppo sin g factions a elative absence of le ade ship little

r r r o

,
r r ,

es
p i t d
r e co
p an d the pe man ern t
m embe s The o the cl ass w a s ch a acte i zed by mino di
r .
w
s,i thd a w a“l o f s om e

r
r

r r
r

r s

r uptions in whi ch temp o a y esc ape f om the field in te

”
r r r ,
r

p e s ona
r l a gg ess ion s an d a ge n e arl d i s o g ani z a t ion f g,
o up r r o r

activiti es we e the o utst an din g fe atu es r r

29

F ench s expe iment w a pe fo m ed on s ixteen g oups of

.

wh ich e i ght we e o gani zed an d e i ght uno g ni zed E a ch

r r s r r r ,

r r r a .

g o up c ont ained i m embe s I n the o g ni zed g o ups s om e

r S x r . r a r

we e m embe s of athleti c te am s an d s om e f clubs e n ga ged

r r o

in athleti c a ctivi ti es Th m embe s of the u no ganized . e r r

gro ups we e una cqu ainted w ith on ano the a t the be ginnin g
r e r

of the expe im en t All the g oups we e delibe ately f u s

r . r r r r

t t d by be in g
ra e equi ed t o s o lve u n s olv able p oblem s r r r ,

nam ely a mathematic al puzzle the H in du py ami d of di scs

p oblem an d a mo t o Skill puzzle
, ,
r

r ,
r- .

Summ ed up the esults cle arly d iffe e ntiatin g Wh ile

,
r are r .

a gg ess ion con sequent up on f ustrat ion mo unted in th

r ,
r ,
e

o gani zed g o ups an d h o st ility w a s openly exp essed by its

r r r

m embe s they st ill emained clo sely kn i t gro ups n d wi shed

r ,
r a

t o continue w o kin g on the p oblem s at th en d of the exr r e

p erim nt T he
e o utst . n d in g f e a tu e of the u no g ani zed a r r

g o ups on th o the h and w as th ap i d le ava ge of m em

r ,
e r ,
e r c

be s int o opp o s ing fa ction s I nte depe n de nce w a s min imal

r . r ,

JP 28 . R P . . F
Th e di sru p ti on a n d coh e s ion of ro u p s I a bnorm
re n c h Jr, .
,

g g ,
.

wg
s ac . sy ch o l , 36 .3 6 1—77 Th is s tu dy , al th ou h p ri m ari l y c on cern e d

g
ith th e em o ti o n a l b eh a v i or of sm a ll rou p s , n on e th ele ss thro s v al u a ble
l i h t o n th e p rob lem o f ro u p di sru ti on
.

p g .
w
2 9 I bi d 3 66
, p .
. .
 90 D Y N AM IC F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BE HAVI O R
M in a di orga niz a tio n U nl ike gro up cle av a ge mino d i s
r s .
,
r

o gani z tion d o es no t eve ntu ate in any pe man ent d ivi s ion
r a r

of the g o up Thi s fo m of di s uption i s m uch mo e f equent

r . r r r r

in the o gani zed th an in the uno gani zed g oups Th i s c n

r r r . a

fo m s t o the f eque nt obse v ation th t c ohes ive g oup

r r r a a r ,

ch a a te i zed by a h igh de gree of sel f in olvem ent an d w

r c r -
v e

feelin g e ng a ges in c on st u ctive opp o s ition an d c onfli ct with

, r

o ut e n d an ge ing i ts st uctu e H o stiliti es an d a gg ess ion s

Openly exp essed e the eby mo e eadily cont olled o
r r r . r

r ar r r r r r

ch ann eli zed int o motivat ion s f s o lvin g m utu l p oblem s or a r .

M ino di s upt ion s r of th ee ki n ds ( 1 ) inte pe s onal

r are r : r r

a gg ess ion 2 ) temp o a y esc ape f om the field an d ( 3 )

r , r r r ,

gene al di s o gani z at ion

r r .

1 I nt e p e o n l a gg e s i o ns c on s i st of such fo m s of b
. r rs a r s r e

h avio a s indivi du al h o stility domina tion of othe s bl amin g

r r

othe s s a c a sm ec imination an d the like An imp o t ant

, ,

r ,
r ,
r r ,
. r

fe tu e of inte pe s onal a gg ess ion is th at i t i s usu ally c

a r r r r a

c omp ni ed by the m embe s ins i ght int o the i w n beh avi o

a r
’

r o r

t e in s i ght e nables the m t o V i ew the i failu es a s be in g no

.

r r

on ein divi du al s fault t o avoi d lookin g f sc apegoats an d

’

,
or ,

stop bl amin g on e anothe I n the expe im e nt desc ibed f r . r r ,

or

ex am ple s om e indivi du als m uch t o the ch a g in of o the s

, ,
r r ,

l aughed at thei failu es an d the eby educed thei own r r r r r

te n s ion s .

The maintenan ce of th g o up i s the mo e ema k able e r r r r

when we c on s i de the la ge numbe o f inte pe s onal g r r r r r a

e ss io n s th a t we e ec o ded in the expe im e n t T he a ve a ge

g r r r r r . r

numbe f o the uno gani zed g o ups w a s 6 an d f o the o

r r r r r r

n i e d g o ups 45 The a uth o e ma ks th a t the a ctu a l n um

g a z r . r r r

“
b of a gg ess ion s w a s m uch l a ge f o the o g ani zed g o ups
th an c o uld be ec o ded E stimates n a s hi gh a s 600 in on e
er r r r r r r

r r . ra

o gani zed g o up
r r .

2 T mp o es ca e f om the fie ld i s ano the

e ra r fo m o f r
.
y p r r

mino di s upt ion H av in g defined g o up cohes ive n ess a s the

r r . r

tio n gw
st u di e s a b o un d,

o es h a n d in h a n d
i n dee d, ww i th
ith in terde
ev i de n ce s h o

p w g
en den ce
in th a t ff
di eren ti a ti on of
an d coh es i v en es s o f th e
fg un c
rou p
as a h ole .

31 I bid , p . . 366 .
C O ES IV E AND DISR U IV E FO RC ES
H PT 9]

p o duct of the fo ces a ctin g up on in divi du als t o emain in

r r r

the g o up i t i s n t difli u lt to
r ,
th at wi thd awal f om the
o c s ee r r

field ,
g oup sh o uld esult in di s upt ion S in ce the with
or r ,
r r .

d aw al i s only temp o a y the e i s no pe man e n t di o g n i

r r r ,
r r s r a z a

tion o di s uption of the g o up The temp o a y esc ape in

r r r . r r

the expe ime nt c ons isted of wi thd aw al f om the p oblem

r r r r ,

attempts t o h an ge p oblem s substitute beh avio che at in g

c r ,
r, ,

and the like I n the fa ce of epe ated failu e s om e m em

. r r ,

be s t i ed t o esc ape the bl am e an d c iti ci sm of o the s by

r r r r

appe alin g t the goo d will of the expe im ente o the s

o r r, r

blam ed sc apegoats O n e sc apegoat withd ew f om the g o up . r r r

in p o test ing n ge etu nin g only afte be in g m ollifi d by

r a r, r r r e

an appe al t o h i pe s onal p i de Qu antit atively exp essed

s r r . r ,

the ave ge n umbe of esc apes f om the field w a s twelve f o

ra r r r

the uno g ani zed an d s ixteen f o the o gani zed g o ups

r r r r .

3 G n l dis o g niz tion of the g o up s activity i s a ’

th i d fo m Of mino di s upt ion I t i manifested mo st cle a ly

. e era r a a r

r r r r . s r

in un oope ative an d especially unc oo dina ted beh avio in

c r ,
r ,
r

whi ch eve y m embe f eely bl am es eve y o the m embe f

hi s own failu es E very se io us failu e i s follo wed by c om
r r r r r r or

r r r

L
.

p l t
e e, but te m p o a y d i s o g ani z a t ion a st in g d
r ri o
g ni ,
r . s r a z a

tion of the g oups in the expe im e nt w a s p ob ably ave ted

r r r r

by the ability of the m embe s t o t alk to an d e n c o ura ge on e r

ano the an d by thei deci s ion at the U ial p oint of st ess

r, r cr c r

to stop blamin g one ano the f o they we e aw a e th at failu e r, r r r r

wa s no on pe s on s fault Wh ile the autho di d no t eco d

e r
’

. r r r

ge ne al di s o gani z ation qu an ti t atively he ep o ted th t it

r r ,
r r a

w s mo e f eque n t in the o g ani zed th an in the u no g ani zed

a r r r r

g o ups
r .
32

FA CTORS IN G OUP D SR UPTI O N Rest iction a nd b e k R I r r a

Recent ese a ches have made

.

dow n a f commu ni c ti o n a . r r

abun d n tly cle a th at g oup s oli d a ity an d c ohes ion depe nd

a r r r

o n effe t ive c omm u ni c at ion

c Whe n c ommunic a tion betwee n .

in divi du als i s est i cted o whe n it b e aks d own alt o gethe

r r ,
r r r,

pe s on s fo m ste e o typed atti tudes t owa d othe s S ince

r r r r r .

they d o not c nno t check the i w n obse vation s of o the s

or a r o r r ,

32 I bi d .
, pp . 3 6 6—6 7 .
92 DY N AM IC F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
they develop p ivate Op inion s of them Wh ile not all e
r . r

t i ted c omm u ni c at ion in ev i t ably le a ds t o ste e o typed a tt i

s r c r

tudes m uch of it do es esult in the typ e of d ist o tion f the

, r r o

inte nt ion of o the s th at i s ch a a cte i sti c of the i s ol ated p e

r r r r

s on Th i s di st o tion often “ b eeds h o st ili ty t ow a d o the

r r r r

N ew comb
.

m embe s of the g o up The aut isti c h o stility

r r .
,
as

c alls i t i s e nc o u a ged by est i ction s o b a i e s to c ommun i

r r r r rr r

c ation A dequ ate c omm unic ation ( th at i s c omm uni c at ion

,

33
.
,

wh i ch e nt ails no th e at t o the m embe s ) n the o the h an d

r r ,
o r ,

r educes h o stili ty between them f o it en c o u a ges c omp a i ,

r r r

s ons an d mo difies m embe s att itudes t o wa d e a h o the r

’

r c r .

“
I t i s imp o t an t no t t o c onfuse n in d ivi du al s i s o l at ion
’

r a

f om o the s w ith the s o c ially sh ed auti sm wh ich de

r r ar
”

ve lop s in a g o up Sh a ed a ut i s m an d the sh a ed h o st ili ty

r . r ,
r

t o wh ich it may gi e i se de ive the i p o te n cy n d ap ci ty

v r ,
r r a c a

f o p o ducin g mi sch i ef f om be in g s o c ially e info ced The e

r r r r r . r

i s s om e communi c ation he e but i t i s est i cted ; an d the

m e anin gs wh i ch a Sh a ed
r ,
r r

,
c o esp on din gly d i st o ted
re r ,
are rr r .

a h m e m be of the o up pe ce i ves the o the in a f am e

fio k of th e at and responds to him defensi ely D efens i e
g
c r r r r r

. r r v . v

n ess b eeds h o stili ty an d h o stility p ovokes de fe ns i en ess

r r v .

The s ituat ion a s i t appli es t o the g o up i s s imil a t o the r r

Vicious i cle of the individual neu otic in whom h o stility

c r r

an d anxi ety mutu ally einfo ce e ach othe Just r n in d i r r . as a

vi du al wh o do es no t a dequ ately c omm uni ca te wi th h im self

( th a t i s on e wh o ep
, esses h i s h o st i l i ty
r ) i bl in
r d t o h i s o wn s

ill feelin g t ow a d othe s o in divi du als wh o do no t c ommuni

r r ,
s

c a te the ir ill will towa d o the s are seld om awa e o f the i r r r r

hostility tow a d them The difficulty in b oth c a ses li es in th

r . e

a e a of communi c at ion
r

An inte esting case of this fo m of misunde standin g in

.

r r r

g o up el at ionships le a din g t o pe ceptu

r r
“ a l ,
d i st o t
t en ti al al i e nat ion i the c on d i tion of plu al i sti c i gno an ce
,
s
ion an d p r

r
r

r
o

.
”

I n th i s c on d it ion no on e beli eves but eve y on e bel i eves th a t ,

r

eve yon e believes Sch ank desc ibes an ex am ple of such a

r . r

contr adict ion betwee n p iv ate vi ews an d pub li c att itudes r .

1
33 T . M .

69 —
Ne
86
w
.
co mb , Au ti s ti c h o stil ity a nd so ci al rea li ty ,
H um . R e la t .
,
94 D Y N AM IC F A C TO RS IN GR O U P BEH AV IO R
wh o i s depen dent on hi s supe io f o des i ed ewa ds wil l r r r r r r

c ommuni c ate only info mation t o the l atte th at w ill p o tect r r r

o r adv an ce hi s own inte ests Thi s c on dit ion i s p a ti cul a ly r . r r

e n c o u aged in complex an d fo mal o gani z at ion s like mo d

r r r ,

er n in dustria l pl an ts whe e the ch ann els of c omm u ni c ation r

be twee n sub o dinates an d supe o din ates a c ontinu ally

,

r r r re

len gthe ned an d m ultipli ed U n de these ci cum st an ces as . r r ,

H oman s and Ro ethli b g h ave sh own e ach ch ann el t an s s er er ,

r

mi ts only p a t of the inf o mat ion an d no on e “ i s esp ons ible

f o the wh o le m ess a ge E ve y n ew ch an n el may in c e a se
r r ,
r

r . r r

the insecu i ty of m en lo c ated on the othe ch ann el f i t

r r ,
or

b y p a sses these m e n an d tran s mi ts in fo mat ion th at in the

h an ds of a le a de inade qu ately skil led may b in g c iti ci sm
-
r ,

r r r

b a ck d own up on them
,
”3 6

An impo t ant facto in selective t ansmission i s the ima ge

.

r r r

w h ich a ch has of t he o the r in the c omm uni c at ion p o cess

e r .

The conten t of m ess a ges t n smitted by a sub o dinate t o a ra r

su e o dinate i s diff e e nt f om th at of m ess ages goin g in the

p
r r r r

oppo s ite di ection F acts e slanted mo dified o d i st o ted

r . ar , ,
r r

in acc o dance wi th the ima ge th at the sub o din ate ha s of

r r

hi sup e io an d in a cc o d an ce wi th h i s no t ion of wh t the

s r r, r a

b o ss w an ts to he a I f th b o ss i s c on ceived a s a th e ate nin g

r e r

ty ant he i s almo s t su e t o get only such info mation will

.

r , r r as

p otect the wo ke f om h i w ath I f in tu n the b o ss sees

r r r r s r . r

the wo ke a s a pe s on t oo e a ily upset by c i ti cal info ma

r r r s r r

t ion he mi ght c onvey t o him only such fa cts a s wi ll ten d t o

,

e n c o u a ge him r

An inte estin g illust ation of the ole of one s image of

.

r r r

th e othe i s fu ni shed by the H artleys O ne of them de

r r .

sc ibes a nu se y school ch ild ega ding wh o se beh avio th

r r r r r r e

te ache s s o ught help an d a dvi ce Wh ile th c on sult an t h d

r e a

t aveled i hund ed miles to meet wi th the te che s the

.

r s x r a r ,

l atte b o ught only such mino beh avio p oblem s t o h i s

r r r r r

atte ntion a s they c o uld e as ily h ave h andled them se lves N o t .

unti l afte the c onfe e nce di d he d i scove the e s on f o the

r r r r a r

36

m a s te r
Hom a n s Th e hu ma n
a n d v icti
,

m of do ubl e t a l
g k ro u p ,
-
,
p . 461 ; FJ
Ro e th l is b erg e r, Th e
.

Ha rv a rd B us i ne s s Rev , 23
.

.
f ore m an
2 83
98 .
COHES IV E AND DI SR U IV E F O RC ES PT 95

te ache s di stu b ance ove the child s beh avio and why
r
’

r r
’
r,

they h a d called on h im f help The pe tu b in g elem ent or . r r

in the chi ld s beh avio w a“ s f equent ma stu b ation but a s

’

r r r ,

the consult n t ema ked no te a che h a d m ent ioned thi s

a r r ,
r

bec ause the supe vi s o w s a man an d all the te a che s we e r r a ,

r r

wom en ! The te a che s ima ge of a m le app a e ntly p e r

’ ‘ ’

a r r

cluded di scus in g sexu l act ivity with him an d the supe s a r

Viso s ima ge of the te ache s ha d not included such an ele

,
’ ‘ ’

r r
”3 7
m ent of eticen ce r .

The imp o t ance of comm uni c ation of s om e m utu al a gree

r

ment amon g indivi dua ls i obvio usly essential t o g o up

,

s r

functionin g O uts ide m e e c a su al a ss o c iat ion wh ich ch a

,

. r ,
r

ac te i e flu i d c o wds o a gg eg a t ion s of pe ople a f am e of

r z s r r r ,
r

refe en ce comp o sed of c ommon pe ception s an d fun d a

r r

me nt al i de as of the na tu e of o cial e ality i s esse ntial f o r s r ,

r

g o up exi sten ce I n the abse nce of comm unic ation c ommon

r .
,

pe ception s an d the sh a ing of v alues a g oup woul d p ob

r r r r

ably no t ari se ; o if i t di d i t o uld no t long en du e Acc o d

, ,

r c r r

in gly an yth in g wh i ch in te rf e es w i th the c omm u ni c at ion

.
,

,
r

p o cess eve ntu ally b in gs ab o ut a di s upt ion in human el a

r r r r

ti o n sh ip s .

I ntergroup hos ti lity nt a an d inte g o up el ation s we . I r r r r ,

h ave s ai d e b ased on s imil a psych olo gi c al p inc iples Be

,
ar r r .

c ause inte g o up c onfli cts an d hostiliti es loom l a ge in con

temp o a y s o ci ety and bec ause they h ave S ignific ant p acti
r r r

r r r

l im pli c at ion s we m us t invest i g ate the m sep a ately

,

ca ,
r .

I n the p eced in g sect ion we est abli shed the fa ct th at a de

r

qu ate communi c a tion i s esse ntial t o o gani zed g o up func r r -

ti on in g G oo d c ommuni c at ion b in gs an d ho lds pe ople r

to gethe O n the o the h an d a s we h ave als o sh own p oo

.

r . r , ,
r

o im p ai ed c omm ni c a t ion d i s upts o dest o ys hu man el a

r r u r r r r

ti n sh i
o
p I t b eeds dsi st o ted ima ges of n e ano the rc e a tes r o r, r

misunde stan dings betwee n pe ople an d gives i se t o inte

.

r r r

gro up h o st ili ty B ut he e a s in many othe g o up phe

,

we obse ve a familia psycholo gic al c i cul arity

. r ,
r r

n om n e a, r r r .

( Ne w
37 E .

Y or k f
L Ha rtley
.

: Al re d
a nd

A . K f R
n op
. E
,
. Hartl ey
In c .
,
,
F u nda menta ls

p . 52 .
f
o so ci al p s y cho lo y g
96 D Y N AM IC F A C TO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
H o stili ty in tu n imp ai s c omm uni c at ion Whe n two g o ups
r r r

d o no t ope a te wi th in the s am e f am e f efe en ce do no t

.

r r o r r ,

sh a e the s am e no m s wo ds an d con cepts h ave d ive gent

m e anin gs I n thi s S i tu at ion two g o ups i np u t neg“
r r ,
r r

. ati ve r r e

values t o e a ch o the and ee “

”
e ach o the a s p o te ntial e n e
r s r

mi es o a gg ess o s I n th i s f am e of min d n e ithe can

r r r . r
”
r

see the othe object ively an d e ach inte p ets the o the s
r r r r
’

beh avio a s h o stile A s the n ega tive pe ceptions ar mul ti

r r e

pli ed an d inte ns ified the c omm unic ation betwee n them i s

.

c o esp ond in gly educed o eliminated A s the omm u ni c

,

rr r r . c a

tion diminishes the g o ups bec om e mo e wi th drawn an d

,
r r

d iffe ent f om e a ch o the an d their s o c ial f am es f efe e n ce

r r r r o r r

in c e as in gly mo e di stinct A s the f am es f e fe e n ce d i

r r . r o r r

ve ge mi sunde st n d in gs a i se an d ho stile e act ions to e ach

r ,
r a r r

o the m ult iply The only w ay o u t of th i s ci cle i s the epla ce

r . r r

m e nt of one beh avio p atte n by ano the Thi s alls atte n

ti on t o a ve y imp o t ant fact c once ni n g inte g oup h o st ili ty
r r r
. c

r r r r r ,

1i a m ly the ole of le a nin g

,
r r .

T e i s enou gh expe im ent al evi de nce t o pe mi t us t o

re r r

s a
y w,
i th c on s i de a ble c on fide n ce th a t h os ti lit
r
y i n act u l ,
a

s i tua tio ns is lea n d We h ave the e mo t iona l c ap a c i ty t o dis

r e .

l ike o feel ho stile t o w a d o the people but a feelin g o

r r r r

di spl ay of h o stility towa d them i s a cqui ed o le arn ed A s

,

r r r .

in al l le a nin g we elect the in divi du als o g o ups t ow ard

r s r r

wh om we e a ct in ce t ain w ays We le a n t o comm un i cate

r r r

wi th s ome g o ups an d no t wi th o the s Th o se wh om we

.

r r .

select a pe s on s o gr o ups wh o d o no t d iffe to o m uch f om

re r r r r

o u selves wh o in a b oa d se n se spe ak the s am e l an gu a ge

r ,
r ,

an d who se lo c omo tion s t ake pla ce in the s m e efe e nce a r r

f am es of sh a ed no m s We le a n t o select the pe s on s o
r r r . r r r

gro ups in childhoo d thro ugh con diti onin g ex am ple an d , ,

delibe ate in culc ation by adults such as p a e nts an d te ach

r r

Repetition of the e a ly conditioning einfo ces the h

,

S itu a
er s . r r r as

tility wh i ch in tu n i s t an s fe ed t o o the pe s on s r r rr r r or

t ion s The atti tude of h o stility in o the wo ds i s ge n al iz e d

.
,
r r ,
er

t o inclu de any pe s on o g o up wh i ch p esents s imil ch a r r r r ar r

a cteri s ti cs .
98 DY N AM IC F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AV IO R
A note of c aution needs to be injected he e While we r .

h ave st essed the imp o t ance of comm uni c at ion an d the re

r r

duction of excess ive compet itive n ess in the es olution o f r

inte gro up te n s ion s an d h o stili t ies cont act an d inte a ction

r r

in them selves a e no gu a anty f o the elimination o f inte

,

r r r r

g oup f i ction s H o stile att itudes be twee n in gro ups an d

r r -

w ee n them
.

o ut g o ups may cont inue desp“

-
r ite inte a ction bet“ r

She if s expe im en t with the B ull D o gs an d R ed D evil s

.

’ ”
r r

sh owed a pe s i ste nce of nam e c all in g an d de o gato y ste e o

r -
r r r

types between the two g oups despite their mutual p articip a r

t ion in sh a ed athlet i c eve nts b irthd ay p a ti es c ampfir es

r ,
r , ,

an d the like .
38

CONCLUSION
The p o cesses f g o up cohes iven ess an d g o up di up
r o r r sr

t ion ha ve b o th the o eti c al an d p a cti c al s i gnifican ce A r r .

knowledge of e a ch b oade n s an d deepens o un de st n din g r ur r a

o f the psych o l o gy of g o ups an d ai ds us in the c on st uct ion r r

of t ch ni tj es f effecti ve comm uni c ation an d f o es o lvin g

e u or r r

te ns ion s n d c onfli cts in human el ationshi ps I n th i s ch apte

a r . r

we h ave c on ce nt ated almo st wh olly on the natu e of co r r

h i n
es v e an d di s upt ion of g o ups The es olut ion f c on
ess r r . r o

fli ct will be ex amin ed in det ail in P a t I II

s r .

We h ave evi ewed emp i i c al the o et ic al and p i

r r ,
r ,
ex er

m ent al d at a in thi s ch apte Wh ile we h ave ma sh al ed onl y r . r

a small amo unt of the p o di gio us ese a ch th at h a s bee n don e r r r

in th i s a e a we h ave p esented e no u gh t o acqu ai nt the

r ,
r

r e a de wi th the esse nti l p ope t i es of b o th c ohes ive ness an d

r a r r

d i s upt ion in gro up beh avio A e n c o a gin g t e n d in e

r r . 11 ur r r

se a ch i s the in c e a s in g emph as i s ou emp i i cal an d p e i

r r r ex r

m e nt al studi es O ut of th is ese a ch the e h a s em e ged a

. r r r r

no t inc on s i de able amo unt of depen d able n d ope a tional

r a r

desc iption of the c on di tions th a t influe nce g oup c ohes ive

r r

ness an d g o up di s uption r r .

f
For a u ller a c u a in ta n ce
38 q w
i th th e p roblem un der co n si dera tion , th e
MS f
MS
Y
.

k f
h eri an d
o r : Harp er 8: Bros ,
C . WS f
re a der s h o u ld co n s u lt th e re s e arch es o f

pp 301 —
.

32
h e ri th a t h a v e b ee n ci ted , an d
h eri , An o utlin e of s oc ia l p sy cholo y ( rev e d ; New
. .
.

.
g . .
C OHES IV E AND DI SR U IV E FO RC ES PT 9

While inte est in th i s ch apte is c once nt ated on co

ou r r r r

he i n
s ve an d di s uption we h ave by impli c ation suggested
ess r ,

the fo ces whi ch r at wo k in the enti e field of g o up

are r r r

beh avio In on w y o ano the the e mainde of thi s b ook

r e a r r r r

inevi t bly t o uches up on the subject exp o un ded in the p es

.

ent ch apte C ohes ive n ess an d di s uption affect o

a r

r . f r r are a

f ect d by o the v a iables in g o up beh av io

e r I n p op o t ion
r r r . r r

t o th extent an d deg ee th at we fo m ul ate these v a iables

e r r r

ope at ionally g o up dyn amics i s mo vin g aw ay f om philo

S ophi al and intuitive explanations to cientific desc iptions
r ,
r r

c s r .

Thi s t an s ition i s mo st cle ly evi dent whe n we c omp a e the

r ar r

fo mul ation of c ohes ive n ess s esp it de corps wi th de c ip

r a r s r

tion s of i t in te m s of the att a ctive ness of m embe s t o e ach

r r r

o the an d t o the g o up ; an d whe n we c om p are the analys i s

r r

of gro up di s uption a s b e akd own in mo ale with d sc ip

r r r e r

tions of i t in te m s of in te pe s onal a ggress ion s an d di to

r r r s r

t ions in c omm uni c ation Th i s i s no t t o ay th at c oncepts . s

like esp it de corps an d mo ale ar to be di sc a ded They no

do ubt efe t o e al on ditions o p o cesses C e t ainly whe n
r r e r .

r r r c r r . r ,

c on ceived a s fo ces a cting a gain st con dit ion s f ust a tin g the
r r r

effo ts of g oup t o a ch ieve a goal these c on cepts h ave a

r a r

m e nin gful st atus B ut unt il they a e defin ed mo e i go

,

a r r r r

ly th an a s fee ling of g o up i de nt ific at ion o a s g o up w i ll

.

they will no t in the lon g n a dd S i gnific ntly t o th sci en ce

o us s r r r ,

ru a e

of g o up be h av io
r I n deed o ur study sh o ws th a t esp ri t de
r .
,

co r s an d mo a le g in in spec ific ity f m e anin g t o the deg ee o r

p r a

th at they e un de stoo d a s p oblem s of g o up c ohes ion

ar r r r

an d d i s upt ion E p i t d co p an d mo ale f om o ur p oin t

r s r e r s r r

o f V i ew b o th
.
,

e fe to the fo ces actin g up on indivi du als t o

,
r r r

r em in in the gro up includ in g the degree f c oo d in at ion of

a ,
o r

m embe s effo ts t o do SO I n th is w ay we
r
’

r able t o de . a re

sc ibe the cohes iven ess an d di s upt ion of g o ups by m e an s

r r r

o f a s in gle un if y in g c on cept .
C HA P TER

Group Le a rning

ce ntu i es i t h a s bee n un c iti c ally beli eved th at

Fo r r r

ing le a nin g an d o the c o gnit ive p o cesses

r wh o lly in r r are

d ivi du al phe nom e na and th at p o duct ive le arni n g an d

, ,

the esult of in divi du al ff o t A wi desp e a d

,

thinkin g
p
a e r e r . r

p ejudi ce ex ists to the effect th at c ommittees an d o the

r r

g oup ings neve p o duce s i gnific ant esults f o c e ative an d

r r r r ,
r r

p o ductive activiti es
r in divi du al phe nom e na I f s olution s a re .

of p oblem s em e ge f om g o ups it i bec use a le a de o

r r r r , s a r r

o the except ional pe s on puts h i s t alents t o wo k an d in

r r r

flu en o the s to a g ee wi th h i s deci s ion

Stu a t Ch a se desc ibes tw o in st an ces of th i s deep oo ted
ces r r .

r r -
r

b ia s He cites fi st the c a se of a psych ol o gi st wh o put th ee

r r

s tudents to w o k a s a te am on a Ph D di sse t a ti on They

.

r . . r .

p o duced an excellent study wh i ch the psycholo gi st ated

r r

be tte th an one whi ch anyone of them al on e c o uld h ave

writte n B ut S ince the in stitut ion h ad no fo m lly eco g
r

. r a r

d w ay of givin g Ph D t o g o ups the p o ject p o duced

’

ni ze . . s r ,
r r

onl y con ste nation r

1

g (N w Y k H p
.

8 Ch
f
R d m
N w Y k U i
1 as e , oa s8 Bto a re e e nt e or : ar er : ro s
—
. .
,

pp .6 0 61 I
a nn o u n ce d
h
gf
. th
f or
n dd t
a o o tn o te i y h
a s ters de g re e s Th e p re s ent
ro u p th e s e s
t e
M
au

riter ca n a dd to
or
’
a s

.
ha t e or

w n v e rs t as

w
m itt ee a t C
th i s th e in orm a ti on th a t h e w a s recen tly a m ember o f a diss e rt a ti o n com
o l u m b i a U ni v e rs i ty

ri tte n b y t w o i n div i du a l s
w
hi ch s u p e rv is ed a do ctora l di ss erta ti on
Th e p ro du ct w a s o f a hi h order . g .
1 02 DY N AM I C F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
wo ld a o un d us of othe pe ople an d u el tion s t o them
r r ,
r ,
o r r a

a cqui ed le n ed Thi s i s t ue whethe we e de al

in g with S imple esp on ses t o phys i cal st imuli c omplex e a
ar e r or ar . r r ar

r ,
r o

t ion s by m e an s of inte p et ation n d m e anin g o hi ghly r r a ,

r

o gani zed s o cial pe cept ion s invol in g g o up no m s an d

r r v r r

expect ation s
ANALY S S O THE P O LE M No topic in psych olo gy h as
.

I F R B .

been subjected t o g e te sc utiny an d i go ous expe im e nta l

r a r r r r r

investi gat ion th n le a nin g Alth o ugh the esults of cl ss i c al

a r . r a

c on ditionin g expe im ents we e g e atly o ve s im pli fied an d

r r r r

subseque ntly mo stly out grown the b ia s in fa o f the ni ,

v r o a

mal mo del in le a ning the o y h a s becom e deeply ent e n ched

r r r .

We d o no t question the use of expe im ent l anim ls in the

study of le a nin g n do we se iously ch alle n ge the l i dity
r a a

r ,
or r va

o f c a ut io us ext ap o l t ion f om nimal t o hum n le a nin g

r a r a a r .

The e i s no d o ubt th t ll le nin g i s ch a a cte i zed by a few

r a a ar r r

elem e nt a y p in ciples Too often h o weve the ext p ol a

r r .
,
r, ra

t ions h ave affo ded us in fli i n t un de st an din g of in di

r su c e r

vi du al human le a nin g n d in the a e a of g oup le nin g

r ,
a r r ar

they h ave a ely off e ed the s o cial psych olo gi st any us able
in si ghts H
r r r

i v a lue of
”
the u ni
e ve s l ele m e n t a y p in c i ples i s r a r r

t oo f equen tly devoi d f l

.

d imini shed Bec ause they ar e r o cu

tu al o g o up c on te nt Re info cem e nt wh ich l oom s l ge in

r r r . r ,
ar

c ontemp o a y le arnin g expe im ents h a s been confi ned t oo

na owly t o the l b o at o y s itu at ion with the con se que n ce
r r r ,

rr a r r ,

th at the le arnin g psych olo gi st i s a ely able t o p edi ct hum an r r r

beh avio o uts i de it Human in c ont a st t o mo t anim l

r .
,
r s a ,

le arnin g i s ofte n ci cuit o us an d d fl ti an d it i no t

r e ec v e, s

wh oll y gove n ed by n eed educt ion—eve n supp o s ing th at

r r

thi s i s s o in lowe anim als whi ch i do ubtful Human be in gs

r ,
s .

ar e no t except in hyp o thet i c a l o

, fictitio us c a ses i s ol ted r ,
a .

The i le a nin g i s affected by othe human be in gs wh o act

r r r as

r e info c in g a ge nts Wh il e we m ust the efo e c on clude th at

r . r r

le a nin g go es on ins i de th indivi du al th kin d of le a nin g

r e ,
e r

whi ch we investi gating i s ope ation lly m e nin gful only

a re r a a

whe n we c on s ide it in th exte nal c ontext of the g o up We

r e r r .

begin no t wi th the cla ss i c al le a nin g p o cess but wi th le a n

, r r , r
GR O U P L EAR NIN G 10 3

in g a s it t akes pl a ce in s o cia l inte action F om a s o c ial r r

V
.

“
psych o l o gi c a l p oin t of i ew i t i s no mo e
explain human le a nin g a n inte act ional p ocess th an
”
m yste io us t
r
o
s a r
r

r
r

t o acc o unt f o i t wh olly in te m s of the beh avio of the in d i

r r r

vi du al o gani sm The ch a ge of mysti ci sm appli es t o e a lie

r . r r r

g o up min d specul ations but i s with o ut foun dat ion whe n

r -
,

di ected a g inst ece nt inqui i es int o s o c ial le a nin g an d col

r a r r r

lecti e p o blem —
v s olvin g The e info c in g a ge nt in g oup
r . r r r

le nin g i s no t n eed s ati sfa ction whi ch i s alw ays—an d ques

ar ,

tio n bly —a ssum ed in in d i vi du al le a nin g but a st im ulus

a r ,

s itu ation of two o mo e in divi du als mo dif yin g on e anothe s ’

beh avio E vi den ce of thi s i s fo un d all the w ay f om the

r r r

r . r

e a ly inte a ctions of p a e nt an d ch ild in the s o c ial i zin g p o c

r r r r

ess in the h om e t o th l atest unle a nin g of a cial p ejudi ce e r r r

o the es o lut ion o f a c onfli ct betwee n mana ge m e n t an d the

r r

wo ke in an indust ial s ituation

r r r

A gain in a g oup situation in co t t to th at—of the

.

r n ras

fo ma l l ab o ato y whe e the animal i s usu ally h alf st ved

, ,

r r r ,
r ar

an d whe e the app a atus un duly limits its p o ssible beh avio
r r r,

the in divi duals f ee t o choo se amon g m n y p o ss ible

a re r a

alte nat ives The choi ce of alte nat ives i s dete mined by the
r r r

s an d expect an ci es of the g o up by its cohes ive n ess by

.

no m“r r , ,

the fo ce of i ts le a de ship the na tu e of the g oup goal

r
”
r ,
r r ,

an d the like The diffe ence i s not on e of c omplexity

. is r ,
as

s om etim es a ssum ed altho ugh thi s may pl ay a p a t in s om e ,

r

fo m s of g o up le a nin g but of the st uctu e o g ni z at ion

r r r r r or r a

of the g o up A cco din gly just a s the s ophi sti c ated l ab o a

,

r . r ,
r

t o y invest i gato of animal le a nin g in a c ont olled p i

r r r r ex er

m e nt is c onsc ious of the limit ation imp o sed up on the es l ts r u

by the app a atus whi ch he i s us in g the stude nt of g o up

r ,
so r

le ning i ce t ain th at the inte action whi ch he i s in ti g t

ar s r r v es a

in g is affected by the p atte n of the g o up m embe ship J ust r r r .

a s in divi dual le nin g i s aff e ted by the m“ ar ze o the puzzle c a r

box ,
g o up le a ni n g c onfo m s t o the de mands of the
so r r r

g o up Th c ommon g o un d of b oth types of le a nin g con

r . e r r

s ists of the inte ction of in divi du als wi th specific eve nts

ra .
3

Thi s m o de of a n aly s i s re ects th e

3

f
n ecti on s a n d th e ra cti on a ti on o f l earn in
,
j g w cl a s s i ca l ,

to
o v ers im p li

hi ch i t le a ds .
fiF d S R co n
e -

rom o ur p oi ui
104 DY N AM I C F A C TO RS IN GR O U P BE HAVI O R
P e cep tu l le a n ing A v i ew fi m ly e n tre n ched in m uch
r a r . r

psych ol o gy i s th at the pe ceptu al like the c o gnit ive field i s r

inh e ently o gani zed Th i s wo uld m e an th t ou ve y arli

r r a r r e

est pe eptions f objects e p edete mined Wh ile it is

.

rc o ar r r .

di ffi ult t o test e ly pe ceptu al o gani za tion in a ve y youn g

c ar r r r

c hild e e nt evi de nce p oints t o the c on clus ion th at pe cep

r c r

tion t oo i s le a ned Anim als wi th o ut expe ie nce of ce t ain

,

4
, ,
r . r r

vi su al obje ts pe e ive them a s va gue o uno gani zed a the

c rc r r r r

th an well d fin d p a tte n s O bje ts

,

-
e no t m e anin gf l a s
e r . c a re u

such ; m e anin g i imputed t o the m th o ugh epe ated c ont a ct

s r r

“
w i th the m T he e a s on why th mo the in ou c l tu e i s a
s i gnific ant o the l i es no t in h e be in g a st uctu ed objec t
.

r
r e

r
r

r
r u

r
r

pe s on but in the fa ct th at h e ch annel izes the chi ld s p

r s
’

er

n an d th e eby st uct u res h i s ima ge

,

ce
p t i o s f h ra s a pe s on r o er r .

Hi s pe ception f hi s mo the a s a p ovi de of ple a su e i s

r o r r r r

le a n ed Me anin g i thus an a ct f interp et in g event tru c

r . s o r -
s

tu esr ,
the pe e ivin g of an event in a to t al s itu ation—in
or rc

mo e c onvention l psycho lo gi c a l te m s an interp et a tion of

r a r ,
r

stimuli Th o u gh pe ceptual cont act an object o eve nt

. r r ,
r

becom es diffe e nt I f the obje t o eve n t sh oul d be a p e

r c r r

on —s a y a N eg o we pe ce i ve h im in a n ew w ay
.

s r ,
o th a t he r ,
s

t akes on a p b i ti in ste a d of a n egative v alue f o u I t is

s ve r s .

in th i s fashion f example th at p ejudice i s emoved

,
or ,
r r .

S elf in o lv em ent G oup le a nin g i s e anced in deed

-
v n h — . r r ,

ma de p o ss ible—by the i de nti fic at ion of on e pe s on wi th o the r r

pe s on s in an inte act ive el at ion shi p While the begin nin gs

r r r .

o f th i s p o cess a s we p ointed o u t ar fo un d i n the fam ily

r , ,
e ,

i t s oon exten ds to the c omm unity and to a la ge v a i ety of r r

g o ups —f om the pee g o up of ch il dh oo d t o the self invo lve

r r r r -

m e nts with cla ss p ofess ional gro ups an d on e s na tion The,

r ,
’

s ati s faction whi h m embe s get from group belon gin gnessc r -

r einfo ces the n eed o des i e to inte a ct wi th o the s M o ale

r r r r r . r ,

o f v ie wg ,

m ola r b eh a v i or in
ro u p

w g
l e arn in i s n ot a in d of total o f i ndi v i du al l ea rni n bu t a
h ich th e l earni n of e a ch m emb er o f a rou p i s m o di ed
kg g g fi ,

b y th a t of o th ers Th e s ti muli are i n terp re te d as ev ents an d th e res p on s es a s

.

i nt era cts .

S
(J
4 See f or exa mp l e A H Ri es en Arres ted v i s io n , ci ent i c fi A merica n
16—
. .
, , ,

uly , 19 .
 1 06 DY N AM I C FA CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
n am i of the p a st 15 ye a s the w ite g ain
cs
“ s the im
th at in the min ds o f ce t ain e nthusia sts f o g oup dynami cs
p ess ion
r
r ,
r r

r r
r

,
”

the g o up like the kin g of o ld n d o no w on g Al th ou gh

r , ,
ca r .

/ th i s i s p ate ntly u nt ue n eve theless the e i s a subst an t ial

c r ,
r ,
r

b o dy of evi den ce supp o tin g the p op o s ition th at in l a ge r r ,

r

m e a su e m en le a n s om e thin gs e s ie in g oups th an in i s o
r r a r r

l ation L on g befo e the a dve nt of g o up dynami cs i t w

,

r r as

Dyn amic
.

u k no wn th t le a nin g i s ai ded by m utu al d i scuss ion

a r .

g o ups fu ni sh thei m e mbe s with unusu al opp o tunity f o

r r r r r r

inte a ction di scuss ion an d effect ive communi ation G oup

r , ,
c . r

di scuss ion s e eff ective le a nin g expe i e n es f o they e nt ail

ar r r c ,
r

p ai se an d c iti c ism wh i ch
r fo m s f ew d n d pun i sh
r ,
a re r o r ar a

m e nt j ust . le a nin g one s ole i s fa cilit ted whe n p e

as r
’

r a r

fo m ed a s mo de of a djustm e nt t o o the pe oples oles s o

r a r
’

r ,

le a nin g ntellectual mate ial may be m de e a s ie w he n

r i
”
r a r

one s pe fo mance i s subjected t o the c e ful ev alu tion of

’
r r ar a

o the s r

A ece nt awa eness of the effectiveness f g oup le a ning

.

r r o r r

wa s fo ced up on us by necess ity A s a conseque n ce of the

sho t a ge of don s at O xfo d an d C amb idge du in g Wo ld
r .

r r r r r

W I I i t w s d i sc o ve ed th at stude nts in g o ups of five o

'

ar ,
r r r

i le n ed
s x aro e an d fa ste th an a s s in gle in d i i du a ls by th
r r v e

t a dition l tuto ial m eth o d I n h is b ook R o ds to Ag ee

m en t Stu a t C h a se ep o ts th at stude n ts w i t in g the m es f o
r a r .
,
a r

,
r r r ,
r r

thei cl ass in ste a d f the i in st ucto a cqui ed mo e ff

r o r r r, r r e ec

t ive h ab i ts of c ommuni c at ion G o up in st uct ion in m us i c . r r

h a s bee n fo un d t o p o duce bette esults th an in d ivi du al r r r

te ach ing Ski inst uction wo ks in the s am e w ay These

. r r . a re

just a few ex amples .

Human le a nin g un de no ma l c i cum st an ces i s s o ci l

r r r r a

le a nin g S o cia l psycho lo gi sts h ave of co u se kno wn f o a

r .
,
r ,
r

lon g t im e th at s o c iali z ation o s o cial le a nin g in its b oadest ,

r r r

se n se n eve takes pl ace in i s ol ation S o i li z tion i the

,
r . c a a s

p o cess of le a nin g th w ays of a g o up —it att itudes values

r r e r s , ,

beli efs an d p ejudi ces I f o u attitudes pe s i st i t i s no t b

,
r . r r ,
e

c ause they in them selves inclined t o be lon g li ed o

are -
v r

pe mane nt but bec ause the g o up i con st antly e info c in g

r ,
r s r r

them and the eby makin g them es i st ant t o extinction By

r r .
GR O U P L EAR NIN G 07

the s am e toke n atti tudes mo st effect ively ch an ged when a re

the g o up sets up a n ew le a nin g p o cess whe eby the old

r r r r

i s caused t o d“ op out o be fo go tten The e i s a wi desp e a d

r r r . r r

fall acy th at le a nin g ab o ut a a ce a mino ity pe ople

r
”
r or r

will eliminate h o stile attitudes gain st i t The fall a cy i s a .

b ased on a one s i ded c onception f the n tu e f le a nin g

-
o a r o r

an d l a gely i gno es the diffe e nt ial eff ect of the gr o up on

r r r

le a nin g The on e s i ded c on cept ion of le a nin g esults f om

r .
-
r r r

exclus ive con ent at ion on the le a n e n d negle t of the

c r r r a c

ci cum st ances in wh i ch the le a nin g t akes pl a e I n s ayin g

r r c .

th i s we no t a s sh o uld be cle a in view f wh a t we h ave

a re ,
r o

al e ady s ai d minimi zin g the imp o t an ce of the le a ne s

r ,
r r r
’

pe s onality motiva tion apt it des an d the like but only

r , ,
u , ,

emph a s iz in g a g in th at these t aits t ake on a d iffe e nt c on

a r r

fig ation when the in divi du al inte a cts with o the in di

ur r r

v i du l in a g o up
a s The g owth ch a a cte i st i cs f the le a n e
r . r r r o r r

no t obli te ated in the g o up ; they mo dified an d

edi ected C onseque ntly the esults of le a nin g
a re r r a re

r r . often ,
r r a re

diffe ent in a g o up f om wh at they mi ght h ave bee n in the

r r r

s ol it a y indivi du al L e a nin g is a u nit a y p o cess but it

r . r r r ,

t akes d iffe ent fo m s depe n din g n in divi du al co llective

r r ,
o or

ci cum st an ces I n the g o up in divi du als expe i e nce a set of

r . r ,
r

events o a stim ulus s itu ation in a n ew w ay bec ause eve y

,
r -
, ,
r

m embe c ont ibutes h i s own pe cept ion s n d le a nin gs t o

r r r a r

fo m a new t o t ality A g owing amount of ese a ch d at a

r . r r r

c o ob o ates the hyp othes i s th at wo kin g t o gethe in a le a n

rr r r r r

in g s itu ation espec i lly un de con dition s of hi gh pp o t

,
a r ra r ,

r esults in inc e a sed effo t emaini n g with the t ask l on ge

r r ,
r r,

a n d et ainin g mo e th an d o es in d iv i du al le a nin g
r r S om e of r .

the d at a we sh all p esent in th i s ch apte r r .

S C I E N TIFI C STUDI ES OF GR O U P L E AR NIN G

H avin g an l yzed the natu e of le nin g p a ti cul a ly s it
a r ar ,
r r a

t akes pl ace in g o ups we c an now ex amin e s om e of the

r ,

expe im ent al attempts t o investi gate the p oblem S imply

r r .

st ated the p obl em i s th i s H ow do es the inte action of on e

r : r

pe s on w ith anothe infl uence the le a nin g of b oth !

,

r r r
10 8 D Y N AM I C F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
We m ust a dmit a t the ve y o utset th at , lth ough thi s r a

p oblem h a s inte ested wo ke s in g oup dynami cs f o at

r r r r r r

le a st a qu te of a ce ntu y i t h a s no t been exte n s ively in

ar r r ,

v estig t d on an expe im e n t a l b a s i s
a e The studi es de alin g r .

w i th le a n n g n g o ups h a ve bee n l gely c on ce n ed w i th

r i i r ar r

th e in d ivi du a l s le a nin g w i th in the gr o up no t w i th an ex

’

r ,

amin t ion of the le a nin gs of the g o up a s a wh ole Thi s

a r r .

n eglect h a s been due in p a t t o a la ck of a dequ ate techni que r ,

o n the on e h an d an d t o the t a d i t ional ave s ion t o c on ce i vi n g

,
r r

the s o cial g o up a s a st uctu e o ent ity in its ow n i ght o n

r r r r r ,

the othe S in ce we have al e a dy d i scussed th i s p oblem an d

r r r

h ave des ibed expe im e nts on g o ups an d no t m e ely on

.

cr r r r

in divi du als in g o ups we n eed no t be fu the det ain ed by i t

r ,
r r .

S in ce h oweve e ach k in d f invest i gation i im p o t ant an d

,
r, o s r

h a s yi elded s i gnific ant esults we sh all desc ibe b oth r r

L E AR N NG I N THE C LA SS OO M The w ite is a cutely aw a e

.
,

I R . r r r

o f the fa ct th a t le a nin g in the cl a ss oom i no t a s im ple r r s

p o cess I t involves many an d inte el ated va iables such a s

r . rr r ,

mot ivation an d need success an d failu e ewa d an d puni sh ,

r ,
r r

m e nt the ole of the te a che the ch ara cte of the el ation

,
r r, r r

s h ip between jth te a che the student o the in divi du als in e r, ,

r

t h cl a ss oom an d the p a e nts an d s o fo th O u t sk i s t o

‘

e r ,
r ,
r . r a

e x amin e the elative e ffici ency of the in di vi dua l effo t an d

r r

t h g o up tech ni que of le a nin g a c a demi c mate ia l

5
e r r r .

“
C la s s es in E ng lis h S om e th irty ye a s a go The o d o a M
Th ie c on ducted an expe im e nt to a sce t ain wh ich te a ch in g
.

r
r

r
,
r .

m etho d wa s bette the g oup o the egul a cl a ss m e th o d in ”

imp ovin g E n gli sh compo s it ion Altho ugh th i s expe im e nt

r, r r r r ,

r . r

w a s no t c once ned wi th le nin g a s such i t helps to th ow

r ar ,
r

l i ght on ou p oblem Fo ins ofa a s imp o vem ent invo lves

r r . r r r

ch ange of beh avio an d ch an ge o adjustm e nt of beh a io

i s a fo m of le a nin g effic i e ncy an d imp oveme nt in E n gli sh
r r v r

r r ,
r

c om p o s i t ion i s a p o ble m of le a nin g r r .

The expe im e nt wa s pe fo m ed on two g oups of equ al

r r r r

ab ility s m e asu ed by the Th o n dike M cC ll Test F o m I

a r r -
a r

f
, ,

5 We a re n o t, o f co urs e , ob liv i o u s to th e th at th e p urp ose of cl as s

a ct

roo m in s tructio n i s n o t a ca de m i c a chi e v e m e nt a lo n e , b u t m a ny o th er im

p orta nt v a lu e s .
1 10 DY N AM I C F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AV IO R
L e n ing ci en ce I n p in ciple wh a t i s t ue e g a d in g
ar s . r ,
r r r

the le a nin g of on kin d of knowledge h olds f o all o the

r e r r

kinds A c ohes ive g o up ma ked a it i s by c oope ation an d r r s r

goo d mo ale exe ts a st on g p o s it ive influe n ce up on effo t

.
,

r r r r

and a ch ievem ent Thi s ho lds in g o ups le a nin g to play

,

tenni s t o ki t o w ite E n gli sh c omp o s ition o t o acquire a

. r r

,
s ,
r ,
r

knowledge of chemi st y r .

I n an expe im e n t al g o up in h i gh s h oo l che mi st y W a d
r r c r ,
r

fo un d th a t the fa cto of g o up a s cont asted wi th in divi du al r r ,

r ,

inte es t w a s a c uc ia l fa ct o
r The stude nts le a n ed mo e
r r . r r

chemi st y a s m e a su ed by the amo unt of subject matte e

r ,
r r r

t i n e d whe n i t w a s fu n ct ionally a d apted to the i nte ests an d

a ,
r

n eeds of the m embe s a s a g o up He e s in othe fo m s of r r r a r r

le a nin g sh a in g an d exch an ge amon g m embe s of the

.
,

r ,
r r

g o up a o uses mo e inte est an d with inc e ased in te est an d

r r r r ,
r r

a tte ntion mo e le a nin g i a cqui ed an d et ain edr r s r r .

7

I n ano the expe im e n t a l study Thele n g ives a dd it ional

r r ,

c o ob o ation of the effectiven ess of le a nin g in c ohes ive

rr r r

g o ups He gav e m embe s of an expe im en t al group the

r . r r

opp o tunity to pa ti cip ate in develop in g a c o llege c o u se

r r r

in chemi st y Thiw ticip tion c on s i sted in a ddition t o

r . ar a ,

m e ely t akin g p a t in the chemi c al expe im e nt ation of th

r r r ,
e

o pp o tunity of dec i din g the o bjectives planning the p i

r ,
ex er

m ents ch oo s in g the te h ni ques f o the s olution of p oblem s

, c r r ,

and evalu atin g the esults The esults sh owed th a t th e r . r

pe fo mance of m em be s of the expe ime nt al g oup whe n

r r r r r ,

c omp a ed with th o se of a c onventional cl a ss we e supe ior

r ,
r r

in seve a l w a ys They a cqu i ed an d et ain ed mo e kno wl

r . r r r

edge of chemi st y sh owed kee ne inte est in the ir wo k r , r r r ,

tho ught mo e c i ti c ally ab o ut chemic l c on cepts an d showed

r r a

mo e p o s it ive an d f ie n dly attitudes t owa d on e ano the

,

8
r r r r .

m ore a cti v i ty ,

a cti v i ti es
w jg
b e tter ,
Sh o

a n d e n oy
a re a t er

th e co urs e
s p i ri t of coo p era ti o n ,

m ore th a n th e
g
m an a e t he ir
ch il dr en in th e re g
o wn

ul ar
s ecti o n s
7 S ee
.

W W g . . a rd,
An exp erim e ntal s tu dy of tw o m eth o ds of t ea chin
E
69—
g
ch em i s try i n s e ni or h i h s ch o ol , J e x p
8 H A Th e le n A m e th
. .
E du c , 1 1
o do l o i ca l s tu dy o f th e l earn in
cep ts a n d o f ce rta in a b iliti es to thi n
,

cri ti ca lly i n
80
o f ch emi cal co n

reshm an ch emis try , 1

g k . .

F g .

5 3—
.

exp E duc , 1 3
. 75 .
GRO U P L EAR NIN G 11

A la ge amount of ese a ch s om e of which is ep o ted in thi s

r r r ,
r r

b ook testifies to the p o s itive effect of the g o up c ohes ive n es

,
r s

on le a nin g and th inkin g

r .

The fo egoin g expe im ent i s v alu able no t only in demon

r r ,

t tin g th a t pe o ple in g o ups le a n mo e but eve n mo e in

s ra r r r r

sh owin g th at le a nin g i s fa cilit ated an d e nh an ced in g o up

,

r a r

bec ause the l atte fu ni shes the o c as ion f coope ation f o

r r c or r ,
r

the exch an ge an d evalu ation of i de a s an d f the e info cin g ,

or r r

p ope t i es of in t ti n l ti on t o o pe ate f eely 9

As o su vey in Ch apte 1 h demon t ated e pe i

r r ers r u a r r .

ur r r as s r ,
x r

me nt al invest i gation of the influe n ce of the g o up n th r o e

le a nin g p o cess h inte ested psy h o lo gi sts an d educ at o

r r as r c rs

for seve al dec a des The ese a hes of M aye M m ann

r . r rc r, eu ,

M o ede an d o the s lik e mo e ecent invest iga tion s p oin t

,
r ,
r r ,

unequivo cally t o the con clus ion th at the g o up h a fa cil i r as

t ating influe n ce up on le a nin g a well a u p on o the intel r ,

s s r

lectu al a ct iviti es such a s th inkin g e a s onin g an d judgm e nt

The p o ximity of o the indivi du als an d the Sh a in g of the i
, ,
r ,
.

r r r r

i de a s wh i ch i s ma de p o ss ible by inte act ion an d p a ti cip at ion r r

stim ul ate m embe s of a gr o up in di sce nible w ays S ince

r r .

mo st g oups r c omp o sed of in divi du als of v a ied knowl

a re r

edge an d b iliti es the suggestion s of o the s p a ti cul a ly of

a ,
r ,
r r

th e supe io on es te n d t o stim ul a te o the s t o w a d g e a te

p o ductive ness th an they w o uld di spl ay in is o l at ion Quit
r r ,
r r r r

r . e

f eque ntly the slowe an d p oo e le a n e s p o fit mo e f om

r r r r r r r r r

the m utual give n d t ake th an the fa ste an d supe io on es

a r r r ,

an d no t inf equently the supe io le a ne s a et a ded in

r r r r r re r r

the i p o ductive n ess by the p oo e m embe s I n e i the c a se

r r r r r . r ,

a s the d at a show the le a nin g of pe s on s in g o ups i d if

, r r r s «
f

fe re n t in qu ali ty an d qu an t i ty f om th a t f s o l it y in d i r O ar

v i d al u The m e nt al activiti es pe fo m ed by o the s wh o

s . r r r a re

e ng aged in wo kin g on the s am e t a sk a s o u selves a ccele at

r r r e
— o r ret a d—o wn pe fo mance The te n de n cy of a g o up
r ur o r r . r

9 Th i s w g l
co n c u s i o n , h il e
ll y tr ue ca nn ot g o h o lly u n ch all e n e d
e n e ra ,
wf g .

th e a v era e ch il d tog k w k wg g g
Fo rl a n o in a s tu dy o f coop era tiv e b eh a v i or i n ch il dren o un d a t en den cy f or
or

th a n f or th e s a e of h elp i n
i th r e a ter z e a l a n d e fli ci en cy f or p ers o n a l a in
h is rou p See Fo rla n o An exp e rim ent i n . G .
,

,
g
c oo p e ra ti o n e du c R es , 2 5
, . 1 2 8— 31 . .
 12 DY N AM IC F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
i s a cco din gly to e a ch a c ommon level of pe fo m n ce
,
r ,
r r r a ,

wh i h we des ibe a s the g ou p a chi evem ent

c cr r
’

Lea ning th ough p a ticip ation bo th depends upon and

.

r r r

in duces g o up cohes ive ness Whe n in divi du als e aw are

r . ar

th a t they sh a in g in the le a nin g p o cess whe n they

a re r r r ,

inte act p o s itively with thei cla ssmates an d te ache s an d

r r r ,

when they c o gniz an t of the imp o t an ce of the i ow n

a re r r

r oles in cont ibuting t o the g o up s le a nin g expe i en ce they

r r
’
r r ,

a re mo e p o s it ively mo tiv ated t o le a n an d their le a nin g is

r r ,
r

c o esp on din gly a ccele ated

rr r .

L A RN NG O N THE JO Le arning is conventionally con

E I B

While this
.

i d by psych o l o gi sts a s a ch an ge in beh avio

ce v e r .

i an ele m e n t y fa ct on ce nin g le a ni n g i t i s n ot a s we
s ar c r r , ,

h ave p ointed out b oa d e no ugh to e ncomp a ss the fo m s of

,
r r

le a nin g th t inte est the s o cial psych ol o gi st Th i s i s n a

r a r . c
‘

we akn ess of the defi nition i tself but ch a acte i zes the typ es ,
r r

f ch an ge wh i ch le a nin g the o i sts usu ally h ave in min d

o
\ r r

whe n they de al with the p o cess F om u p oint of vi ew r . r o r ,

le a nin g no t confined t o the m emo i zin g of a c a demi c u b

r IS r s

jec s t o the a cqu ri s i t ion of v a io us sk i l ls We a ls o c on r . ar e

ce ned with the le a nin g an d ch ange of atti tu des val ues n d

r r , ,
a

p ejudi ces n d with th wh ole inte act ional complex f in di

r ,
a e r o

v i du al w o k in g in g o ups
s I t i s o nl y th o ugh th i s exte n ded
r r . r

m e anin g of le nin g th a t we an un de st an d the ch n ges th at

ar c r a

t ke pl ace whe n pe o ple in a pl an t o an o fli

a a cqu i e skill s r ce r ,

t ans fe f om one type of wo k t o ano the ch n ge the i mo de

r r r r r, a r

o f o pe a t ion o rele a n a cqui ed ski ll s in a n ew s i tu On

,
r r r r . .

L ea rni ng to w ork t ogeth er A t th i sk of st atin g a plati . e r

tude we affi m th a t coope at ion i s a le a n ed fo m of b e

,
r r r r

h avio Wo kin g t o gethe i s an a ct ivity wh ich t akes pla ce

r . r r

whe n individu als a e stimul ated by a common objective an d r

when they esp on d p o s it ively t o the effo ts of o th e s wo kin g

r r r r

t owa d the s am e goal We sh all s in a l ate ch apte

r . ee r r

th at wo kin g to ge the o n a j ob i s no t dete min ed s olely by

r r r

such c on s ide ation a s w a ges h o u s an d wo k in g c on di ti on s

E qually impo tant is th e s atisfaction of psychological n eeds
r ,
r ,
r .

r ,
1 14 D Y N AM I C F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
the le a ned ste e o type th a t e ach h a s of the othe an d the
r r r,

bu den o f n egative value judgm ents wh i ch

r b o u n d up a re

with it imp ai o dest o y the effect iven ess of the g o up a s a

,
r r r r

who le .

L e ni ng t o a djus t t o ch ng
ar A h ab it m y be defined as a e a

the pe s i ste n ce of le a ned beh avio O nce we h ave a qui ed

.

r r r . c r

a t of esp o n ses th at e nables u effect ively to adjust t o ou

se r s r

su o un din gs t o a ch ieve o goal we te n d t o pe seve e in

rr or ur r r

the di ect ion of p evio us esp on ses R es i st ance t o ch an ge i s

,

r r r .

t amped in bec ause est abli shed h ab its comfo t abl e le a d

t o th e eduction of te n s ion an d est o e e quilib ium The
s a re r ,

r ,
r r r .

r es i st ance t o ch an ge whi ch h ab i ts in duce c e a tes se io us r r

p oble m s in th o se p o duct ive el ation s whe e n ew tech

r r r r

ni ques of pe fo man ce e c onst an tly in dem nd N ew

r r ar a .

techniques usu ally int o duced bec ause Am e i an in

a re r r c

d t y i s e u e ntly ch an gin g it p o ducts an d in a iably

us r r c rr s r v r

fi n din g it n ecess a y t o devi se n ew m e tho ds t o m eet the r

ch an ged con dition s of p du ti on Pe ople al s o mo vin g o c a re

f om j o b t o j ob an d f tory to facto y O ccup at ional mob il

.
, , ,

r ac i
r .

i ty i s p ono unced an d tu no ve i s a ch onic defe t of Am e

r r r r c r

i c an in dust ial life These ch an ges in tu n deman d c o e

O
r r rr

A
.
, ,

s
p n din
o
g ch an ges in the w o k in g h a b i ts f the m e i c an r r

w o ke N ew le a nin gs m ust be ini tiated an d diff e e nt skill s

c ult i v a ted The psych o l o y of le a nin g h a s abu n d an tly sh o wn
r r . r r

g r

th at this is not an alto gethe e asy ccomplishm ent The

.

cqui s ition of h ab its Skills i s n o t a s imple p o cess of c on

r a .

a or r

d itio n in g of a s im ple c onn ect ion be twee n a st im ulus an d a

esp onse A s in all le a ning th e t ot al in divi d u al i s invo lved
,

r r

A change in h bits skills pe fo mances i a cco din gly

. .
,

a , ,
or r r s, r ,

no t a s imple unlinkin g of the two e nds of the t ot al a ct but a ,

p o cess in whi ch the to t al in divi du al m ust han ge h i atti

tudes an d no t only h i s m ech anic al a ctiviti es C h angin g
r c s

f om one job t o ano the i s not m e ely a ch an ge in the in di

r r r

v i du l a epe t oi e of h ab itu al acts but a ch an ge in the indi

’

s r r r

vi du al him self
An investigation by Co ch and F ench while not con
.

r ,

ce ned specific ally with le a nin g a s such but ath e wi th th e

r r ,
r r

p oblem of esi st an ce t o ch an ge ni cely desc ibes the le a n

r r ,
r r
GRO U P L EAR NIN G 15

ing p o cess in j ob pe fo man ce The study fo cused on the

r r r .
10

es i st ance of wo ke s t o the necess a y ch an ges in j obs an d

m etho ds of wo k at the H a woo d M anufa ctu in g C o p o a
r r r r

r r r r r

tion in M a ion Vi ginia P a st effo ts in de alin g with the

,
r ,
r . r

p oblem by m e ans of mon et y allow ances f o t an s fe s

r ar r r r ,

e nli stin g the help of the union makin g l ayoffs on the b a s i ,

s

of efficie ncy an d the like we e ineffect ive in de alin g with

,
r

the p oblem The ese a ch t ied t o fi n d an swe s t o tw o

r . r r r r

Why d o pe ople es i st ch an ge o st on gly! r s r

”1 1
an d ( 2 ) Wh at c an be d on e t o o ve c om e th i s es i st an ce ! r r

Wi th o ut goin g int o the b a ckg o un d det ails of the comp any r

’

p oli cies it i s imp o t ant t o no te th at whe neve i t i s necess a y r r r

a pe s on f om on e type of w o k t o ano the he i s

,

to t an s fe“
r r r r r r,

given a t ans fe b onus The b onus i s o des i gned th

autho s p oint o ut th at the ch an ged Ope at o wh o le a n s a t
r r . s ,
e

r r r r

an ave age ate wi ll no t lo se any e a nin gs afte the ch an ge

,

r r r r

h as bee n ma de D esp ite th i s att act ive fe atu e h oweve . r r ,

r,

wo ke s usually es i st j ob ch an ges
r r r

An examination of the le a nin g cu ves of seve al hund ed

.

r r r r

ch an ged ope a to s th ows li ght up on the natu e f le a nin g

r r r r o r

in g o ups Th i ty e i ght p e ce nt of the ch an ged ope at o

r . r -
r r rs

retu ned t o the st an d ard uni t at in g of 60 units p ho u o

r r er r, r

bette ( A unit i s equ al t o on e minute of st an d a d wo k o

r . r r ,
s

th at 60 u ni ts p er h o u equ al the st an d a d effici e n cy a t in g ) r r r .

The emainin g wo ke s e ithe bec am e pe man ently b

r r r r r su

st an d a d ope at o s o quit du in g the t ansfer pe io d Th

r r r r r r r . e

ave a ge ele a nin g cu ve of th o se wh o egain ed bette ed

r r r r r or r

the st anda d p o duction ate equ i ed e ight weeks R

r r r r r . e

co t
v er
y o the st an d a d u ni t at in g w a s sl o w f o the fi st tw r r r r o

o th ee weeks a lth o u h i t im p o ved no t i ce ably t o ab o ut 50

r r
g ,
r

units an h ou with an inc e ase of 15 units in two weeks r, r .

Thi s wa s fo llowed by ano the slo w p o g ess pe io d the r r r r ,

o pe a t o s im p o v in g on ly 3 uni ts in tw o weeks but e n ded

r r r ,

wi th a spu t of 1 0 units in one week r .

12

10

Hu m R ela t
L
.
. C och

. 1 ,
an d I . R . P
5 1 2—
re nch

32
. F .
, Ir .
, Ov ercom in g re s i s tan ce to ch an g e,

1bi d ,
g
11 .
p 5 12 . .

g d to Ob s e rv e th at th e s e l e arn in
G g
1 2 Th e rea der i s ca u t i o n e curv es a re a v e r

a es o f in di v i du a l p ro du cti v i ty

u p on by th e w g
ro u p p ro du ctiv i ty i s th e

h ol e ro u p a s a b a s i s f or ro u p a cti on
.

g .
s tan dar d a ree d
1 16 D Y N AM I C F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BE HAVI O R
The utho s c all atte nt ion t o an imp o t ant ch a a te i sti c
a r r r c r

o f the ele a nin g pe io d The ele a nin g pe io d of an ex

r r r . r r r

p i
er e n d w o ke i l on
ce ge th an th t of arn ew o pera t o sT h i s r a r r .

i t ue they p oin t o ut eve n th o ugh the failu es wh o n eve

s r r r

etu n t o st an d d pe fo man ce a d opped f om the cu ve

, ,

O n the whole howeve chan ged Ope to s m ke few false

r r ar r r re r r r .

r, ra r a

mo vem e nts afte the fi st week of ch an ge F om the evi

,

r r . r

d e n ce befo e the m the in vest i g a t o s c on clude th a t p

r ,
r ro

a t ive inh ib it ion o the inte fe e nce o f p evious h ab its in

l e a nin g the n ew S k ill i s e i the n n —
c r r r r

r exi stent o ve y sli gh t r o r r

a fte the fi st tw o weeks of ch an ge

r r
”1 3

Othe expe im ents howeve challen ge the fo egoin g e

.

r r r, r r

s u lt D esc ibing an unpublished investi gation by Alex

s r
,

B avela s in the s m e pl nt and on the s ame kind of t an s

.

a a r

fe ed ope ation L ewin p oints o ut th at t ns fe ed wo ke s

rr r ,
ra rr r r

pe fo m ed less s at is fact o ily on the new j ob F a tran s

r r r . or

fe ed wo ke he s ays the new ope ation i s mo e difficul t

rr r r, ,
r r

th an the p evio us on e T n sfe fu the mo e i s a ecom

r . ra r, r r r ,

an i d by a l o we ed w o k mo ale in the se n se th a t the d i e

p e r r r v

f o h i ghe p o duct ion 1 dec e a sed L e a nin g i s a st oni sh

,

r r r 1 r r

in gly sl o w A cc o d in gly alth o ugh the o pe a t o s

.

wi th the ma hin es the i p o du tion i ses o sl owly th at it

c
r

,
“
familia ,

r r c r
r

s
r are r

i s mo e p o fit bl e f the fa cto y t o h i e n ew wo ke s th an
r r a or r r r r

t o ch n ge the j ob of expe i e n ced wo ke s

a r r r .
”1 4

The e seve al fact o s wh i ch expl ain th e slow le a nin g

r a re r r r

of a t an sfe ed w o ke h i ef o f wh i h
r rr the l o we in g of
r r, c c a re r

wo kin g mo ale an d a d op in the level of a sp i at ion M o le

r r r r . ra

d ops be ause the w o ke on the n ew j ob bein g unable t o

r c r r ,

maint ain let alone su p a ss h i s p evio us level expe ie nces a r r r

d op in st atus L evel of a sp i ation i s lo we ed bec ause the

, ,

r . r r

wo ke sees hi s job in the l i ght of st an d a ds whi ch ar t oo

r r r e

hi gh f him t o att ain or

A p actical consequence of expe iments on transfe of

.

r r r

j obs i s the atte ntion it c alls t o the le arnin g p o cess in wo k r r

e fli ci n y A g ain c i ti n g th
e c unpubl ished expe im e nts of e r

B avelas Lewin calls attention to the ole of special t ainin g

.

r r

F g g
,

C
K w F
o ch and h
g
O v ercom in res i s tan ce to ch an e , p
13 ren c , . 5 15 .

14 . L e in ,
ro n ti e rs i n ro u p dy n am i cs , Hu m R e la t , 1 . . 29 .
1 18 DY N AM IC F A C TO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
p o cess an d he des i gn s an expe im e nt f o testin g them Th e
r , r r .

hyp othes i s ega din g le a nin g in c om“ r petit ive an d/

r o c oop r r

e ra t i e a ct iv i t i es i s st a ted a s fo ll o ws
v I n die co op w ill le a n : . . r

m o e f om on e ano the th an wi ll I n die comp I n o de

”1 7
r r r r r

t o test the hyp o theses D eutsch t up an expe im e nt in

. .

,
se r

w h i ch te n g o ups of stude n ts e a ch g o up c on s i st in g of five

r ,
r

m e m be s we e in st ucted t o a ct a s a b oa d of human el a
r ,
r r r r

t ion s expe ts Thei t a sk w a s t o analyze an d di scuss as

r . r ,

g r o ups puzzle
,
p o ble m s an d hu man el a t ion sr p o ble m s T he r r .

p uzzle p o ble m s we r e such as t o pe mi t in d iv i du al w o k r r r

with ou t g “ o up c on se nsus The human ela tion s p oblem s

r . r r

p r ese n ted no cle a ly d i sce n ible o bject ive c i te ia o f l o c o

r r r r

m o t ion th a t i s t a sks i n wh i ch the g o up i tse lf by a g ee

”
, ,
r ,
r

m ent p o vi ded the c i te ia f o wo k pe fo m ed

,
r r r r r r r .

The esults eg ardin g m ost of the a ctivit ies we e foun d

r r r

t o f v o c oo pe a t i ve beh avio
a r W ith efe e nce t o le a nin g
r r r r r

D eutsch st ates the matte by

.
,

t h o utc om e w a s less st ik in g
e r . r

in dic at in g th at the c oope at ive g o up m embe s in thr ee of r r r

t h e five p ai s ated the m selves a s le arnin g mo e f om d i s c u s

r r r r

s ion f the hum n el at ion s p oblem th an di d the c ompetit ive

o a r r

m e m be s ate the m selves Th e d iff e e n ces h o weve i t

”1 8
r r r r,

m ust be p oin ted o u t we re no t st at i st i c a lly s i gnific an t The

.
,

best th at c an be s ai d ab o ut the le a nin g p o cess in the ex

.
,

r r

er i m n t i s th a t the t e n d i s in fa v o
e of in d i v i du a l c oo pe a
p r r r

tion The auth o als o st ates p a enthet ic ally wh a t we h ave

. r ,
r ,

al e a dy a sse ted in ano the c ontext—nam ely th at the m em

r r r ,

b e s w i th mo e k n owledge an d expe i e n ce w ill le a n less in a

r r r r

c oo pe at ive g o up th an th o se less expe i e n ced an d n ot

r r o r s

w ell info m ed r

The fo egoin g conclus ion s are in line with the imp ort ant
.

o bse v a t ion s an d the ex e im e n t a lly supp o ted ge n e ali z a r r r

r
p
t ion s th at h ave f equently appe a ed thus f ar in the p a ges
C oope ative inte actions gene ally esul t in
r r

o f th i s b oo k . r r r r

gre ate p o duct ivity wheth e mo t o m ech ani c al o c o g

r r r r, r

th an i s the c a se whe n m embe s ar in c ompe ti tion

, ,

n i ti v e, r e

17 I bi d . Th e i talici z e d a bbrev i ation s desi

, p .

o p era to rs an d i n di v i du a l com e ti tors

82 8 .

p .
g na te indiv i dual co

1 8 I bi d
, p 347 . . .
GR O U P L EAR N IN G 1 19

with one ano the A s we s aw in C h ap te s 2 an d 3 cohes ive

r. r ,

ness m utu al accept an ce and h i gh mo ale e n ge n de ed by

, ,
r r

c oope at iveness an d f i e n dli ness ope n the lin e of comm uni

r r

c ation wh ich esult s in inc e a sed mo tivat ion an d gre ate p o

r r r r

d cti en
u v S om e ese ar ch evi de n ce fu thermo e st on gly
ess r r r r

uggests th at c ompetit ive n ess a o uses fe a and an i ety an d

.
, ,

s r r x ,

especially ge n e ates h o s tili ty whi ch c anno t be e adily ch an

r r

n eli d in to pe mi ss ible fo m s of exp ess ion Psych o l o g i st s

ze r r r

h ave known f o a lon g tim e th at too m uch an i ety an d fe a

.

r x r

di s o gani ze le nin g While a ce t ain s t ain of expect an cy i s

r ar r r

c onducive to p ep a in g the in divi du al f o the le a nin g s i tu a

.

r r r r

tion the di sequilib i um esult in g f om an o ermobil i tion

,
r r r v z a

and di spe s ion of emo tiona l en e gi es gen e ally imp ai s the

r r r r

acqui s ition an d ete nt ion of n ew kn owledge r

I n li gh t of the fo egoin g esults an d c on clus io n s D eutsch

.

r r

fittin gly c alls t o o u a tte nt ion o n o f the i im pli c at ion s f o

r e r r

educ at ion O ne may well a sk he as se ts whethe the c om

.
,
r r

p t
e i t i gvea d i r
“
n g syste m in ge n e al use n our educ a t ional

institut ion s does no t im p air the t ask ce nte edn ess an d in

r
-
I

r
”

di v i du al secu i ty wh i ch on e w o uld beli eve sh oul d be im

r , ,

p o t ant objectives of o educ a tional system We c anno t

r ur .
,

o f c o u se an swe r the question with c onfiden ce but a tho

r r

ough investig ation of the p oble m i s lon g ove due

, ,

r r

The psycho lo gy un de lyin g the imp ai m ent of le a nin g

.

el at ively S imple E xcess ive

r r r

in c om pet i t ive s i t u at i on s is r .

competi tion puts mo st pe ople on the defe n s ive Thus com

petit ion i s a tw w ay p o cess I t puts eve y m embe of a
.

o- r r r

le a nin g o delibe atin g g o up into a p o s it ion of de fe n din g

.

r r r r

hi s own i de as mo e te na cio usly ; th i s th e at t o the in d ivi du al

r r ,

in tu n a o uses de fe n s ive n ess an d th e n eed fo ret a lia ti o n

r r r .

S in ce the best an d s ometim es the only w ay of h an dlin g th i s

S ituation lies in achi evin g pe s onal secu ity the p eservati on
,

r
,

r ,
r

of th ind ividu al s i de a s and opinion s te n ds t o becom e a

e
’

goal in itself L e a nin g alw ays cons ists in ch an ge an d e ad

r r

justme nt in the in divi du al but no mally i t s a dve sely

.

,
r i r

aff ected by a th e ate nin g s itu a tion The in divi dual will in
r

fact mo e likely eve t t o n e a li e form of a djus tm e nt such

.
,

r r r a r r

wi thd aw al The mo e th e at enin g the

, ,

as n eg at iv i s m o r r . r r
120 D Y N AM IC F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
s i tu ation i s t o the m embe s of the g o up the g e ate is the r r r r

tendency to become a gg essive o to le av e the field alto

,

r r

gethe Th i s mo de of beh avio the e a de w ill ec all w as

r . r, r r r ,

ve y app a e nt in o u di scuss ion of the cle av a ges w ith in un

Chapte 3
r r r

o gani zed g o ups a s desc ibed by F e n ch (

C on st uctive p a ticip ation in a group and the
r r , r r S ee r ,

pp 88
ch an gi n g Of attitudes wh i h i s in e ali ty an a ct f le a nin g
. r r

,
c r o r ,

i s usu ally imp ai ed by a feeli n g of pe s onal in a dequ a cy

r r

g e n e a tedr by t oo m uch c om pet i t ion Wh i le in d i vi du als dif .

f e in th i s matte of c o u se i t i s no t t oo m uch t o
r r,
y th a tr ,
sa

p o b ably eve yone in s om e c om petitive gro up s itu ation s i s

r r , ,

neg atively affected by them The fe ar of ejection i s the

negative S i de of the n eed of belon gin g
. r

The fe a of ejection on the o the h an d not only imp ai s

r r ,
r ,
r

the le a nin g p o ess but di sc o u a ges in divi du al th inkin g an d

c e ative ness an d p l a ces a p emium n c onfo mi ty C oope a
r r c r

r r o r . r

tion may thus be b ou ght at the p i ce of dest o yin g novelty r r

an d in d ivi du ality I n th i s in st an ce an exclus ive emph a s i s on

te amwo k c ohes ive ness an d a g eem e nt i s inh ib i ti ve athe
.

r , ,
r r r

th an c e ative ; thus we a led on ce mo e t o an e a li e c on

r re r r r

te nt ion th at the g o up b n be w on g a s well r i ght Wh at a r as r .

the ese a hes on le a n in g in c oope ative as a gain st compet i

r rc r r

tive g o ups eve al in the fi nal analys i s i s no t ne ce i ly th at

r r ss a r

group p ti cip at ion i mo e c on ducive t o le a nin g th an i

ar s r r s

in divi du al effo t ; athe they sh ow th at le a nin g i s less

r r r r

effic i ent in g oups in wh i ch p art i cip at ion i s li mi ted th an in

r

o ups whe e i t i s spec i fic a lly e n c o u a ged

g
C ontempo a y studies of lea nin g in competiti ve o o
r r r .

r r r r c

ope ative g o ups fu the mo e fail t o t ake s uffi ci e nt a cco unt

r r ,
r r r ,

o f the fa ct th a t a lth o ugh es i st an ce may be ove c om e the

,
r r ,

attempt t o ch an ge it may c ause di stu b an ce an d the eby r r

im p ai the p o cess of le a nin g f o whi ch th g o up wa s ini

r r r r e r

ti lly o g ani zed L i ttle c o g ni z an ce i s t ak e n of th amb i v al e n t

a r . e

natu e of the le a ne s in a le a nin g s i tu ati on involvin g the

r r r r

accept an ce of ch an ge Th is amb iv ale nce exi sts in le n e s . ar r

a s in divi du als an d in le a n e s a s m embe s of a group An r r r .

effective le a de of g o ups i s on e wh o eco gni zes the du al

r r r or

amb ivale nt natu e of th ind ivi du als in whom ch n ge i

r e a s
122 D Y N AM I C FA CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
c on st ant uni t of expe ime nt al invest i ga tion The techni que r .
19

h a s been used in an expe im ent al study of the p o pe t ies of r r r

g o up qu a g oup le a n ed p o ducts by Pe lmutte an d de

r - -
r r r
”
r r

M on tm o llin .
20

The hi ef m e it of thi s expe im e nt i s th at fi st it makes

c r r r ,

exp li it the diffe e ntial c on dition s of g o up th inkin g an d

c r r
”

in divi du al thinkin g ; an d secon d g oup phe nom ena a de , ,

r a re

q t
ua ely c on eptu l i zed T he in vest i g a
c t o s by us in g
a such . r ,

non sen se syllables a s Zev u t an d Zu o t ex amin ed an d c om a ,

p a ed the le a nin g cu ves of the g o up an d th o se f in di

r r r r o

r
id l c om p a ed the e o s f e a ch an d no ted the t im e
u a s, r

equi ed in b o th s itu ation s in o de t o dete min e un de

r
“ rr

,
r o

r r
,

r r

wh at c on dit ion s n d alon g wh at dim e n s ion s g o ups diff e

a r r

f om in divi du als on le a nin g

r
‘
r .
’

The subjects in the expe im en t we e stude nts a t the So r r r

b onn e mo st of them fi t ye a students of psych olo gy M o st rs -

r

of them we e F e n ch the emain de be in g B elgian s E gyp

.
,

r r ,
r r ,

tians I t alian s M o o ccan s an d S wi ss The exp e im ent

, ,
r ,
. r

l asted two h o u s Tw o st ati sti c all y equiv ale nt li sts of 19

r .

two syll ble non se n se w o ds we e used The expe im en t

-
a r r . r

w a s divi ded int o tW /p a ts with a 15 minute est pe io d O r ,

-
r r

betwee n them I n l p a t the subjects we e equi ed t o on e r r r r

le a n the wo ds a s a g o up ; in the o the they wo ked sep a

.

r r r r r

ra et ly but in the p ese n e of on nothe on an equivale nt r c e a r

but diffe e nt li st of wo ds With o ut goin g int o fu the det ai l

r r . r r

o n the m eth o d o f the expe im e n t we may ep o t the esul t r ,

r r r s

an d make s om e b i ef c omm ents r .

The subjects wo kin g g oups we e fo un d supe io t o r as r r r r

in divi du ls wo kin g indivi du ally but in the p ese n ce of

o th e s E spec ially inte est in g n d S i gnifi c ant i the ep o t
a r r

r . r a s r r

th at the gro up w a s supe io in t ot al sco e t o the ave a ge r r r r

in divi du al sc o e but no t si gn ific ant st ati st ic lly f om the

r , a r

ave a ge f the best in di vi duals in the g o ups p ovi ded the

r o r ,
r

19 For a re p o rt

g of th e o ri g in al le a rni n g ex p e ri m en t
g g
u s in

C
n o ns en s e sy l
l a bles
s en i u s ( New
20 H
, s ee

or :

V
.

Y kC
H E bb in h a u s M em ory tra n s by H A R u er a n d
o lum b i a U ni v e rs ity Pre s s

G
, , .

,
.

G
.

g
. E . Bus

P erlm u tter a n d
.

s y ll a ble s I a bnorm s oc
,
. de M on tm olli n
s y ch o l
. 47 . 7 62—69
. P
ro u p l e arn in of .
,

.
n o n s e ns e
GR O U P L EAR NIN G 1 23

best indivi duals h a d p eviously wo ked in a g o up on a r r r

s imil a t a sk M o e o ve in seven o ut of twenty inst an ces

r . r r,

the e we e in di i duals who su p assed o equ aled the p e

r r v r r r

fo m n
r of the g o up A gain i t w a s fo un d th at g oups
a ce r .
,
r

r equi e mo e t im e f o ec all du in g the e a ly st a ges of the

r r r r r r

expe im ent but h ave a hi ghe o ve all ec all ate th an in d i

r r r- r r

v i du l in the g o up
a s Unde ce tain conditions fu the mo e r . r r ,
r r r ,

a g o up c ommits mo e e o s th an ind ivi du als by epe atin g

r r rr r r

mo e wo ds whe e a s in divi du als te n d t o defo m invent

r r r r or

mo e w o ds th an g o ups All in all a cc o din g t o the auth o s

,

r r r .
,
r r ,

the c on ditional supe io ity of a gro up i s in dic ated al on g all r r

dime ns ion s .

The expe im e nt p oints up the imp o t an ce of a cu ent

r r rr

“
”
p oble m in o up dy nami cs I a g o up mo e in tell i ge n t ”

and wi se th an S in gle in divi du als includ in g th o se who p

r
g r : S r r

,
er

fo m in the p ese nce f othe s ! The fact th a t the g o up

r r o r r

le a ned p o duct u ve is ofte n i de nt ic al wi th the le a n ed

r r c r r

p o duct cu ve of a p oo
r
“ e m e m be
r f ano the g o up sug r r r o r r ,

“
g ests th a t the e l o w in tell
h i gh intelli ge n ce in d i v i du als
i “
ge n ce g orups a
One adult the w ite s
s well
a re
”
a s
.
r

,
r r

p oint out c an s olve a p oblem th at thi ty ch ild e n c ould

,
r r r

no t eve n c omp ehen d W ithin the a dul t g o ups a s well i t r . r ,

would b difficult t o de ive the gro up intelli ge n ce f om the

e r
‘ ’

summation of in dividual intelli ge nce sco es The on clu r .

”2 1
c

s ion i s o f o u se n a t ifact of the expe im e nt al des i gn an d

, c r ,
a r r ,

do es n t n ecess a ily p ove the conclus ive ness of the esults

o r r r .

The auth o s acco din gly su ggest the n ecess ity of a g “

r ,
r o up ,
r

intelli gen ce test n d p oint o ut th at until th i s i s done we

,
a

ar e no t ce t ain th at a g o up pe fo m s well bec a use i t i s i n

r r r r

e ffici n t but ve y intelli ge n t a s a g o up o be ause i t i s qu ite

e r r ,
r c

u nintelli ge nt but ve y efficie nt in employing its p o te nt ial r

ities .
”2 2

We m de“ s om e c iti c al ema ks he etofo e ega din g th

a r r r r r r r e

concept of gro up wisd om yet m u h of the evi de n ce p ,

c re

se nted thus f i a p a t ial supp o t of its supe io ity t o the

ar s r r r r

le a ning and wi sdom of the in divi du al The efo e pe h aps

r . r r ,
r

21 1bi d .
, p . 7 69 .

22 I b id .
1 24 D Y N AM IC F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
a w o d o two o f cl a ific ation i s in o de We d o no t ub
r r r r r . s

sc ibe to the supe cilio us beli ef th at g oup m embe s bec aus e

r r r r ,

they no t n ecess a ily expe ts o wo se yet bec ause they

a re r r r, r ,

may be less educated th an the g oup le a de e in c ap able r r, ar

of makin g p o ductive c ont ibution s t o g oup knowledge an d

r r r

deci s ion We do h oweve

r
.

“ a sse
r
t th a t the
,
ev i
of g oup le a nin g an d g o up wi sdom i s no t yet deci s ive
de n ce in fa v o r,

r
r
”
r

The fact i th at the e i in suffic i ent evi de n ce t o p o e the

s r s r v

supe io ity of e ithe the in divi du al o the g o up Whethe

r r r r r . r

a g o up o n indivi du al le a n s bette o makes wi se deci

r r a r r r r

s ion s f eque ntly depe n ds on specifi c c i cum st n ces I n a

r r a .

g o
r up whe e the es o u ces
r of eve y m e m
r be freely a cces
r r r are

s ible t o all the g o up i s mo e likely t o p ove itself supe

,
r

t o the in divi du al I n an in divi du al in wh om h ab i tu al sets

.
“ io r r r

,
r
”

expect an ci es a b a i e s t o p o ductive ness the g o up

we h ave Sh own in an e a li e ch apte i s in a bette p o s ition
or ,
re rr r r ,
r ,

as r r r, r

t o el imin te the m an d wo k p o ductively O n the o the

a r r . r

h an d in g o up whe e ( f o wh ateve e a s on ) ll th av ai l
,
a r r r r r a e

able es o u es of i ts membe s a no t u fli i n tly t apped o

r rc r re s c e ,
r

whe e the le a de al one ( a gain f wh ateve e a s on ) p o s

r r ,
or r r

sesses all the elevant facts in the le a nin g of an attitude

r r

o rthe s o lution of a p oblem the group i s mo e lik ely th n r ,

r a

no t t o be no bette an d p o ss ibly w o se th an th in divi du al

r r e

Y et it is t ue th at in s om e g oups only the es o u ces of an

.

,
r r r r

in divi dua l two a a cess ible t o a ll but th e es ul ts e

or re c ,
r ar

a dequ ate an d useful

H o weve th i s l a st obse v at ion do es no t c ommi
.

r
r,
“
un supp o ted c on clus ion th at an in divi du al gatekeepe i
t us t o the r

r
”
s

n ecess a ily u fli i n t f effect ive group a ct ivity We wi sh

r s c e or

m e ely t o st ess the fa ct th at tho se wh o st ess the p ima cy of

.

r r r r

the wi sdom of the g o up ( s om eti m es mo tiv ated by p a ti s an

r
”
r

ze al ) ofte n b a se thei l aim s no t on object ive evi den ce but r c ,

o n the i no t ion of an i de l g o up
r Sc i ent ific ally the e i no a r .
,
r s

object ion t o hyp oth ec a tin g th i s gro up a s an idea l con st ru ct;

but thi s i s no t wh a t the exp one nts o f the no t ion of g o up r

supe io ity h ave in min d O nly a ve y few of the g o ups

r r . r r

r ep o ted in the lite atu e eve n app oximate th i de al g o up

r r r r e r
126 DY N AM IC F A CTO RS IN GR O U P BEH AVI O R
thi s mo de of p o cedu e be eff ect ively c i ti ci zed if the psych ol
r r r

p im a y in te est i s m e a su r em e n t b a sed on st at i st i c al
’

o is t
g s r r r

p edic tab ility B ut in s o cial le a n in g an d g oup dyn mi cs

S
r r r a

“
.
,

whe e we r t a ke the wh o le i tu a t ion in t o a cc o u n t t y to ,

r

m e a su e the le a nin gs o ch n ges f an integ ated t of

r
”
r r a o r se

in divi du als an d aim t o p ed i t the beh a io not of di sc ete

,
r c v r r

in divi du als but of o gani zed t o t aliti es st ati st i c al p ob ab ilit ies

r ,
r

a e o f no g e a t c on seque n ce The le a nin g the o i st seld om 24

r r . r r

obse ves on le a nin g subject in the p esen ce of o the le arn

r e r r r

in g subjects an d p a cti c ally n eve examin es le nin g a s a

,
r r ar

g o up p o duct We h ave the efo e t i ed t o pl ace befo e

r r . r r r r

the e a de ex amples of le a nin gs un de b o th sets of c on dition s

r r r r .

O exp o s ition h a s c i ti c ally t a ckled the p oblem of th e

ur r r

supe io ity of the on e type of le a nin g ove the o the The

r r r r r .

r esults a f less c on clus ive th an the espect ive cl aiman ts

re ar r

h ave a lle ged B ut even th ou gh the esults

. no t a s c on r a re

clu s i a s one wo uld wi sh ge n e ally spe kin g they f vo

ve ,
r a a r

g oup le arnin g ove indivi du al le a ni n g Th at they d o o

r r r . s

i s l a gely due “
r t o the effectiveness f the g o up in di l o r sso v

in g the i gi d sets o f i in divi du als elim in tin g f lse st a ts

r
” ‘

,
a a r ,

e n co u a gin g ch an ge an d fa cil it at in g the p o cess of acqui in g

r ,
r r

n ew h ab its un de s o cially ewa din g “ r con dit ion s Wh il e r r .

the e i s the c onst ant i sk of epl ac in g ld sets by n ew ones

r r r o
”

in the fo m of excess ive unifo mity the e i s als o the su e

r r ,
r r

knowledge th a t many fo m s of ch an ge g e a tly fa

r c il i t a ted are r

by g o up a ccept an ce n d co llect ive st im ul ation

r a .

24 It i s o n ly f a ir to ad

wM
d th at p sy ch olo is ts o f le arni n do n o t i n toto s u b~ g g g
s i der le a rni n g
s crib e to th e a tom i s tic v i e ore a n d m o re o f th em ar e co m in
.

a s a u n i tary p ro ce ss a n d are e s p eci a ll y re co n iz i n

,
t o co n
e m o ti o n a l

m oti v a tion al an d o th er p ro p erties a s as p ec ts o f th e to tal le arnin S i tu a tio n

,
g gg ,

.
RESO LUTIO N O F GRO UP
TENSIO NS CO NFLICT A ND
ADJUSTMENT O F GRO UPS
130 A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS C O NFL I C T

vi de e nough p ni“ i t o its m embe s t o e nable the m

err s s v en ess r

t o a ctuali ze thei devi nt in te es ts p otenti li ties they

r a r or a ,

a re mot ivated t o det a ch them selves f om th p e nt g o up r e ar r

an d fo m a n ew a ss o ciation of in di vi du als Whe n m embe s

r . r ,

bec use of thei sep a ate inte ests h ampe the g oup in
a r r r ,
r r

a ch ievin g i ts goals o maint ainin g its st ab ility they a e

f e quently expelled f om i t S in e the n eed t o belon g i s a
r ,
r

r r . c

st ong s o c ial motive an d s in ce s om e inte ests c an be s ti sfied

r ,
r a

on ly in c oact in g elat ion ships the ejected in divi dua ls give n

r ,
r ,

a f ee choi ce will fo m a n ew g o up of like min ded in di

r ,
r r -

v i du l The st on ge the n eeds n d c onvi t ion s f the dis

a s . r r a c o

s i d n t elem e nts
e the g e ate will be the p ob ab ili ty
a re , r r r ,

ge ne ally spe akin g th at they will fo m n ew g o up in gs This

r ,
r r .

obse va tion aut om ti c ally excludes f om o su vey the p

r a r ur r er

e nn i l j oin e s f o they seld om le a ve on e g o up whe n j oini n g

a r ,
r r

anothe Th ey no t—sh all we s ay ! — n i ssue in g o up

dyn mi cs but a p oblem in the psych ol o gy of pe s onali ty
r . a re a r

a r r .

F O RMATI O N OF S U BG RO U PS
Amon g the vital p oblem s in g oup dyn mics p ess in g f
/
r r a r or

s o lution the o i gin an d natu e of g o up c onfli cts an d the

settin g up of p a cti c al m e ns f o es olvin g them C onfli cts
a re r r r

r a r r .

a re f equently es olved when g oups att ain a n ew q ili

r r r e u

b i m whe n n ew g o ups a i se in esp on se t o d i ss at i s fa ct ion

r u ,
r r r

with the old whe n di ss i de nt elem e nts ,

or el im inated f om a re r

the s o c ial field an d fo m a n ew set of inte a ctive pe s on s r r r .

Whe n these ch an ges o ccu the ce nt al p oblem of g oup r, r r r

dynami cs becom es the t a sk o f invest ig atin g the b al anced

r el at ionsh ip f the fun ction n d esp on s ib ili ty f the n ew
o a r o

subg oups an d t o u nde st an d the ole f the le a de in the

r ,
r r o r

ch an ged el ation ship r .

The e a many ex amples f the fo egoin g ch an ges s om e

r re o r ,

of wh i ch we sh all desc ibe in det ail H a mony wi th in a r . r

g o up i ofte n a ch ieved whe n ec alcit ant indivi du al

r s r r s or

g o ups o gani ze thei di sc onten t in n ew fo ma tion s G oups

r r r r . r

of ind ivi du als in the fo m of sc apegoats fl o d opp o tun iti es r a r r

f or dominant g o ups t o di ect the i a gg ess ion s t ow ard them ;

r r r r

while a t the s am e t im e the ejected subg oup of scapegoa ts r r

IN TE RGR O U P R E L ATI O N S 31

e ects p owe ful defen ses a g ain st the d ominan t g oup an d

r r r

the eby achi eves a n ew equ ilib ium The le a de ship t u

r r . r s r c

tu e may als o be a di c ally a lte ed whe e in th e est abli shed

r r r ,
r

le a de s e fo ced f om the g o up h ave the ir funct ion an d

r ar r r r ,
or

p o s ition d a sti c all y ch an ged o n ew le ade s may e m e ge to

r ,
r r r

t ake the p o s ition of those wh o h ave bee n dep o sed

Subg o up fo mation depe nds fi n lly up on the S i ze of
.

r r ,
a ,

the p a e nt g o up The p oblem of g o up s i ze i s a d ifficult

r r . r r

o n e an d desp i te a c on s i de able amo un t o f d i scuss ion of the

,
r

i ssue in the lite atu e we no t yet in a st on g p o s it ion t o

des i gnate an Opt imum numbe The e a e s om e d at a n eve
r r ,
a re r

r . r r ,
r

t h l es wh i ch pe mi t us t o s a y th at on the wh o le the l a ge
e s, r , ,
r r

the p a e nt g o up o the thi n gs bein g equ al the g e ate the

r r ,
r ,
r r

p o ss ib ility of the fo mat ion of subg o ups S in e s ati sf ctionr r . c a

with an d c ontinu ation in the g oup i s a c on seque nce of g o up r r

a tt a ctiven ess the mo e opp o tunity a m embe h a s of p

r ,
r r r ar

t icip a tin g in the g o up s a ct i vi t i es the g e a te w ill be the

’

r r r

c h an ces of hi s st ayin g in the g o up A s the s i ze of the gro up r .

in c e a ses the ch an ces of p a t i c ip a t in g d imini shes an d d i s

r ,
r

s ati sfa ction in c e ases I n divi du al m embe s c om e t o feel th at

r . r

t hey d o no t c o u n t an d th a t the le a de s k i ll bec om es d i

’

r S s

p o
r p o t iona rtely in fl ue n t ia l I n th i s s i tu a t ion fa ct ional di . s

p utes a i se wh irch f eque n tly e n d i n the devel o p m e n t of

r

i n depe n de n t g o ups 1
r

I n a ll th i s we d o no t m e an t o suggest th at the subg o ups

.

f o m ed by diss o c ia t ion f om the p a e n t g o up n ecess a i ly

r r r r r

a ffec t the l at te a dve sely alth o ugh ofte n c onflict n d d i s

r r ,
a

1 For g ff an ex tens i v e i n v e s ti thi s p robl em , se e A P Hare , A stu dy

a ti o n o f . .

g w g
f in te ra ctio n
— w ga n d con s en s u s

Accordi n
26 1 6 7 . t o Har e
i n di e rent s i z e d gro u p s , Am er S o ci a l Rev , 1 7
h o s e in v e sti a ti on p ert a in s on ly to ,
. . .

f w
di s cus s i on rou p s

g w
d i s s a ti s a ction
g ff f
h en th e siz e Of th e g ro u p ex cee ds a doz en m emb ers ,
,

i th i t b ecom es n oti ce a ble A c are ul ly desi n e d s tu dy by . g wf

S gF g g
i ntere sti n
f S g F
B ale s an d B org a tta dea lin

fi
ith ro u p s o f di eren t s iz e s
,

li h t u p o n th i s p rob lem S ee R
iz e of ro u p a s a a ctor in th e in tera cti on p ro l e in P Hare E
B a l es a n d E
thro s urth er
B org a tt a ,
.

B org a tt a
. .

, .
,

,
. FF .
.

.
,

Y k Kw f S
a nd R . B a les
. mal l ro up s : s tu di es i n s ocial i nteracti on ( N ew
—
or : Alf re d A

of nog
i n th i s ch a p t er gg w
n op , I n c
.
pp 396 4 13 in ce w e a re co ncern e d
.

i th a v a ri e ty o f s u b rou p s th e p rob l em s o f
rea t i m p o rta n ce .
,

ro u p s iz e i s

Di s cu s sio n ro u p s ill b e ex ami n ed in a lat er

.

,
.

g
c h a p ter
« .
1 32 A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS C O NF L C I T

equil ib ium a its se ious c on sequen ces The p o cess may

r re r . r ,

as a matte of fa ct in c e a se the p a ent g oup s v ale nt p owe

r ,
r r r
’

r,

its att a ctive ness t o o the in divi du als Th i s i s see n when

r r .

sub g o ups function p o s itively t o enh ance the att a ct iveness

r r

of the who le F ate nit i es on a c ollege c ampus whi le h

. r r , a

s o b in g s om e of the in divi duals loy alti es t o the sch ool wil l

r
’

als o enh an ce the sch ool s a tt activeness S om e pe ople go t o ’

c olle ge an d Sh ow dev otion t o its i de als bec ause they h ave o

r .

,
r

hope to h ave the opp o tunity t o j oin a G eek lette s o ci ety

Conflict and dis uption of g oup life woul d no m ally take
,
r r r .

pl ace only if the goals an d i de als of the tw o Sh oul d be

r r r

t o t ally at v a ian ce wi th e a ch o the r r

P E A DULT S UB G O UP S L on g be fo e an in di i du al becom es
.

R R . r v

an a ct ive an d effect ive m embe of th o se subg oups wh i ch r r a re

r esp on s ib le f the g ave cle av a ges an d c onfli cts of th

or r r e

hum n community he i s att acted t o a ss o cia tion s th t s ti sf y

h i e ly n eeds C h i e f amo ng the m a
a ,
r a a

s ar pee g oups an d
. re r r

a dolesce nt cli ques .

P e g o p A lth o ugh mo st ch ild e n a cqui e s om e kn owl

er r u s . r r

edge n d expe i e n ce of g o up el ation s in the i o wn fam ily

a r r r r

l if e these inte ction s fi st becom e t uly s o c ial in the

,
ra r r re

c ip l e l a t ion s they h a ve wi th o the s in the i pee g o ups

ro ca r r r r r .

The no m s f the family wh i h gove n the ch ild s e ly

r o ,
c r
’

ar

beh vio a fo“

llowed f o the mo st p a t m ech ani c ally
r, a re r r ,
or

with a kin d of lite al e ali sm an d c onceived l a gely ”

exte nal imp o s it ion s F e que ntly he acts counte t o the m

r r ,
are r as

r . r r

“
bec ause he do es no t f eel them t o be hi s own Much of th
di s obedi e nce of a yo un g child i s a neg ati ve e a ction t
.

r
e

st an da ds whi ch he h no t inte n l i zed in t o h i s o wn

r as r a re

a ction syste“ m He h a s no t yet developed wh t P ia get

. a so

aptly c alls mo al e ali sm —th at i an objecti ve c oncepti on

r r
”
s,

o f esp on s ib ility
r Pi get h a s als o noted th e go ce n t i c ch a
2
a e r r

a cte f a child s lin gui st i c h ab i ts D u in g the fi st i o

.

r o . r r s x r

seve n ye a s of l if e the ch ild shows little s o cial c oll ab o ation

r ,
r

in speech I n h i c onve s a t ion w i th o the s he d o es no t t

. s r r a

P g F j g p M
(G
Th e mo ra l ud ment th e ch i ld , by Ga b ain
ia e t, f
o tra n s . .

len co e, I ll . : Th e ree Press , . 1 06 .

1 34 C O NF L C
A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS I T

p a ents obedi ence t o the i dem an ds i s felt a s b in din g an d

Often opp essive and the p a ents too f equently fail to
r ,
r

r ,
r r

un de st an d the chi ld s n eed f o in depe n den ce He

r
’
lu r . ev a

ates hi s p a e nts deman ds no t e ali st i c ally in the li ght of the i

r
’
r r

o w n se n se of du ty a s they it but in the li ght of h is se e ,

expected f eed om in the a ss o ciation s wi th h i s fellows The

r

p a e nts at the s am e tim e may be u nable o unwill in g t

.

r r o

a cknowledge the pull of lo yalty of the subg o up in e nli st in g r

the inte ests an d emo t ion s of the yo un g pe s on A f equent

r r . r

c on seque n ce of th i s divi ded l oyalty i s th at the ch ild i s eve n

mo e st on gly d awn t o th pee g o up thus mak in g th
r r r e r r ,
e

sep a at ion an d c onfli ct betwee n the p a e nt al an d the pee

r r r

gro ups ap i dly mo e inte n se The wi desp e a d c ompl aint s

r r . r

of c ontemp o a y a dults th at o yo un g pe ople

r r goin“g to ur are

the do gs an d the a dolescents et o t th at p a ents

,
”
t
’
r r r a re ou

of t ouch with life an d old fa shioned bes i des ,

”
thus b ase d -
,
a re

up on a mi sun de st andin g on the p a t of b o th g o ups

r r r .
5

Thi s c onfl ict of the pe e g o up an d the family g o up i s r r r

n t p ese n t in
o r ll s o c i et ies I many p imit ive cultu es
a . n r r ,

wh ile d iffe e nt iat ion into a ge mate g o ups i s c ommon the i

r -
r ,
r

fo mation i s in line with the mo es of the cultu e They

r r r . ar e

s an ction ed an d the i st atus i s supp o ted by the s o ci ety a s

r r a

“
wh ole in the fo m of expli cit in di c ation s of thei b o un d a i e s
r

by ce emoni es an d ites of p a ss a ge I n th i s s i tu a tion th

r r .
r r

a dolescent i s n eve c onf used eg a din g h i pl ace in the c om~

r r r s

munity an d the ole beh avio expected of h im I n thesr r . e

c i cum st an ces it i no t n e ess a y f h im t o ebel a gainst

r s c r or r or

wi thd aw f om the family g oup f o the e i s noth in g a gain s t

r r r r r

wh i ch he needs se io usly t o ebel A cco din gly wh il e many

,

r r . r ,

di scontinui ties exi st in p imitive l if e a s in eve y cultu e r ,

r r ,

they usu ally mo e cle a ly defin ed by the cust om s f th

a re r r o e

g o up th an i s t ue in o own s o ci ety The esult usu a lly i

r r ur . r s

an e a s i e t an s ition in p imitive cultu e f om one g oup to

r r r r r r

anothe o f om one set of expe ta tion s t o ano the

r, r r c r .

w w g
I t i s h a rdly n e s to a ss e rt, a s m a ny do , th a t th e p res en t en era ti o n
5 g
is
Reca ll C
o rs e th a n th e p re ce din on e
“
Thi s a ttitu de is p e rh a p s a s old a s m an
icero s p lai nti v e cry : 0 tem p o ra l O m ores I
’ ”
. .
 N E RGR O U P R E L ATIO N S
I T 1 35

The n eed t o wi thd aw o ebel in our s o ci ety i s no t only r r r , ,

d i ected a gain st the family but a gainst any g oup institu

r r or

tion whose no m s the young pe s on finds it difficult to accept

r r

an d e n du e The sch ool f ex ample i s no t an un c ommon

r . or ,

“
object of h i s d i ss a t i s fa ct on s an d a gg ess ion s Much
h oo li gani s m in o u publ i c sch ools wh i ch the d ai ly p ess
”
of
r
the i

,
r .

c onst antly bel ab o s eflects the s am e n eed f o fi n din g s ati s

r ,
r r

faction s in pee g oups th at the sch ool do es no t a dequ ately

r r

fulfill D esp ite the marvelo us imp o vem e nts in ou educ a

. r r

t ion l system s to o man y sch oo ls a

a ,
still ope at in g on au re r

th o it a i n p in c iples
r r a S ince the a dolescen t h a s little o
r . r

no thing t o y ega din g th o se sch ool p o lici es wh i ch di ectly

sa r r r

t o uch hi s emo tional n eeds he bec om es e ithe in diffe ent ,

r r ,

negat ive a gg ess ive Hi s main th o ught i s of the d i smi ss al

or r

bell an d the expect ant s ati s fact ion s a cc o ded to him by hi s

.
,

pee g oup Th i s i a ich a e a of investi g at ion wh i ch g o up

r r . s r r r

dynami cs h sc a cely begun t o t ap as r .

Ado le e nt cli qu es . The difl

sc n ti o n of pee g o ups and e re r r

ad olescen t cli ques may well be ch allenged M any dol . a es

cent cli ques i t mi ght be a gued ar pee g o ups an d vi e

,
r , e r r ,
c

ve s a The di st inction i s justifi ed h owever if we be a in

r .
, ,
r

min d th at pee g oups te n d t o fo m on the b a s i s of g an d

r r r a e,

are f equently des i gnated as a ge mate g o ups A dolescent

r -
r .

cliques a e usu ally ch a a cte i zed by a sh a pe aw a en ess of

r r r r r r

c ommon emo tional t i es di vi s ion of fun ction with in the

g o up an d the s o ve ei gn deman d of l oy alty t o it Thi s i s
,

r , r .

o utst andingly t ue of a dolescent gan gs whi ch in o de t o

r ,
r r

maint ain the i aut onomy may eve n move a g in st the la ge

r ,
a r r

s o ciety in the fo m of delinquent beh avio r r .

The ejected an d di s own ed yo uth whethe he achi eved

r ,
r

thi s st atus by the absen ce of family t i es o by the in diffe en ce r r

of h i s c omm u nity o sch ool fin ds in a cli que o a gan g th er ,

r

a ccept n e whi ch he e a ge ly seeks The new subg oup b e

a c r r

com es the ce nte of o i ent ation an d p esents the yo uth wi th

.

r r r

the po ssibility of gaining st atus and even distinction among

hi s pee s B elon ging t o any g o up i s bette th an belon gin g
r .

“
to non e a t ll ; an d wh ile the in d ivi du al may buy h i s m e m
a
r r
 1 36 C O NF L I C
A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS T

b sh ip a t the p i ce of c o nf o mi ty g e a te th an th a t a gains t
er r r r r

whi ch h e o i gi nally ebelled the st an d a ds wh ich he i s a sked

r r ,
r

t o a ccept in the subg o up c o esp on d mo e n tu a lly t o hi s r rr r a r

own .Thus while the n ew st and a ds may be mo e seve ely

, r r r

b indin g th an th o se f h i s h om e psycholo gi c all y they d o no to ,

a y the flavo of ty anny an d a b it a iness whi ch the in di

c rr r r r r r

vi du al imputes t o olde pe ople S in ce he i s inte a ct in g wi th r r

mo e like him self he mo e e a dily a dop ts

.

p e sron s w h o a re r ,
r r

the w ays of h i cli que th an tho se of a g oup in wh o se fo ma

s r r

ti on he pl ayed no p a t r .

Sh aw s desc iptions of such in divi du als in the slum s of

’

Chicago e incisive and lay b a e the p owe ful need fo

r

ar r r r

g ro up bel on g in g n ess w i th w h i ch eve n the h om e c o ul d no t

c ompete D esc ib in g the che ap mo vi es an d fl ph
,

. r wh i ch o o u ses

a b o un d in the n e i ghb o h oo d on in divi dual fi“ n ds them a r , e

efuge mo e st e n gthe nin“ g th an the h om e When blue

O
r r r .

a n d b o ke n r he s a ys Iu w o uld a lw a ys fi n d an ld p al
p
-
, ,

t h e t o tell m y t o ubles to an d ece i ve the sym p thy th a t

er r
'

r a

c om es th o ugh mutu al u1 n“ r de st an d“in g The b u n s an d r . r

o the de eli cts ma de up h i s family We ll ate t the s am e

r r .
”
a a

t able an d e n j o yed o u selves a t th s am e th“ e ate s he b r e r ,

o

e ves He pe e ives the wh ole g oup a s a b othe h oo d

who se Object w a s m utu al p i ty an d sym p athy
s r . rc r r r
”6
.

I t i s a se io us mi st ake t o ch a a cte i ze all g an gs n d l i ques

r r r a c

as antis o c ial o delin que nt The fulfi llm e nt of n eeds whi ch

r .
,

{d aws m embe s t o v a io us g oups may be e al i zed in e i ther

r r r r ,
r

a wholes om e o a dest uct ive w ay The e many fa cto s

mak in g f o on o the othe typ e of a ss o cia tion C li ques an d
r r . r are r

r e r r .

g an gs no ma lly for m on ly whe n a g o up rof y o u n g p e o ple r

f ails t o h ave i ts maj o n eeds s at i sfied by o the in st i tut ion s r r .

G an g fo mation i s a no mal s o cial p o cess an d whe n the

-
r r r ,

g an g s act iviti es e d i ected in t o const uctive ch ann els i t

’

ar r r

ofte n becom es an imp o t ant s o ciali zin g age ncy f o the matur
,

r r

in g a doles ce nt
A gain the goal di ection of the clique o the gan g will
.

,
-
r ,
r ,

be l a gely dete mined by the asp i ation s of i ts m embe s by

r r r r

wp g g
,

CS C C
C
6 ha ( ed B ro th ers in crime ( hi ca o: Th e Uni v ers i ty of hi ca o
—
. .

Press, . 79 See . h a p ter 2 , p p . 50 5 1 .

138 A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS C O NFL C I T

co unt i es an d of d iffe ent acial o i gin h ave bee n ama

r
“ l r r r

g m
a t d they
a e h a ve
,
no t a lw a ys bec om e in teg a ted A s r .

sim i l t i n ah a s t oo ofte n been exte nal accommo d at ion

o r ,

rathe th an ge nu in e cultu al i de nt ific tion The p o cess of

r r a . r

abs o ption fu the mo e h a s often bee n a chi eved at the

r ,
r r r ,

co st of wi desp e a d an d intense inte g oup confli ct r r r

Ame ica was conceived and developed in violen e Th e

.

r c .

hi st o y of the l ab o movem e n t in th i s c o unt y t o c ite but on e

r r r ,

ex mple i s a ch oni cle f inte g o up di stu b an ces Wo ld

a ,
r o r r r . r

W I left in it p ath a n t ionali sm f o gh t wi th supp ess ion s

ar s a r u r

an d c onfli cts ali e n t o the p inc iples of the demo c a cy we r r

h ve p ofessed Fo llowin g Wo ld W a II th i s t e n d bec am e

a r . r r r

inten s ified an d while la ge —sc ale immi g ation f om fo ei gn

,
r r r r

co unt i es ce a sed inte g o up h o stiliti es we e no t c o esp on d

r ,
r r r rr

in gly educed r

F iendly inte co u se between diffe ing g oups h no t

.

r r r r r as

g o up dynamics n d a ction p o g am s t o the c ont y no t

r a r r rar

wi thst an ding— educed inte g o up te n s ion s m uch a s h a d

r r r as

been h oped A summ e spe nt in f i en dly cont a ct of d iffe ent

. r r r

r a ces h a s s om et im es effected g at ifying esults but the e i s r r ,

r

no su e in di c ation th at the ch ange i s pe mane ntly t an s fe ed

r r r rr

to the h om e c omm unity To s om e extent u sl ow p o g ess . o r r r

in de alin g with inte g o up te ns ion s n be t a ced t o a s in gu r r ca r

l failu e t o e a li ze th a t le a nin g i s n o t wh o lly an in tellectu al

ar r r r

phe nom e non but i s st on gly ti ed up wi th mo t ives n d feel r a

in gs an d especially with st on g self involvem e nt s wh ich

b ief inte a c ial ont a cts ofte n le ave unto uched ( See Ch ap
,
r -
,

r rr c .

t er4 p ,
The e i s no depe n dable evide n ce in p
. r su

p o t of the belie f th at le a nin gs an d o the beh avio s a

r r r r re

t an sfe ed f om one g o up s itu ation t o ano the Wh at i s

r rr r r r .

t ue in an a c ademi c le a nin g s itu ation may be quite u nt ue

r r r

in a context wh o se emo tional ch a a cte i s e y diffe ent I n r r v r r .

the i ze al t o desc ibe g o up el at ions s olely in coll ecti ve

r r r r

te m s fu the mo e many wo ke s in th i s field h a e

r ,
r r r ,
we r r v ,
as

h ave al e a dy sh o wn o ve looked the ole o f pe s onal ity

r r r r

Rega dless of thei contacts with diffe ent acial g oups s ome
.
,

r r r r r

in divi du als fi nd in the i h a t ed of th em convenie nt ch annels r r

fo the exp ess ion of deeply o o ted a gg ess io n s S om e of

r r r r .
 N E RGR O U P R E L ATI O N S
I T 1 39

these hat eds can be es olved pe h aps only by me ans of indi

r r r

vi dual o gro up the apy

r r

Race p ejudice fu the mo e is seldom b ased on acial

.

r r r r r

One need only conside the wide

, ,

ch a acte i sti cs exclus ively “

r r . r

sp e ad p ejudi ce a g in st fo e i gn e s wh o se appe a an ce i s ”

i denti c al with th at of the p ejudi ced in divi du l E ven at

r r a r r r

r a

the o the ext em e a N eg o an O i e nt al i s di sl iked no t only

.

r r ,
r or r

f o h i s c o l o but f o the al i e n cultu e wh i h h e ep ese nts

r r r r c r r .
7

M I N O R TY G O UP S C o llective di sc imination a g ain st mi

I R r

U B
.

n o it
r
y g o ups
r i s w i desp e a d in the ni ted St a tes ec a use r .

of the i phys ic al cultu al t aits ce t ain g oups of people

r or r r r r

are s in gled o ut by the dominan t group an d a cc o ded une qu al r

t e atm e nt Specific ll y the mino i ty g o up i s de nied full

r . a ,
r r

p a ti cip ation in the s o c ial ec onomi c p oliti c al an d el i gious

r , , ,
r

l ife of the nation I nte p eted in the light of u demo c ati c

. r r o r r

eth i c—the do ct in e f the i ghts of man—wh i ch avo wedly

r o r

t e ats eve y in divi du al an d g oup equ ally min g ity pe oples

r r r ,
r

a re dep ived of the st tus wh i ch they p o ssess a s uman

r a

be in gs A a c on seque n ce of th i s sep at ion b o th the d om

S ar

i n n t an d the mino i ty g o ups expe i e n ce imp o t an t p y

.

a r r r r s

ch l o i al ch an ges T he mino i ty g o up devel o ps a se n se

o
g c . r r

of i s o lat ion infe io ity an d in securi ty no t t o m e nt ion an

,
r r , ,

acc omp anyin g h o stility which develops a s a mo de of defe nse .

The domin ant g o up wh o se ch an ge i mo e subtle an d he n ce

r ,
s r

usually un e o gni zed suff e s to o in the fa ce of thei di s

r c r r

c iminat ion N o s o ciety c an be s ai d t o be he althy whi ch

,

stunts the g owth of its mino ity g oups C ohes iven ess i s
r .

r r r .

b oun d t o be inju ed by di sc imination an d whe e p overty

r r ,
r

and subst an dard communiti es a by p o ducts of thi s dif re -

r

fere n ti ti n
a the to t al ec onomy in evit ably suffe s
o ,
r .

The di scuss ion f mino ity g o ups c o uld be s implified o r r

we e it n o t f o the fact th at human p ejudi ce d i stin guishes

r r r

betwee n ethni c an d a ci l gro ups The p esen ce of such r a . r

7 Ww j
h il e th e cul ture Of th e Ame ri can N e ro i s l ar ely i de nti ca l
p i th th at g g w
o f th e h it e th e p re u di ce d
a ct eri st ics t o h im
,

wers on inv ar i ab l y a ttri b u te s cul tura l ch ar

hi ch h e t h en v i olen tly re ects u ch im p u te d cul tura l j . Sf

a n d th e li e k
ch ara cte ri s ti cs are lo w cla ss s tatu s , ch eap reli gi o s ity , i n eri or m oral s ta n da rds ,

.
1 40 A ND A DJ U STME N T OF GRO U PS C O NF L I C T

phys i c al ch a acte i st i cs a s col o of skin c ompli c ates the

r r r

p ro ble m T he p o ble m i s fu the c om pl i c a ted rby the fa ct r r

th a t difl n e amon g people c ons i st whe n all i s s ai d an d

.

e re c s ,

d on e of the p cep tion wh i ch on g o up h of anothe

,
er s e r as r .

Whethe the e a any vi s ible ma ks of sep a ate n ess of

r r re r r

mino ity g o up m embe s i s unimp o t ant if the dominan t

r r r r

g ro up bel i eves th a t they p o ssess ce t ain phys i c a l an d p y r s

c h ol gi l ch a a cte i st i cs The belie fs wh i ch the d ominan t

o ca r r .

g o up h a s ega din g mino i ty pe oples w ill in the fi nal anal

r r r r

s i s dete min e th e eth ni c o c ia

r l st a tus of th e l atte S in ce r ra r
y .

i t i s a wi dely a ccepted p a cti e t o cl ass ify b o th ethni c an d

acial mino it i es unde the s in gle c atego y O f th n i g ou p
r c

pu p o ses of s impl ific ation we Sh all fo llow th i s p acti ce

r r r r e c r s,

for r r

in the p ese nt di scuss ion r .

G o up el ations an d att itudes we h ave show n

r r le a ned , ,
a re r .

The evi de nce f th i s st atem e nt i s o p ep on de o us th at we or s r r

may cons i de i t an est blished fa ct St atem ents t o th con

r a .
8
e

t a y
r r inva iably b a sed o n eth no cent i c pe ceptions di
a re r r r s

R esea ches
,

t o t d o bse v at ion s an d an ecd o t al desc i pt ion s

r e r ,
r . r

t oo num e o us t o do cum e nt he e h ve de mon st ated th at

r r a r

ethni c a ttitudes a ely appe a in ch ild e n befo e the i th i d r r r r r r r

ye a r .
9

The le a n ed ch a a cte of ethni c atti tudes i s fu the demon

r r r r r

s rt a t ed by the fa ct th a t they b o th v a iable an d in on a re r c

s istent B l ake an d D e nni s fo un d th at wh ile S o uthe n g a de

.
, r r

w
j f f GW “ w
See, h o ev er,
8

w g w
Allp ort s v i e th a t w e p os ses s a p re di s p os iti on t o
. .
’

f w g
”
p re u di ce i n th e orm of a co n sti tuti on a l b ent t o ar d ri i di ty hi ch i s th e

k
s o urce of

“ ff
a v orab le o r un av o ra b le a t ti t u de s to

g k w
ar d e th ni c ro u p s
s p ea s o f th i s be n t as a p os si bi lity a n d O ers n o e v i de n ce i n i ts s u
Al lp ort
p p ort
.

g G W
S
a bs o lu te l y n othi n j
O n th e contra ry , h e a ss erts th a t con cernin th is i mp ort a n t m a tter w e no

g See
S
lo i cal a n d soci a l ca u sa ti o n
A ll p ort, Pre u di ce : a p rob lem in p s y ch o
s oc I ss ues
.

u p p le m en t eri es NO 4
,
. .

.
, , .

14

f
.

w g
9 Th e re a der m a

w g f w g
y s a m p le th e i n v e s ti atio ns b y ex am ini n th e ol lo i n

S C k M C k
L Horo i tz a n d R E Horo i tz Dev e lo p m e nt of s o ci a l a tti
re e re n ce s : E

f g g K
tu des in ch il dren , oci o met ry 1
fi M w
. .

30 1 — 8; B
R a ci a l i den ti ca tion a n d p re ere n ce i n N e ro ch ildr en i n T
lar a n d P
, lar
N e c om b
. .
,

. .

, .
. .
,

Y k
.

a nd E L Ha rtl ey
M G
. R eadi n s i n socia l p s y ch o log y ( rev e d ; New
.
. .

or : He nry Ho lt C o , I nc pp 1 69 —78 ; E . o o dm a n . R ac e
, . . .
,

Co .
,
I nc .
,
19 5 2
142 C O NF L C
A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS I T

I f the wh o le dete min es the beh a v io of the p a ts a s

we a gued in C h ap te s 1 an d 2 the n we m ust begin with the
r r r ,

r r ,

infl uen ce of the cu ltu r l no ms in the fo mat ion o f att itudes

Too m uch e ne gy i s oft e n expen ded o n the i ssue of whe the
a r r .

r r

the family o the cultu al c ommunity i s mo e influe ntial in

r r r

fo min g o ur a tt itudes The t uth is th at p are nts a t oo

r r re

e adily c ed ited f o the beh avio al ch a a cte i sti cs of thei

.

r r r r r r r

child e n I n thi s we som etim es a ct a s if the wo ld exte nal

r . r r

to the family h a d onl y a mino influe n ce in the s o ciali z ati on r

of the child The p ese nt w ite c anno t a g ee with such an

. r r r r

assumpt ion f o he h a s obse ved t oo many in st ances whe e

,
r r r

child e n inte g ate no t the a ttitudes of thei p a e nts but the

r r r r

p ev aili n g p ejud i ces of the c ommunity P a en ts the m selves

r r . r ,

mo e ove live l a gely in acc o d an ce wi th the mo es o f th e

r r, r r r

community I f the child inte nali zes the w ays of life whi ch
. r

he fi n ds in hi s h om e they the ways of the c omm unity ,

are

as they a t an smitted t o h im by h i p a e nts I t i t ue of

re r s r s r

c o u se th at p a e nts inte p e t the no m s in the li ght f the i

.

r ,
r r r r o r

o w n mo t i ves an d pe s ona l it i es s om et im es eve n t o the p oin t

r ,

of i dio sync a sy ; an d the ch ild e n in o de t o esc ape p a e nt al

r r r r r

di s app o val will confo mand make the i p are nts attitu de
,
’

r , r r

the i ow n Thus by a p o ce ss of continuo us e inf o cem e nt

r . r r r

the ch ildre n s attitudes t ake on the c olo ation f the fam ily
’

r o

no m s M o st famili es h oweve te n d t o be c onventi ona l an d

r .
,
r,

to a ccept the no m s of the i g oup with o ut se io us di to

r r r r s r

tion Thi s c onfo mity i s but on e as pect of the mo e incl

. r r u

s ive te n dency of the m embe s of a g o up to th in k an d a ct in r r

a cc o d an ce with the est abli shed no m s

r r

The sh a in g of a c ommon b o dy of val ues an d se n tim ent s

.

inva iably st e n gthe n s g oup cohes ion ; and anyon e who do es

r r r

no t sh a e them ei the by v i tue of

r r
r
“ exclus ion o bec ause of a
r
,

p e fe e nce f o hi o wn no m s i diff e e nt n d the e fo e n

s
r

r
r

s r
”
a
r

r r a

outs i de A s an o uts i de he i s ofte n pe ce ived a th e at

,

r . r r as r

to in g o up s ol id a ity n d c onseque ntl y fe ared o desp i sed

-
r r a r

Thus the Am e ic an N eg o f o ex mple bec aus e of hi s hi gh

, .

s oc ial vi s ib ility tends to di stu b th el ation sh ip of fam ili a i ty

r r ,
r a ,

r e r r

betwee n in g o up m embe s He i s a cco d in gly de nied the

-
r r .
, r ,
 IN TE RGR O U P R E L ATIO N S 14 3

p articip ation whi ch the wh ite man acc o ds only to h i s ow n r

kind ”

The f mily f c o u se bec a use it i s a s t a tegi c s o c iali zin g

.

a ,
o r ,
r

a gent i s an imp o t ant inst um e nt al ity f o the t an smi ss ion r r r r

of ethni c attitudes to ch ild en Alth ough i t eflects the r . r

p ejudices of the cultu e in whi ch i t exi sts the family h

r r ,
as

its own w ay often quite di ectly th o ugh ve b al in culc at ion

,
r r r ,

of influen cin g the g owin g ch ild t o be unfavo ably di sp o sed r r

t o ethni c g oups A sc o e of excellent studi es do cum e nt

r . r

p a ental influe nce in the i se of p ejudi ce Meltze in

r r r r, a

study of child e n in the e i gh t t o thi tee n ye a a ge g oup

.

r r -
r- r ,

cle a ly fo un d the influen ce f p a ents o n the ethni c a ttitudes

r o r

of the i ch ild e n F e nkel B u n w ik an d S anfo d fo un d an

r r . r -
r s r

unmi st ak able el ation betwee n the p ejudi ces of p a ents an d

r r r

th o se of the i ch i ld e n Al lp o t an d K am e fo u n d th a t l
r r . r r r a

mo st 70 p ce nt of a l ge gro up of c ollege studen ts t aced

er ar r

the i n egat ive att itude t ow a d eth ni c groups t o the i p a e nts

r r r r

Radke and T age found the s m e influence in the i study

.

r r a r ,

and the vo lum e by G oo dman whi ch we h ave al e a dy ci ted r

co ob o ates the fin din gs of the o the s

rr r r
12

The ethn o cen t i c family judgin g by a study by F e nkel

.

r ,
r

B u n sw ik i s ch a te i zed by ce t ain t ai ts wh i ch u n d o ubt

‘

r ,
ar c r r r

e dly pl ay an imp o t an t o le in fo min g in cip i e n t an t i eth ni c r r r

“
attitudes I t i s o on m ed wi th st atus The n eed t o
. v e rc ce .

sep a ate itself f om o the s wh o e pe ce ived a s s o cially

r r r ar r

infe io i s e as ily t ansmitted t o the ch ild wh o thus le a n s

r r r r

to av oi d the m in h i s o c ia l el at ion s The p a ents f eque ntly s r . r r

use h a sh di scipline wh ich the ch ild inte p ets a s c ap i cio us

r r r r

an d a s in di c at ive of eject ion n d a bse n ce of genuin e love

The child a cco din gly i s dep ived of the Opp o tunity of
r a .

,
r ,
r r

r el atin g h im self p o s i tively an d w mly t o o the s especially ar r ,

th o se who al e a dy negat ively p i ge onh o led by vi tue of

are r r

M
f H
P
12 For th e b ov e Th e dev e lo p m ent of ch ildren s
res u lt s , e l tz e r,
’
a s ee .

S F k
n ati o n a li ty p re eren ces co n ce p ts a n d a tt i tu de s

58 ; E
P
Anti—em i tism
re n e l B ru n sw i k a n d R
. N
-
a n o rd

2 7 1—
s y ch o l
,
11 , 3 43
o m e p ers o n a li ty c o rre l a tes o f
. . S f S GW ,
, .
,

Mk
K Sg C
ra m er
s y ch o l 20
om e roots o f p re u di ce
,
,

s y ch o l
91;
22 j
A l lp ort a n d B
M 9; Ra d e
,
P .
,
. .

M .
. .

w P
an d H Tra e r h i ldren s p erce p ti on s of th e s oci a l role s of N e g roes a n d
’
.
,

hit es , J s y ch o l , 2 9
. 8— 33 . .
1 44 C O NFL I C
A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS T

t he i st atus nat ionality o col o He fails ab ove all t o

r , ,
r r .
, ,

jud ge pe ople by the i int ins ic wo th an d t oo e as ily sub mi ts

t o the a c qui ed h ab it of ev alu atin g them by supe ficial but
r r r ,

r r

s o ci lly pe ceptible an d cultu all y s i gnific ant t ai ts

a r r r .
13

I n v i ew f the p ejud i ced family s c on ce n wi th st a tus an d

’

o r r

the clo se elat ion of st atus t o economi c p o s it ion i t i s un

n ecess a y in a b i e f evi ew t o Sh ow the el at ion of e thni c
r ,

r ,
r r ,
r

att itudes t o economic st atus Thi s i s all the mo e a dvi s able . r

in vi ew of the fact th at it i s ve y d ifficult if no t imp o ss ible r

in the p ese nt st a ge of kn owledge t o d i sent an gle the

influe nce Of the m ultipli i ty of facto s in the dete min at ion
r ou r

c r r

o f eth ni c a tt i tudes We do no t mi ss the ma k app eciably r r

t an s mitted t o
.

if we m e ely affi m th t cl a ss a ttitudes

r r a a re r

t h e h ild by a dult m em be s of the family

c r .

We h ave a l e ady st essed the vi ew th a t in gro up dynami cs

r r

th e
p e o n liti s of
rs a
g ou
p m
e e m b e m ust no rt be i g no ed rs r .

P ejudi e i s le a n ed an d e info ced bec ause i t s at i sfies im

r c r r r

p o t ant pe s onality needs An a dult wh o wa s ejected a s a

r r . r

c h ild an d dep ived of the love wh i ch he w anted an d n eeded

r

i ge n e ally less able t o in t eg a te h i b alked wi sh es in a

,

s r r s

wholes om e n d c on st uctive w ay F such a pe s on h o s

a r . or r

t ili ty an d a ggress ion t o w a d o the s espec ia lly if th l atter

r r ,
e

a re at the s am e tim e wi dely eco gni zed sc apegoats ar e a dy r ,

e r

c ompe ns tion s Th i s i all the mo e t ue bec ause sc ape

a . s r r

g o ti n
a
g be in,
g a a t iona l i zed fo m ro f a gg ess ion f ees the r r ,
r

a gg ess o f om th h aunt in g sense f guilt wh i ch wo uld

r r r e o

d eeply t o uble the less v in d i ct ive in d iv i du al I t i s t ue als o

r . r
— an d th i s fa ct o i s wh a t makes sc apegoa t in g a t on ce o
r s

a tt a ct ive an d ins idio us—bec ause the ta get of p ejudi ce and

r r r

a
g g essrion i s helpless t o et a li a te The pe s on wh o h ra tes hi s . r

fathe any sym b o l of auth o ity which he a ss o ciates wi th

r, o r r

h i pe s onal f ust a t ion s d o es no t n eed th e supp o t of hi s

s r r r ,
r

g o
r up t o just if y h i s h a t ed T he m e e ex i ste n e o f o the s
r . r c r

wh o d a e t o be diff e e nt f om him self i s suffic ient t o a o use

r r r r

h i s pe nt p h at eds -
u r .

13
See E
R e la t , 1 .
. F k re n e l- Brun s wik,

2 9 5 4306 .
A st u dy of p re j u dice in c hil dren ,
Hu m .
1 46 C O NF L I C
A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS T

sym pt om s of eth ni c a ttitudes The j w in the U nited St ates . e ,

r a

s
,
r
“
f o ex m ple i s ejected by the d ominan t g o up no t o nl y b
c ause he i a lleged t o belon g t o a diffe e nt ce but bec ause r
r

ra ,
”
e

hi s eli gio us beli efs

r pe ce ived a th e at t o the est ab
a re r as r

li h d e li gio us v alues I t i s pe h aps s afe t o a ss um e th at

s e r . r ,

bec ause of the g owin g inte est in —th o ugh no t n ecess a ily
r r r

inc e s in g devo tion to— eli gion in ou s o c iety the co nfli ct

r a r r ,

will p ob bly in c e a se unti l such a tim e a s p a ctic al m e an s

des i gn ed to eliminate it Alth o ugh Optimi sts may fo e
r a r r

a re . r

see such a p o ss ib ility in the n e futu e the e i s little i ar r r ev

dence o f i t t o e n co u a ge the skepti c At any ate n m ust

,
‘

r . r ,
o e

be bl in d in deed no t t o ec o gni ze the fa ct th at wh ile el i gio us

r ,
r

c onflicts may no t be alt o gethe eliminated the e exist at the r ,

r

p esent tim e few pe s on s

r eli gio us o gani z at ion s th at
r or r r are

t yin g t o make the c onfli cts s o cially p o ductive I t i s a h i s

“
r r .

to i r cal c ommonpl a ce th t eli gio us d iff e e n ces h ave bee n thea r r

c ause of s om e of ou mo st i gnominio us c onfli cts

E ve y clo se obse ve f the eli gious scene p ovided he
r .

r r r o r ,
r

i s h im self f ee of di st o tin g eli gio us att itudes c an ep o t

r r r ,
r r

the exi ste n ce of el i gio us p ejudi ce in pe ople wh o may ex

r r

b ib i t no no t i ce able h o st il i ti es t o eth ni c g o ups Sect a i n r . r a

c ollege stude nts f eque ntly bet ay thi s pp a ent in n i t

r r a r co s s

e ncy They . e a dy t o ac ept diffe en es in a ce “

a re r ultu e c r c r ,
c r ,

and p oliti c al i de olo gy n d glow wi th p i de o ve thei b oa d

mindedness yet Sh ow a fie ce into le an ce o f in divi du a ls o
,
a r r r r

r r r

g o ups whi ch diffe f om them in eli gio us o utlook D e

,

r r r r

n m in t io n l c o lleges may h ave N egro es an d J ews o n the i

.

o a a r

f culti es but they will n o t knowingly t ole ate an athei st

a r
”

in the i midst A st ikin g inst an ce of th is b igo t y i a ece nt

,

r . r r s r

a b it a y di smi ss al of an a the i st f om th faculty of a

r r r
”
r e

unive s ity in ou nat ion s “

r c ap i t al fo llo wed up by th di e
r
’

e r

edi ct th at hencefo th no athe ist will be app ointed t o its

faculty E thni c confli cts an d eligio us ant a goni sm s c annot
r
15
. r

14 A g
a n d s o ci ety ( Ga rden
oo d s o urce

C
f or th e e n era l re a der is E
i ty , N Y : Do u b leda y Co
g
. .
. K
.
,
. N o ttin h am
Inc .
g ,
g
R e li io n
es p e ci ally
,

ch a p i .

p
.

1 5 R e ort ed b .

b eliev e i n God! i n Th e C h ris tia n Re is ter ( arch ,

k
y B B l a e i n a n arti cl e e ntitl e d
g M
M u st co ll e

8 .
g f e p ro ess ors
 IN TE RGR O U P R E L ATI O N S 147

always in sh o t be expl ained by the s am e s o cial psych o

,
r ,
-

lo gic al m ech ani sm s .

C HR STIA N JE W SH ANT GO NI S MS Th fo egoin g in n

I -
I A . e r co

i t n i
s s e c all f o expl anat ion s on o the th an c onve ntionall y
c es r r ,

ethn ic g oun ds th ough the l atte a ofte n p ese nt to c om

r ,
r re r

pli c ate an al e a dy pe plex in g p oblem r r r .

The inc on s i sten cy i s p a tially b a sed we beli eve o n the

Ch istian doct ine f love o comp assion Ch istianity d
r , ,

r r o r . r a

moni shes it beli eve s to lo ve all m e n i espective of a cial

s r rr r

diffe ences but in the s am e b e ath

r t o spe ak a sse ts th at r so r

eli gio us t uth i s fo un d only in it o wn do ct in e A cc o d

, , ,

r r s r . r

bec ause he bel ongs t o a d iffe e nt ace “

in gly the J ew i s h a ted o d i sl iked in man y in st an ces no t
th i s wo d i s
r

r r ,
as
,

p opul a ly inte p eted but bec ause he beli eves in a diff e e nt

r r r ,
r

kin d of Go d .

The e i s fu the mo e an im pli c i t an t a goni s m betwee n

Jud ai s m an d Ch i st iani ty wh ich a cce ntu ates the eli gio us
r , r r r ,

c onfli ct betw een C h i stian an d J ew A do no a sc i bes t o th i s

r r

r r r

diffe e n ce no t only the in c omp atib il ity of two di sp a ate cul

.

tu es but the C h i st ian s at ionali z a tion of h i s anti Semiti c

r r
’

r ,
r r -

att itudes an d feeli n gs a s well The evi de n ce on whi ch he .

16

b ases h i s ar gum ent i s p a tly h i st o i c al an d p a tly emp i i c al r r r r

I n th i s in st an ce we c an d o no bette th an t o qu o te A d o no
.

r r

at le ngth He writes .
,

Chri s ti a ni t y as Son con t a i n s a n im licit

th e
”
re ligi on of th e p
g

e nh a n ce d b
g
w itne sses th e Je s
h
,
g

e a ct th a t t h e
wf
a n ta o n i s m a a i n s t th e rel i i o n of th e

s b
.
F

clin in
a th er a n d i t s surv i v in g

Thi s a n t a goni sm con tin u ou s si n ce St P a u l i s

o t h ei r ow n re li gi ou s w ,
.
,

J
f
y t e
y g g t ,

cu lt ur e

pp
j
,
g
p p
re ecte d th e reli i o n o f th e Son a n d b
y th e

New Te s tam en t u t s u on th em th e bl am e f or C hr i s t s dea th It h a s

b e en oin t ed o u t a ga in a n d a ga in b y grea t th eol o gi a n s
a ct t h a t th e

th a t th e
’
.

y
p
a cce ta n ce o f C hri s ti a ni t

g
b y th e Ch ri s tia n s th em sel v e s co n t a in s a
rob l em a ti c a n d a m b i u o u s el em en t

n a tur e o f th e doctri n e o f G o d b ecomi n

e n en dere d b y t h e
g
m
a ra do xi ca l

a n th e I n fin ite fin i te
,
p
y
g U n , .

p
co n ce ti on i t t e n ds to
, ro m o te h o s tili t
g p
le s s th i s elem e n t i s con sci ou s l p u t in t o th e cent er o f th e reli giou s
a ai n s t th e o u t rou
g y p .

16 T
a lity ( New
. WY k
A dorn o E
o r : Harp er
.
, . F r en kel B run sw ik,
B ro s
-
ci

ch ap
al

. xv i ii
Th e
.
a ut h orita ria n p erson
148 C O N L I C A ND A D U S ME N O F GRO U S F T J T T P

Then followin g S amuel A do no c ont inues r

ww k w y p y
, ,

o f th e
J
th e
e s to
ea

g
p
ard th e re li i on o f th e So n

p w
bi tterl th e o en l n egati v e a tti tu de
C hri s ti a n s
y f s in ce th e
re sen t

eel i th i n ,

y f
w
th em s elv e s tra ces o f th is n e ga tiv e a t ti tu de b a se d u o n th e
y
irra ti on a l n a ture o f th eir cree d—a n att itu de
y
ara doxi ca l

hi ch th e do n ot dar e
t o a dm i t a n d w h i ch th e m u st th ere ore p u t u n der a h eav t a b oo in
,

o th er s 7
1

The Ch i stian at ional i za tion s of ant i Semi ti sm c anno t be

.

r r -

well un de s too d on the b a s i s of c onventional e thn i c attitudes

The C h i stian s ant a goni s m a gain st the J ew
r

A
.

“ d o no h o lds i s
’

r r

an exp ess ion of the c onfli ct between the R edeem e an d the

, ,

Ch istian D evil C iting T achtenbe g“Adom o shows th at

r r
”

the Ch istian s ima ge of the J ew i s a secul a i z ation of the

r . r r ,
’

r r

m edi ev al ima ge y f the D evil The well kn own im a ge of

r o .
-

the J ewi sh b anke flows f om the t ale of J esus d ivin g ther r r

u f om the Templ e The J ewi sh t aito wh o bet ays h i

sere rs r . r r r s

count y i s the ima ge of J ud a s

r

Ye a s of effo t on the p a t of individu als and o ganiz a

.

t ions t o e a di c ate C h i stian Jew ish eli gio us ant a goni sm s

r r r r
-
r r r

h ave no t on the wh o le bee n ve y successful Wh ile pe ople r .

may shed thei ethni c) p ejudices a s c on seque nce of in

r r a

c e a sed inte a ction between cultu l and acial g oups a like

r r ra r r ,

in e a se in inte eli gio us c ont acts seldom p o duces s imil a

cr rr r r

r esults O n the cont a y the f i e n dly cont a cts of pe ople

. r r ,
r

f om the w a in g eli gious g o ups whe e an e asy ve nt il ati on

r rr r r ,
r

of diff e in g vi ews may t ake place e info ce an d ofte n i

r ,
r r n

te ns ify the ant a goni sm wh ich he etofo e w as only in c ip i ent r r

eve n non ex i ste nt The w ite h obse ved thi s st ate of

affa i s o often especially betwee n R oman C ath o li cs an d
o r . r r as r

r s ,

P o test ants th at he i s tempted t o ge n e ali ze i t in t o an im

r ,
r

p o t ant dynami c p in ciple Wh at n eeded t o c onfi m it

r r is r

ef l
.
,

of c o u se i s no t only the o eti c al a gume nt an d

r r r c ai u

WYk F k
,

g
17T

Y k
a lit y ( Ne w
.

K f f
A dorn o , E
.

o r : Ha rp e r
re n el Bru n s w ik, ci al , Th e a uth o ri ta ria n p ers o n

B ros ,
.

p 7 2 8 S ee urth er
-

. am u el , .
.

.
, M S .

7 2 8—
F k
Th e rea t h a tred ( N e w

g
1 8 A do rn o
,
ren e l -
or : A lf re d A n op I nc
B ru n sw ik et a l , Th e a u th o rita ri a n p ers ona l ity , p p
,
.
.
,
.
,

M k W
29 Se e a ls o I Trach ten b er
. Th e devi l a nd th e J ew s ( New Ha v en :
.
,

Y
V g g
a l e U n i v e rs i ty Pre ss , Hor h eim e r an d T
des An ti s emi ti sm us in Dia lekti k de r A uf klarun
erl a , N V
,
A dorn o E le m e nt e
.

( Am s terdam : Queri do
'
. .
,
1 50 A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS C O NFL C I T

l i s in deed deeply ese nt the i exclus ion f om the “

o , ,
ben efitsr r r

of publi c expen ditu e o n educ at ion Th e y of do uble

t ax ation by Am e i c an R oman C ath oli cs ep esents thei
r . cr
”
r r r r

c onvi ction o f the g ave injusti ce of the est abli shed p a cti ce
C u ently the antagoni sm is in a state of un stable eq ili b
r r .

rr u

i m Wh ile the i d i ss a t i s fa ct ion h a s no t d imini shed R oman

C atholi cs have f the time bein g es igned themselve to
r u . r ,

or r s

ccept in g second a y but non etheless valu able be nefits

Chief among them e school luncheons and public t an po
a r , ,
.

ar r s r

t tio n f o p a o ch ial sch oo l ch i ld e n

a r r r .

The di st ibution of second a y benefits i s h o weve ve y

r r ,
r, r

uneve n an d in s om e c omm unit i es whe e i t i s gi ve n the n r a

An instance whi ch c an be
,

t go n i m h ave no t subs i ded

a s s .

duplic ated in o the comm uniti es i s p ese nted by the city of

St amfo d C onn ecti cut B y a v ote of five t o fo u th B oa d
r r

f E duc a t ion of th a t c ity de ni ed the appl i c at ion o f the

r ,
. r, e r

P a e nt s A ss o c iat ion of St C ec il ia s S h ool f o t ansp o t ati on

o
’

r . c r r r

f the i ch ild e n The chi ef a gum ent of the opp o s it ion wa s

th at the C onn ect i cut st atutes fo b a de the grantin g of publi c
or r r . r

fun ds f o the u e of p ivate sch oo ls Me anwh ile the St ate

r s r

L egislatu e is p ep aring t o cla if y the legal ights of com

.

r r r r

m n iti es t o p o vi de t ran sp o t a t ion f o a ll pup i ls an d the

u r r r ,

l o se s in the cont ove sy

r p ep a in g t o appe al the dec i s ion
r r a re r r

o f the b oa d
20
r .

The e i s a p o ss ib ility th at the c onfl ict may app eciably

r r

subs i de a s a c on seque n ce of s om e p ed icted ch an ges in the r

c omplex ion of publi c schoo l e n ollm e nts Jo seph H Fi chte

an auth o ity on Roman C ath oli c p ari sh s o cio lo gy ece ntly
r . . r,

r ,
r

p edicted th a t in the n ext deca de two o ut of eve y th ee

Roman C atholi c elem enta y school age children w“
r r r

ill be n r -
e

olled in publi c sch ools I n an a dd ess o n th e P a o ch ial

Schoo l an d the C omm unity delive ed in S an F an c isco he
r . r r

,
r r ,

r ema ked th at the p a o ch ial sch ool buildin g p o g am c an

r r r r

n o t keep p a ce wi th the in c e a se in the n um be f R oman

C atholi c child en As a consequence the public schools ar
r r o

faced with the e nt ance of l a ge numbe s of R oman C a tholi c

r .
,
e

r r r

child e n r

R p t d i Th N w Y k Tim M h 24 1957
.

20 e or e n e e or es , arc , .
IN TE RGR O U P R E L ATI O N S 15 1

Fichte a“ ls o st ates wh t many would be e a dy to ch al

r a r

len ge th at th pu blic a ttitude h as cha ng d f om c itici m

,
’

,
e s e r r s

to a dm ira tio n,
g ra ti tu de an d ev en s u
pp ort o f the p a ro ch ia l
s cho o l P esumably thi s h an ge of att itude i s due to the
”

public s ec o gn ition th at Roman C atho li c sch oo ls s ave the

. r c
’

t axp aye s mon ey I n supp o t of the l atte cl aim F ichte

r . r r r

desc ibes a s itu ation in a M i dweste n c ity He e the p a o

r r . r r

chial sch ools with a p opul ation of ,

child en c on r ,
a re

t ibuting t o th at ci ty
r annu ally whi ch w o uld h ave
to be ai sed th o ugh c omm unity t axes if these ch ild e n t
r r r a

ten ded ci ty sch ools The 1 50 cl a ss oom s in the p a o ch ial r r

schools of th at city wo uld cost the t axp aye s

.

000 t o r

r epl ace .

The spi i t of giv ing seem s to be s om ewh at diluted h ow

eve by Fi h te obse v t ion th at the R oman C a th oli c
r ,
’

r, c rs r a

p a en ts beli eve th a t they dese ve a eb ate on sch oo l t axes

r r r ,

and th a t a ss i st ance sh o uld be fo thcomin g t o them n ot a s r ,

”
a p ivilege but a s a i ght f om the la ge c ommuni ty
r r ,
r r r .

Th e h ome N o eli gio us g o up in Am e i c a h a s mo e

. r r r r

je alo usy gua ded the s ac edn ess of the h om e th an the R0

man C ath olic chu ch Thi s con ce n wi th family el ations i
r r

r . r r s,

of c ou se c omm en d able an d no thoughtful P otest ant o

Jew opp o ses it C onfli ct with o the eli gio us g o ups a i ses
r , ,
r r

r r r r

howeve when the edi cts an d p esc iptions of the R oman

.
,

C atholic chu ch e milit antly unive s ali zed It is one thing

r, r r

f o the R oman C a th o li c hu ch t o c on demn b i th c ont o l

r ar r .

r c r r r

f o i ts m em be s but i t bec om es in te fe e n ce w i th the i ghts

of non Roman C ath o lics when i t fie cely comb ats legi sl ation
r r ,
r r r
-
r

to legalize i t f othe s I t i s fitt in g an d p ope in the f am e

wo k of Roman C ath oli c do gma t o p onounce divo ce a s
or r . r r, r

r ,
r r

s inful an d de ny i t t o its beli eve s but i t is a c a use f se ious r ,

o r

inte g o up ant agoni sm an d an obstru t ion of the i ghts of

r

othe s whe n o g ani zed R oman C th oli c p essu e induces

r c r

r r a r r

legi slato s t o eva de th e i ssue

r .

Ou in te est in these ma tte s i s no t we a

r r su e w ith r re r

the eli gio us ch a a cte of the an ta goni sm s but only with

, ,

r r r ,

21
R p d i Th N w Y k Tim
e ort e M h 24 1957 I t li
n e e or e s, arc , . a cs ours .
1 52 A ND A DJ U STME N T OF GR O U PS C O NFL I C T

the nt agoni sm s them selves A s o c i ety i s o ci ll y an d p y

a s a s

h lo gi a lly d i stu bed whe n these c onfli cts e i st D i stu bed

.

c o c r x . r

r el ation s e an imp o t an t a e a of es a h in g o up dy
ar r r r e rc r

n m i s the a e a
a c ,
f in te g o up p ejud i ce r o r r r .

CO NCLUDI NG R M S If ou diagno s is of inte g oup E A RK . r r r

p ejudi ce i s subst antially c o ect the n we m ust exe ci se mo e

r rr ,
r r

c aut ion in the e of th i s te m th an i ge ne ally the c a se I t

us r s r .

d o es no t n ecess a ily deno te a unit a y p o cess P ejudi ce r r r . r

v a i es s om ewh a t with the ch a acte f the g o ups w h i h

r r r o r c a re

i n onfli ct A dec a de go W illi am s h a d the pe sp i c ci ty t o

c . a r a

c h lle n ge the belief th at p ejudi ce w s n e ess a ily the s am e

a r a c r

in ll g o ups Ou w n study ch allen ges the cl aim fu the

a r .
22
r o r r,

especi lly as it appli es t o inte eli gio us p ejudi ces wh i ch

a rr r ,

d o no t completely confo m t o the t a ditional desc iption s of r r r

e th nic attitudes I nte p eted in te m s of le a n in g the s m e r r r r a

d i v ge n ce i s suggested A n um be of stud i es sh o w th at
.
,

er . r

t ns fe en ce of le a nin gs f om n e g o up t o ano the v a i es

ra r r r o r r r

w ith th g o up A p ejudice t ow a d on e min o ity g o up i

e r . r r r r s

n t alw ays t an s f e ed t owa d o the mino ity g o ups 23

o r rr r r r r .

R E D UCTI O N OF I NTE RGR O U P HO STI L I TY

G o up dynami cs h a g e atly in c e a sed
r knowledge n d s r r o ur a

un de st n din g of in te g o up ant a gonis m s an d a cti on ~

r a r r , re

se a ch b ased on group dynami c p inciples h as offe ed u

r
”
-
r r s

bette t ools f o educin g them th an exh o t ation s an d goo d

r r r r

wi ll While these developm e nts

. p o s i tive c ont ibutions a re r ,

they d o no t yet fo m a s ffi cie nt b o dy f eli able ski lls t o r u o r

e nable us e i the t o cont ol o eli minate with e t ain ty the

r r r c r

confli cts th at pla gue eve y omm un ity Th i s i no t a iti r c . s cr

i m of wh a t h a s bee n a cc omp li shed but n h on est

c s ni
g a r eco

tion of the limit ation s f b o th ou kn owledge n d o ur in o r a

t m nt
s ru Yet viewed in the pe spective f a qu a te
e s . r o r r

centu y we h ave com e a lon g w ay Vi ewed in th li ght of

r , . e

22 R . M
C
.W il li am s ,
ducti o n of i nt er ro up te ns io ns
Jr Th e .
, o ci al ci en ce
re

Y k
g ,
S S
Res earch

can
23 See A

C
Ro s e M
o u n ci l B u ll e ti n N o 5 7 ( New , or :
S ch a p
tu di es i n redu ct io n of p reiud ice ( N e w
.

o un ci l of Ra ce R el ati o ns ,
.
,

im e o ra p h e d
iii .

o r : Am eri
M g .
.

Y
.

k
1 54 A ND A DJ U STME N T OF GR O U PS C O NF L C I T

i nflue n ced Th i s i s espec ia lly t ue whe n the in d iv i du als

. r a re

self involved an d the g o ups

-
ethno ce n t i c ally o i e nted r a re r r

R OLE O F EDUCA T O N I t has been f equently s aid th at

.

I r

Ame ic ans h ave a boundl ess faith in the p ossibilities of edu

.

c at ion I f thi s i s t ue the faul t if such it be i s a goo d on e r

As sci entific students of g oup li fe howeve it is of the

. .
, , ,

r ,
r,

utmo st imp o t ance th at we ec o gn i ze b oth the m e its an d

r r r

the limit at ion s of educ at ion The esul ts a s ep o ted in the . r r r

l ite atu e mo e o ve
r r no t inf equently incon s i ste nt an d
,
r r, a re r

e ven cont adict o y Gene ally spe akin g educ ation in o r

r r . r ,
u

s ch ools n eithe subst antially educes p ejudi ce n o ff c r r r r e e

t i ely imm u ni zes ch i ld e n a g ain st i t

v S in ce inte gro up atti r . r

tudes a oo ted in the folkways of the g o up an d in the

re r r

e mo tion s of the ind ivi du al ational a gum ents le ave them ,

r r

l a gely u nto uched

E ducation i not howeve confined to fo mal in st uction
r .

s ,
r, r r

in the s hoo l I t includes any in telli ge nt effo t t o ch an ge

c r

pe ople s attitudes L ectu es exh o t ations appe l s t o ch a ac

.

. r ,
r ,
a r

t erand nob ility—these t oo e in st um e nts of educ ation I n , ,

ar r .

thi s c“ onnection i t i s in s t uctive t o no te the in effect ive n ess r

f a pledge t a ke n by c it i ze n s of M in n e ap o li s ep o ted
by A J M ar ow The G o ve no s I nte a cial C ommi ss ion in
o ,
as r r
’

. . r . r r rr

th at c ity u ged M i in ta n t o t ake the followin g pledge

r r eso s

I w i ll n ev er

pw by
/
ru m or o r carel ess co n v ers a ti o n

y
in di ct a wh o l e ra c e

w y y
o r reli

ill da i l dea l
s o le l
i
g ou sb y rea s on o f th e delin qu en c of a
g

o n th e b as i s of h i s i n div i du a l
rou

i th ev er m a n i n b u sin ess soci a l or

or
y
wk ,
p
f ew m em b ers I
o li ti ca l rel a ti o n s
.

N eve theless
.

a s M ar ow p oints ou t no J ew h a d at the tim e

r ,
r ,

of the study bee n a dmi tted t o lun che on clubs o

civi c b oa ds in th a t c ity an d its l oc al Aut o C lub ha d in
r

r ,

fo m ed Jewi sh p o spects th at the e we e no n ew m embe

r r r r r

ships ope n Whethe these th in gs ar st ill t ue t o d ay we

.
25
r e r ,

do no t know .

I f we c on s i de a dve ti s ing a s a p ote ntially e ff ective r r

m edium f o ch n gin g a tt itudes a s it h a s indeed bee n in

r a ,

many a e as Of human mo tivation i t t oo like educ a tion h a s

r

A J M w Li i g wi h t h ( N w Y k H p B
, , ,

25 arro v n t ou a te
. .
, e or : ar er ro s .
,

p . 16 .
 N E RGR O U P R E L ATIO N S
I T 55

l a gely failed t o educe p ejudi ce D esp ite inten s ive c am

r r r .

ai n of a dve t i s in g the evi ls of p ejud i ce no ve y t an gi bl

p g s r r ,
r e

r esults h ave yet t ake n pl a ce Psych olo gi c ally “ spe akin g th i s

sh ould have bee n expected O n e do es no t sell an i de a
.
,
”
.

like demo c t ic eth i cs a s one do es t oo th p a ste the l atest

ra or

b e akfa st foo d I de a s especially tho se t o uch in g human

r .
,

conduct deeply embedded in i ational emot ions As

,
are rr .

M a ow p oints o ut man will give up a p ejudi c only whe n

rr ,
r e

s om ethin g else i s substi tuted f o it th a t will se ve the s am e r r

vit al n eed a s well if no t bette r .

26

The fo egoin g st“ ate m e nt p oints up th e fa ct th a t mo st of

r

our educ a t ion f t ole an ce fails bec ause it do es no t p ro

or r

duc an un de st n d in g of o the pe ople a s human be in gs like

e r a r

ou selves I ns ight in inte g o up el ation s i s best a chi eved by

r . r r r

m e an s f the f ee p arti cip at ion of pe oples Of diffe e nt a cial

o r r r

and i de olo gi c al b a ckg oun ds in c ommon act ivit ies We sh all r

con s i de th i s fa ct o l ate whe n we desc ibe the effect on

.

r r r r

attitudes of inte a cial h o us in g rr

PR O CE SS O RE EDUCA TI O N We h ave bee n p o ceedin g in

.

F -
r

this book on the assumption th at le arnin g p ejudice and dis

.

to t d pe cept ion s f o the pe o ple an d acqui in g ve i di c al

ones are fun d am e nt ally the s am e C h an ges in beh avio
r e r o r r r

. r,

whethe co gnitive pe ceptu al o emotional do no t t ak

r ,
r ,
r ,
e

pl ace in depe n de ntly of on e ano the They invo lve on the r .

,

c ont a y a s field dyn mi cs sh ows a ch an ge in the pe s on s

r r a r
’

tot al life in the g o up A ch an ge in the in divi du al i s p

, ,

r . - re

ceded by i s c onc omit ant wi th a ch an ge in the cultu al

,
or ,
r

mili eu The indivi du al c n st abili ze hi s ch an ged vi ews only

. a

if a s L w m p ointed o ut hi s con duct i s an ch o ed in th

e r e

cul ture of hi s g o up A lo gi c al step by step a gum ent m y

, ,

r .
- -
r a

put the p ejudi ced indivi du al on the defe n s ive —an d a de

r

fen s ive in divi du l will usu ally fin d s om e w ay no matte h w

a ,
r o

illo gi c al o i ational t o et ain hi s beliefs He will su en de

r rr ,
r . rr r

them only whe n he h a s ls o ch an ged f om ho stili ty t owa d a r r

alie n beli efs t o an emo tional e adi ness to a ccept them r

!7

1 bi d
K w g k p
26 18
.
, p . .

27 See . L e i n R esolv in, s o cia l con flicts ( New Y or : Har er B ro s .

,

p . 66 .
1 56 A ND A DJ U STME N T OF G R O UPS C O NFL I C T

Th p o ss ib il ity of
e educ at ion i s in c e a sed whe n the re - r

p ejud iced in d ivi dual develops a feelin g of g o up bel on gin g

r r

n ess w i th e fe e n ce t o the o ut
g ro up A ccept
r in g n ew bel i e f s -
r .

i equ iv ale n t t o a ccept in g g o up bel on gin gn ess w i th o the s

s r r .

Th pe s on i s le nin g n ew v lues by feel in g a ccepted by

The p o cess i s S imil a a c o din g t o L ewin t o th at
e r ar a

o the s r . r r, c r ,

of the delin que nt o of the alc oholic wh o ch an ges bec use r a

he feels th at eve yon e i s in the s am e b oat G oup i d tifi r . r en ca

tion p ep a es the in divi du l t o a cept the g o up s alues

r r a c r
’

v ,

b ec a use in th i s s i tu at ion the g o up s v lues the in divi du ’

r a a re

l v a lues L ewin st a tes th i s w i th d i sce nm e n t whe n he

’

a s . r

s ays t o epe at th at an in divi du l will beli eve fa cts he h im

,
r ,
a

s elf h a s di sco ve ed in the s m e w ay th at he beli eves in h im r a

elf
Ch ange of attitudes then t kes place mo st e adily when
s .

, ,
a r

t h v lues t o be a ccepted by the p ejud i ced in d iv i du al c on

e a r

t ol h i s pe ception of th o se wh i ch he fo m e ly ejected H i s
r r r r r .

a ccept an ce f the n ew beli efs an d v alues i s li nked with a

o

S pecific g o up Thi s l ink a ge betwee n a cept an ce f n ew

r . c o

v alues an d n ew g oups i s ve y clo se I t expl ain s the g e a t r r r

d ifficulty s ays L ew in of ch n gin g att i tudes n d v alues in

.

, ,
a a

a
“
n a t omi st i c i te m b
y i te m fa sh ion an,
d a dds t
a ge i s main fa ct or beh in d es i st an ce t o educ at ion but
a
h a t th i s
-
l i nk -

'
r
,

re - ,

ca n a ls o be ma de a p o we ful m e an s f successful educ a r or re -

t ion .
”2 8

4 LE GA L M ETH ODS It h as f equently been p ointed t as . r ou

if it we e self evi de nt th at s o ci ety c anno t legi slate p ejudi ce

r -
r

o t of ex i ste n ce but only p a ss l aws

u g ain st publi c di sc imin a a r

t ion The e i s of c o u se c on s i de able t uth in th i s st ate

r r r r

m ent but i t i s no t wh olly t ue L aw an d publi c p oli cy h ave

.
, ,

no mo usly alte ed the st u tu e of disc imination in Am e i

.
,

e r r r c r r r

ca n l ife in the p a st dec a de The N ew Yo k St ate l aw a g ai n st . r

d i sc imina t ion in e m plo ym e n t wh ile by no m e an s co m

r ,

l t l success f ul h a s n eve theless edu ed d i s im i na t i on

in thi s a e a A su vey Of 504 es i de nts f N ew Yo k C ity
e e
p y ,
r r c cr

r . r r o r

wh o we e quest ion ed whe the they we e di sc imin ated

r r r r

23 I bid .
,
p . 68 .
15 8 A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS C O NF L I C T

Deutsch an d —C oll ins p o ceeded on the assumption up r ,

s

p o ted by s o c ial sci e n ce evi den ce th at the mo st im p o t ant

r ,
r

fact o in a ce el ation s in h o us in g p o jects is the o ccup ncy

r r r r a

p at t e n r To a sce t.ain the i nfl ue n e on a tt i tudes o f d iff e e n t

r c r

o c up an cy p atte n s the investi gat o s ch o se t o study ace

c r ,
r r

r el ation s in two types of h o usin g p o jects nam ely the inte r , ,

t d i n te a ci l p o ject in wh i ch fam il i es a a ss i gn ed t o
g ra e rr a r ,
re

a p a tm ents wi th o ut c ons i de ation of a ce an d th eg eg ted

r r r e s r a

bi ci l p o jec t whe e N e g o an d wh ite famil i es ar as

,

ra a r ,
r r e

s i gned t o ap a tm ents in diff e ent buildin gs An ex ample of

fi st p o ject wa s fo un d in N ew Yo k C ity an d of the
r r .

th e r r r

s ec on d in N ewa k N ew J e sey Fo c omp a ative pu p o ses r ,

r . r r r

t h e a uth o s we e c a e f ul t o select the p o jects in the tw o

r r r r

c i t i es th a t h a d app o x ima tely the s am e atio of N eg o es t o

r r r

w h i tes The i info ma t ion ega d in g the a tt i t udes of m e m

. r r r r

b e s of the tw o g o ups w a s o bt ain ed by m e an s of in te n s i ve

r r

i n te vi ews l a st in g on the a ve a ge f o an h o u an d a h a lf T he
r r r r .

i nte v i ews el i c i ted inf o ma t ion in five ma j o s o c ia l an d p sy

r r r

ch o l o i a l a e a s
g c( 1 ) the a tt i t udes
r o f the h o usew ives t o
:

w a d li vin g in the p o ject ( 2 ) th i att itudes t ow a d m em

r r e r r

b e s of the o the ) ace ( 3 ) the am ou n t of in ti mat e c ont a c t

,

betwee n the aces ( 4 ) the ext ent O f supp o t the whi te

r r r ,

r ,
r

w om e n ece i ved f om m em be s of the i o wn a ce an d ( 5 )

r r r r r ,

the s o c ial ch a a cte i sti cs f the h o usewi ves 32

The esults of th D eutsch C ollin s su vey imply th at

r r o .

r e -
r

o ffi cial p o li cy executed with o ut equivo c at ion c an es ul t i n

, ,
r

l ge ch an ges in beh av io an d a tt i tudes desp ite ini t ial e

Th p o jects S h o w in b i e f th a t
ar r r

i t n c to th a t p o l i cy
” 33
s s a e . e r ,
r ,

i f pe s on s of d iff e e n t e th ni c gro ups h a ve equ al st a tus con

r r -

t a cts p ejud i ce betwee n the m i s effect i vely d im ini shed R e

r .

gated the auth o s info m “

f e in g spec i fic ally t o the two p o jects wh i ch they investi
rr

th at the n t g in esu lting

r r us
r

e a r

f f
,

m the i ntegra te d p rojects is co ns idera b le rom t he

ro ,
me
sa

o int of v i ew th e a in crea ted b t h e s e re a ted b i ra cia l

p g y g g
-
,
”3 4
ro e cts is s li ht
p j g .

32 1 bid , p p 584—.85 . .

33
34
1 bid , p 59 2 .

.
.

I bid , p 5 9 2 I ta li cs i n th e
.
.

. ori gi na l .
 N E RGR O U P R E LATI O N S
I T 15 9

I t i s imp o t an t t o in ject a note of c a ut ion he e Th i s

r r

study like a few othe s de alin g with equ al st atus c ont a cts
.

,
r -
,

sh ows th at the l atte esult in att itude ch an ge only when r r

they fulfi ll ce t ain c on d i t ion s These may be desc ibed

r . r

b i efly as follows
r :

1 Th b h i f th m m b s f th m i ity g p m st u

be s h t t f m w ith th mm n t typ
. e e av or o e e er o e n or rou

uc as no o con or e co o s ere o es .

Th Ne g s w i th w h m th p j “
hi b i t th t it
e ro e
“
di d indi i d l in t o e re u ce v ua er

“ t m t f l i i n n ” ”

d li q
ac s t us no ex
g e ra s o a z n es s , o ra ce ,

y t w h i h h h d s i t d w ith th m
e n u en c ,
”
e c .
,
c e a a so c a e e .

2 Th i t. ti s f th p j di d p
e n erac on w ith th t g t O e re u ce ers o n e ar e

f h i h tili ty m t b
o s t os g n gh t i t n
y ust e s ro n e ou o re s s a en

d t i ti e di t t i — th t i th i t ti n n era c o s

m t be n bl th p j di d p n t h k
on s e
y en c
g o co n v s or a s,

hus t su c as o e a e e re u ce ers o o c ec

hi p p t i sn w i th l
erce i ty o s re a .

3 Th i te ti n m t de diti n w hi h m k a e

nf ming b h i s m l nt t th b is
. e n ra c o s us o ccu r un r co n o s c

th n n on

bj ts f p j di
e o co or e a v or ee re ev a o e as

w h i h th t t ”
c e o g p d ec g h I f o re u ce a re ro u e o e er .
,

f mp l
or ex a N g tt nd nt is l n d h n t i
e, a e ro a e a c ea an o es n a

sit ti w h r l lin d h n ty e t d
q i d thi f t m y h y little i fl n in h ng
an a re ex c e or
ua on e e p c e an e ss o es

n s ttit d H m t b e
re u re ,
s ac a a v e v er n ue ce c a

in g th p j di d p
’
s e en

th th th se f N g
e re u ce ers o a u es . e us

l n d h ne t in
c ea n a l ti n o s re a o s o er an o o a e ro

tt nd nt a e a .

4 Th p j di ed p e s m t h e v l s h dm
ti q lity b e p s“
. e re u c r on us av a u es , uc as e o

d t s i l i fl h
b
cra c e ua , or e x o e o oc a n u en ce s , s u c as

l i l i i t h t w i l l s t n g l y nfl i t w i th th un

b h ed et nti f ti n li ed p j di
u c ro co c e
p p o c es , a
”3
5
a as r e on o u n ra o a z re u ce s .

CON LU NG R M S C fo egoin g ways of educin g

DI E A RK . Th e r r

ethn ic p ejudices an d othe inte g o up h o stil iti es

r only a r r r a re

few We h ave omitted p op a gan d a f o inst an ce bec ause it

. r ,
r ,

i s on the on e h an d imp o ss ible t o di scuss it in a s in gl ch ap

, ,
e

ter an d n the o the bec ause i ts effects h ave n eve bee n

,
o r, r

c a efully dete min ed Thi s i no t even t o m ention the fact

th at the esults of a numbe Of investi g t ions
r r . s

r c ont a r a a re r

dicto y M o e o ve wh ile we d o no t w i sh t o min imi ze the

r . r r,

influen ce of p op a g an d a on a ttitudes esp ec ially in pe ople

r ,

35 I bi d .
, pp . 59 2 9 3 — .
160 A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS C O NFL I C T

wh o al e a dy h ave an un conscio us p ed i sp o s it ion t o a ccept

r r

ce t ain beli ef s the e i s s om e d an ge th at its eff ecti ve ness

r ,
r r

mi ght be o ve estima ted The evi de nce suggests th at gen

r

lly spe ak in g p o p a gan d a i s mo st success ful whe n un es t

.
,

e ra ,
r r

an d coll ect ive fe a s ab oun d an d no t in ll s itu ation s

We e l s o Omittin g any c on s i de ation of O c a lled a ct ion
r ,
a .

ar a r S -

p o gram s an d int est g oups t o educ ac i l te n s ions an d

r er r r e r a

di sc imination s A desc ipt ion an d ev alu ation of these woul d

r . r

requi e an un des i able exten s ion of the p ese nt ch apte We

r r r r .

su ggest th at the e a de con sult o i ginal s o u ces of wh ich

r r r r ,

the e ar seve al goo d ones

r e r .
36

CONCLUSION
The fo mation f subg o ups i a no mal s oc ial p o cess I n
r o r s r r .

s om e c ses the sub g o ups by b e akin g away f om the l a ge

a r ,
r r r r

o p a ent o up e ff ect a n ew equ i li b i um by s a t i s fy in g the i

needs an d inte est in a d iffe e nt settin g C hild e n an d a do

r
g r r ,
r r

r r . r

le s cent in o r s o ci ety
s p o te ntially in confli ct w i th the
u a re

o lde gen e t ion an d the f m ti n Of pee gro ups a dole

r ra ,
OI a o r ,
s

ce nt cli ques an d gan gs i s a w ay of achi evin g the autonomy

,

w h i ch g o w in g ch i ld e n b o th w an t an d n eed I n th i s w y the
r r . a

b e ak m the family t i es ai ds at on ce in educin g ten s ion s an d

r r

facilit atin g the p o cess of s o ciali z ation p a t icul ly in the

r ,
r ar

fo m of em n cip atin g the child f om th exclus ive depe n d

e n ce on the h om e To epe at an e a li e Obse v at ion these
r a r e

r r r r

h mful only whe n they mani

.
,

in depe nde nt fo mat ion s r a re ar

fest th m selves in such ant i s o cial an d dest uct ive beh avio
e r r

a sjuve nile delin que ncy a n d gan g w a s r .

The p oblem of in te group p ejudi ce an d i ts di ss ip ation

r r r

c onst itutes one o f the mo st chall e n gin g the o etic l n d r a a

36gg F f w g
We g C
su es t th e ollo in : On p rop a an da : . Hov l an d A A
I .
, . .

S S
L um s dain e ,
( tu di es in g W g FC an d

oci al P s y ch o lo y i n
. D
E x p eri me n ts o n
. Sh e fli eld ,

o rl d W ar II , V o l I I I [ Prin ce to n z P rin ce .
m as s com mu n icati o n

K g
—
w g g
ton U n iv ersi ty P re ss ,

C k
k
e x p erim ent al s tu dy o f a n s
I Har di n , A
ers to a n ti - N e ro rem ar s
itro n , a n d E
I s oc
. in An
s y ch o l , 8 7
. .

,
. P
C g g
.
.
,

gM W W C g
i n in ter rou p rela t ions ( C
53 1 7 O n a ction p ro ram s , s ee L A
. oo

as h in to n , D C : Ameri ca n
( ed ) , olle e p ro rams
o un cil o n E du ca ti o n , .
.

.
.

g H
Y k
o rm s er a n d
. .

s u rv ey of ci vi l ri hts ( N ew
Selltiz , Ho w to cond u ct a com mun ity se lf
or : A s soci a ti on Pre s s ,
.
162 C O NFL I C A ND A D U S ME N O F GRO U S T J T T P

expec t too m uch f om b oth Th s cial sc ie ntist h i sr e o w o

familia with the complexity of the p oblem i s no t defe a t ist

.
,

well th at the e i s no S in gle fo m ul a f

r r , .

He k nows only to o r r or

el minat n g c o flicts f om human el ationsh ips The p ob

i i n r r . r

lem he c onvinced m ust be studied f m a s many s i des

is
human c ap ac ity pe mits O nly th o ugh the coll ab o ation O f
, , ro as

r . r r

seve al di scipl n es will i t be ultimately un de st oo d an d on e

r i r

entu es t o beli eve at le a s t l a gely e a sed f om the wo ld

,

37
v r ,
r r r r .

37 For
S a co n fi r m a tion o f our v i e wp oin t h ere , s ee g fl
Reli i ou s co n i ct in th e
U nited
dev o ted
ta tes , I .

to i nte rrel i io u s g
s oc . I ss u es
con
,

fli t
12
c .
, No . 8 Thi s e n tire n umb e r i s
 Desp ite a numbe excellent objective studies of le a de
r O f r ‘

ship and desp ite the fact th at no othe subject in gr o up dy r

h a s been m o e th o o ughly invest i gated i t i s still

,

n mi
a cs r r ,

c ont ove s ial I t h a s bee n di st o ted du in g i ts hi sto y by

r r . r r r

excess ive omanti ci sm an d h ampe ed by t oo m uch pl aus ible

r r

myth o lo gy D esc ip tion s of the le a de by trai t att ibution

. r r r

h as bee n m o stly a ste ile exe c i se r r .

W itin g at a t im e whe n g o up dyn amics h a d n eithe

r r r

fo m ed into a special di sciplin e n o bec om e the fo cus o f

r r

ze alous ext emi s t s Pigo s a gu ed f the insep a ab ili ty Of

r r r or r

156 le a der and h i s foll owe s L ike S imm el th i ty ye a s b

,

5 r . r r e

fo e h im he c once ived le a de ship no t a s s om eth in g es i din g

r r r

in the in d ivi du al bu t a s
,

,
om
the le a de s el ationsh ip with o thers Th i s i s the t
’

r r
}

p o s ition 0 mo st p ese nt d ay investi gat o s of the natu e of

r -
r r

g oup le ade ship F om the vant a ge p oin t of th i s p o s ition

r r . r

e le a de i s no t en do wed wi th m yst ic al p owe an d he i s

r r,

not indepe n de nt of the g oup of whi ch he i s a p a t W “ h i le r r .

he controls the g o up t o wh i ch he bel on gs it als o c on

r ,

1 P
For
.

S
P i g ors L ea de rsh ip
,

i mm e l s v i e
’

wC or

, s ee h i s S
o z i olo ie g g
domina ti on ( B o sto n : Ho u h t on M i flli n C o
( L ei p 2 1 g : Dun c er un d k
Humbl ot , Se e a l s o h ap t er 1 , p . 10 .

16 3
1 64 A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS C O NFL I C T

t o ls him L e a de sh ip i s then con ce ived a s the p o duct of

r . r r

the inte a tion betwee n the t o t al pe s on l i ty of the le a de

r c r a r

an d the dynami c s o cia l s itua tion in wh i ch he h as hi bein g s .

”2

The e i s almo st no a dequ ate ese a ch evi den ce “

r in supp o t r r r

of the Vi ew a dhe ed t o by a few dv o c t es of le a de less

O
r a a r

g r o ups th a t in a de ”
mo c t i c s o c i e t y pe o ple bject t o a fi m ra r

le a de ship O n the cont a y pe ople ofte n welcom e the

,

r . r r ,

i itiative of th o se wh o by the happy c on g ue nce of indi

n ,
r

v i du l qu a l i fied t o pl ay ce t ain o les e ff ect i vely an d the

a s r r

field c on dit ion s p evailin g in a g o up at ce t ain mom ent r r a r ,

e able t o help the o up a ch i eve i ts g oa ls I n a de mo c a t i c

ar
g r . r

g o u the in divi du al who i s able t o

r hi wn o le s o r

wi th tho se of Othe s h a s the mo“a— l p n sibilitL Lo le ad es

“ r r res o _ ,

i
m u

h i s in t i ve des i a ble g oa ls
n M

a ch iegg o c onfo
p c
e l h t i t i u r n ot a r a e_
K L L L
“
us ion fil t from needless hes it a tion
I
K M

r res s .

DE F N T O NS O L DE SHI P A cu s o y eview of the

I I I F EA R . r r r

l i te atu e on le ade ship qui ckly di sclo ses th at i t h as many

r r r

“
defi ni t ion
r
s T he
r
y n the g am ut of an ecd o t al c ommon se n se
”
.

lite a y an d ei tific onceptu ali z ation s They ab o un d s

ru

en c
, ,

ived no tion s an d attempts t o

.
, ,

eve n t o d ay with p econ ce“ ,

r
”
,
es

t b li h the v al i d i ty f the sc i e n t i fic v i ew by m e an s of semi

a s o

emp i i c al evi den e e no t unc ommon I t i s an an cie nt beli ef

r c ar .

th at in eve y g o up in divi du als exist wh o wi ll t y t o domin ate

r r r

o ve o the s Th o se w h o t iumph ove o the s

r r . kn ow l r r r a re ac

edged a s le a de s Ge n eti c studies of lowe anim als c onfi m r . r r

“
th e ex i ste n ce of d ominan t an d sub mi ss i ve beh a vio amon g
them The peckin g o de of he n s i s a p opul a illus t a ti on
. r r r
r

of th i s phe nom e non H oweve such an o de f d omin ance . r, r r o

in the human speci es h s no t bee n empi i c all y co ob o ated a r rr r .

M o e ove as a human t ait d ominan ce h a s bee n beclo uded

r r, r

by c onfus in g i t with self estee m an d self a ssu an ce D omi - -

r .

nance may con ceiv ably be a geneti c t ai t but the e i s no r ,

r

rel ia ble ev i de n ce t o supp o t the bel i e f th a t self estee m i s r -

o the th an a s o cial psycho lo gi c al ch a a cte i sti c I f H itle

r .
-
r r . r

Y
2

k H . B on n er Sk , o ci a l p s y cho lo y : gp an i nterdis ci p lin ary ap p roac h ( New

Co
or
3

.
,
: Am eri can B oo Co ,
See C
p p 428 if
. C
Hom an s, Th e h uma n
.

. .
. .

g p
399
ro u
.

( New Y or k : Harcourt B race ,

1 66 A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS C O NF L C I T

Whethe the evi dence est abl ished h i s the o y depen ds a g e at

r r r

de al on h ow it i s ev alu ated Wi tho ut goin g into thi s com .

plex question i t i s suffi ci e nt t o p oint o ut th at th i s app oa ch r

en dows ce t ain in divi du als wh o by v i tue o f the i a chi eve

r r r

me nts a c alled le a de s with spec ific inhe ited h a t is

,

re r ,
r c ar c e r

tics S o c ial ch an ges allegedly a b o ught ab o ut by the

. re r

con c ete deci s ion s whi ch these in divi du als make O u p op u

r . r

lar vi ews f national he o es espec iall y l a gely eflect th is

o r r r

of expl anat ion I n ou ow n ge ne ation the ave a ge cit i

, ,

mo de“
ze n s m e nt al im a ge of P es ide nt E i se nh owe h a s c onf o m ed
. r r r
’ ”

to the fo egoin g desc iption C e t ainly no o din a y in di

r r r
”
r r . r r r

vi du al i t i s non etheless a b iased vi ew t o eg a d h im as an

,
r r

exceptionally e n d owed pe s on r

Like many inadequate explanations of human nature the

.

g e at man the o y p o ssesses e no ugh elem e nts of t uth t o make

r r r

i t pl aus ible t o u nc itic al min ds U n de s om e kin ds of c ondi

r . r

tion s a le de may effect ch an ges whi ch he c o l d no t b in g

a r u r

ab o ut unde o the s S ince f om the st an dp oint of field dy

r r . r

n a m i s the de ee of ch an ge whi ch an indi vi du al may in

duce depe ndsgup on the st uctu e o o gani z ation of the
c r

r r r r

group a s a who le and h i s p os it ion in it he may affect the ,

g o up in ce t ain ways when it i s e a dy f o them Whi le

thi s p oint may be a gued i t seem s th at P es i de nt E i se n
r r r r .

r r

h owe w a s less able t o e ffect ch an ge in hi s sec on d th an he

,

d i d in h i s fi s t a dmini st ation Alth o u gh hi s phys ic al he alth

r r .

an d the secon d te m am e ndm ent may h ave bee n infl uen cin g
-
r

fact o s they di d no t ma kedly ch an ge h im a s a pe s on So

r ,
r r .

“
ci a l c on d i t ion s h oweve h a d ch an
the honeymoon atmo sphe e h a d di s appe a ed
ged ,
an d l
”
on g w i th
th at he
i t r,

r
,

r
a

so

wa s a less eff ective

,

te m r .

The att ibut ion wh o

d E xte n s ive
r so n o r s a re , r

eve ntu ally becom e i mi ,

s ss e .

r ese a ch du in g the p ast qu a te centu y h a s i s ol ated spec ific

r r r r- r

l d ship t it in in d ivi du als all the w ay f om n u se y

ea er w
ra s
h ,
r r r

Schoo l ch i ld e n t o gra du a te stude n ts n d bus in ess executi ves

r a

We c anno t of co u se det ai l these stud ies an d th ei c onclu

.

r r

s ion s in the p ese nt ch apte A f ew t aits h oweve sh oul d

, ,

r r . r ,
r,

be m ent ion ed .
GR O U P L EA D E RS H I P 67

P h ys i ca l fa ct o s in evi t a bly c o p up in stud i es of le a de r r r

sh ip A numbe o f invest i g ation s su ggest a p o s itive el at ion

. r r

sh ip betwee n le a de sh ip an d such t aits a s he i ght we i ght r r , ,

and e n e gy o utput Le a de s te n d t o b t lle he avi e an d

r . r e _
a r, r,

mo e en e geti c th an non l d
r r G o up dynami c studi es ea ers . r -

wo uld suggest h oweve th at the el ation of these t aits t o ,

r, r r

le ade ship p ob ably v a i es with the type Of le a de ship

r r r r ao

t i i ty pe fo m ed
v I t i s ce t ainly p o ss ible th a t t all he avy
r r . r , ,

a n d e n e get i c pe s on s im p ess pe o ple mo e th an sh o t sl i ht

r
g r r r r , ,

an d sluggi sh indivi du als ; an d yet i t i s a fact th at s om e wo ld r

famo us le a de s we e c on sp i cu o usly devoi d of the fo m e r r r r

cha acte i sti cs

C e tain impo tant psychologic l va iables have als o been
r r .

r r a r

s in gled ou t Intelli ge n ce initiat ive an d self confid n -

e ce a re

found t o be W
.
, ,

r e l t en le a d hip in num e o us a e rs r

investi gation s I t wo uld be a sh t o de ny th imp o t ance of . r e r

gene al intelli gence in le a de sh ip f o the e

r el iable r ,
r r a re r

studi es in di c atin g i ts im p o t ance The a gum e nt in favo of r . r r

t hi s el a t ion sh ip h o weve
r i s s om etim es pushed t oo f If r, ar

th d iff e e n ce betwee n le a de an d fo llo we s i s excess i ve the

.
,

e r r r

l e a de sh ip el a t ion i s a dve sely aff ec t ed Th i s i s o bec ause

,

r r r . s ,

if the d“
”
i s rep ncy d s t oa g re t e h f o ms a d isto t e d i ma ge
c a a ,
ac r r

E ffi e aha
-

and n e ithe one c n p lay h is le or p e f m r a i n u ro _ . , r or

hi f n cti a a dequ ately The ev i de n ce p oin ts t o the su e

s u . r

Con clus ion th at pe s on s of except ionally gup i o in t elligen ce

‘

r m
er a m
r

less l ikely to
a re tha md i dua l wh o w h ile w -fi m
s ,
-

m rg in t lli g nt th an the i f ollowers are not too grea tly

“
'
l

o e e r g i n n m
m

mq ed f om them Th i s el at ion ship h a s bee n m e a su ed

”
re v g
r x . r r

in a study of le a de ship amon g ch ild e n an d w a s eve aled r r ,

r

b y Terman ’ t
ssp y d of the
— i n t lli
gg “
n o f g n u man y ye a s -w w
e
m
ce
m W W “_
e 1 ses r

e a li e
l b m
a r n

6
r r

At the isk of bein g tedious it is impo tant the efo e t o

.

r r ,
r r ,

p oin t o ut wh at g o up dynami c in vest i ga t ion s suggest ; th a t r -

,

Y kW
6 hi ldren s ee L
On c ,

k
Ho lli n w o rth C h i ldren a bov e 1 8 0 I Q ( New . S . g ,

g gg M .

or : orl d B oo Co O n a dul t en i u s e s s ee L Term a n A.

p relim in ary s tu dy i n th e p sy ch olo y a n d p e da o y Of l ea dersh ip , P eda g

S emi n .
, 11 4 1 3—51
,

.
g , . .
,

.
163 A ND A DJ U STME N T OF GR O U PS C O NFL I C T

t 0 n t o th“ to tgl ity of c o ndifl on wh

1 “i ch desc i bc l l
e s o c ial _ - s n .
r le _

o up st uctu e a t
N -

e m en t o f i im
u 0

g I f
g r r r s e .

Tigh t mo e o ve the n intelli ge n ce is a fa ct o in ,

r r, w ,
r

le a de ship ins ofa a r linked up i t te n ds t o be wi th r s ,

as ,

o the p y h ologiOal v a iabl s such a s i“

r s c n d epe n de n c e e mo r e , ,

t i n l matu i o i n io n an om ”7
o
— ty
a c n sc e t us ess w
d w i sd
r ,
M
,
.
l

S in ce we h ave c alled attention t o the t ait o iom in n c

v a

r a e, »

we might well ex amin e its pla ce a psy h ol o gi c al v a iable as c r

in le a de ship I n d oin g s o we pe mi t the e a de t o get a

r . r r r

fu the glimpse of th difficulty in studyin g le a de sh ip f

r r e r or

the evi de nce i s f f om con s i stent O n e study fi n ds a p o s i

,

ar r .

t ive ela tionsh ip in b oth c o llege stude nts an d mature a dults

r
_

betwee n d ominan ce an d le a de sh ip I n a well kno wn s o cio r .

8 -

m et i c study O the o the h n d J ennin g eve als th at domi

r ,
u r a ,
s r , -. l
-

nant indivi du als no t ch o se n but a

'

1§éd ifi i dl C at tell a n
a re re
_

d St i ce fi nall y fo un d n o S ign ifi
g§
9
'

r 6 s ea , ,

c n t r el ati ori b tw n le a de sh ip an d d ominan ce

‘ '
10
a e ee r .

M T
S T A TIXN TH O Y Th g e a t man the o y of le a de
' ‘

JI U AI E R e r r r

ship st esses l argely if no t exclus ively the p o ssess ion of

r , ,

g en e
“
t ic n d
ps y h l g
l a gely a he edita ian vi ew The
r
i al t
4 g
a
N
i t
a b y th e le a de
w

r
I t i s
t he o y o n the
thus c
M n
a o

r
o o
”
g ”
r

.
s
_
r .

r ,

o the h an d i s t n on“m “entéli ti mp pg o g h M o e p ifi

’
’

r ,
an e vu 0 M
s c . r s ec

“
T

c ally it tt ibu t s l ad h ip t o a spec ific hi st o i c al pe io d

’
J

a r e e e rs r r

A lea de f om this point of view c an eme ge only if the

, .

r, r ,
r

t im es such a s t o pe mit h im t o u wh ateve ski lls an d

are r se r

amb ition s he mi ght p o ssess I n the g e a t m n the o y th . r a r e

le de i s in depe n de nt of o supe io t o the g oup whi ch he

a r r r r r

he a ds I n the s itu at ional the o y he i s depen dent on o in the

. r r

g ip of exte nal s o cial fo ces ove whi ch he h a s little o n

r r r r r o

effe tive cont ol c r .

B B C tt ll D li y ( Y k
WM k d m m
7 ip i
. . a
f p e , es cr t on a n eas ure ent o ers on a t on ers ,
NY
8 H
. . : Co ,
Ri ch a rdso n a n d N
. G
orld

.
B oo
Ha na al t L e a ders h ip a s re la te d to th e
.

. . wP ,

9 H H en n i n s

G
. J g
B e rnr eu ter p e rson ali ty m ea sures s oc s y ch o l , 1 7 2 3 7—
L eaders h i p a nd i s olat ion ( 2 d e d ; New or : L on
.
,
67 , . .

. Y k .

g
GF S g
m ans , reen Co , I n c . .
,

10 R B C a tt e l a n d . tice , Th e p sy cho d y n a mics of s mall

.
roups . .

( Urb a n a , I ll : U ni v ersity o f I lli nois , .

17 0 A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS C O NF L I C T

h avio o wh o is ch o se n by them app“

r, r eciably m o e ofte n r r

th an o the m embe s of the g o up

r ch o se n r r a re .

The s o c iom et i c te h ni que while a athe est i cted in

r c ,
r r r r

st um e nt h a s bee n exten s ively used f dete min in g g oup

r , or r r

le ade ship in c omm unity p o jects cl a ss oom s in dust i l

r r ,
r ,
r a

pl ants an d milit a y se vi ce I t success in i dentifyi n g le a d

,
r r . s

“
e rsh a s been imp ess ive an d it li dity an d eliab ility b o th
r ,
s va r ,

of which h ave bee n exte n s ively invest i g ated in vite a n ,

co

id bl m e a su e of c onfide n ce Seve al goo d s tudi es

Show that membe s of sm ll g oups a able eliably t o
s e ra e r . r

r a r re r

i de ntify th o se in divi duals wh o ce nte s of infl ue n ce n d are r ,

a

th a t th i s i dentific ation co esp on ds cl o sely t o th at obt ain ed rr

by othe c ite ia To c ite only on e ex mple G ibb fo un d a

r r r . a ,

c o el at ion of n e a ly
rr betwee n le a de ship a s in di ated
r r c

by s o ciom et i c ch oice an d by the atin gs of c om petent ex

r r

te nal o bse ve s
r r r .
12

I the p eced in g p a a g aph we desc ibed the s o c iom et i c

techni que as a rathe est i cted in st u m ent L e a de ship i s
n r r r r r

r r r r . r

defi ned clu ivj ly in te m s of ch oi ce o of a ec o gni zed

ex s e r ,
r r

influe nce of the le a de up on o th r

nte o f i ts c on ception of r .

l ea de ship With out minimizin g the im p o t an ce of s o cio

r . r

m et Ch oi ce an d an aw a e ness of the le a de s influe n ce th e r r

’

ce nt al fa ct c on ce nin g the le a de as he i s c on ceptu ali zed in

r r r

th i s b ook—nam ely h i olem i he l pingw g m emhers t o ,

s r a

a tt ain a c ommon o c ollective goa l—i s in s uffic i ently st essed

r r .

fi lling with the g e a t man the o y an d o the v i ews whi ch

-

r r r

pl ace emph as i s on th ch a a cte o pe s onali ty t aits of th e r r r r r e

g
11 For th e re a g
b e a lto e th er cle ar re ardin th e m ea n
de r w h o m i ht not g
f fi g Vg f
t o th e e x t e n t to wg
i n s of th e se term s w e p ro p os e a b ri e de ni t ion of ea ch
,

h ich a dev i ce or in strum en t m e a s ures

al id i ty re ers

h a t i t p urp orts to w g .

n o t s o m e o th e r fw w
m e a s ure A n i n telli en ce t e st f or exam p le m u s t m e as ure in te lli e n ce a n d
.

a ctor s u ch a s th e e e c t o f s ch oo li n
,
,

R el ia bi li ty re ers ff ,

g fg
.

to th e con s i s ten cy

12 C A G
ith
k hi ch it m ea s ure s a p urp ort e d trai t I t m u s t i v e
s im i l ar re s u lts ev ery ti m e i t m a es a m e a s ure m e n t o f th e s am e tr ai t

ibb Th e s o ci om etr y o f l ea ders h ip i n te m p o ra ry ro u p s S o cio m g

.

—
. .
, ,

etry , 13 226 4 3 .
GRO U P L EA D E RS H I P 71

le ade s o ciom et y h a s the we akn ess of bein g b a s ic ally a

r, r

st ati c inte p et at ion S o ciom et i c choi ce i s b a sed in th i s

r r r

vi ew impli citly if no t explicitly o n the notion of st atus the

.

wh ich c all atte n

, , _ M w

le a de cho se n bec ause he pg gses

r 1s ses

tion t o h im self The wo ks of M o eno an dJ e nnings whi ch

. r r ,

h av bee n al e ady cited dep i ct the le a de a s a pe rson wh o

e r , q m m
r

an d th at he i s ch o se n
v n

i s mo st f equently cho n r se

by o the s bega1 he p o ssesses ch a a cte i s tics wh i ch make

r 1 Se r r

him p opul ar o att actfv t o them S o c iom et y does no t ex

l l m '

r r e . r

p lic i t ly t a ke a cc o u n t o f the fa ct th a t be in g chos e n a s a

le ade o be in g ass i gned the p osition of le a de ship d o es no t

r, r r ,

n ecess a i ly esult in le a de ship beha ior by the pe s on

r r r v r

selected The ch o se n le a de may ve y well

wh at C owley s om e ye a s a go c alled a he a dman He a d
.

“ be no mo “e th an
r
r r

.
”
r

ship o the des i gnation of a p o s it ion i s no t a depend able

,
r ,

c ite ion f le a de sh ip I n fai ness to J e nnin gs h oweve 13

it mus t be p ointed o ut th at She w a s co gni z ant of the fa ct th at

r r o r . r ,
r,

le a de sh ip i s a ole in whi ch many in divi du als sh a e Thi s

r r r .

p o s ition h ece ntly bee n e mph a s i zed by G a dn e wh o

as r r r,

mo destly an d c o ectly p oints o ut th at the a“ pp oa ch i s no t

rr r

new Thus c on ce ived le ade ship he h o lds i s a c ontinuo us

.
‘4
r , ,

d istribution f om the ext e m e le ade ( wh o le ads all the

r r r

time ) to the ext eme foll owe ( who follows ll the time and r r a

neve influe nces ano the m embe of the g o up ) G a dne

r r r r . r r

follows the lo gi c of h i s o bse vat ion to include a s le a de eve n r r

th at in divi dual whose beh avio i s neg ative in th a t h i in

flu en e im pels pe o ple t o a ct in a mann e wh i ch i s Opp o s i te
r ,
s

c r

to h i s intention s
“
!5

LE ADE SHI P A S ATTE MPTED LE ADER S HIP ACTS As at

i go o us se a ch t oo l an d a vi ew of the natu e Of
R .

once a r r re r r

le ade shi p the defi nition of le ade sh ip a s ttempted leade

r r a r

s hi
p ct
a i s n a dv an ce o ve
s the
a o the s “
wh i
p oun ded Attempted le a de shi p acts a e a cts acc omp ani ed
.
ch we h a ve ex r

r
r

13 See WP . H
1 44—
. Cw
l ey , Th ree di s ti n cti on s in th e stu dy
o o f lea ders ,

a bn orm s oc
14

Hum R ela t 9
.
G G .s y ch ol , 2 3

a rdn e r
.
. 57
un cti on a l l e a dersh i p

. 49 1—
, 5 09
,
F .

a n d p o p u lari ty in

.
.

small g
ro u p s ,

1 5 1 bid
, p 493 . . .
 72 A ND A DJ U STME N T OF GR O U PS C O NF L I C T

by an intent t o ini tiate st uctu e in inte a cti on du in g the r r - -

r r
”
p o cess of olvin g a m utu al p oblem
r s I n th i s f am ew o k r .
6
r r

a le ade i s any pe s on wh o e n g ages in le ade sh ip a cts Th i s

r r r .

V i ew a ls o h a s the m e i t mo e exp l i c i tly see n in He m ph ill s

’

r ,
r

e a li e fo m ul ation of st ess in g the fa ct th at le a de ship acts

r r r ,
r r

d i e ted t o w a d a h ed oa l T h i s ele m e n t —th i s p u !7

r
a e r r c
g r s ar

sui t f a c ommon goal—i s the esse nce of le a de sh ip an d i s

o r

c on fi m ed by a l a ge amo unt of contemp o a y ese a ch

r r r r r r .

LE D SH As DE F N D B Y G OUP PE F O M NCE Th is
A ER IP I E R R R A

View i simila to but mo e in clus ive th an Hemphill s an d

.

like the la tte s it m e a su es le a de sh ip no t in te m s O f

s r r ,

“
’

r ,
r r r

s ociom et i c ch oi ce p opul a ity o influe n ce but on the

r ,
r ,
r ,

b as is of the g o up s pe fo man ce un de the le ade s gui d

r
’

r r r r
’

an ce L .

le ade sh ip r from
the m e an ) p od uced by the le a de Thi s h a s the a dded
r r
!8

a dv nt a ge of definin g an d m e asu in g le a de ship in te m s of

a r r r

the in c e ase dec e ase of p a ti cul a synt ali ty dim e n s ion s

r or r r r ,
”

inste d of us in g questionable v aluat ive c on cepts such a s

a ,

goo d le ade sh ip an d b a d le a de sh ip ”

C attell s app oach is in line with the mo st ecent nd most

r r .

r r a

a dv an ed ese a ches into the natu e of le a de ship I t ch al

the Old ste eo type of a s in gle le ade an d a ma ss of
c r r r r .

l ng
e es r r

followe s f o it st esses the fa ct b o n e o u t by many in

r ,
r r ,
r

ti g ti o n th at the e diffe e nt kin ds of le a de s de

Wh ile C attell
v es a s, r a re r r as

t m i n d by the ch a a cter of the s itu a t ion

er e r .

C J K 16 . . Hem p h ill P N P ep in sky R N

, . .

w , . . S kW
h ev i tz , . E .
] a yn e s
f , an d C . A .

P
hri s tn er, Th e re l a ti on b e t e e n p o ss es si on rel e v ant in o rm a ti on a n d o f ta s -

K C
a tt em p ts t o l e a d s y ch o l M o no g r 70 , No
, . 1 . . 7 .

Hemp h ill , L ea de r beh a v ior des crip t ion ( o lum b us Ohi o : Per
S M g
17
I . .
,

so nn e l R es e arch B o a rd Th e O hi o

gp
13 R B a tt e ll
.

ro u p s y n ta lity , Hu m
. C
R ela t , 4
ta te U ni v e rsi ty ,
N ew con cep ts f or m ea su ri n
,
, im eo ra p h ed
le a dersh ip in term s o f
1 6 1 - 8 4 S ee ab ov e
. h a p ter 3,
.
g .
, C
.

.74 .
 17 4 C O NFL I C
A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS T

1ove them but bec au e he fac ilit at es the achi evem e n t o f

r s

t h He n ds m
,

e e th
q a
pm e hi
s i de a ssa n d s an ti o n u c
-

h is beh avio The foll o we s in th i s s itu at ion

r . aw a e p r are r ,
er

h aps only dimly but non etheless t ul y th at in exe ci s in g hi r ,

r s

ini tiative the —le a de enables the m t o e a l irze the i ow n im s r r a

B y followingTh gg tiOn Df the lea th y dfi lop

— .

M ’ ’

e su es S e e

initiative by th inkin g f them selves L e a de sh ip i thus or . r _

s

“
always dig g ted towa d n n nd fl irn y b oth th e le a de
e

an d the led an d control is e e ci sed b y lL U n de any

m
r
’

h
e

m
x r
gs _

a_ _
r
r

o the c on dit ion le a de ship becomes dominat ion

r r .

I n th i s c onn ect ion P i go di stin ction i s a help ful an d ’

we bel ieve a fun d am e nt al on e C h alle n gin g J ob n di

rs ,
’

,
. ac se s s

t in ction between co e cive gove nm e nt an d ge nu in e le a d r r

e rs h ip P i g
r
,
“
a stutely obse ves th at the e i s a e y g e at
o rs

diffe e nce betwee n a ommon c u e whi ch i s fully sh a ed c

r

a s
r v r r

by all p ti cip ants and an o bjectiv e im vi su ali zed by on e

ar a

man whi ch h appen s t o in clude the p a tial s a ti sfa ct ion of

, r

othe pe ople s inte ests

r
’

r .
”2 0

The whi ch at on ext em e defin e le a de e r r

ship in an d at the o the defi n e i t o ut of ex

b o th on e S i ded I f on e cle a fa ct em e ges f om
r

i t n ce
s e a re -
r r r

the p o di gio us ese a ch on le ade ship an d f om the e no

.
,

mo us st ate O f c onfus ion wh i ch exi sts in its wak e i t i s th at

r r r r r r

le a de ship an d p owe like le a de ship an d followe shi p

r r, r r ,
ar e

inte depen dent Human beh avio whethe in divi du al o

r r, r r

c ollective t akes pl a e on a c ontin uum L e a de ship i s n o

.

, c . r

exception I f pe ople s in gle o ut the opp o s ite p o les of the

.

c ontinuum i t i s l a gely bec ause ext em es mo e d amati c

Even auto c ats and dictato s do not achieve thei pe s onal
,
r r a re r r .

r r r r

e n ds with out the help of th o se wh o se inte ests i de n tified r ar e

with thei ow n H i st o y be a s thi s o ut o c onvin c in gly th t

r r r s a

t o object i s t o c avil
.

R etu ning now to C attell s fo mulation of leade ship we

.

’
r r r ,

ca n see th a t a le a de i no t m e ely on e wh o o ccup i es a le a d

r s r

20 Pi g ors ,

F g
L ea ders h ip or domi na tio n p 2 1 n 1 , .
, . . Se e al s o WJ . a co b s en ,

C
Fu ehren un d hrert um , ue K oeln Vie rtelj ah rs hft f Soz io l , 1 1
32 6—
. . . .

49 . i te d by Pi ot s .
GRO U P L EA D E RS H I P 17 5

er s
’
p o s ition fli ”
To c all the P es i dent of the U nited
or o ce . r

St ates a le a de m e ely bec use he h olds the office i s t o be r r a

naive eve n tho ugh in s om e c ases th o ccup an t h as been

'

eco gnized a s an o utst an din g pe s on O ccupyin g an office

,

r r .

to whi ch le a de ship h been t a dition lly a ss i gn ed do es “ r no t as r a

make a man a le a de L e a de ship beh avio m ust be lo r . r r

ca et d e mp i i c ally by ex aminin g c o e ffic i e n ts of a ss o c iat ion

r , ,

to detect th at beh avio whi ch i s foun d emp i i c ally t o be

‘

mo e f e que nt in m e n wh o h ave g e ate m e a su ed effects on

r r

r r r r r

synt ality .
’ ”22

CO NCLUD NG RE MARK S The conception of l d h ip in

I . ea er s

te m s of its effect on synt ality exp essed n a v a i ety of dif

r
-
,
r i r

n t w a ys b d i e e n t w i te s see m s t o be the mo st
fl’
w M

ff
a

f ere
y r r r ,
re

cur ing ne I t defi nes le a de ship by a fun dam e nt al s o cial

r o . r

psy hol o gic al c on cept the p o cess of inte a ct ion I t h i gh

c ,
r r .

lights th esse n tia l of le a d sh p nam ely the l de s ’

q phty
e
e i “ ea u r r

act f lat g h imself to o the s n such a w ay a s i effe t

w ,~ M g m ,

o re 1 r i _ . - . o_ c
p

integ ated beh avi o amon g the m The le a de i s an in te g al

r r . r r

m embe Of the group wh o se goals he hares

tion of wh ich he h opes
r
“ a n di lfe rea liz a

He st imulates o the s
fl w ”
s
”
r ,

o r adjusts him self t o them in such a w ay a s t o help them

t o do wh at they al e a dy wi h to do Whethe o no t he
,

23
r s . r r

assum es a le a de ship fun ct ion will depe n d the n up on the r , ,

st uctu e o kind of g o up in which he fun ctions an d m many

r r r r

c a ses up on the natu e of the t a sk wh ich i t i s pe fo min g r r r .

He diff e s f om o the m embe s of the group whi ch he le ds

r r r r a ,

at least accO 0 on e c a e y e ign d invest i gation in

r r 11 s e ,

two espe cts ( 1 ) he analyzes the p oble m s itu at ion in o der

r : r r

t o get ins i ght int o it an d ( 2 ) he ini tiates mo e a ct ions th an , r

21 Th e
C
as s u

S
mp ti on th a t i t i s i s ess en ti a lly th e v i e of ,

M
h a rt le a n d to w
S F S S gp
C— Sf
di ll . Se e . L h artle a n d R
. St o g di ll tud i es i n na v a l lead ersh i
. . ,

(
5 7
o lum b u s ,

C
Th eir fi
O h i o : Ohi o ta te U ni v ers i ty Re s e ar ch o u n da ti o n

de n iti on re ers t o h e a ds hi p rath er th a n l ea dersh i p

pp ,

.
.

W P C g M
22 a tt ell New con ce p ts p 1 84 .
, , .

T N hi t eh ea d, L ea de rs hi p i n
W q am bri d e
23 See . . a free s o ciet y ( ass

g w w
”
Harv ard Un iv ers ity mp lo y s th e term ch o s e n
res s , h i te h e a d e

b y th e rou p hi ch w e h av e a lrea dy
ch o o s e th e ir l ea ders
, u e s ti o n e d P eop le do n o t al a y s
Th ey re la t e th em s e lv es t o o th ers i n
th e la t ter to re sp on d to th em i n an a ccep ti n
.

m a n n er
a y s th a t ca u s e

g
.

.
w
17 6 C O NF L C
A ND A DJ U STME N T OF G R O U PS I T

anyon e else in a give n t a sk L e a de s Sh o w a st at i sti c all y . r

s i gnific ant diff e en e in these two c atego i es f om o the

r c r r r

m embe s f the gro up r o .

24

The g e t bulk f ecent analys i s of an d ese a h on g o up

r a o r r rc r

le a de sh ip p oints t o the pon l ion th at wh ile in di vi du al

r c us ,

t aits c anno t be i gno ed a k Ow l dg f the in divi du al

r r ,
fi e e o

le a de yi elds a ve y impe fect un de st an din g of le a de ship

r r r r r

itself ( Pe s onality v a i bles in telli gen ce phys i c al ch a a c

. r r a , ,
r

t i s ti
er an d the like wh i ch h ave played a ve y p omine nt
cs ,
l

,
r r

r ole in studi es of le a de ship in the p a st d o no t by them selves r ,

acco unt f le a de sh ip j These h t i ti ind d i d

or r . c ara c er s cs u ce es re

b h i o p in o the rs only if the in d iv i du al W1

p

the m
” fl

e av
3 p opses e
9
“
s s

sh a es the v alues of tli i n fl p“ 3“i

~

r
n g o up 3 1 _
r

in w ays th a t p Offii Sje th e f l lfipllrpep t e f —HQ Q EL P Q Of all )

fl

r i I S

A“ p a t f omthe g o up i F ti on an in divi du al may p o ssess

.
. _ _

r r r s d a

le ade ship t aits but ope at ionally they a m e anin gless ”

S ince in them elves they do not inevitably le ad to le de

r r ,
r re ,

s a r

ship a cts An in divi du al p o ssess in g these t aits wh o bec om es

. r

an a cknowledge d le a de t oday may lose hi le a de ship t o r s r

mo o w Wh ile w still n eed t o know m uch c on ce ni n g the

rr . e r

pe s i sten ce of le a de sh ip th o ugh t im e m uch ecent

r r r ,
r re

se a ch shows th t g dep n dsm n t he dapta bil ity o f the

r a __
e -
a .

le a de an d th t bility of—tha g o p Ge n e all y spe ak in g

r e s a r u r

the fi b e st am e g o up the mo e pe s istent the le a de

_ ,
.
,

r r ,
r r r

sh ip of a specific pe s on If le a de s h ip in demo c at i c g o ups

r . r r r

i s h i ghly ch an ge able an d go es f om on e m embe t o ano the r r r,

i t i s no t bec ause such a sh a in g is eth i c all y des i able—a s r r

in deed i t i s—but because the g oups them selves d o n ot p e r r

s i s t A uth o it a ian le a de sh ip on the o the h an d i no t

. r r r ,
r ,
s

sh a ed but pe s i sts in the le ade a s l on g he main t ain s th

r r r as e

g o up s st ab ility ch an ges it in a cco d an ce with h i s ow n

r
’

or r

d i gn f I t i s a well kn ow n hi st o i c l fa ct th a t a uth o it a ian

es -
r a r r

le a de s like H itle an d Muss oli ni t i ed t o maint ain the s t tus

r r r a

u o of the i o wn p o we an d th a t inno v a t o s bec am e le a de s

q r r r r

in p e io ds Of ap i d ch an ge These th i ngs bein g t ue we

r r . r ,

lea ders
24 L .

an d
C art er,

h er
ot
Wg . Ha yt h orn B Shn v er an d I L an z ett a Th e b eh a v io r
ro u p m embers
,

I a bnorm s oc
.

s y c ho l 46 ,
’

.
,

.
.

. P ,

.
,
of

5 89—9 5 .
 17 8 A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS C O NF L C I T

r e a son s I n any c a se the field dynami c a l vi ew desc ibes the

.
,
r

IQQdQL aS a m nt eL nn g t n ti l in a s o c ial field a t a

_
p pe -
—
e a

m
.

_
l of t im e To epe a t an n t flan
'

d l
'

pp t i c i
u ar
o er i s ta t e r ear ér e

eu fl m
.

i n di i dua v l le ad a —
g p o fi a ble sa t o in vest hi t e mo s

tio np an d e n e gi es in such a “ w a s t o
r c o n t i but e t o i ts mai n a r
\ — "

an d nh g m nt He p atte n s g oup beh avio in

n ap d

t n n
e a ce e ah e . r r r,
"

sho t n e ithe wh olly bTec u e Of any specia l e n dowm en ts

r ,
r a s

th at he mi ght p o ssess n o e nti ely bec ause the g o up de ,

r r r

te mines its own destiny but bec ause by a h appy c on

r

of the qu al i ti es o f e a ch h i s beh av io
, ,

,
g ruen ce
“
-
st im ul a tes the x J fi w
r
—di re ctin g cti i ti e t p oin t
v

e ng ge i ms lf om o u
'

e a a v s r r

of vi ew the n b o th the lea de as p e s on an d the grou p as r a r

s e lf di ect i n
, ,

t enti ll t u tu re are in di spe n s a ble in

a
p o a
g r s r
-
c
y
desc ib in g the natu e of le a de sh ip )
r r r

TY PE S O F L E A D E RS H I P

The p oblem of typ in g psycho lo gi c al phe nom e na i s

r

ofte n c ons i de ed a s e ithe falsely c on ce ived un n ecess a y o

r r ,
r ,
r

u n ew a din TSi
r
g r
n beh a v io a l ch a a cte i st i cs ceare d i st i buted r r r r

on a con tin m \rn ny psych ol o gi sts h o ld th at it i s a“ bit a y

t o d ivi de them int o Speci fic typ es Objection t o the typ in g
uu ,
a r r r
”
.

of beh avio al p o cesses i s b a sed on the mi sc on ception by

r r

s om e psych olo gi sts th at a type i s an en du in g psych olo gi cal r

o gani z t ion a mo e o less pe man en t st uctu e Typ olo

r a ,
r r r r r .
27

gi es may h oweve als o be b ased on the a ssum pti on th at

,
r,

t ai ts e no t di st i buted in a an dom and di s o de ly fa shi on

r ar r r r r

On the cont a y they tend t o cluste into la ge o ganiz a

.

r r r r r r

tions o st uctu es The elatively o de ly a an gement o f

,

r r r . r r r rr

the p a ts int o wh oles is wh at we h ave in min d by the c on cept

r

of types .

The claim th at the o de in g of psych olo gi c al phe nom ena r r

int o typ es i s unp o fit able depen ds on on e s vi ew f the ob r

’

j ecti e v of sc i e n ce
s O n e Of these o bject i ves —an d n ot the .

le a st imp o t an t e ithe —especially in the e a ly ph a ses of a

r r r

sci en ce ig cl ifi tiofix Typ in g Q 9 fo m of cla ss ific a ti on

’

a n d cl a ss ig
,
a ss ca r ,

nomic f uncti on in
,

an imp o t an t
‘

r eco

27

beh av io r
Se e D W M a cK inn on
.

dis orders ( New o r

.

Y
,

k in
:
I M cv Hun t
.

Th e Ron al d Press C o
.

.
,
P erso na li ty a nd th e
V ol I , p 24 . . .
GR O U P L EA D E RS H IP 17 9

sc ience The d ange of typ ing beh avio al t aits inhe es no t

. r r r r

in the typ olo gic al app oach but in the ineptitude of the
typ olo gi st A typ olo gy i s a heu i s ti c devi ce wh o se v alue
r
28
. r

an d a dequ a cy m ust b judged by its econom y by the ex e

tent to which it is able to educe a p olife ation of t aits to

,

r r r r

a wo k able schem e I f we th ink of a psych olo gi c al type not

r .
,

a s an a ctual e nt ity n eve n a s the ave a ge of many in ,

or
__
r

st ances but a s a hyp o theti c ally pu e c ase the n the p o cess

of typ in g in divi du als o g o ups becom es a v ali d e nte p i se
,
r ,
r

r r r r

S o conce ived a type s ay an auth o it arian le a de i s an i de al

.

r r,

o pu e c a se t o w ard wh i ch c on c ete in s t an ces d i sc o ve ed by

,

r r r r

m e an s of emp i i c al ese arch app o ximate in v a yin g deg ees

r r r r r .

IS

a fo m of r
y pl ana l y s i s w h i
s
eh c an
eh le aod t o i
g adepe
e l n
abl e an d i u1nin tin g T High t int o h fiman beh avio
l v

'
‘

a S s r .

AUTHO I TARI A N LE DE SHIP Whil e all keg dershi s we

R A R . p

h ave p ointed o ut befo e i s deg ee o f r ,

r

p o w e r an d d omina t-
ion these t ai ts e f n da m e n t l a h d b o n ,
r ar u a

s i c o s in a tH a i an le a de sh i p Whe n we desc i be
-

o iT
p u u u r f r . r

such lead fi ipfi fi rmS Of fi é psych o lo gi c al v a iables of the

"

e r

pe s on wh o le ads we fi n d th at the pp th o ita i n le pd i

r ,
r r a e k
er s

ext ave s— ri“

ve dominatin“g an d a gg e ss ive I n hi s el ation t o
r , ,
r . r

OM
w

s T fi e v alue of d i c i l in e de f e e n ce t o
Q

s p
‘

e t s res e u r a
‘

th o ity an d the o tw a d sym

,

bOIS o f st atus an d p o we such

’ ’ l

r , u r r,

as th e mi l i t a y office s u nifo m an d the p o li ce man s b a dge

’ ’

r r r

He h as li ttle o no c onfiden ce in th o se WW
.

r QS im -
,

plyin g th at he do es no t t o le ate humafiz o f these are r rr rs , or

a n exp ess ion of human we a kn ess

r Hi le a de sh ip ot . s r p
n

on pe a on o g o p on s n u but on a o n t m n ts
rs u sl r r u c e s s v rl us 1
” fi
s ru e

mh erent in h is pOSitiOnO Office o in

- "

f p o we wh i ch a
,
l l ’ 1 1

o r re r ,
r

u n iSlim en t ew a d an d de nia l I n th i s w he i s a ble t o

’

p ,
r
y r ,
. a

re info ce an d pe petu ate hi s le a de sh ip p o s it ion ; f o whe n

r r r r

the g o up i s no t pe mi tted t o t up its own goals an d c an

r r se

initiate action only if at ll with th pe mi ss ion of th ,

a ,
e r e

le a de i ts m embe s a no t mot iv ated t o a ct in dependently

r, r re

g
.

See I 28 ‘

C h ein , Pers o n a lity a nd ty p olo y , I soc Ps y ch ol , 1 8

89—
. . . .

109 .
 18 0 C O NF L I C
A ND A DJ U STME N T O F GR O U PS T

I n te pe s ona l a cts an d c omm uni c a t ion be t w ee n m embe s

r r r

a re di sco u a ged if no t est i cted by the auth o i t ian le a de

r r r r ar r .

I n th i s w ay the le a de st e n gthe n s h i s ow n p o s i t ion an d r r

fu the a ssu es h i s p owe ove them S in ce hi i e ll w e s

r r r r r . s o r

comm uni c ate l a gely th ough h im an d no t th ough on e

r r r

ano the he becom es in di spe ns able to th em The fea th at

r, . r

he ge ne ates in th em i s a esult ant n ot only of h i s p owe

r r r

p o s ition but als o of the followe s Own dim awa en ess th at r

’
r

wi th out h im the g o up n ot only anno t f unct ion but may r c

g p i l gr 1§ a well To th i s fe i s a dded the i c on st ant

l p e a _ s . ar r

anxi ety ega din g futu e a ction S in ce eve y c on sequent ial

r r r . r

a ct i s p edete min ed by the le a de an d info mation i s no t

r r r 1r

p assed on to hi s foll owe s any futu e c o u se of a ction m ust r ,

r r

in the natu e of the s itu ation be p oblemat i c an d un e t ain

r r c r .

He ules th o ugh f e a the efo e no t n ecess a ily bec ause he

r r r, r r ,
r

“
th e
r a te n s t o pu ni sh h i s fo ll o we s —h ma
ben evolent desp o t —but bec ause they c ann o t wi th any a s
y in
”
deed be a r e , ,

su an ce anti cip ate a cle a co u se of a ction F om the st an d

r r r . r

p oint oi th le a de thi s c ondition h a s the a dded a dv nt a ge

e r a

o f a ssu in g th at the fo ll o we s w ill c on t in ue t o be depe n de n t

r r

on him an d bmi w in thei atti tudes t ow a d h im F om

su ss e r r . r

the st an dp oint f g oup c on s i de at ion s h oweve the c ondi

o r r ,
r,

t ion i l a gely n egat ive ; f whe e on e almo st ent i ely c on

s r or r r

trols the o the —the le ade the led—the e is no lon ge any

r r r r

c on st uctive s o ializ ation an d the

r c held t o gethe ,
r

l argely by i nthn id tion f o b ute fo ce a , _

ear, r r r .

Th i s b ief analys i s of auth o i t a i n le ade shi p p oin ts up

r r r a r

on ce a g ain the ole of the pe s onali ty in g o up el ation s

r r r r .

The in divi du al wh o empl oys auth o it a ian techni ques in r r

de alin g with o the pe ople ten ds t o be an auth o it arian p e

r r r

so n l i ta
y A cc o d in g
. t o the in vest i g a
rt ion s o f A d o no an d h is r

c oll ab o at o s whi ch we h ave al e a dy b i e fly desc ibed th e

r r ,
r r r ,

auth o it a ian pe s onality i i gi d an d ste e o typ i c al in h i s c o g

r r r s r r

n i ti veo ganiz ation Thi s i gi dity p edifi g h in t!) a dog

r . r i s
/

mati c an d int ole ant view of pe ople an d s o ci l e ality He

r a r .

o de s h i s life an d im p o ses the s am e exp ect a tion s up on

r r

o the s by m e an s of a c onventionali zed t of u les A

,

r ,
se r .
 T A ND A DJ U STME N T O F G RO UPS
C O N FL C I
D M O CRA TI C L E A DER S H
E
“
I t sh o uld be ma de cle a fi st
of all th at we d o no t u the wo d demo c ati c in a compli
,
se
IP .

r r
”
r, r

m e nta y o evalu ative sen se but desc iptively Th at i s we

r r ,
r .
,

a re n
co n d on ly w i th the qu a li ty of the in te fi tm
cer e mb r e

fi n th le ade a n d th os a w h om h ea fl t an d t o lesse
e
w
r ec s , a r

exte nt w i th the pe s onality v a i bles th at see m t desc i be

r r a o r

h im best .

The ch a a cte i sti c of demo c t ic le a de sh ip th at st an ds

r r ra r

o ut sha ply an d c on s i ste ntly i s th a t the l d m

r inte ea er r

e s t d in th
e q s i on of p o we
e s ess ve o t he s but in tim ul t r o r r s a
p r

in g m embe s t o p a ti cip ate in gr o up a cti i ti es an d wo kin g

r r v r

a s on o f th em in t yin g t o a chi eve a c oll ect ive goal He

e r .

c o esp on ds t o ou p evio us desc iption of th le ade a s an

rr r r r e r

in divi du al wh o e nacts h i s o le in such a w ay a s t o fa cili t ate

r

effectiv e ole bEfi aWd fi t o t s He substitute

r f w er . er

o ver othe s th dist ibution of esp on s ib ili ti es t o every m em

r e r r r

b er .I f he st an ds o ut1 mm o the s in the g o up i t s no t b r r ,

i e

c ause of h i s 156533 5 16 of ce t ain tr aits onl y but mo e t uly

5 11 r ,
r r

bec ause he may se ve a s a es o urce pe s on p o ssessed of

S dom o because he h ce tain needed
r r r

knowledge
Skills o be he encou ages communication and inte ,
r as r

,
r r r

/pe s ona l c o
r ts amon g m embe s o bec ause he puts the r ,
r

inte ests of th e g u p abmze pe s onal con s i de at ion s

r ro w
.
r r .

I de ally the demo a t i c le a de sh o ws all th fo egoin g

,
cr r e r

ch a a cte i sti cs in hi s beh avio If it i s p o ss ible t o sum up

r r r .

these aspects of hi s beh avio the n pe h aps we c an desc ibe r, r r

him best a s a pe s on wi th c onfiden ce in an d espect f

r r or

human be in gs I n th i s he p onifl e an ol d an d eve ed

. ers s r r

con ception of demo c a cy “ a t i ts best I f in h i s el ti on sh ip

r

with o the s he a cquires p owe it is p ow e w h ich he ha es

r r,
”
.

r
r a

s r

w ith oth s I t i s p o we fl ow in g f om an integ a t ion f man y

an d often c onfli ctin g inte ests C le ly in th i s el a tion sh ip
er . r r r o

r . ar ,
r

the le a de while a ce nte of h i gh p o te ntial i s no t necess arily

r, r ,

fo c al p oint of the g oup s beh avio He le a ds by f c ili r

’

r . a

le a d in the att ainm ent of e n ds .

I n desc ib in g the a u th o i t ian le a de we c ited h i s mo st

r r ar r,

s trik in g pe s onal ch ara cte isti cs I n o de t o furthe c on

r r . r r r
 G RO UP l EADERS HIP 1 83

t a st uth it i n an d dem c ti c le de sh ip we sh ll ls
r a or ar a o ra a r ,
a a o

sin gle t the mo st im p o t n t t its of th e é m o a tic p e

ou r a ra e cr r

s onali ty I n th i s desc ipt ion we sh ll g in d w he a vi ly r a a a ra

up on the ese a ches of F enkel B u n w ik Alth ough she

.

r r r -
r s .

d es n o t p esen t the dem o c a ti c pe s on such we can get

o r r r as a

goo d vi ew of h im f om hi low sc o es on the v ious p eju r s r ar r ~

di ce testin g in st um ents n d in te vi ews

-
r a r .

Th e dem o c ti c pe s o n li ty a cept s h im self an d i thus

ra r a c w f
- f

r el tiv ely f of e gg gont m p t I n h i el tion to o the s he

a ree ~ ; e . s r a r

i s p im a ily j oy e o i en ted th t i he i m ild tow d them

‘ ”
r r -
r ,
a s, s ar
fl

they H st on g
‘

an d s th m a o i r l t iV l
‘ ‘

i
'

c
p t a ce e
m g e
y s ar . s e s e a e r ,

n d wh i le he d Oe n o t h ve fully in teg ted pe s on li ty

h ‘

a s a a ra r a

thi s i n i de l in ny c se—h d es n t ep ess h i im pulses

s a a a a e o o r r s

un duly but i able to in tellectu li ze them n d the eby in te

s a a r

gra te them W ith in h im self by un de st n din g them n d thei r a a r

r ole i n h i t o t l psychi c ec o n m y
s Unlike the utho ita i n
a o . a r r a

pe s on the dem o c tic in dividu l i el tively fl gible n d

r ,
ra a s r a er ,
a

wh t i gidi ty h h ow i usu lly d ist ibuted d iffe en ti lly

'

a r e s s s a r r a

o ve o n ly s m e
r e s of h i beh avi
o He tendH o exp o se
ar a s or . -

himself exten sively to c o gn itive pe ceptu l nd em o ti n l ” ‘ h fi v w w o M '

a m w
,-m
r a ,
a o a

c pe s ch n ge h i
fl

if “
th si m l h im t a p n o o s re co

i ed n o t io n s o on s an d s o c ial re l i ty He a lis tic

ce v
f p s i er a s re

S
.

W
r

“
W W ,

‘
/

o ld gen e lly n ce he n the

M
:
o b atw ei e d m fi w
.

y e
g g e ar r ra . i I S, o

W h ole o n go o d te ms wi th him sel f he ten ds t b e n g oo d r o o

,
— z w
_

Thi s m y well be due to the fa ct

4 c v l‘

a as

F enkel B n w ik em ks th at he w suffi ciently l ved

,

r -
ru s r ar ,
as o

and ccepted a child by h i p en ts

a as s ar .
31

I t i these p s i tive n d i he th t
s
g h
help the dem c ti c le de t g ene te n d tQ st in a
y p e s n l i“

o ra
o tx j r i ts a

a r o
‘ w

ra
y‘
r o
M 0 n m

a
a
nfl ’

su
a

a
a

__

he i ble t e s a o r

B ec ause he is el tively f e r a r e

of c ipplin g o dest ucti ve te n s i o n s

r n d c onfli cts he bec om e s
r r a ,

a n eff ecti ve a ge n t f o ed cin g such f ces in o the s r r u or r .

31 S ee Fren k el -B run s w ik, in A dom o et a l .

, Th e a u th o ri taria n p ers ona lity ,
1 84 T AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G RO U P S C O N FL C I
We an um p the qu li ties of dem o c ti c le de sh ip by
c s u a ra a r

q u o t in g the p ese n t wri te s p ev io us c m m n ts

r r
’

r o e

Th d m ti l d i f d m t ll y m ti t d by p i
l l w
e e o cra c ea er s un a en a o va e ersu a s o n ,

f or h u m a n
d e akn e s s He i s c on sp icu
co n ci
l
i a tio n , an a

d to er a n ce

pl l w f lw
.

o u sl h di n e a n d hi s re a ti o n i th hi s ol o
f ly
ess co n ce rn e w it sci i
y ,

t He en ds t o trust t t
e rs i s rie n d

p pl
eo e s
g
ra th er h a n di s ta n

oo d s e n s e a n d to
’
a n d a u th o rit ari a n

e i ev e th a

c a n a tt a i n th eir ow n en ds Hi s e ff e ct on h i s
i th a de u a t e gu i da n ce th e
ers i s s e
bl
o m dr a
q
f ll w
t,
w
.

ld
y
,

y ly l l
o o .

m a tic f or th e s en se in hi m on a com m o n m a n ik e th e m s e v e s He
p p pp f
.
,

n e e d n ot u s e ro a a n da i n th e o r ob ri ou s s en s e f or h a v in g a ith

in eop pl g
e s i n te i e n ce
g
’
h ll
e re i es m os t on a ct s a n d
,
o i ca
g ar u
g l ly f , ,

l l
m en t 3 2 .

LA SSE Z FA IB E LE D SHIP I f in the l i ght f u p o s iti n

I A ER . o o r o

r eg din g the c m p tibil ity f beh io typ l gy n d b

ar o a o av r o o a e

h v io c n t in m we pl ce the dem c ti c n d
a r o uu th o i t i n a o ra a au r ar a

le de ships t ughly pp s ite p les then the l issez f i e

a r a ro o o o a a r

t y pe f lls s m ewhe e between the tw o ext em es b t on the

,

a o r r ,
u

d em c t i c s i de of the le de shi p d im e n s i n Th
o ra well a r o . e

kn own st dy f L ewin Lipp itt n d Wh ite by c n t stin g

u o , ,
a ,
o ra

the p l fo m s of le de ship m o e sh ply th n the f cts

o ar r a r r ar a a

pe m it h p u the l i ssez f i e le de in s m ewh t o dio us

r ,
as .
a a r a r a o a

l i ght They gi e the im p ess i n th t th i s typ e of l e der d o es

. r o a a

l i ttle n o thi n g th t he i s fu n d m e n t a lly a p ss i ve

or ,
nd um a a a a

p o ductive in d ividu l E ve y bse v n t p ti cip n t in l ai ssez

r a . r o r a ar a

f a i e gr ps h owev e m ust h ve bee n im p essed w i th the

r ou ,
r, a r

f ct th t n ot inf equen tly thi s le de i m o e th n p ss i e

a a r a r s r a a a v

figu e While he n question bly in i ti tes fewe le de ship

r . u a a r a r

a cts th n eithe the th o it i an o dem o t ic le de the

”
a r au r ar r cra a r,

goo d l issez f ai e le de i n a w h o in tel

r a r s a

l i g n tly eflects b ck t
e the g p m embe s th e ir own
r a o ro u r

th o ughts sym p thet i c lly n d luc i dly I n u V i ew he f c ili

a a a . o r a

t tes the p ess of c mm unic ti n m n g th m e“

a ro c m be s n d o a o a o e r a

h elps t i n c e se g o up c ohes i e n ess n d g p th inkin g ”

V
o r a r v a ro u .

Th i s in te p et tio n i f y rf m r the a i ew wh i ch m kes s a a r cr ro a

the l i ssez f i e g o ups n ch ic— desc iption wh ich w s

a a r r a ar a r a

i n t o duced i n to the e ly l ite a tu e

r f g o up dyn m ics ar r r o r a

twen ty ye s go by Lewin n d othe s ar a a r

g
.

Yk H B o nner Soci a l
k p s y ch olo y : i nt erdis cip lina ry
32 a pp ro ac h
.
,
an ( New
or : Am e ri ca n B o o Co .
, p . 400 .
1 86 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G RO U P S
view is one w h o h olds le de s o ffi A ge n e a l f o a a r
’
ce .
33
r ,
r

ex m ple is a m ilit y le de bec use he ccup ies a le de s

a ,
ar a r a o a
’

office I n vi ew of the supe i o

. ese ches on the n tu e of r r r ar a r

bu e uc cy especi lly by ce t in s o ci lo gists the fo egoin g

r a ra ,
a r a o ,
r

defin ition i too s im ple Wh t we W i sh to kn w is wh t

s . a o a

bu e a uc a cy i s as s oci l phenom enon an d wh t ole the

r r a a a r

bu e a uc t pl ys in it a a psych l gi c l be in g
r ra a s o o a .

Na tu e of bu re u c cy All o ds to the un de st an din g

r a ra . r a r

of b u e uc cy lea d to M Webe He desc ibed it wi th 34

r a ra ax r . r

fin d i sce n m en t
e nd hi o bse v t i o n s
r e h i ghl y inf orm a
,
a s r a ar

tive He thus dese ves a g e t sh e of the c edit f o m kin g

. r r a ar r r a

the study of bu e uc cy a n imp o t an t p blem in s o ci al r a ra r ro

sc1 en ce .

bu e uc cy i ch cte ized by n umbe f cle arly

A r a ra s ara r a r o

d i sce nible t its Th c ont ols whi ch pe te in bu e a u

r ra . e r o ra a r

c tic g o p a inhe en t in the o fli ; th t i the egul tion s

ra r u
‘

re r ce a s, r a

wh ich c n t ol the beh vio f the bu e uc t an d h is sub

o r a r o r a ra

o d in a tes m a ke th
r bu e u wh t it i Th c ont o ls theme r a a s . e r

selves i gi d t n d dized an d impe s on l LWh ile in di

are r ,
s a ar ,
r a .

vi d l c m peten e pl ys an imp o t n t le in the selecti n of

ua o a r a ro o

bu e uc tic le ade s the l tte s decis i n s

r a ra rdete m in ed
,
a r
’

o a re r

by the f m l i te ia o ules wh ich inhe e in the g ni z a

or a cr r r r r or a

ti on This is des i gn ed t ssu e objectivity in judgm en t n d

. o a r a

t o d i sc o u ge n o n ti n l ev lu ti n s
ra A un i ve s al co n s
ra o a a a o . r e

q uenc f th i s
e oi g i d f m l i z t i on i th tr dhe e n ce to the
or a a s a a r

r ules ten ds to becom e n n d in itself n d like a ll bs o lutes a e ,

a a

gene tes esults which wo k g in st the v wed in te ests

ra r r a a a o r

o f the g o up i tse lf r Th e ffi i e n y th a t i t w .des i gn ed to e c c as

a ch i eve i en de ed in effectu l by h m st in gin g the bu e u

s r r a a r r a

c ra t n d imm b il i zin g the g up i tself

a o I n th i s w y b th the ro . a o

bu e a uc t n d the bu e u f o wh ich he i esp n s ible b

r ra a r a r s r o e

com e un d pt ble an d often in c p able of a chievin g the

a a a a

des i ed en ds
r .

Se e Sh a rtl e a n d S to g di ll Stud ies in na v al le a de rs h i p p p 5—

f C g ffi
33
6 S ee , , . .

u rth e r E Hu h e s , I n s ti tuti o nal o ce a n d t he p erson , A me r J S ocio l ,

, . . . . .

404—
M W g JCM
43 13 .

e b er, W i rts ch a t u nd G es e lls cha t ( Tub in en :

V g
3 4 Se e .
f f ohr . .

erl a , Pt III , ch a p v i . . .
G UP RO l EADERS HIP 87

d v du l w h o i m o st e dily
Burea u cra ti c lea der Th e in i i . a s r a

selected bu e uc t c le de sh p is on w h o p o tenti lly

f or r a ra i a r i e a

exhibits t its n d fo m s of beh vi c n ducive t bu e au

ra a r a or o o r

c tic fun ction in g A s he pe s i sts in h i office these t aits

ra . r s ,
r

a re einf ced n d thus bec m e p o g ess ively m o e

r or a
g o r r r ex a

ge ted An in divi du l l e dy ve y i gi d becom es m o e

ra . a a r a r r r

in flex ible he con tin ues in h i office He exh ibi ts in h is

as s .

a ttitudes n d beh vio the ch a cte i stics l e dy cited an d

a a r ar r a r a ,

d isciplin e wh ich w a on ce n ly m e n s t an n d i t n s s o a a o e s ra

fo m ed in t
r i gi d w y o f li f e Th e e l i z ti n f c ollective
o a r a . r a a o o

en ds i s c ificed to a dh e en ce to in flexible ules A fl g an t

s a r r r . a r

but in st uctive ex m ple of th i s inc p cit tin g p o cess i s

r a a a a r
‘

f un d in m ilit y d t pe
o ar re a

Sin ce impe s n lity is an im po t n t ch a cte istic of

.

r o a r a ar r

bu e uc ti c st ctu e the in divi du l w h o i esp on s ible f o

r a ra ru r ,
a s r r

the aff i s f bu e uc ti c fli i inv i bly im pe s n l

a r o a r a ra o ce s ar a r o a .

He c nn o t disch ge h i esp on s ibiliti es un less he divests

a ar s r

him self f th se pe s on l t its whi ch we ss oci te wi th

o o r a ra a a

af fect io n ho stil i ty n d the d i sp s i t i n s Th expect a tion s

, ,
a o r o o . e

o f h i office wi ll eve n tu lly depe s on li ze the bu e uc ti c

s a r a r a ra

le a de to the p o in t whe e m o st of h i ction s

r dete m in ed r s a a re r

by an utom aton con fo m ity w ith h i offici l le Thus

a r s a ro .
,

ch ara cte i sti cs whi ch a inhe en t in h is cfli c even tu all y

r re r e

bec m e tt ibutes of hi pe s on
o a r s r .

While we h ve n o em“ p i i c l evi den ce to con fi m ou

Vi ew the psychol gical d m ge of this depe s n lized
a r a r r

, o a a r o a

ro le m ust be c o n s i de ble B e in g ware th t h i c mpetence ra . a a s o

bestows up on h im h i bu e a uc ti c st atus he m ust n n th e s r ra ,

o e

less conf on t the f ct th t h i utho ity esults n ot f om hi

r a a s a r r ,
r s

r esp on sibil ity n d skill but ahn ost wh olly f om the n t e f

a ,
r a ur o

h i o ffice A lth o ugh he h s feelin gs n d tti tudes t ow d

s . a a a ar

o the s in the bu
r au crati e h ie r ch y he c nn t n m l ly
re ar a o or a
_ ,

exp ess them While thi s p o tects h im f m bit y deci

r . r ro ar ra r

s i n s n d cti n s it dep ives h im f se s of ut n m y a a

o a a o r o a n e a o o s

pe s on Un like the el ti n sh ip of le de n d foll we s in a

,

r . r a o a r a o r

dem o c tic o in l i ssez fai e g up the el ti n of a

ra r a a r ro ,
r a o

bu e uc t t h is g n iz tion con s i sts of h is subse vi en ce

r a ra o or a a r

t o the d om in a ti n by hi s fli ce Un like th e situ tion in an

o o . a
18 8 T OF G RO U P S C O N FL C I T A D AD U STM N J EN

a uth i t i n g up whe e the le de m y e a s ily becom e the

or ar a ro r a r a

vi ctim f h i own com m an ds ( H itle f ex m ple ) the

o s r, or a

b e c t i s subse vi en t to an imp e on l o g ni z tion

,

ur au ra r rs a r a a

F llowe ship in a bu eauc tic g oup is simil ly fl cted

.

o r r ra r ar a e .

Altho ugh m em be s o f bu e uc a ti c o g n iz tion s h ve r r a r r a a a a

deg ee f secu ity stemm in g f om the te n e of their office

r o r r ur

they ls feel th con st i ctin g infl uen ce of the g o up S in ce

,

a o e r r .

hi e a chiz tion i i gi dly est blished climb in g the l dde— f

r r a s r a a r o

success depen ds l gely o n the b o dfl fi m

,
"
s to
' ’

ar su r é s s

submit to the wi ll of the bu e uc t imm edi tely b ove h im r a ra a a

S ycoph ncy thus bec m es desi ble if n ot n ecess a y

.

a o a ra ,
a r ,

beh avio l tt ib te I t should n ot be su p i s in g if th e fo e

ra a r u . r r r

goin g t its e t n sm i tted t o the e s f beh avio R e

ra ar ra o r ar a o r .

cen t studi es of le beh vio st on gly suggest p o si tive el a

ro a r r a r

ti n between the self n d th oles wh ich n e n cts in d il y

o a e r o e a a

lif e I n h is excellen t eview f le the o y S bin st tes thi s

. r o ro r ar a

r el tion s an hyp o thes i s to be tested Th effects f p o

a a . e o a r

lon ged o ccup“ ti on of bu e uc ti c offi e n the self he

a a r a ra c o ,

p oin ts t such th t i gid ity n d depe s on li z tion

ou a re a r a r a a

becom e qu al iti es thl t n be in fe ed f om beh vi in the

,

a ca rr r a or o r

( n on o ccup ti n l ) “ les C itin g W lle s well kn wn ob ” ’

a o a ro . a r -
o

se v ti n on wh t te ch in g d oes t o the te a che Sa bin

r a o a a r,
”
r

suggests th a t the s m e hyp o thes i s m y be st ted b out o the a a a a r

p o s i tion s in the g up ro .

B u e uc ti le de ship dem on str tes but in s om ewh t

r a ra c a r a ,
a a

d iff e en t w ay the depen den ce of th

r u on othe s r

Unlike the dy dic el tion ships thus f ar desc ibed the el

.
,

a r a r ,
r a

t i on h ip of the bu e uc t t
s o the s i s plu listi c He de r a ra o r ra .

pen ds n ot a l n e n the“m em be s of h is g oup b t a ls o

o o r r u as

G ibb h s shown on n dm in ist tive st ff ( o bu e u

,

a ,
a a ra a r r a

c a cy ) n d g o up of el tively in a ctive m embe s —th t i s

r , a a r r a r
”
a ,

m embe s such tho se of the cle i cal staff wi th wh om he h as

r as r

n o f u n cti n l el tion s 36
o a r a .

g
T R Sa rhi n , Role th eory , b e in ch a p v i in C L i n dz ey
35 . . Ha nd g
g WM W W . .

W g
b o ok of s o cia l p sy ch o lo y R e a din
Inc , .

Y k J W
V o l I p 2 4 9 S e e a ls o .
a ss : A ddi s o n -

,
e s ley P ub li sh in

a l le r, Th e s oci o lo y o
. .
Co
f t ea ch
,

.
.

. g .

C L g xx
i ng ( N e w or : oh n i l ey Son s I n c , ,

g
36 A Gibb . ea ders h i p
. b ei n ch a p
, iv i n L i n dz ey Ha ndboo k
, .

of s ocia l p s y ch olo y Vol II p 8 9 7 , .

, . .
19 0 C O N FL C I T A D AD U STM N J EN T OF G U PS RO

followe s feel it to be thei duty to ec gn ize h im thei

r r r o as r

c h ism ti c le de
ar Well kn own ex m ples of th i s fo m of
a a r .
38 -
a r

le de sh ip e f un d in ] u ]o n of Ar n d p b ably
a r ar o es s, a c, a ro

G n dhi
a

F om n on l ti p oin t of view ch ism tic le de shi p

.

r a v a ua ve ,
ar a a r

i mo e
s p oblem in m ss psychol gy th n in gro up dy
r a r a o a

n mia S cientific lly speakin g n eithe ] u n ] n of

cs . a ,
r es s or oa

Ar c uld h ve bee n c om pletely wh t e ch w

c o a desc ibed a a as r

to be by h i devo ted followe s E ch w e n d wed wi th

s r . a as o

t its th t we e un doubtedly p ese n t in e ch in v yin g

ra a r r a ar

deg ees but which we e di st ted n d un con s i sly

r , g r or a c ou exa

ge ted by the i s im ple n d un c iti l f ll we s to s ti s fy

ra r a r ca o o r a

a felt n eed in them selves I n th i s s in othe f m s of le de . a r or a r

sh ip the le a de n d h i followers m utu ally depen de n t

r a s a re .

“
To h o ld th t the ch i sm ti c le de foll ows o nl y h i ow n
i nn e fo ce rWebe holds i tor
a

,
l n gu ge c elessly
”
as
ar

r
a

,
s
a r

u se a a ar
s

f ori t s ggests th a t the le a de n eeds n o o n else i n o de to

u r e r r

exi st Th t he depen ds up on f llowe s i s seen in exp li cit

. a o r

a sse ti n s by W be )h im lf Wh a teve the le de s n d in

r o e r se . r a r
’

view m y be Webe n tes he m ust lw ys p o e h i c p

a ,
r o ,
a a r v s a a

ci ty t th se w h o su en de th em selves to h i will by p e
o o rr r s ,
r

f m n
or which will enh n ce thei well bein g Thus
a ces a r -
.
,
a

p ophet m ust pe fo m m i cles n d a w io b ve deeds

r r r ra ,
a a rr r ra .

Th ch i sm ti c le de
e ar in sh t i lw ys esp on s ible to
a a r, or ,
s a a r

tho se wh om he ules n d he m ust be ble to dem on s t te by r ,

a a ra

deeds th t he i in fa ct thei m ste a s r a r .

39

LEADE RSHIP S HARIN G

Th d i ecti n o f o u d i sc ss io n o f th n tu e of le de sh ip
e r o r u e a r a r

un equivo c lly p oints to sh ed le de ship by wh teve

a ar a r , a r

te m“r we desc ibe it While we h ve used evalu ti ve te m s

r . a a
'

like dem c ti c o l i ssez f i e to des ibe it th le de ship

o ra
”
r a a r cr , e a r

which we h ve in m in d in thi s b ook i fun d m en t lly g o up

a s a a r

o i e n ted
r Alth ugh a we h ve epe tedly em arked th
. o ,
s a r a r ,
e

pe s on lity of the le de is n elem e n t in th le de sh ip el

r a a r a e a r r a

ti n the rri t imp o t fi t on ider tion

o ,
'

os
' m '

r z i c s a

38 I bid , p 754 . . .

39 I bid , p 7 5 5 . . .
G U P LE
RO DE RSHI P A 19 1

o f the g o up wh ole Th i s w s st essed when we quo ted

r as a . a r

C ttell s y in g th t eve y m em be of the g up i m o e !

a as a a r r ro s r

o less le de I t ls stem s f m the vi ew c on s iste n tly )

”4 0
r a a r . a o ro , .

st essed in the p ges f th is b k th t in dyn m ic g up

r a o oo ,
a a a ro

eY
fl X PJS B E E ff ects I the beh v i Ta f the wh o le eve n th
g g h a or o ,
u

som e in di id al are c v p DtE

s
——fi a tlf
t i l '
a n the s ’

s _
o r ,

a i d a ethe e f o e m SE EE Eél y t l df iid t le a d m o e o fte n

- '

r r r r o ea a o r ,

th n the est
a r .

I n vi ew of the f a ct f u the m o e th t in seve a l ch pte s ,

r r r ,
a r a r

of th i s b oo k we c o n ce n t a te o n the t o p i cs o f c o llect ive p b r ro

l m s lvin g
e -
o n d gr up decis ion m kin g
a di scuss ion of
o -
a ,
a

sh ed le de sh ip is in di spen s ble B ut thi s em ph si s d es

ar a r a . a o

n ot im ply the ejecti n f o the pp o ches to the study of

r o o r a r a

le de ship On the c nt y m o st o f them a e c om p a tible

a r . o ra r ,
r

wi th ou ow n n d s om e of them a in teg l p ts of it We
r ,
a re ra ar .

desc ibed th le de the e a de will ec ll in te m s of p e

r e a r, r r r a ,
r r

s on li t
y at i ts s o c i m et i c ch o i ce
ra o
,
ccup t i o n o f an o ffice
o r ,
a ,

g oup syn t lity go l di ection n d le a de ship a cts Thes e

r a ,
a r ,
a r .

fa cts a m e nin gful on ly in the c on text of the le a de s

re a r
’

g o p F om thi s p in t of vi ew le a de ship is t uly g oup

r u . r o r r r

o i e n ted o n ly whe n m an y if n ot a ll m em be s sh a e i n i t
r , ,
r r s

exp ession Th st ess on l de shi p sh in g is b sed on

r . e r ea r ar a

empi ic l evi den ce showin g th t a gre a t d e al of im gin tion

r a a a a

n d le de sh i
“
a
p i l
a es fa ll
r ow
bec use
a co n éfltid l g up s d o
_
v fi a ro

n o t pe m it i t 0 bec om e
r ctual ized Thi s h been d m a tic a . as ra

ally exp o sed in em pl o ye w o ke el a tion ships whe e the r- r r r ,

r

wo ke s r given pp o tuni ti es to p ti cip te in deci s ion

r a re o r ar a

m aki n g at im p o t n t p oli cy levels r a

No thin g be a s o t o well the chara cte of g up st ct e

.

r u s r ro ru ur

a shs ed le de ship I f the esgep fij ueamm i g o upj

ar a r . r s

the inte depg iden ce of it m embe s in l h a way th t they

r s
-
r Ei s
"
a

psycholo gi cally“ aff ect one an o the then th e le de i n

o
”

r, a r s a
~ _

imp o an t stim ul tin g a n in the in te cti ve p cess A g in

:

t r
a ge t h
_
ra ro . a ,

m embe s a f h mo e in te dep en den t the m o e v i ed th

r re e r r
-
,
r ar e
o les i n clu d in the g ve g up
r
g l a ders hi
p f ro le s, a i n
-
a n e o re i r

Sh ring involves not onl y the a ssumption of a sin gle ole

, .

a r ,

40 See a b ov e, pa g e 1 73 .
1 92 MEN T OF G ROU PS C ONFLI C T AND A J ST DU
b t u m n y as
as gi en s i tu tion dem n ds pe m its Th is
a a v a a or r

le of the le de S h ed le de ship
.

o bvi o usly in cludes the ro a r . ar a r

i th s n im p t n t p oblem in g o up dyn m i cs ; he n e a
s u a or a r r a c ,

c ar e f l study of le de sh ip sh a in g in c e ses o un de st n d
u a r -
r r a ur r a

i n g o f g o up le de sh ip r a r .

SHAR I NG LEAD SH FUN CT ONS A n umbe of in te esting ER IP I . r r

a n d well c on ce i ved i n vest i g t i o n s de l w i th th i s p oblem

-
a a r .

W sh ll b i efly desc ibe only on of these n m ely a field

e a r r e ,
a

o bse v tion of 72 gove nm en t l n d in d st i l conf e en ces in

r a r a a u r a r

be in g Of the ch i m en w h o we e the in iti l le de s of

.
41
a r ,
r a a r

t h g ups 68 we e a b ve the m e n o f the g up i n o g n i z a

e ro ,
r o a ro r a

t io n st tus n d o n ly 9 we e
a ,
a t o bel ow i t Th m e su es in r a r . e a r

t h i s study we e bt in ed l gely f om the ec ds f an

r o a ar r r or o

o bse ve r c de w h c o ded the p ticip n ts em ks f om

r or o r, o ar a
’

r ar r

th tim e e ch beg n to p ticip te un t il the n ext pe s on

e a a ar a r

s p oke Afte eve y m eetin g e ch p ti cip n t w given

. r r
‘

a ar a as a

fi v e-i te m q ti nn i in u esde t ssess h i s tisf t i n

o re or r o a s a ac o

w i th i ts v i o us ph ses ar S m e f these tin gs ll of which a . o o ra ,

a

we e h i ghly in te co el ted we e ve ged t o f m m e s

r r rr a ,
r a ra or a a

f the g g p p ti o n w i th the c n f e e n ce Wi th
’

u re o _ _
ti f r s sa
_
_
s ac
c
s o r .

u t g in g i n t o m o e det il eg d in g the m etho ds o f c llect

4

o o r a r ar o

i n g the d t we sh ll s im ply c ll tten t ion to the f t th t

a a, a a a ac a

t h e n ti e p o cedu e w
e r m et i cul s n d in cc d ce wi th
r r as ou a a or an

th best c n on s f s c i l scien ce ese ch

e a o o a r ar

ill ts n ls o be st ted b i efly n d the y m y

.

’
’

Th é re s ca a a r ,
a a su r

p i se the dvo c te of le de less g oups Th m o e the ch i

r a a a r r . e r a r

m a n d i sch ges h i f n ct i n of le d in g the g oup th m o e

ar s u o a r e r

S tisf ction in
,

s tisfied the l tte i wi th it co“

a nf e e n e
a r s s r c . a a

e ses the utho p o in ts o t a s the ch i m n c ont ls th e

M
cr a ,
a r u ,
a r a ro

o up s p o cess e o ve the m o e fun ct io n l ly d iffe e n

’

g r r . or r r a r

t i t d he i n d the g e te r the p o p o ti n o f f n ct io n l

u
a e

n i ts a r
s, a

dd essed t h im the g e te i the s tisf ctio n Sat

o
“ ,
r a

r a r
r

s
r

a
o

a
u

.
a

i f ti o n
s ac ls o in c e sed the less th m embe s p ti ip ate
a r a e r ar c

r ela tive to all the p ticip ti n g don e in th e g oup n d th ar a r ,

a e

1 .
41 L
a bn or
.

m
B er
. so c
kwz o

.
i t , Sh arin
P s y ch o l , 48 .
g lea dershi p in
23 1—
38
sm all ,

.
deci s i on m a ld n g - g ro u p s ,
194 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
gro up o iente d le a de shi p is m uch m o e con ducive to eff c
-
r r r e

tive g o up fun cti n in g th an supe vi s o y o le a de cen te ed

r -
o r r ,
r r- r

beh vi o I n th is they c nfi m ed the still e li e study of

a r . o r ar r

L ewin L ipp itt a n d Wh i te to wh i ch we h ve m de f eque n t

, , ,
a a r

re fe e n ce R ep o ted in the s am e publ ic tion as B e k owi tz s ’

r . r a r

study i an investi g tion by H a e c onfi m in g the supe i o

s a r r r r

i ty of le de sh i p sh in g t o fo m lly des i gn ted le a de shi p

” 45
a r -
ar r a a r .

Th e de will ec ll th t in the la tte studies ch n ges in

e r a r r a a r a

Op in ion in c e a se of m em be shi p s a tisf ction an d enl ge

,
r r a ,
ar

m e n t of c ohes ive n ess we e e ffected by p a t i cip a t o y o r r r r

sh a ed le a de ship
r r

Vi ewed f om ou st n dp oin t ega din g b o th g oup fo m

.

r r a r r r r a

tion n d g o up lea de sh ip these in con si sten ci es m ay onl y be

a r r

en t N eve theless they ten d to supp o t o u f equen t

,

a pp ar . r ,
r r r

co n ten tion th a t g o up phen m en in cludin g g oup le de

s imple n o unifo m M uch depen ds up on
r o a, r a r

sh ip n e i the
,
a re r r r .

the s o
p the c om p s i t i n of i t m e m be u ,
o o s r

ship ,
i t yi ng to pe f m the goa ls wh i ch s r r or ,

i t i st i vin g t o a ch i eve a n d the psych o l o g i c l ch

s r cte f , a a ra r o

i t m st a cti ve m em be s The e m y well ex i st wh t m y be

s o r . r a a a

s om ewh t p doxic lly desc ibed a a ki n d of indiv idu lity

a ara a r s a

f t he
“
o
g rou
p .

L D L EA ERsu vey f the p oblem f

E SS G OU R PS . No r o r o

g up le de sh ip i com plete th t d es n ot gi ve t le as t a
ro a r s a o a

b ief ccoun t of th is c on t ove s i al p oblem Th study n d

r a r r r . e a

use f le de less di scuss ion techn i ques w as in i tia ted— u

p i i l
gy
r s n i
o a

n v i ew of the s im pl ified ste e o type of the

r
“G r
s

er
r

i n G e m a n y a cc o d in g t o An sb che
,

m n m in d
”
a Th e r r a r
46

techn i que An sb a che ep o ts w a used by the G e m n n avy

.
,

r r r s r a

du in g W ld W I I Th is fa ct c on t dicts the im p ess ion s

r or ar . ra r

o f m n y Am e i c n psych o lo g i sts w h o
a i nfl e n ced by the i
r a u r

s om ewh t d isto ted view of G e m n cultu e c ould see n o th

,

a r r a r

45 Se e C
h a p ter 3 p p 7 5—7 6 Th e s tu di es of Pres ton an d Hein t an d
o f Ha re a re ci t ed o n p p 7 5—
, . . z
L gq
76 . .

q
4 6 Se e H A n s b a ch er Th e hi s tory of th e le a derles s
. . ro u p di s cu s si on,

tech n i u e P s y ch ol B u ll , 48
du ce d by
,

J
B Ri eif ert aro u n d 1 9 25
.
3 83- 9 1 Th e tech ni u e w as intr o
.
.

.
.
GR OU P LEADE RSHI P 19 5

in g but c om plete c n t ol f G erm an in tellectu l l ife in clud o r o a ,

ing its psych ol o gi c l ese ch a r ar .

A le a de less g o up i on in wh i h seve l in divi du ls a e

r r s e c ra a r

conf dfit d y a p blem th t

'

r e i ts ro a

m em be s for its solution n d in wh ich n o s in gle in divi du l

r ,
a a

b éé m es a f QQI p e s on Th subject i EW
1

o Q di s r e s

fi gm
.
.

a i o s s o u ces n d we n eed n t o i n t o det ils

’

c s r
g u r ,
a o a

he e I n a le de less gr o up m em be s
r .
47
sked to c y a r r a re a a rr

on di scussion f o a given pe io d of tim e witho t d ig

a r r u a es

n t d le de
a e Th pu p o se i s to a ssess le de sh ip te n den ci es
a r . e r a r

am on g i ts m em be s s they arti i f ee d i scuss

p pg tg i n i on r a c a r .

Wh ile ou bjective i n ot t o ev lu te the techn ique a

'

r o s a a as

me su in g devi ce it seem s on the wh ole to h ve s om e v ali d

a r , , ,
a

i ty i n the ssessm en t of p oten ti l le de sh ip Wh a t the

a a a r .
48

v ious studies c on fi m with el a tive c on s i sten cy i n ob

ar r r s a se r

v tion we h ve f equen tly m de th t le de n d followe

a a r a ,
a a r a r

do n o t fun cti on in i s l t io n Th e le de ship p o s i t i n a s w o a . a r o ,

as

sh wn in
o d iscuss ion f le de ship sh in g is d i st ibuted
our o a r -
ar ,
r

am n g o

thei r 11

ob Se th t in di scuss ion g oups discuss n t m y be ve b

rv e a r a a a r

ally ctive t on pe io d n d el tively qui et a t n o the

a a e r a r a a r .

At the isk of epetition we s ay ga in th a t le a de ship de

r r a r

pen ds up on the c n g uen ce of le de ship ch a a cte i sti cs n d o r a r r r a

a specific g oup s itu tion r a .

49

A fin a l p o in t c iti c l in ton e c on ce n s le a de ship t ain in g

,
r a ,
r r -
r

as i t i s dv c a ted a n d ppl i ed by s om e exp on e n ts o f the

a o a

le de less g up p hilos op h y I t i imp a cti c l f tho se w h o

esp se this Vi ew to devise techn i ques f o devel p in g g up
a r ro . s r a or

ou r o ro

le de sh ip if it n tu ally em e ges in ce ta in in te ctive

a r a r r r ra

47
See B . M
B a ss Th e l ea derl es s ro u p dis cu s s i o n P s y ch o l B u ll , 5 1
.
, g .

4 65 —
,

92 .

fi
4 8 1bi d
, p 4 88 . . .

ff p arti al con rm a ti on of th i s con clu s i on , s ee O S S As s essm e nt

Yk
4 9 Fo r a
. . .

J g L C
St a As s es sm en t of me n ( N e w
e n ni n s
, o r : Ri n eh art
L e a de rs h ip a n d i so lat ion ( 2 d e d ; New
,
Co , I nc , H H
or : L o n gm a n s , Green

L
. Yg k . . .

M
.

M W
8: C o .
, F art er, e a dershi p a n d s m a ll
. ro u p b eh a v i or, i n
.
.

Yk
Sh erif a n d
o r : Harp er
O i ls on
B ro s ,
Grou p relat i ons a t th e crossroads ( New
. .

.
19 6 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMENT OF GROU PS
situa tion s Wh t the dv c a tes. in eff ect s yi ng i no t
a a o a re , ,
a s

t h t the e
a le d erless g roup s but th gtl a d hi p i shared
r a re a e e rs s

g gup g ce n te ed
-
r .

Th bove em ks
e a n o t m de i n d i sp
r gem en t of p o
ar a re a ara r

g am s in le de ship t in in g but to c ll tten tion t o the

r a r -
ra ,
a a

i n c o n s i ste n cy o f t in i n g le de s by pe s n s w h o ex lt le de
ra a r r o a a r

less g ups un c itic lly S uch t in in g g oups

ro r the N
a ra r as a

to y f o G oup D evelopm en t an d its

.

t i o n l T in i n g L b
a ra a o ra r r r

a ss o ci ted cen te s l ike th o se in Ch ic g an d D e nve n d a t

a r a o r a

the U ive s ity of I llin i s

n r eco gni zed f o the i supe io o a re r r r r r

pe fo m n ce They sh w th a t le de shi p like othe skil ls

r r a . o a r ,
r ,

CONCLU S ION
No on e e di st ess in gly w a e th an the p esen t
i s m or r a r r

w ite f the h tbom in g f th i s ch apte on le de sh ip I n

r r o s or s o r a r .

i t i n t ducto y pa g phs we c l led tte n t ion t o the ex i st

s ro r ra ra a a

e n ce o f a p o d i g i o us m o u n t o f ese arch b th the o et i c l n d

r a r ,
o r a a

o pe tion l on the s bject Pe h ps the ve y bun d n ce o f

ra a ,
u . r a r a a

t h l i te tu e de l in g wi th it i a n eff ective dete e n t t o i t

e ra r a s rr s

s ystem tic on ceptu li z tion I n deed i t h m ultipl ied o

a c a a .
,
as ur

vi ews f the n tu e of le de le de sh ip n d f ll owe n d

o a r a r, a r ,
a o r, a

the i hn ess f th i s v i ety i in w y ple s e t o beh old

r c o ar s a a a a ur .

I n vesti g to s ao busy studyi n g the p o ble m th t they

r a re s r a

h ve li ttle tim e n d pe h ps even less in clin ti n t f m

l a te system ti c Vi ew of the n tu e f le de sh ip E p osi
a a r a a o o or u

a a a r o a r . x

t o s like the p ese n t n

r f ust ted n d b ffl ed in the i
r o e a re r ra a a r

a tte m pts to see the w oo ds in ste d of th t ees Wh teve a e r . a r

t hey om e up w i th i n the w y f
c c n si sten t des iption and a o a o cr

fo m ul tion i b un d t di pp o in t m ny e de s n d to
r a s o o sa a r a r a

i nvi te the c i t i c l sh a f ts o f th se w h h ve the i

r a w n the o y o o a r o r

t o def e n d .

50 Th is te rm
fik g
n a t ural ly dea li n su

f gg
i th r o u p s h ar
e s ts i tse l f to a ny on e gw g -

d eals
,

w
in g b u t i t w a s rs t us e d o rm a lly b y B o v ard a n d la t er b y Go rdo n

i th i t i n b o o len th de tai l S ee E
who
B ov ard Gro u p s tru ctur e a n d
-

3 9 8—
. . W .
,

,
,

p e rce p tio n I a bn o r m s oc Ps y ch ol
, . 46 .

G ro up centered lea ders h i p ( B os ton : Ho u h t on M itfli n C o ,

-
40 5 ; T Go rdon ,
. .
,

g .
.
198 CON FLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
“
scr iptio n n eed be n e i the
n o m a l as a pe s on
r
”
r
supe
.
io n in d i i du a l n o

e
r

Th e ffect o f H itle up o n the G e m an

r r as a

r
v

r
r

m a sses i sup em e ex am ple I n thei pe ception of h im

s a r . r r as a

m an w h o p om i sed to fulfi ll the i n eeds they foll owed h im

r r ,

un c iti c lly While the st uctu e of dem o c ti c g oups i

r a . r r ra r s

such to en c u a ge le de sh ip sh in g n d wh il e the blin d

as o r a r -
ar a

o bed i e n ce to the le de s ole i c om pletely bse n t the in te

’

a r r s a ,
r

a ct i ve ,
i n te depe n de n t m u tu ll y pe cept ive a tt ibutes ar
r ,
a r r e

wh a t d iffe en ti te it f om a uth o i t a i an d om in tion L e de

r a r r r a . a r

ship as a n i n te ctive p o cess in sh o t con s i sts of the f ee

ra r ,
r ,
r

comm un ic a tion between the in d ivi du l w h o f the tim e a or

bein g i desi gn ted

s a le a de a n d the f llowe s w h o depen d
as a r o r

on h i sini ti a tin g beh vi o a r .

C H A P TE R

Co lle c tive Pro ble m S o lv in g -

hus f we h ve d iscussed gro p ten s i n s n d the i

T ar a u o a r

r es olution by c n s i de in g in te g up confli cts n d djust

o r r ro a a

m e n ts n d the ole of the le a de in f c il it a t in g the p o duction

a r r a r

o f c o n se n sus nd h m n y m on g g o up m em be s Th
a ar o a r r . e

p ese t ch pte co n tin ues thi s m de of g o up n lys i s by

r n a r o r a a

c n si de in g the p ocess f p oblem s lvin g

o r r o r -
o .

Psych lo gi lly when g up like n in divi du l i f ced

o ca ,
a ro ,
a a ,
s a

with p blem difficulty it c n dition m y be desc ibed

a ro or s o a r

ten s ion S in ce g oup in

,

as a st te of d i seq il ib i um
a u r or . a r

di seq ilib ium seeks t e ch n optimum ste a dy st te to

u r o r a a a ,

o ve c m e the b a
r o i e wh i ch i t f ces o to es o lve the ten s io n s
rr r a ,
r r

p o duced by in deci s i n the question f collective p blem

r o ,
o ro

s olvin g o g oup deci s ion m kin g t kes on cen t l imp

r r -
a a ra or

tan ce S lvin g it c llective p oblem a ids a g up in a h iev

.
1
o s o r ro c

in g in teg t i n whe e s f i lu e to do so ge n e tes te n s io n s

ra o ,
r a a r ra

an d c n fli cts wi th in i t
o .

L g
th e im p res s i on th a t w e
g f or
g
1 e st we co n v e y a re arg ui n a s ta ti c th eory
of

in g th e n a ture of dy n ami c g
h om e o sta s is a n d th ereb y con tra di cti n a ll th a t w e h a v e a s s erted re ard

“
ro u p s , w e m u s t a dd th at th e s tea dy s t a te w e
”
O w
h a v e in m i n d i s v on B e rtal a nify s st ea dy st a te i n p en s y s tem s , in
f
’

hi ch

ff
B ert al a nffy , P roblems of life ( New
g
or : o hn
gY k J W g z
th ere i s co n s ta n t a da p ta ti o n t o oth er s ta tes o u ts i de i tse l a n d a n en dle s s
di eren ti a ti on an d i nt e rati o n on hi h er le v els of or a ni a ti on See
il ey 8: So n s, I n c ,
v on .

.
L .
200 D U MEN T OF G ROU PS C ON LIC F T AND A J ST

I n C h pte 1 we ev i ewed s o m e o f the e a ly in vest i g t i on s

a r r r a

c n ce nin g the effect of the p esen ce of o the s in le nin g

o r r r ar

a n d p o ble m s o lv i n g s i tu t i o n s
r Th
-
ese ches of F H a e r ar

Allp o t n d J F D shi ell we s i d f un d th t s o ci l s itu

. . .

r a . . a ,
a ,
o a a a

tion s h ve n the wh le f cili t atin g e ffect on g oup th ink

Th i vest i g t i s o f M a ye
a ,
o o ,
a a r

n d o the s
”
in g . e n M m nn a on r, eu a ,
a r

befo e them we foun d we e s imil n d set the st ge f o

r , ,
r ar a
'

a r

l a te studi es Of g up e ff ects up on in divi du l pe f m n ce

r ro a r or a

Du i g the p st twenty fi e yea s an inc e sin g n um be of

.

r n a -
v r r a r

studi es h ve been c i ed o n in th is e a n d in the p st

a a rr ar ,
a a

dec de in p a ticul the subject of c llective p oblem s olvin g

a r ar o r -

o gr up dec i s i o n m k in g h
r o bec m e a t p i c of m j in te
-
a as o o a or r

est in g o up dyn m ics r a .

2

STU D IE S IN C OLLE C TIVE PRO BLEM SOLV IN G -

Th se n se o f m u h of wh a t we h ve s a i d i n th i s b ook i s
e c a

th t pe ople
a m e e dy t o ccept n d to put i n t o ct i n
a re or r a a a a o

ch n ges in whi ch they the m selves h a d f ee opp tun ity to

pl y p t M ch em p i ic l evi den ce i n ow v il ble
a a r or

a a ar . u r a s a a a ,

fu the m e to Show th t in thi s p o ess of g p self deci

r r or , a r c ro u -

s ion b o th the am n t n d qu al ity of p o ductiven ess i p siou a r s o

ti vely ff ected by m em be p ti c ip t i n Thi s i n o t to m n

a r ar a o . s e

tion the p ob ab ili ty th t whe n c llective p oblem s l in g

r a o r -
o v

t kes pla ce the p ticip n ts

a ften m e in depe n den t n d
ar a a re o or a

yet m o e f ee o f h o stile ttitudes t w d on no the

I n Vi ew f the i m p t n ce o f dec i s i on m ki n g i n g o up
r r a o ar e a r .

o or a -
a r

dyn m i cs to d y bette un de st n di n g n be bt in ed if
a a ,
a r r a ca o a

we n lyze the n a t e of th p oblem n d cite few well

a a ur e r a a

kn own— n d p b bly infl ti l—studi es de lin g with it

a ro a u en a a .

A n um be of c e ful stud ies in cludin g c n t olled l b o

r ar ,
o r a ra

to y in vestig ti n s n the el tive supe i ity of i divi du l

r a o ,
o r a r or n a

a n d g o up pe fo m n ces i n p o blem s o lvi n g h ve bee n pub

r r r a r -
a

j g
Se e f or
th eti c u d m en t s ,
x e a

exp
m p le th e
Ps y ch o l , 6 3 6—
.
f wg f
ollo
Gordon , A s t u dy o f a e s
42;
in
A B ar to n Ir
.
re eren ce s : K .

Wg . .
, .
,

p ro b l e m s I n fi rs t -
y e a r a l e b ra I e d u c a dm ig g
Gro u p a ct iv i ty v ers u s i n di vi du a l a ctiv ity in dev elo p in
n S u p erv i s
, 1 2
a b i li ty

.
t o s o lv e
5 12 —18 ;
. .
,

wg k
E B So u th So m e p s y ch o lo i cal a sp ects o f com m itte e

e
.

ffi
ch o l , 1 1 .
.
,

3 48— 6 8 , 4 3 7—
cie n tly th a n i n di v i d u a ls ! I
64; G B
a bnorm s oc
a ts o n

Ps y ch ol , 2 8 .
or I a p p l P sy
Do ro u p s th in more
3 2 84 36
.

.
. W .
,

.
, .

k .

.
202 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
con t a st to e lie ese ches which we h ave l e dy de
r ar r r ar ,
a r a

sc ibed in which n in divi du l le a n ed s lved p oblem s

r a a r or o r

m e ely i n the p e ence of o the i n d ivi du ls S h w s subjects

,
’

r r s r a ,
a

wo ked r Co op e a tiv e g o ups

as Wh ile the p oblem s up on
r r . r

which the subjects wo ked we e n ot yet the kin d f ced in r r a

e l life s itu ti on s they h d ce t in d i stin ct dv n t ges f o

r a -
a ,
a r a a a a r

c ont olled expe im en t ti n Th e p blem s h d nl y n

r r a o . ro a o o e

a n swe they pe m itted on ly on type of best s oluti n n d

r, r e o ,
a

they we e el tively f ee of the em ti n l b i s wh ich of ten

r r a r o o a a

ch cte izes p blem s olvin g in e l life s itu ti n s

ara r ro -
r a -
a o .

Th e subjects i n the expe im en t we e l gely g du te r r ar ra a

studen ts in cl ss in S o ci l Psych ol gy t C l m b i U n ive

a a a o a o u a r

s i ty .Th expe im e n t w e d ivi ded in to tw h lves wi th

r as o a ,

th ee p blem s in the fi st h lf n d th ee in th secon d gi e n

r ro r a a r e v

tw o weeks l te Th e fi st h lf w a c mp sed f tw o g o ps
r . r a as o o o r u

of fo u w o m e n e ch
r n d th ee g o ps o f fo u m en e cha At a r r u r a .

the s m e tim e n in e m n n d twelve w m en we e wo ki n g on

a e a o r r

the s m e p bl em s in divi du a lly in the s am e o m Th

a ro r o . e

secon d half w a comp o sed of tw o g oups of f u m n e ch

s r o r e a

a n d th ee g o ups o f f u
r wom en e ch whi le ten m en n d
r o r a ,
a

seven wom en wo ked in divi du lly in the s m e o m No r a a r o .

ra ti n le f th seg ega tion of the sexes w ffe ed the

o a or e r as o r o r

“
th a n th t i n ge n e a l th i s
a ,
n ge m e n t w uld m ke f o

bette c oope tion an d m o e sm o th ly unni n g g o ups

r ra
r ,

r
arra

o r
o

r
a

.
r

I t wo uld equ i e m o e sp ce th a n we c n pe m i t t o desc i be

r r r a a r r

the e s on in g p oblem s in thi s expe im en t A well kn own

r a r r .
-

ex mple will be suffi cie n t On o n si de of ive a e th ee

a . e a r r r r

wives n d the i husb an ds All th m n but n n e of the

a r . e e o

w m en n ow b o t No m n wi ll llow hi wife to be
o ca r a a . a a s

i n the p esen ce f no the m n un less he i als in the b o t

r o a r a s o a .

Th e p oble m i t o get them to the the s i de o f the i ve in

r s o r r r a

b o a t c yin g on ly th ee pe s on s t tim e
ar r r r a a

esults in S haw s expe im en t

.

im p ess ive I n di
’

Th e r r a re r .

vidu l subjects m a de only 5 c o ect s oluti n s o t of a p o

a rr o u s

s ible 63 whe e s g oups m de 8 co ect s lutio n s o t of a

,
r a r a rr o u

4 I bid .
, Th is e p la n a t io n m a y o n ly re
p . 49 2 . xf fl ect a

g g
cu l tural ly i n du ce d

den ce w g
b ia s , an d i s p ro b a bly , th ere ore th e m ech an i sm
h i ch mi h t di s t urb an o ri i n al a tti tu de g ,

.
of disre ar di n an y ev i
 COLLECTIVE PRO BLEM SOLVIN G -
03

p ssible 1 5 I n pe ce n t ge this m e an s th a t on ly p e cent

o . r a r

of in d ivi du a l s l ti n s we e c o ect whe e s 53 p e cen t of

o u o r rr ,
r a r

g o p s ol tion s we e co ect A g in lthough bo th in d i

r u u r rr . a ,
a

vid l n d g o ups
ua s abviously give e on eo us s olution s the
r o rr ,

in di vi du ls we e fo un d to m ake e o s s on e o n the ve ge
a r rr r o r a ra

th n the gro ups Th e g oups lso check e o s m o e f

a . r a rr r r re

quen tly an d eject m o e in co ect suggestion s th an in divi d

r r rr

u l d
a s Thi s c on clus i n i i n li n w ith stud i es o f in divi du l
o . o s e a

le n in g and p oblem s o lvin g I t h bee

ar

li sh e d th t le n in g a n d c gn i ti ve sets
a
“ r

ar
n e s on ably est a b

o
-

establi shed o
. as r a

,
r

h bits ofte n p eve n t n in divi du al f om see in g n ew s gge

a ,
r a r u s

tion s o act a impedim en ts t o di scove in g e o s Th

r s r rr r . e

supe io i ty f the g o up in p oblem —

r r
”
o s lvin g “m ust then be r r o

in p t tt ibuted t o the fa ct th a t in d i vi du a l expect an c i es

ar a r

do n o t ha ve a n o pp o tun i ty to exp ess them selves n d to the r r ,

a

f ct th t e
a a m o e f equen tly elim in a ted I n c o n t a st
rrors a re r r . r

t o an i n d ivi du l g o up h n o h bitua l w a y of s olvin g

a a r as a a

p oblem n d i n t cco din gly blin d t n w suggesti on s

r a s o ,
a r ,
o e

a n d s o luti o n s

Alth ugh S h w s study supp o ts the V i ew th a t g o ups

.

o a r r are

r el tively supe i t in divi du ls in p blem s lvin g it i s

a r or o a ro -
o ,

f i t k whethe the st ti stic l s i gn ific n ce i n ot m de

a r o as r a a a s a

spu io usly hi gh I n sm uch the s m e n umbe of in divid

r . a as a r

u l a e wo k in g o n p o ble m s i n g o ups
a s r r n d in d ivi du lly i t r r a a ,

would seem th t the com p i s on sh uld be m de n ot b a ar o a e

tween the ve ge of g oups an d the ve ge fo in divi du ls

a ra r a ra r a ,

but the between the n um be o f s ol ti on s go tten f om th i s

ra r r u r

p a ti cul n um be of subjects in the g o up s itu ti n

r ar r om r a o as c

p ed with the in divi du l s i tu tion C e tainly when in di

ar a a . r ,

v i d al u g o uped the p oblem s lvin g c p city m y still

s are r ,
r -
o a a a

fun ction Thus on ble in divi du l in g o p f five less

.
,
e a a a r u o

a ble i n d iv i du ls m wel l i se th n um be
a f s ol ti n s i n
a r o u o
y ra e

thi s g oup of fi a c mp ed with the ve ge um be of

r ve s o ar a ra n r

s olution s bt in ed f m e a h of the five w kin g sep tely

o a ro c or a ra ,

but thi s h dly m e n s th t the g o up s itu ti n im p ved the

ar a a r a o ro

p oblem s lvin g pe fo m n ce of these five in dividu ls

r -
o r r a a

Sh w s c nclusi sh uld n t be gen e lized t in clude

.

a o on o o ra o

a ll g o ups r While we h ave n o exp e im en t l evi den ce in

. r a
204 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
o ur supp o t a n th op ol gic l n d s o ci lo gi c al studi es of
r ,
r o a a o

st ble n d m ip n n n t g oups st on gly suggest th t the

a a se err a e r r a

mo e pe m n en t g o p i the m e likely it w ill vi ew

r r a a r u s, or

p oblem s f om n est bli shed pe spective C e t ain s im ple

r r a a r . r

g oups d comm un ities seem t le n li ttle o n o thin g f om

r an o ar r r

g o up c ope t ion They c n tin ue in the s m e di ecti n an d

r o ra . o a r o

do the s m e th in gs i n the s m e w y w i th the be n efit o f clo se

a a a ,

in te cti n wi th o ut subst n t i l ch n ges eve n when th

ra o , a a a ,
e

establi shed w ays det im en t l A gl in g ex mple f th

a re r a . ar a o e

pl ce of i gi dity in g up obse va tion though n o t in g o up

a r ro r ,
r

thinkin g i the ch ild s esem bl n ce to h i f the in T b i n d ’

s o ci ety Th m es im p se the Vi ew on eve yon e th t

,
s r a s a r ro r a

. e or o r a a

child c nn t esemble n yon e but the f the even th ugh

a o r a a r, o

to n im p a ti l o uts i de
a it i bvio us th t it looks like th
r a r s o a e

m theo s m e the bloo d el tive

r, o r o o r r a .

It ppe s then th t sm ll dyn m ic an d s om ewh t

a ar , ,
a a ,
a ,
a

in e m n nt o ups be n efit m o st f om c llect ive e ff ts t

r
p a
r
g e r o r o or

s olve p obl ems I n such gr ups l aten t ttitudes o h bi tu

r . o a ,
r a

a ted w ys of lh inkin g h ve n t been est abli shed thus m k

a ,
a o ,
a

in g o m f or n o velty n d n w c o gn i ti ve d i ect i on s
r o They a e r .

h ave n ch cte i sti c m eth o d of pp o ch in g p oblem n o

o a ra r a r a a r ,

p eceden ts to ely up on n d the e f e bvio s n d im ple

r r ,
a r or o u a s

s oluti n s e n ot o e dily ove lo ked C o gn iti e sets n d

o ar s r a r o . v a

g oup i e tia inh ibi t comm un i c ti n n d exch n ge the eby

r n r a o a a ,
r

i m p a i i n g the e ff ective n ess of th in kin g in s m e types o f

r o

g oups
r .

Th fo u th questio n c o n ce n in g th exte n t o f the

e r n ,
r e co

t ib u tio n o f g o up m em be s t
r the s oluti on f p oblem s i
r r o o r s

a ls o n swe ed by S h w s study S he f un d th t ll m embe s

a r a
’

. o a a r

do n t p t ic ip te equ lly i n the s o l ti n o f p oblem s Thi s

o ar a a u o r .

i s c om p t ible wi th wh t we sa w i n o
a d isc ssi on of le de a ur u a r

ship —n am ely th t alth ough n o t all i n divi du ls p ar ti cip a te

,
a ,
a

in g o up d i scuss io n m em be s f eel s ti sfied wi th th e g o up i f

r ,
r a r

they kn w th t sho uld they w an t to p ticip a te they are

o a ,
ar ,

f ee to do o
r s .

O discuss ion summ ized shows th t ( 1 ) th e g oup i

ur ,
ar ,
a r s

supe io to the in divi d l w hen it c e fully and c itic lly

r r ua ar r a
206 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
the n es t be ex m in ed f om ffectin g the esults an d t o set
o o a r a r ,

up con t ol g oup in wh i ch im il di scuss ion took pl ce

a r r a S ar a

with ut fo m l d iscuss ion le de A to t l f 353 s t uden ts

o a r a a r . a o

of b o th sexes p ticip ted They we e di vided in to 67 ar a . r

groups 34 of wh ich h d d iscuss ion le de n d 33 n oh

,
a a a r a a

se ve w h o di d n t le d the discussion R esults we e

r r o a . r re

co ded f the g ups befo e d afte di sc ss i n Th

r or ro r an r u o . e

p oblem n wh ich ll the g oups w ked w b i efly f ol

r o a r or as r as

lows A m n b ought a h o se f o $ 60 s old it f $70 b o ught it

: a r r ,
or ,

b a ck f o $ 80 n d s ld it g in f o $ 90 Wh a t w hi p fit!
r a o a a r . as s ro

Th e esults supp o ted the hyp o thes i s th t g o up th in kin g

r r a r

can be im p o ved by the le de s i n fl e n ce P io t o the di ’

r a r u . r r s

c u ss o
“
i n the c o ect n swe w g ive n by rr
p ce n t of the
a r as er

1 77 pe s on s in the le a de
“ g o ups ce n t o f the
”
r nd r r a er
p
1 76 m em be s in the obse ve g oups I n the wo ds the
r r r r . o r r ,

m e m be sh ips f the tw typ es of di s uss i n g ups we e

r o o c o ro r

s im il i the i pe fo m n ce p io to d iscuss ion F oll win g

ar n r r r a r r . o

“
the g o up d i sc ss i n s h o weve the c ect n w o f the
’

r o u o ,
r, rr a s e rs

le de g oups se t o
a r
”
r
p e ce n t ( n im p o ve m e n t of
ro r a r

ce n ) wh ile the bse ve g ups se l y

p e
t r o ,
t o o n r r ro ro

p er ce n t ( n im p o ve m e n t of a
p e nt ) Ar ch i squ e er c . ar

test showed fu the m o e th t the diffe en ce w s i gnific n t

,
r r r ,
a r as a

t less th n the 1 p cen t level 6

M ie s inte p et tion f the esults i wo th n ti g As

a a er .

a r r r a o r s r o n .

we ha ve l e dy p in ted o t the le de c e ted pe m iss ive

a r a o u a r r a a r

a tm o sphe e i n wh i ch m in rty op in i o n s h d c n st ucti ve o rr a a o r

effect up n the m embe s I n typ ic l d iscuss ion o deli be

o o r r . a r r

a tive g oups the m j o i ty vi ew exe ts g e t p essu e n the

r a r r r a r r o

o p i n i o n s o f the est o f the m e m be s I f the m j o i ty op in i n

r r . a r o

i w o n g i t influe n ce n the o utc m e o f th d i scuss i o n i

s r ,
s o o e s

un des i ble I n the le a de g oup h oweve the s ci l

ra . r
”
r ,
r, o a

p essu e f the m j o ity is educed n d the m in o ity op ini on s

r r o

h ve n pp tunity to exe t thei influen ce I n p otectin g

a a o or
“ a r r

r r
a

.
r

a m in i ty O p in ion f om the s o c i l p essu e f the m a j i ty

or r a r r o or ,

the le de llows the -m in o i ty to h ve e n ough influen ce to

a r a r a

m ke p ss ible c nt ibution to th e quality of g up s

a a o o r a ro
’

6 I bid .
, pp . 2 80 8 1— .
 COLLECTIVE PROBLEM SOLVIN G 07 -

thinkin g I n h o t the dem o c tic le a de sh ip techn ique

.
”7
S r ,
ra r

n ot o n ly i ds in eff ect in g c pe a t i n but i

a ls o effective in oo r o s a

imp ovin g the qu a li ty o f

r p oblem s lution a r o .

E FFE CT O LE AD SH TRA N NG O N P OBLE M S O LVI NG

I n the expe im e n ts of M i e whi ch we h ve c i ted im p o t a n t
F ER IP I I R -
.

r a r a r

li ght is th own on wh a t go es n when g p i t yin g to

s olve p oblem s c ollectively I n l te study M ie expl o es
r o a ro u s r

r . a a r a r r

still n o the spect n am ely the effect of t a in in g le a de s to

a r a , ,
r r

use a pe m iss ive pp oa ch The e a tw o questi n s b o un d

r a r .
8
r re o

up in this p oblem n m ely whethe t ainin g ff ects the r ,

a ,
r r a

le de s beh vio and whethe it fa cili ta tes the s olvin g of

a r
’

a r r

p blem s in g o up
To n swe the questi n s M i e c o n ducted a n expe im e n t
ro a r .

a r o a r r

in wh i ch t a in ed n d u n t in ed gro ups we e gi ve n the s m e

r a ra r a

p oblem s to s olve B o th g ups we e in dust i l pe s onn el

r . ro r r a r

con s istin g m o stly of fi t lin e supe vis o s a nd in te m edi te rs -

r r r a

m n gem e n t Th expe im e n t w a set up

a a . m ultiple ole e r s as a r

pl yin g s itu tion Th e un nt olled v i ble of pe s on lity

a a . co r ar a r a

diffe en ces w s n eut a lized by us in g la ge n um be of

r a r a r r

g ups Th e expe im en t l v i ble w the t in in g in g oup

ro . r a ar a as ra r

deci si n which w given to the expe im en t l g ups but

o as r a ro

n o t to th con t l g o ups ( Alth ough we sh ll d i scuss g ou p

e ro r . a r

de ci sion ma king l a te we wi sh t in fo m the e de th t

-
r, o r r a r a

g oup deci s ion m kin g i n ot d iffe en t f m c ollective p ob

r -
a s r ro r

l em s lvin g but i s a n in teg a l st ge o step i n the c om plete

-
o ,
r a r

p o cess )
r

Fo ty f u g oups ( the expe im en tal g up ) we e ex

.

r -
o r r r ro r

p o sed to eight ho u s of p esen t ti n on the m etho d f g o up r r a o o r

decis i n m kin g n d h ow it co uld be d pted t de al in g with

o -
a a a a o

ob p ble m s T hey h d m p essed up n them th t m

j ro i . a r o a e

p ylo e w i ll c o ll b o
es te up o n n d ccept s lut i n i f they
a ra a a a o o

are given the pp o tun ity to p ti cip te in the i w n deci s ion

o r ar a r o

n ki n
r a
g T h f m n . f un cti on s they we e i n fo m ed a e
e o re e
’

s ,
r r ,
r

gro u p
7 I bid p 2 85
.
,

deci s i on s
. . Se e
as in fl
a l s o an e a r li er s tu dy :
u e n ced b y
R F a i er Th e

th e dis cu s si on l e a der Hu m
N . . . M
,
,

.
q u ali ty

R e la t .
,
o f
3
1 55—
3

cu ssi o n
N . R F
74
. .

lea dersh ip , Hu m R ela t

M
.

a i er, An
.
e x p eri m en ta l test
.
, 6
of th e
161—7 3
e

.
ff ect o f tra in in g on di s
20 8 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
t o fu i sh the g up wi th f a cts n d to c
rn roy on pe m issive a a rr a r

discuss i n Th g o ups we e ls given fou ho u s of disc s

o . e r r a o r r u

s ion which pe m itted f ee exp ess i n Of the p ticip n ts

r a r r o ar a
’

a ttitudes t k question s n d t i pe s n l vi ews Th

,
o as ,
a o a r r o a . e

p ese t ti n n d d iscuss ion pe io ds we e c om b in ed in th ee

r n a o a r r r

t in in g pe i ds f
ra h ou s e ch Th e le pl yin g p ob
r o o r a . ro -
a r

l m w
e n i n teg
as a l p t f the t in in g p o g m ra ar o ra r ra .

Th i ty i r the g o ups ( the cont ol g oup ) eceived n o

-
s x o r r r r r

t inin g except f a lectu e wh i h in t o duced the ole pl y

ra or r c r r -
a

in g p blem ro Th lectu e de lt w i th es i st n ce t o ch a n ge
. e r a r a ,

wi th p tic l e fe e ce t the imp o t n ce f diff e en ces in

ar u ar r r n o r a o r

em ployee ttitudes the im p o t n ce of cceptin g ex h an ges

a ,
r a a c

o f j obs in o de t f il i t te the h n ges the n eed f

r r o aceco g a c a ,
or r

n i in m o ti v t i on l d iff e e n es i n e m pl o yees n d the im

z
g a a r c ,
a

p t ce of listenin g t the empl yees in o de the bette to

or a n o o r r r

un de st n d them
r a .

R ole pl yin g w in t o duced into b oth the c on t ol n d

-
a as r r a

expe im en t l sets of groups B th we e t ld th t they we e

r a . o r o a r

g in g to p ticip te in s olvin g lif el ike j b p ble m Th

o ar a a o ro . e

l tte they vye told would in volve f o em n w h m ust

a r, re ,
a r a o

d iscuss job s i tu ti n with th ee em pl“

a o yees n d it w
a o r ,
a as

expl in ed th t th is t sk would give them fi sth n d p i

a a a a r a ex er

en ce wi th the types of in fluen ce whi ch ope te They we e ra . r

fu the in f m ed th t they wo ld be d ivi ded in to g ups of

r r or a u ro

fo ur n d given in st uction eg din g the p t e ch w a to

a r r ar ar a s

pl ay in the i tu tion S a .

All subjects fin lly we e divided in to g o ups of f u

,
a ,
r r o r .

E ch g oup w as given set of in st uct i n s on p ge f e ch

a r a r o ,
e a or a

m em be n d the m em be w h o t ook th
r, a set f om th ss i st n t r e r e a a

w asm de the f e m n He kept the t p p ge n d p ssed a

a or a . o a a a

p ge with ole t e ch of the o the th ee pe s n s

a a r o a r r r o .

Th o le pl y in g s i tu t i n de lt w i th es i st an ce to ch n ge
e r -
a a o a r a .

Th m n wo k in te m s o n n ssem bly j b To educe

e e r a a a o . r

b ed m they ch n ge j obs Th kills f the m n wo ld be

or o a . e S o e u

m o e effect ively used h oweve if e ch m n c n t in ed t o

r ,
r, a a o u

pe f m the s m e Ope tion Th is des i e t ch n ge g ve the

r or a ra . r o a a

fo em n n opp tunity t in t o duce the p blem o f ch n ge

r a a or o r ro a

a n d to i n i ti te d i scuss i o n o f the p oble m u n de c o n s i de a ti on

a r r r .
2 10 CONFLICT AND A DJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
o f s c oi l i z t i n
a Th p a d o x — if such
o i t i.
—
i es lved if we e a ra s s r o

use the di lecti l n o tion f the el tion between c n t i es“

a ca o r a o r ar .

E m pl yin g thi s c n cept pp s i ti n m y be desc ibed

o o a ,
o o o a r as

hi gh te s ion st te in volvin g success o f ilu e by s o ci l

n a r a r a a

o up i n t n sce n d i g the b i e s t f eed om o f l c m t i n

g r ra n a rr r o r o o o o .

Whe the c nfli ct en ds in the t n scen den ce f th b ie s

n o ra o e a rr r ,

equilib i um i est ed While the efo e it ppe s t be

r s r or . r r a ar o a

d“ i v s ve elem e t c n fl ct m y h ve teg t ve effects a

i i n i i n i ,
— o a a ra

r es lution of the ten si n s between the c on t i es

o o ra r .
”9

A the eti l f o m ul ti n of th i s p oblem h weve is

or ca r a o r ,
o r,

i n suffic i e n t We m st l k f o em p i i c l . exp e im en t al
u oo r r a or r

d t to con fi m o infi m it The e

a a r n um be r f g od r . r a re a r o o

studi es de lin g with th i ssue ; we sh ll select n by G t

a e a o e ue z

k wo d Gy
an on f the bette n es
r, a s e o r o .
10

Th d t e f the G t ko w Gy study we e bt in ed by
a a o ue z -
r r o a

o bse v in g bus i n ess

r n d g ve nm e n t l dec i s i o n m k i g a o r a -
a n co n

fe re n ce s in vo lvi n g b ut seven hun d ed i d i vi du ls Th a o r n a . e

p ti cip n ts we e divi ded in t o g oups f om five t twen ty

ar a r r r o

pe s on s f th e p p se f m kin g p licy d st ff deci s ion s

r or ur o o a o an a .

Th pu p se O th ese ch on these g ps w t n swe

the questi n Le the e c on di tion s un de whi ch ten s i n o
e r o e r ar ro u as o a r

o : ‘ r r o r

c onfl ict wi thin c n fe en ce te m in tes in g eem e t a o n r r a a r n o r co

sen sus m n g the p ticip n ts c n t sted wi th the co n

a o ar a ,
as o ra o r

di ti on sun de whi ch c on fli ct en ds in di s g eem en t!

r a r
”1 1

C on flict in thi s study w defin ed by im p o t n t diffe e n ces as r a r

o f O p in i n m n g the m em be s eg d i g suggest i n s in te
o a o r r ar n o ,
r

p t
re a t i n s o lut i n s
o nd o f
s, th wh i ch we e g iove n du in g,
a s or ,
r r

the c nf e en ces C on sen sus w a s defin ed by g eem en ts wi th

o r . a r

a n d s pp o t u n d a pp o v l f suggest io n s o s l t io n s E x
r a r a o r o u .

p essi on s f c onflict n d c n sen sus we e ec o ded by an

r o a o r r r

o bse ve r th gh ut th confe en ces Obse v tion s we e

r ro u o e r . r a r

a ls o m de by n the bse ve t dete m in e if the beh vi

a a o r o r r o r a or

o f the p ti cip n ts w in tellect al ly

ar ffec tively m ti
a as u or a o

1 7 1 —7 9
H B on n er Fi eld th e ory
.

. .
,

Se e G Sim m el S o z i o lo i e
g
g (L z g D k
a n d s o ci o lo

ei p i
y , So ci ol
:
.

un c e r un d
Soc . R es
Hum blot
.
, 33
, ,

p 2 47

g
. .

H Gu e tz kow a nd
10

,
.

rou p s Hu m R e la t 7 . .
,
J . Gy r, An a n a ly si s
3 67—
82 .
of co n fl i ct in deci si on - m a in kg
11 I bi d .
, p 3 68
. .
C O LLECTIVE PRO BLEM SOLVIN G - 211

v at d e C n flicts we e f tw o ki n ds n m ely substan tive an d

o r o a

ffective S bst n tive c fli ts we e ted in the n tu e of

.
, ,

a . u a on c r roo a r

the t sk pe f m ed th t i in the suggesti n s o s olution s

a r or ,
a s, o r

p op o sed ; ffective confli cts we e th se de ived f om the

r a r o r r

pe s on al n d em o tion al ph ses of the m embe s in te pe s on al

r a a r
’

r r

r ela tion s
Since full st temen t eg din g the emp i ic l fin din gs
.

a a r ar r a

wo uld be bo th lon g n d c om plex we n do n o bette th n a ,

ca r a

t o ep o duce th e in vest i g to s o w n summ y They w i te

’

r r a r ar . r ,

d i ti d w h i h b th typ
Th
su bd t i tiifi td diffff ti — b tlwt i
s an
mb
ere ar e a n u f
v e an

p
a Th
er o

ec

t
f con

f
ve
fli t
l t ik i g
t
re su
on s u n

n con sen su s
er c

.
o

ere are a so s r
es o co n c

n
an

i t d w i th
g
a ss oc a e

hi
s n

b y
ca n

A g
m ph i i g th
p g
i
f
b i
ti
fl i i
eren ce st h
fli t t d t
t wh i h p iti ly p
t c o n s e n su s .
e een

rou
rou

n su
s

s an
n con

ve
c

co n
n

c
e

en
a c ors

s o

p fli t t d t
ac ev e c o n s en s u s e as z n os e a c ors c os ve ro

m t
sen s u s by Thdi i gd thti i f l lywhi hhi hi ddb twhith d hwi i mf tm f
o e c on se n su sA g i
re
fl ti
uc n
. hi
rou

ose
n a

o rces
ec ve

c
co n

n
c

er
en

e
s o

ac
ac

ev e
ev e

en
con

i wh i h th f p t
c on s e n su s on
.
g s re
y uc
g s ar e ac ev e ra n ro a

sit t i
ua on n c e se orces a re res en .
12

Th e esults o f the in vesti g ti o n c on fi m in sh o t o n e

r a r ,
r ,

of f equen t ei te ti n s n m ely th t e chin g deci s io n s

ou r r r ra
‘

o ,
a ,
a r a

o rs lvin g p oblem s in g o ups m y be e ithe inh ib ited o

o r r a r r

p mo ted depen din g on diffe en t c on dition s The e

ro ,
no r . r a re

d ta n d n o the o etic l e a s n s whi ch w uld justify the gen

a a r a r o o

e ra li ti n th t c o n fli ct n d c o m peti ti o n
z a o a n ecess a i ly a are r

det im en t l to p ductive g oup delibe a ti n I t h been

r a ro r r o . as

kn wn f a lon g tim e th t i h y f o sh a ed g l m y be
o or a r va
'

r a r oa a

m o e o less p o ductive dep n di g on the st uctu e of the

r r r ,
e n r r

g o p in which it i s tak in g pl ce
r u a
13

E FFE CT O G O UP S E Th p oblem f g up s i ze i
.

F R IZ . e r o ro s

a r ecu i g o in g oup dyn m i s n d kn wledge f the

rr n ne r a c ,
a a o o

o ptim um s i ze of g oup en g ged in p oblem s lvin g i ofa r a r -

o s

co s i de ble p ctic l v lue S imm el w h fo m l ted nu

n ra ra a a . o r u a

m o u theo et i c l p o ble m s o n
er s r m n g s o c i l in te cti on
a r c cer a ra ,

wa s ap i n ee in th is a in m an y the ph a ses of g o up
o r s so o r r

I bid , p 3 73
J M C x
12 . . .

a ll e r , o o p e ra ti o n a n d co m p e ti ti o n : an e p erim en ta l stu dy

Yk C g
1 3 Se e B . .

C
i n m oti v a ti o n , C o n trib E duc , No 3 84 New
ol um b i a U ni v ers i ty , 1 929
. or : Tea ch ers
.
.o ll e e , . .
2 12 MEN T OF G ROU PS C ONFLI C T AND A J ST DU
p o cesses n d w e ly co gn iz n t f the im p o t n ce of
r ,
a as ar a o r a

g up s ize s dete m in an t f in te in divi du l el tion s In

ro a a r o r a r a .

h i d i scuss i o n o f the dy d n d the t i d he dem on st ted

s a a r a ra

th t sm ll g o ups h ave q liti es wh i ch di s ppe when they

a a r ua a ar

becom e l ge He obse ved on the b a si s of the o y the

ar r . r ,
r ra r

th n emp i i c l ese a ch th t ce t in g oup ch cte i sti cs

a r a r r ,
a r a r ar a r

a ppe on ly i n st uctu es
ar b ove o belo w a ce t in n umbe r r a r r a r

o f i n te ctive in divi du ls
ra a .

Th sm all m o un t o f depen d ble evi den ce which we

e a a

p o ssess le ds to the con clus ion th t dyn m i c o in te cti ve

a a a r ra

g oups ten d to be sm all On in vesti g to h fou n d th t

r . e a r as a

they n ge in s ize f om tw o to seven with“

ra an ve ge Size of r ,
a ra

th ee He dds th t l ge g o ps e m olecul n ge
14
r . a a ar r r u ar ar arra

m e n ts f s m ll g ups o a ro .

Wh ile n um be of in vesti gat o s a g ee on on s ize o the s

a r r r e ,
r

h old diff e en t vi ews On the b s i s of existin g kn owledge of

r . a

g up le n in g n d g up thinkin g it i s cle th t in p oblem

ro ar a ro ar a r

s olvin g n d decis ion m akin g e n ough pe s on s m ust ex ist in

a -
r

i n te ct io n With n
ra n o the t o i n i t i te suggest i n s yet n o t
o e a r a o ,

so m n y s t
a b o g d o wn the f ee c mm un i t i n f i de a s
a o r o ca o o .

Th p o blem we sh ll see l te i p ti cul ly im p o t t in

e r a a r, s ar ar r an

the e a of g up psych othe apy G oups con s i stin g of si

,

ar ro r . r x

t o t n pe s o n s o ff e m ax im um c n d i ti on s f o in te a ct io n in
e r r o r r

gr up p oblem s lvin g
o r -
o .

O n o f the m st i g o o us tests of g o up s i ze h a bee n

ma de by B les n d h i ss oci tes M o st f the g ups
e o r r r s
15
a a s a a . o ro

studied by them we e in the wi dest sen se p oblem s olvin g r , ,

r -

g o ups Tw o of them we e the py g oups wh ich by ou

r . r ra r , ,
r

definition a ls p oblem s olvin g in ch a cte While th

,
re a o r -
ar r . e

in vesti g t s we e c o n ce n ed p im ari ly w i th cts o f com

a or r r r a

m n i tion the i study th ows l i ght up n th i m p o t an ce of

u ca ,
r r o e r

g o up s ize I t i to be n o ted th a t the gro ps whi ch they

r . s u

14
JJm es A p relim i n ary s tudy o f th e si e determin an t i n sm all ro u p
. a ,

474—
z x g
i nt era cti on Amer s oci o l R ev 1 6

z
of th e p rob le m o f
,

ro u p s i e s ee H A

1 4 1—
.

g
77 For a n e cell en t an al y s is
.

Th elen P rin cip l e o f l e as t ro u pz .

,

, . .
.

,
g
L M M M g
s i e Th e S ch oo l R e v
, 57 47 .
,
.

C g
1 5 R F B a les F
. .Stro dtb eck T , i lls an d. E Ros eb oro u h
.
, . .
, . .
,

h a n n els of comm un ica ti on i n sm al l ro u p s Am er s oci ol R ev 1 6

461 —
. . .
, ,

68 .
2 14 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
An o the hyp o thes i s wh i ch the study confi m ed w as th t
r r a ,

given lim ited pe io d of tim e— n ve ge of b ut fif teen

a r a a ra a o

m in utes —a g o p o f five f eels th t i t h

r u en o ugh tim e f o a as r

di scuss ion while g up of twelve feels th at thi s i iu s uf

,
a ro s

fi i n t t im e f o the s m e pu p se B o th le de s n d f ol
c e r a r o . a r a

lowe s voi ce pp oxim tely the s m e op in ion ega ding

r a r a a r r

sufficien cy of tim e in the tw o d iff e en t s ized g o ps r -

r u .

I f m em be s n t g ive n su ffic i e n t opp

r are tun ities to p
o or ar

t icip t bec use o f the tim e f a cto they exp ess di ti f c

a e, a r, r ssa s a

tion with the g oup The e als o e m e di ss a ti sfied m m

r . r ar or e

be s in the l ge g o ups Th followe s p ti cul ly sh ow a

r ar r . e r ,
ar ar ,

s i gnific an t in c e se in d iss a tis f ction s the g up i in

r a a a ro s

c e sed f om five to twelve

r a r .

I n l ge g ups m em be s te n d n o t t p t i c ip te
ar r ro ,
r o ar a as

f equently
r in s m lle o n es bec use they f eel th t the
as a r a a

g oup s s i ze en de s thei c n t ibuti n s un im p o t n t S in ce

,
’

r r r r o r o r a .

the d iff e e ce m on g the le de s in the diffe en t i zed g oups

r n a a r r -
S r

in th i s re s i gnific an t even th o ugh it ten ds in th e ,

expe ted c he hyp o thes i s i n ly p ti ll y ve ifi ed s o ar a r .

All in ll thi s study l ike a n m be of the s sh ows th t

a , ,
u r o r ,
a

as the s ize f the g oup i in c e sed the deg ee f c on sen us

o r s r a r o s

a n d s t i s f cti o n w i th i t dec e a ses whe n th

a a tim e f o d iscus r e r

s ion i s lim ited ; n d th t wi th the in c e a se in s i ze b ove

a a r a a

ce t in n um be ( in this study twelve ) f cti on al ism is a f e

r a r a r

quen t o utc om e .

On m e study of the e ff ect f g o up s i ze whi ch we sh ll

e or o r a

b i efly el te i tha t of T ylo n d F ust U s in g as the i

r r a s a r a a .
17
r

subjects 105 st dents f om the in t ducto y c u se in p y

u r ro r o r s

ch o lo
gy the i n vest i g t
,
s d i v i ded the m i n t o fi ftee n i n d iv i du l
a or a

r esp on den ts fiftee n g oups of tw o m em be s n d fifteen

,
r r ,
a

g oups of fo u m embe s All we e give n fou p oblem s d y

r r r . r r r a a

f o fo u success ive d ys Th e p o blem s we e f the type

r r a . r r o

p opul i zed on dio n d televis ion p o g am s in which v i

ar ra a r r ,
ar

o u s o bjects we e to be i de n t ified r a n im l veget ble o as a ,

a ,
r

17 D Wg
l em s o lv i n
. . Ta y lor
as a f W L an d

un cti on
. Fa u st, T e n ty
.

o f s iz e of ro u p , J gw q u es ti o n s : e

exp Ps y ch o l
ffi ci e n cy

44
in p rob

—
. . .
,

3 60 68 .
COLLEC IVE O LEM SOLVIN G
T PR B -
2 15

min e al Wh ile the expe im en t w a s des i gn ed to an swe

r . r r

o the question s as well the question of imp o tan ce he e

r , r r

con ce n s the ela tive efficie n cy in p blem s lvin g a s de

r r ro -
o

te m in ed by the s i ze of the g oup

r r .

Th esults we e ge n e lly s im i la to th se f o the studi es

e r r ra r o o r

G oup pe f m ance w as supe io to in dividual pe fo man ce

.

r r or r r r r

in the n um be f question s an swe ed the n um be

r o f f ilures r ,
r o a ,

a n d el psed tim e f o a e a ch p oble m Th pe fo m an ce of r r . e r r

o ups f f u w n o t supe i t o th t of g ups of t w

g r a o o r s r or a ro o,

except th a t the g o ups of fo u h d f ewe f i lu es I n te m sr r a r a r . r

of the t im e equi ed fo the s olution of p oblem s the p r

r r r r , e

f o m an
r o f in d i v i du ls w
ce supe io to th t f g o ups ; but a as r r a o r

the pe fo m an ce of g o ups of tw o w supe io to th a t of

r r r as r r

g o ups of fo ur
r .

Th e uth o s suggest th t the f ct th t the e we e n g

a r a a a r r e

li gible diffe en ces between g o ups of tw an d f u m y m e n

r r o o r a a

th t th e optimum s ize g oup i n ot l ge th n f u Th is i

a -
r s ar r a o r . s,

o f co u se o n ly a n i n fe en ce a n d i ts s bst n ti t ion wi ll e
r ,
r ,
u a a r

qui e m uch mo e c a eful ese ch th n h as been d on e t o

r r r r ar a

d te S ince optim um s ize is stil l a con t ve s i l i ssue we

a .

“
m y l o gi c ally a ssum e th a t the i de l s i ze would be a g o up
a a
”
ro r a ,

in wh i ch eve y m em be h s n o pp o tun i ty to c o n t ibute

r r a a r r

a cco din g to h is m x im um ab ili ty to the s olution of a g oup s

r a r
’

p oblem A s we h ve st essed it on seve a l o cc sion s an d

r a r r a as

Ta yl o an d F a ust them selves p o in t o u t in c e a s in g the i ze f

.
,

r ,
r s o

“
the g oup wi thin efficien t lim its educes th e pe s isten ce f ”
r r r o

“
”
w ron g sets wh i ch m a y h a ve been p esen t in s m lle r a a r

g o up ve y m uch in the w ay th t wron g sets whi ch ten d

r ,
r a

to pe s i st i n the in d ivi du a l p o ble m s o lve s a

r elim in ated r -
r re

by exp o su e to a dive sity of suggestion s an d i de s Fi lly

r r a . na ,

to e i te a te sti ll n o the p io st a te m e n t i n a g up th a t i
r r a r r r ,
ro s

sm ll but n o t t o sm ll the b ili ties of eve y o m o st m m

a , o a ,
a r r e

be s c n be e dily tapped I n g oup th t i too l ge the

r a r a . a r a s ar

pe missiven ess and f eed m of c mm uni c ti n whi ch we

r r o o a o ,

have fo un d to be exceed in gly imp t n t in p oblem s olvin g or a r -

,

becom e n bst cle ; f o in thi s s itu ti n the e i a ten den cy

a o a r a o r s

f o a few dom in an t i n di vi du a l to m o n o p o li ze the ti m e an d

r s ,
2 16 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMEN T O F G ROU PS
thus dep ive o the s f the opp o tun ity to exp ess them
r r o r r

selves 18

E FFE CT O F THE P O BLE M I N PR O B LE M S O LVIN G I t h as

.

-
R .

lon g been suspected th t the n tu e of the t sk f cin g a a r a a a

o up h s om eth in g to do wi th i t pe f m n ce Th
g r as s r or a . e re

s lt in
u s f ee esp on se s itu ti n m y be d iffe en t f m th se
a r -
r a o a r ro o

in h i ghly st uctu ed on o f om n in wh i ch the p oblem

a r r e r r o e r

i such a to pe m i t o n ly fixed a lte n ti ves Th o n d ike f o un d

s s r r a . r

th a t the supe io ity of g oup s olution s i s om etim es due to

r r r s

the wi de an ge f esp n ses ffo ded by t sk s it ti n I n

r o r o a r a a ua o .

fo u t sks wh i ch he p esen ted f o s olution e ch w de

r a r r ,
a as

s i gn ed in tw o fo m s the tw diffe in g f om e ch o the in the r ,

o r r a r

r a n ge of lte n tive esp on ses F thi s pu p se he dm in

a r a r or r o a

d tw o f m s o f the C AV D S e n te n ce C m plet i n Test

.

i t
s e re or o o

a n d the C AV D Vo c bul y Test One f m pe m itted u n a ar . or r re

t i t d
s r c e m pleti o n s n d the o the pe m i tted o n ly m l t iple
co a r r u

ch o ice n swe s A thi d in st um en t w s a Lim e i cks test

a r . r r a r ,

a g in in tw o f dm n e equi in g the a ddition of th ee lin es

a r s, o r r r

the o the o f o nly on e A fo u th t sk w th f ee ons tru e

,

r . r a as e r c

t i on of c o ss wo d puzzle n d the s o l ing f on l e a dy

a r -
r a v o e a r

devised Tho n d ike fo un d th t not on ly we e th pe fo m

. r a ,
r e r r

an s o f the g o up o n
ce ll fo u p oblem s ge n e a lly supe i
r a r r r r or

un st uct ed r
“
t o th o se o f in d i v i du ls but the g o up w supe i
f ee fo m s p ticul ly Hi expe im e nt
ur or
o n the

r
a
”
,

r ar
r

ar
as

. s
r or

est bli shed wh t h been m ply co n fi m ed in m o e ecen t

a a as a r r r

in vesti g tion s n m ely th a t the w i de the an ge of l te n a

a ,
a ,
r r a r

ti v es ,the bette g oup pe fo m s the t a sk r a r r r .

19

B ut qui te d iffe en t esults we e ep o ted in a m o e ecen t r r r r r r r

study by M C dy n d L ambe t thus conf on tin g us w ith

c ur a r ,
r

g f gL z gg
L C W
A f ew o th e r d di e s th e ef ect

J g
of es t ed
IS oo s tu on ro u p s iz e are su

g z
.

g arter, . Hay th orn , B . M e irow i tz , an d . an e tt a , Th e re la ti on o f

z g
c a te

R elat —
ori

.
,
4
a ti o n and ra ti n s

R Gibb , Th e eff e cts o f rou p s i e a n d o f

thr ea t re du ct io n i n a p rob lem so lv i n
28 9 5 4 ;
s i t u a ti o n
Jin
.

A m er Ps y cho lo is t , 6
th e
.

-
ob s erv a ti o n

gM g of

,
ro u p

.
b eh av i or Hum , .

324 ; F F S te p h a n a n d E G
g
.

x
i sh ler Th e di strib u ti on of p arti ci
.

p a ti o u i n sm a ll ro u p s : an e p on en ti a l a p p ro im a ti on , A mer s o ci ol R ev , 1 7
—608
. .

x ,

. .

L w kw g w
.

el l ! I a b norm
19 R Th orn di ke , On h a t ty p e of ta s
. . i ll a ro u p do . .

s oc P s y ch o l , 88
. 409- 18 . .
2 18 D U MEN T OF GROU PS C ONFLI C T AND A J ST

H o witz con vin cin gly dem on st a ted th is f ct in n effective

r r a a

“ ece n t expe im e n t H o w i tz s p o blem w the f ll ow in g

’
21
r r . r r as o :

C n the m o tiv t ion l c n cepts wh i h h ve been de el oped

a a a o c a v

f in d ivi du a ls w h o a
or ctin g f o the i ow n go ls be ppli ed re a r r a a

t i n d iv i du a ls w h o
o a ct in g so th t a g oup wi ll chi eve a re a r a
”
oa ls !
g rou
p g
e a su em en t devi ce employed in this expe im en t is
Th e m r r

a n d pt tion of Z i g nik n w well kn wn m eth d of

a a a e ar
’

s o -
o o re

c ll of in te upted t sks I t w s appli ed t the g oup s itu

a rr a . a o r a

tion with in the c n ceptu l f m ewo k of L ewin s t p l gi c l o a ra r

’

o o o a

a n d vect o psych l gy wh i ch we d i scussed in C h pte s 1 an d

r o o a r

2 Th expe im en t i
. e m plex n d i n ge n io us n d
r such s co a a as

difficult to summ i ze d still convey the n ecess a y info m a ar an r r

ti n let alon e the m eti l us c e t ken by the in vesti gato

o , cu o ar a r

in des i gn in g it Th s bjects f the expe im en t we e s o ity

. e u o r r or r

w m en pl ced in to ei ghteen g o ups e ch g oup si stin g of

o a r ,
a r co n

five m em be s n d ss i gn ed the t sk f w k in g t gethe on

r ,
a a a o or o r

j i gs aw puzzles At p oi t pp oxim tely m i dw y th ough

. a n a r a a r

e ch t sk the subjects v ted o n whethe o n t the g o up

a a o r r o r

sh ould complete it Afte th vo tes we e t ken w k n the . r e r a ,

or o

p blem s w s ei the h lted p tly c om pleted o fully com

ro a r a ,
ar ,
r

p l e te d .

Th e p
cip l a lthough bvious fin din gs f H wi tz s
ri n a ,
o ,
o or
’

study a these ( 1 ) when th g o up g ees t c mplete a

re : e r a r o o

t a sk the m embe s bec m e m tiv ted t e ch the gro p s

, r o o a o r a u
’

go l ; ( 2 ) when the g o up do es n ot wish to c n ti e w ki n g

a r o nu or

o n the t a sk m o ti v t i n t ,w k t ow d g l i n t g n a o o or ar a oa s o e

a t d ; ( 3 ) the i n d iv i du l s m o t i ves to st ive f o the g oup s ’ ’

er e a r r r

go al i n o t ffected by whethe he do es
s a d es n t p r or o o ar

ti ip t e in deci d in g up o n the g up s c o t in u t io n wi th the

’

c a ro n a

t sk I f he a ccepts the c n sen sus of th g o p he w ill b e

a . o e r u ,

h ve s if he h d p ti cip ted in it deci s i n s ; th t i he will

a a a ar a s o a s,

des i e f o the g up t c n tin ue with n d to c m plete it

r r ro o o a o s

t sk G o up p o duct ivi ty in p oblem s olvin g i th s seen

a . r r r -
s u

to be aff ected n o t p im ily by the g o ls of th i n divi du al

,
r ar a e

21 M . Hor wz
Th e reca ll o f i nterru p te d
it ,

s tu dy o f in di v i du a l m o ti v a tio n i n relati o n t o
gg ro u p

r ou p g k
ta s s:

o a ls ,
an

Hu m
e x
p
.
e ri m enta
R ela t , 7
.
l
—3 8 .
COLLEC IVE O LEM SOLVIN G
T PR B - 2 19

membe s but by thei des i e r ,

r r to see the g o up r as a wh ole
achieve it c llective en ds s o .
22

N ATU RE O F G ROU P DEC I S ION MAK IN G -

On a p eced i g p ge o f th i s ch pte ( p
r we efe ed
n a a r . r rr

to dec i s i on m kin g n i n teg a l ph se of the p o cess of

-
a as a r a r

g up p blem s lvin g I n h i b o k on G ou p cente ed

ro ro -
o s o r -
r

L ea de h ip wh i ch we h a ve l e a dy c i ted G o d n d i vi des
.

rs ,
a r ,
r o

the g up p blem s olvi g p o cess in t fou in te el ted

ro ro -
n r o r rr a

st ges These st ges c on s ist of ( 1 ) fa cin g p blem ; ( 2 )

a . a a ro

d i gn o sin g it in o de to dete m in e c use an d effect el

a ,
r r r a - -
r a

tion h ip ; ( 3 ) m k in g dec i s i o n s eg d in g h ow the p o blem

s s a r ar r

is to be s lved ; an d ( 4 ) c ar yin g o t the dec i s i n i n cti on

o r u o a
23

Decision m kin g which lone c n ce n s us t the m om ent

.

-
a ,
a o r a ,

is a ve y imp“t n t step in the p o cess of c ollective p oblem

r or a r r

s lvin g I n dem o c ti c g o ups f the type we h ave bee n

o . ra
”
r o

desc ibin g p oblem s

r s lved by the con st uctive p ticip
r a re o r ar a

tion f m st m em be s I n the t diti n l gro p wh i ch i

o o r . ra o a
”
u ,
s

still bun d an tly fo un d in m o st e s of p oblem s lvin g the

a ar a r -
o ,

decis ion s a m de by des i gn ted le de w h h olds

re a m a a a r o a co

m n din g p o s iti on in the p owe st uct e I n ed c ti n bus i

a r r ur . u a o ,

n ess i n dust y
,
nd the vi t l e s f s o ciet l life deci s i n s
r ,
a o r a ar a o a o

pe t inin g to th fun ction in g of g oups

r a still l gely the
e r are ar

p vin ce o f expe ts o of pe em pto y utho i ty Thei s i

ro r r r r a r . r s

the ight t settle i ssues t dete m in e nd djud ic te di

r o ,
o r a a a s

putes Th m e imp t nt the issue o di spute i the less

. e or or a r s,

is it deleg ted f c n s i de ti n by the g up whom it vit lly

a or o ra o ro a

con ce n s An imp o t n t c on sequen ce f utho it i n deci

r . r a o a r ar a

si n m kin g h been th t it h fi st p even ted the devel p

o -
a as a as, r ,
r o

m en t f g o up self di ect ion a n d sec n d used th f ilu es f

o r -
r ,
o ,
e a r o

22 Se e urth er, ff T Fo uri ez o s , NHu tt an d H Gu etz kow ,

. . ea s ur e ML . .

g ,
. M
45 6 82- 90 ; G ar u i s

g D
m ent o f s el ori en t e d n ee ds i n di s c u ss i o n ro u p s
-

H Gu e tz kow a n d R
s o ci a l p s y ch o lo i c a l s tu dy o f th e de ci s i o n m a i n
a bno rm

co n e re n ce
. M
s oc P s y ch ol ,

Hey n s , A
i n H G u e tz
q , .

-
,

k g fg C g , .
.

,
W .
.

.
.

kow Gro u p s lea de rs h i p , a n d m en ( Pi ttsb u r h :

, arn e i e Pres s ,
S Sch a ch ter a n d R Ha ll Grou p —
. deri v e d re s trai nt s an d a u di e n ce
.
,

3 9 7—
p ersu a si on Hu m R ela t , 5
23 T G r
, . 4 06 .

o do n , Gro u p - centere d l ead ers h i p ( B o s to n : Ho u h ton M i ffli n C o

.
.

g
p 61 . .
220 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T O F G ROU PS
the g oup s n gum en t f o the l tte s in c mpeten ce
r a a ar r a r
’

o .

L ittle o n o thought w given by pe s on s in uth o i ty to the

r as r a r

f ct th t the s especi ally g oup f co ctin g in di vi du ls

a a o r ,
a r o a a ,

co uld h dly be expected to develop skill in deci s i n m kin g

ar o -
a

if they h d n pp o tun ity to ssum e esp on sib ili ty When

a o o r a r .

given an opp o tun ity to e ch it own deci s i n s g oup r r a s o ,

a r

ten ds in iti lly t c n fi m an uth o i ty s c on viction by th e

a o o r a r
’

un ce ta in ty n d in effe tiveness of i t ow n cti n s D ecis i on

r a c s a o .

m ki n g i
a kill n d l ike all skills h to be le n ed o
s a S a as ar r

cqui ed I t will ep ay the e de the efo e if he will

,

a r . r r a r, r r ,

b i efly ex m in e with us the diffi c l t an d c omplex p oblem

r a u r

of cqui in g decis i n m kin g skil l

a r o -
a

PER S STE N C O ATT TUD S H b itual n d t di ti o l tti

.

I E F I E . a a ra na a

tudes a in v i bly im p sed up n the e ly ph ses of g oup

re ar a o o ar a r

deci s ion m kin g Pe ple -

a ccust m ed t depen d in g up n
. o a re a o o o

a le de a o the des i gn ted

r, o r uth i ty figu e t i iti te d i
r a a or r ,
o n a s

cu s si on o to suggest s c se f tion I n the f e f

r a ou r o ac . ac o a

p oblem dem n d in g g up p ticip t ion eve y m em be p

r a ro ar a ,
r r a

p h
ro a c i t in ch
es te i st i c m ne He w iall l oo k t the ara c r an r . o

le de of the g p ppe l t the go d will of the m em be s

a r ro u ,
a a o o r ,

or r ecoil in s ilen ce the th n i sk the ejection f h i i de s ra r a r r o s a

by the g p O the s wh ile st essin g th imp o t n ce of

ro u r r e r a co n

G d n p oints t ely too m u h up the

.
,

sen s s will u as or o ou r c on

st t us o f le din g in divi du l t suggest s oluti n S till

, ,

a a a a o a o .

o the s c o din g t h im will d sc cely m e th n m ke

r ,
a c r o ,
o ar or a a

f an tic appe ls t d s m ethin g n d t w ste eve yb o dy s

r a o o o a no a r
’

tim e I n the bsen e f expe ien ce n d the pe s i sten ce of

. a c o r a r

h b its pe ople a im“

a p ti en t n d p sh in g f o decis i n sre a a u r o .
”

The e i a n u ge n cy t o n d the c nf us i n n d f ust ti n

r s r e o o a r ra o

gen e ted by in deci s i on b t the u gen y “l y in ten s ifies the

ra ,
u r c on

di ss tisf cti n with the g oup s p g ess L et s m ove he d

“
’ ’

a a o r ro r . a a ,

let s get s m e f th i s stuff o t of the w y is c omm n ex

’

o o u a ,
”
a o

p essi n f thi s ttit de

r o o a u

I NC A S D U ND ST ND N G O TH D E CI S O N M AK N G PR O C
.

RE E ER A I F E I -
I

E SS Th u ge n cy o f getti n g he d w i th the s o l ti on i
. e r a a u s, a s a

con sequen ce f the im p ti en t g op in g gen e lly followed

o a r ,
ra

24 I bi d , p p 266—
. 67 . .
222 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T O F G ROU PS
i n ed, or un til it is r e ssu ed th t h is feel in gs h ve n t been
a r a a o

hu t r

G
.

d n h m de s om e inte estin g obse va ti n s on the

or o as a r r o

vo tin g techn ique i the Wo ksh op p ject to wh i ch we h ve n r ro a

r efe ed He foun d th t g oup m embe s bec use of the

rr . a r r ,
a

f egoin g ch a cte i stics of the vo tin g p o cess lost f i th in

or ra r r ,
a

i ts efli ca cy They used i t o nly when the i ssue in v lved ve y

. o r

little con t ove sy On im p t n t n d co n t ove s i l issues he

r r . or a a r r a ,

Obse ves the g o up pp ently di d n“

r , ot d e empl y the vo te
r a ar ar o .

R a the it w used p im ily

r st w vo te t o gi e the
as r ar as a ra
”
v

g oup p elim in y lue to the m oun t of di scuss ion th a t

r a r ar c a

wo uld be equi ed t i ve t con sen sus Wh ile m e

r r o a rr a a . or

r ese ch on thi s p blem i n eeded a n d while the expe ien ce

ar ro s r

Of G o don in h i W ksh op sho uld n ot be ove gen e li ed i t

,

r s or r ra z ,

suggests th a t self di ecti g gr ups do n ot fin d v tin g -

r n o o a re

liable m eth d f e chin g g oup deci s ion s o o r a r .

2 C o n ens us Th typ i c l p o cess o f e ch in g c on se n sus

s e a r r a

in G o d on s Wo ksh p i n vo lved suggest ion s m de by

. .

r
’

rfew o a a

m em be s an d f oll owed by ev l a ti n s by o the s Th

r l a u o r . e ev a u a

tion s stim ul ted g up wi de di scuss ion until s om e e sen sed

a ro -
on

th t the g oup w
a e chi n g deci sion Question s we e
r as r a a . r

o f c on se n sus we e m de
“
a sked the usu l s i le n ces t oo k pl ce n d ve b a l exp ess i n s

Thus in a ve y inf m l n d
a

r a .
a

,
,
a

r
r

or
r

a
o

flexible m nn e the g oup w ould sen s itively f eel o t i tself

a r, r
‘
u
’

wi th ega d t it e din ess f o deci sion I n ve y e al

r r o s r a r a . a r r

sen se the g o p n ot le de kept con t ol ove the decis ion

,
r u ,
a a r, r r

m k in g p o cess
a r .
”2 6

8 P os tp onin g de ci i ons A s G o d on p oin ts o u t th i s i

.

“
m etho d by m e a n s of wh ich g oup an g ee to di s g ee
s .

a r
r

c a r
,

a r
s a

I t se ves to p tect
r m in o ity—even ve y sm a ll m ino i ty
ro a r a r r

f om the w ill o f the m j o ity I t m kes it unnecess y f o

r a r . a ar r

s om e m embe s to vi ol te the i deepest c onvi ctio s n d

r a r n a

the eby v i ds the d i ss luti n of the g oup itself G d n

,

r a o o o r . or o

cites n ex mple f thi s techn ique in hi Wo ksh p E p i

a a o s r o x er

me n t A im p t t i ss e whethe th g o up sh uld h ve
. n or a n u ,
r e r o a

a f m l w sh ip pe i d sha ply d ivi ded th m em be shi p

or a or r o ,
r e r .

26 I bid .
, p 27 1
. .
 COLLECTIVE PRO BLEM SOLVIN G 223 -

Th o bjecti n w a n t to w d the wo sh ip i tsel f but w

e o s o ar r as

di ected a g in st the effo ts f tho se w h o a dvo ca ted it as a

r a r o

shared expe i en ce Th issue w a di scussed t seve a l m eet

r . e s a r

in gs but n o deci s io n w e ched n d th p oblem w as de as r a a e r

fe ed seve a l tim es No fo ma l deci s i n w a s eve m a de

,

rr r . r o r ,

but the g oup one d y sp n t n eo usly g eed to the s gges

r a o a a r u

tion of on of its m em be s th t pe i d of s ilen ce be oh

e r a a r o

se ved t the begi nn in g of a di scuss ion pe io d Th e sug

r a r .

gestion w s a ccepted bec a use it equi ed n o on e t o wo sh ip

a r r r

publicly n d still pe m itted tho se w h o wi shed to wo ship to

a r r

do so on the i o w n i n i ti a tive r .
27

4 Dele g tio n of decis i o n m king u th orit y D em o c a ti c

. a -
a a . r

groups e f equen tly c iticized f o bein g sl w m ovin g in

ar r r r o -
,

e ffici nt a n d ti m e wa stin g Wh ile th i s c i t i ci sm i

e ,
ften jus
-
. r s o

tifi d i t i
e no t f tal
, These gr ups m y
s n d f eque n tly
a . o a ,
a r

d deleg te the p owe f deci s ion m ak in g to in divi du als

o, a r o -

o sm all committees w h o in s om e c ses

r ble to m ke a a re a a

qui cke decis i n s th n g oups I n Go d n s W ksh p deci

,
’

r o a r . r o or o

si n m akin g w s deleg ted un de ce t i n c on dition s n m ely

o -
a a r r a ,
a ,

when tim e co uld be s ved when ce t in in divi du ls we e a ,

r a a r

known to h ave the f cts up n wh ich deci s i n s could be a o o

b sed n d when the gr up h d sufficien t con fiden ce in in di

a ,
a o a

v id l comm i ttees to f eel th t thei deci s ion s would n ot

u a s or a r

be h m ful to itself
ar .
28

OU P S U PE RIO RITY FACT O R ARTIFACT!

GR :

S in ce the in cepti n f i gi d nd expe im ental investig o o r a r a

ti n f g o up le n in g n d g o up p oblem s olvin g st den ts

o o r ar a r r -
,
u

o f g o up dyn m i cs h ve deb a ted the quest i n o f g o p s

r a a o r u u

e io i t v s i d ivi du l supe i i ty i n c o llect i ve del i be t i n ra o

p r
y r . n a r or .

A n m be of the studi es in g o up le n in g n d c ollective

u r r ar a

p blem s olvi g which we h ve desc ibed f v the view

ro -
n a r a or

tha t the g oup ten ds to be supe io t the i divi du l S om e

r r r o n a

we h ave noted p a ticul arly th se of S haw

.

o f these stud i es ,
as ,
r o

nd Pe lm utte a n d de M o n tm o ll in a t t i bute the gro up s

’

a r r ,
r

27 I bid .
, p 27 1
. .

28 I bid .
, p 272
. .
224 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
supe i ity t o specific un de lyin g s o ci l p o cesses n ot ably
r or r a r ,

the ev lu tion of s lution s by m n y in divi du ls n d the

a a o a a a

reject io n o f the s o lut i n s i f they in c o ect A g i n sev o a re rr . a ,

e l studi es suggest th t supe io g up pe fo m n ce i n ot

ra a r r ro r r a s

due to im p oved in dividu l s olution s un de f vo able g oup

r a r a r r

con dition s ; m o st in dividu als d n o t equ l thei g oup p e o a r r r

f o m n ; a n d n on e su p ss them
r a ce r a .

O n the o the h an d the cl im th t in d ivi du ls are usu lly

r ,
a a a a

if n o t lw ys in tellectu a lly m o e e ffic ie n t a n d p o duct ive

a a r r

th an g ups h been ch llen ged by em p i i c l evi den ce

ro as a r a .

C iti cs f g o up p o ductiven ess m gn ify the w ste di st e

r o r r a a ,
ra

tion i elev n t n d i te m in ble d i s uss ion by g oups and

,
rr a a n r a c r ,

st ess the con fli cts wh ich in v i ably cc m p n y g oup dis

r ar a o a r

cu S SI On S .

An e ly investi g ti on of the el tive supe io i ty of gr o ups

ar a r a r r

a n d i n d i vi du ls w m de by W a ts o a U s in g 108 gra du
as a n .
29

a te educ a t io n stude n ts d iv i ded in t twen ty g o ups wh ose o r

s i ze v ied f om th ee to t n m em be s the subjects we e

ar r r e r ,
r

a sked to con st uct w ds f om lette s dep o s ited in en vel pes

r or r r o .

I n on sess i on the subjects we e sked to m ke w o ds e ch

e r a a r a

by him self ; in n othe sess ion the g ups m de wo ds n d a r ro a r a

a n n o u n ced the m l ud to a eco din g sec eta y a o r r r r .

While W ts n w w e of the lim it tion s of hi study

a o as a ar a s ,

p ticul ly it pe t in ed to the s im pli city of th t sk the

ar ar as r a e a ,

selective ch cte of h i subjects a“ n d the l ik e he w as

a ra ble
r s , ,
a

to supp o t h i hyp o thes i s th t the g o up thi nks m o e ffi

th n sep te in divi du ls M e spec ific lly he
r s a r r e

i e n tly
”
c a a ra a . or a ,

foun d th t n ot on ly i g oup thinkin g d istinc tly supe io t o

a ,
s r r r

th a t of the a a ge m em be but it is supe io t o the bes t

v er r, r r

m embe f the g o up Als o the l ge the g oup wi thin

r o r .
,
ar r r ,

the an ge f om th ee to t n the m o e supe io the g oup

r r r e r r r r

p o duct ten ds to bec m e Fin lly W ts on en thusi a sti c lly

,

r o . a ,
a a

cl aim s wi th i suffici en t ev“

,
i de n ce f om h i
n wn d t g oup r s o a a, r

pe fo m n ce i m tte so d iffe en t f om in d ivi du l p

r r a s a a r r r a ro

ducti n in the s am e field th t n i p cti c lly n o in dex

M ost of the fa cto s th t m ke f efficien t wo k
o a o e s ra a

of the o the r . r a a or r

ab nor
mg
m .
B
s oc
.

.
W a ts o n ,

Ps y ch o l .
Do
23
g ro u p s thin k—
32 8 3 6
m o re
.
e ffi ci e n tly th an i n di v i dua ls !
,
226 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
a n lys i s
a f g o up pe fo m n ce in te m s f s i gm d i st an ce
o r r r a r o a

f m the ve ge pe fo m n ce of the in d“
ro a ivi du l m em be s
ra r r a a r

Gu n ee f und th t by coll ective ction the f eq en cy of

,

r o a a r u

co ect judgm en ts of g up of pe s n s will be in c e sed

rr a ro r o r a

a pp xim tely plus tw o i g n ove the ve ge of the ir

ro a s r as r a ra

in d ivi du l I t sh o uld be n o ted fu the

a th t ,
r r, a a

supe io ity f + 2 si gm d ist n ces in dic te th a t onl y app o i

r r o a a a r x

m tely on o t f f o ty subjects c o uld be expected t o equ l

a e u o r a

o r su p ss the g oup pe fo m n ce
r a r r r a

Gu n ee admits th at p o lin g lon e c nn t accoun t f o ll

.

r o a a o r a

the g o up supe io ity but m y be p tly expl in ed by s oci l

r r r ,
a ar a a

i n flue ces in the g up An ex mple f th i s c n di t io n w s

n ro . a o o a

th te n de n y f d ubt ful s bjects to del y the i

o der
e

t o o bse ve the e ct i n s
r
c
“ o esp on e in

f the d om in n t s i de a n d
r
o

r a
u

o o
a

a
r r
”
,
s

then t c st thei v tes with it

o a r o

n elem e n t of equ i v o c t i o n in G u n ee s c n clu

.

The e i
“
’

r s a a r o

s i n He tells us th t the in c e se of i ght esp on ses w s

o . a r a r r a

chiefly if n t wholly , esult of s o ci l influen ces in th

o ,
a r a e

c“ ollective s i tu tion He ls o a sse ts howeve th t the a . a r ,

r, a

m j o e s on f
a g oup supe io ity w p oolin g f in divi du l
r r a or r r r as o a

judgm ents While these st tem ents do not cont dict e ch

. a ra a

o the they le ve us in d oubt to wh i ch facto w m e

r, a as r as or

im p t n t Th ch i e f we kn ess o f the expe im e n t i th t i t

or a . e a r s a

d es n ot t ke expli cit cco n t f the di sc ep n ci es between

o a a u o r a

im pl i ci t n d exp essed op in io n s I n the abse n ce o f evi de n ce

a r .

f o o a g in st
r r p op o s iti n pe ople
a kn own to be infl
a r o a re u

e n c d by the p ev i l in g o p in i o n
e Th less ticul te n d the
r a . e ar a a

les self a ssu ed pe ople

s -
the m o e they le n up n the iews
r a re , r a o v

of the ti cul te n d gg ess ive in d i i du ls of the g up

ar a a a r v a ro ,

a n d the m o e they w i ll ccept the Op in ion s f th l tte

r a o e a r .

The e i n o s t is f ct y p o f h oweve th t c mpli n ce

wi th the d m in n t Vi ew n ecess ily esult in gen i n e
r s a a or r o ,
r, a o a

o a ar r s a u

a ccept n e o f it I f the m e ti m i d m em be s exp essed the i

a c . or r r r

views ve tly they m i ght con ce ivably ch n ge the com

o r ,
a

plex ion of the g oup con sen sus These con s i de ti n s g i n r . ra o a

supp t f om n bse v tion alre dy m de n am ely th t

or r a o r a a a , ,
a

32 I bid .
, p . 1 09 .
 COLLECTIVE PRO BLEM SOLVIN G 227 -

truly self di ectin g g o ups do n ot fin d vo tin g a eli ble

-
r r r a

“
m etho d o f e ching g o p dec is ion s r a r u .
33

A tellin g expe im en t de lin g with the p oblem of p olin gr a r o

g oup on sen s s i th t of Timm on s Th p oblem w to

r c u s a . e r as

decide whethe n d h ow st te p ole system sh ould be r a a a ar

ch n ged The subjects of the expe im en t we e equi ed to

a . r r r r

e d p ep ared lite tur e on the subject Th m te ial w

r a r ra . e a r as

fi st e d by the subjects in divi du lly n d the n n ked by

r r a a a ra

them S ixty seven expe im en t l fou m em be g o ups we e

,

.
-
r a ,
r- r r r

p i ed with equ l n um be n d equ l si ze cont ol g oups

a r a -
r a a -
r r .

Af te s om e d i scuss i on f the p o blem the expe im e n t l g o up

r o r r a r

ra nked given five s luti n s This p o cedu e w as f llowed

a o o . r r o

by in divi du l nkin g by the s m e expe im en t al g oup of

a ra a r r ,

five alte n tive s olution s Th m em be s o f the c n t ol g o p

r a . e r o r r u

in divi du lly est d i ed the l i te a tu e but w i th o ut be n efit of

a r u r r ,

discuss ion n d in divi du lly n ked the lte n tive s olution s

,
a a ra a r a .

Th c o ect n swe i t h o uld be dded w a the

e rr a nk in g r, S a ,
s ra

m de by seve l expe ts n p o le system s

a ra r o ar .

Con s ide in g onl y th b e sum m a y of the esults Tim

r e ar r r ,

m on s expe im e n t le ves li ttle if n y d o ubt th t g up p ob

’

r a a a ro r

l m s o lvi n g wh ile subject t the i nfluen ce of

e -
st ti sti a l o a a c

p olin g effect c n n t be expl in ed by m e an s of i t N eithe

,

o ,
a o a . r

a ccl m tion n o s imple ve a gin g i suffici en t t cc un t

a a r a r s o a o

f o the d iff e e n ce betwee n in d i vi du a l an d c o llect ive p b

r r ro

lem s o lvin g
-
.
35

LI M TA T O NS O THE P O BL M S O LVI NG S I TUA T O N I n the

I I F R E -
I .

e lie ch pte s f thi s b k we c alled tten ti on t the ve y

ar r a r o oo a o r

st n g ten den cy f in divi du als to c n fo m to the st n d ds

ro o o r a ar

an d p ess es f the g up This f ct w st n gly mp h

r ur o ro . a as ro e a

s ized in o d isc ss i n f cohes iven essur defin ed by the u o o ,

as

a tt a tion of the g up Th p essu e t c nf m t g up

r c ro . e r r o o or o ro

no m s i n w
r o well kn w n th nks t o m n y in vest i g t i n s
s o s o ,
a a a o

bov e p p 22 1—22
WM
33 See a . .
,

gg
Tim m on s C a n th e p ro du ct s u p eri ori ty of di scus s ers b e
j fl
34 . .
, at
tri b u te d t o a v e ra i n o r m a ority in u e n ce s ! s oc P s y ch o l 1 5 . .
,

2 3—82
f
g gg
3 5 Se e

re a rdi n
.

urth er
ro u p
th e P erlm u tter
learn in g C in
an d de M on tm ollin
h a p te r 5 .
s tu dy , a lrea dy ci ted,

,
228 D U MEN T OF G ROU PS C ONFLIC T A ND A J ST

d tin g f om the expe im en t l w k of S he if th a t i t n eeds

a r r a or r ,

n o fu the di sc ss i on I ts ole in g oup judgm en ts nd col

r r u . r r a

l ti e p oblem s olv i n g h s a ls o been dem n st ted in sev

ec v r -
a o ra

e l excellen t ese ches A s h well kn own investi g tion

ra r ar . c
’

s -
a

dese ves a tten tion

r .
36

A sch discove ed th t when in divi du ls we e f ced by r a a r a

maj o ity opin ion s m n y of them ch n ged thei ow n to con

r a a r

fo m with th se of the g oup even though the m j o ity

r o r ,
a r

Op i n s we e c nt y to f ct These e ct s in d p en d
n i o r i oon — ra r a . r a e

en ce an d yi eldin g to the m j ity—h sc

f cto s Th fi st such f ct w the ch a cte o f the
a r . e
“r
ibes t seve l
a
a or

or as
e a r

ar
o

r
ra

stim ulus s itu ti n He f un d th t n the wh le

a o . the o a ,
o o ,
as

stim ulus c on dition s dim in ished i l ity the m aj o i ty efl ct

-
n c ar r e

g ows st on ge A s we in di c ted be f e especi lly in o u

r r r . a or ,
a r

discuss i n f le de ship m n y pe ple yield thei indep en d

o o a r ,
a o r

en ce f thinkin g n d judgm e n t to o the s when the si tu ti on

o a r a

f cin g them i n ot cle ly defin ed o in s itu a tion s whe e

a s ar r r

expect n ci es e dive gen t o in con si sten t S econ d in di

a ar r r .
,

v id l we e h i ghly se n s i tive to g oup o pp o s it io n espec i a lly

ua s r r ,

when it esulted in a l ss of g p supp t Th g e te the

r o ro u or . e r a r

un nimity f the gr oup ll in all the m e likely the in di

a o ,
a ,
or

vi du l will yi eld to it p essu e t con f m Th s m e p es

a s r r o or . e a r

su e t o conf m A sch p oin ts o t i n ot p esent when th

r or , u ,
s r e

d issen te m eets g o up m em be s in d i i du lly A th“

r r i d f a ct o r v a . r r

in yi eldin g t o the p essu es o f the g oup w s the ch r cte r r a ara r

o f the i n d i v i du l Th i s f ct o supp ts o u e m ph s i s n
a . a r or r a o

seve l o cc s ion s up on the pe s on lity v i bles of the in d i

ra a r a ar a

i d l in the g o up S uch v ari bles c n fiden ce in o n e s ’

v ua s r . a a re o

expe i en ce in depe n den ce the felt obli g tion t de l d

r , ,
a o a a e

q u t l a e
y w i th the p o ble m n d the l ike T
hyp thes i zed by Asch t be depen den t on el ti vely n
o
h d i
“
ff e e n es we e
r ,

o
a . e

r
r

a
c

e
r

du in g ch a a cte d iff e en ces

r r r r

Fu the m o e Tho n dike h sh w when in dividu ls

.

r r r ,
as r as o n, a

com m un ic te exp ose thei p in ion s t o the s espec i lly

a or r o o r ,
a

in g oup they
a r usu lly b oth m e i cum spect in the i
,
are a or c r r

thinkin g n d c utious i n p esen t in g them t the g oup I f

a a r o r .

36 . .

j g f
tortion o f u d m en ts , in G u etz kow
g
S E As ch , E f ec ts of r o u p p re s s u res u p on th e m o di ca tio n a n d di s
G rou p s, lea ders hi p , a nd me n
fi .
230 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
o f the g up p o cess Wh ile expe im en t tion sho uld be on
ro r . r a c

t in lly e n co u ged the c on st ucti n f system a t ic the i es

ua ra ,
r o o or

o f g o up beh v i
r m st n o t be n eglected I t i syste m a ti c
a or u . s

the o y c n st ucti n th t will in the l n g n give us m o e

r o r o a ,
o ru ,
r

r eli ble kn wledge f g up fun cti n in g n d of collecti ve

a o o ro -
o a

p oblem s lvin g We m ust t ke se iously L ewin s well

r -
o . a r
’

known sse tion th t n thin g i m o e p cti c l th n goo d

a r a o s r ra a a a

theo y On the wh ole go d theo y i seld m if eve

r .
,
a o r s o ,
r,

dest o yed by ddi ti n l f cts ; it i usu ll y v n quished only

r a o a a s a a

by bette the o y
a r r .

CON C LU S ION
Wh teve the en o m ous qu n ti ty f ese ch n oll c
a r r a o r ar o c e

tive p oble m so lvin g m y even tu lly di scl se eg d in g it

r -
a a o r ar s

supe io ity on thin g i su ely le I n the f ce f m any

r r , e s r c ar . a o

convin cin g d t the t di ti l ttit de f c tem pt f o th e

a a, ra on a a u o on r

a bility of gr up to di ect i t own ctivi ties n d s olve it

a o r s a a s

p blem s collectively i wh olly n j sti fied Th questi n h

ro s u u . e o as

been deci ded n o t by p efe en ti l ttitudes su h

,
n d r r a a ,
c as a a

m i ti on f o the dem c t i c p cess but by n um e ous in

ra r o ra ro ,
r

c on test ble f cts I f the g up “

a a fte n yields supe i p
. ro o a r or er

it i n t bec use i t i bette th n the in di vi du l ”

fo m n
r a ce , s o a s r a a ,

o p e fe
r r ble t h im but be use th st uctu e of the g o up
ra o ,
ca e r r r

situ tion i s h th t it ch llen ges m e v il ble es u ces

a s uc a a or a a a r o r

th n a p ssessed by the i divi d l ut ilizes m e gg

a re o n ua ,
or su es

tion s n d ejects m e b d i de s Thi s i gen e lly t ue

,
a r or a a . s ra r

whethe we c n s i de di sc ssi n g ps de i s i m ki g
r o r u o ro u c on - a n

comm ittees o the peuti c sess i n s S i ce in m y p ob

,

,
r ra o . n an r

l m s it t i n s n in d i vi du l c n n t b in g t o them
e -
ua o a l ge a a o r a ar

v i ety of skills n d d es n t p ossess sufficien t kn w ledge

ar a o o o

a n d w i sd o m t f ce eve y t sk p o ductively the in te g ti n

o a r a r ,
ra o

o f the i de s of seve l i n d iv i du ls in in te cti on wi th n

a ra a ra o e

a n theo i n c e ses the p ob b il i ty o f p duc in g

r r a ect o r a ro a c o rr r

a dequ a te s olution
Othe thin gs be in g equ l the m o e in divi d l es ou ces
.

r a ,
r ua r r

ar e b o ught to be
r on p oblem the g e te the likelih oo d
ar a r ,
r a r

th t th gr up will s olve it c ectly C seq e n tly th t

a e o o rr . on u ,
a

g oup i supe io t sep te in divi du als in p blem s lvin g

r s r r o ara ro -
o ,
 COLLECTIVE PRO BLEM SOLVIN G - 31

wh ich i ble t utilize the c e tive p oten tial of as m ny

s a o r a a

i n d ivi du als n be e ff ect ively b

as ca ught in t o inte ction ro ra

with no the All ese ches on g oup s ize h ve sh own th a t

a r . r ar r a

the p o ductive in te ction s d im in i sh the g up bec m es

r ra as ro o

eithe to sm ll o too l ge Wh ile the e i n o g eem en t

r o a r ar . r s a r

a t the p ese n t reg din g Optim um s ize th g e atest suc ess

r ar ,
e r c

in c o llect ive p ble m s o lvin g i f un d i n s m ll f ce t o fa c e

ro -
s o a a - -

g o ups The e i n thin g in th i s c on clus ion h oweve t o p e

r r s o r, r

F
.
,

cl de e ff ect i ve n ess i n l a ge o ups om p ct i c al st n d

u
g r r r . r a ra a

p oin t in deed it i im p t n t to in vesti g a te l ge gro ups

, ,
s or a ar r ,

such comm un ities p olitic l b o dies an d inte n tion al

as ,
a ,
r a

g oup in gs
r .

I n due tim e we sh ll c i ti c a lly ex am in e the m in f e tu es

a r a a r

of g up dy n m
ro Fo the p ese n t we sh all m e ely c all
a l cs . r r r

a tten t i o n t o a p o ss ible d n ge o f o ve exte n ded ge n e li z

a r r ra a

ti n s eg din g g up supe io i ty in p oblem s olvin g O ve

o r ar ro r r r -
. r

em ph s is on g eem en t can act a n effective b ie t the

a a r s a a rr r o

exp ess i n of bold n d im gin tive i de s Th st ess n con

r o a a a a . e r o

sen sus n d the st on g ten den cy t c n f m t g up st n d

a r o o or o ro a

ar ds m y d i sco u ge i gin lity Th h a z a d in ove st ess in g

a ra or a . e r r r

g up c onfo m ity i th t it en c u ges a g eem en t on m tte s

ro r s a o ra r a r

whi ch m y be f n o g e t c on sequen ce B y thei ve y n tu e

a o r a . r r a r

o i gi
r l i de s
na o f te n d i stu b i n g a n d the dem n d f o co n
a a re r ,
a r

f mi ty m y di sc u ge the i a cceptan ce Th in divi du l

or a o ra r . e a ,

a lwa ys se n s i t ive t o the c i t i c i s m of o th e s m g i ve w r t o a a

y y r ,

a f eeble c m p om i se o I n th i s s i tu tio n n vel i de s

r . e ithe a o a a re r

em scul ted o p em tu ely n ipped in the bud When thi s

a a r r a r .

happen s c e a tive dem c a cy gives w y to unifo m i ty at y

,
r o r a r an

p i ce an d m edi o c i ty is an in esc ap ble c n sequen ce

r ,
r a o .
C H A P TE R

G roup Dyna mics i n

Educa tio n

M sto vestig t s in g o up dyn am i cs h ve sh own n

in a or r a a

i n te est n d deep c o n ce n f o the im pl i c ti on s o f the i fin d

r a r r a r

in gs f diffe en t e s of hum n in te est n d s oc i l a cti n

or r ar a a r a a o .

E duc tion h eceived a l ge sh e f th i s in te est ; n d

a as r ar ar o r a

w h ile e n thus i s m h c om m itted s om e ed c tion i sts to

a as u a

d oubtful n d ex gge ted cl im s eg d in g the le f g oup

a a ra a r ar ro o r

dyn m ics in educ tion l p ol i y n d pl n n in g the eff ect h s

a a a c a a ,
a

been l gely p o s itive Pa ti cul ly s i gn ific n t in th is c onn ec

ar . r ar a

tion i the f ct th t g oup dyn m i cs h helped t m ove

s a a r a as o

e duc ti n a l theo y f om f uitless d i scuss ion to c ollective c

a o r r r a

t ion Th e te chin g le nin g p o cess h s begun to m ove wa y

. a -
ar r a a

f m fo m lism n d utho it i n p a ctices to g o up p ti ci

ro r a a a r ar a r r ar

at i o n a n d de m o c t i c le de sh i p A t t h s m e t im e the
p ra a r . e a ,

c o n ce n f o
r the in d ivi du al le arn e h been givin g g un d
r r as ro

to the devel o p m e n t o f the chi ld in g oup s itu ti on I f o n e a r a .

d o es n o t p ess th hi st o i c al seque n ce too f

r e i t m y be de
r ar, a

sc ibed a the p cess o f ch an ge wa y f om te che o iented

r s ro a r a r- r

a n d ch ild o i e n ted to g o up o i e n ted educ ti n

-
r Th in flu
r -
r a o . e

e nce o f the g o up up on the learn in g s itu tion h as n eve been

r a r

den ied in m de n educ tional th e y n d p cti ce b t i t is

o r a or a ra ,
u

232
234 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMEN T O F G ROU PS
a ch ieve thi s c n d ition g up cente ed edu t s woul d e
o ,
ro -
r c a or r

o g ni ze the sch oo l i n such

r a w a y as to help eve y ch ild t o a r

g in bette un de st n din g o f the ole f the g up in hi

a a r r a r o ro s

educ ti n n d g owth Thi s eo g n iz ti n w uld con s ist f

a o a r . r r a a o o o

a se i es of eff ective g ls such

r te he pup il pl nn in g oa ,
as ac r- a ,

s ci li zed ec it ti n in whi ch g oup d iscuss i w the chi ef

o a r a o r on as

te h ique of te ch in g n d le n in g th pp o tun“
c n a i ty f o e ch a ar e o r r a

h ild t ctu li ze h i p o ten ti lities an d o n D iscip lin e

,

c o a a s a ,
s o .
,

wh i h h been con sum in g p oblem in educ tion th s b

c as a r a u e

c om s e lf dis cip lin — eflecti n as we h ve s id of the

,

e s -
e a r o ,
a a ,

i d i i du l s in teg ti on f beh v i whi ch the g oup defin es

’

n v a ra o a or r

as des i ble ra .

Th m o st m ked ch
e cte i sti c f the g o up dyn m ic
ar a ra r o r -
a

a pp h to educ ti n i the dic l ch n ges in th educ

ro a c a o s ra a a e a

ti n l p
o a g m wh i h it dem nd s Th p fo n dn ess of the
ro ra c a . e ro u

c h ges which it seeks ar so deceptively f m ili th t a t

an e a ar a ,

fi st bl sh they h dly evoke surp i se A t the b o ttom of the

r u ,
ar r .

wh le g oup dyn m ic m ovem en t in educ ti on howeve the

o r -
a a ,
r

i de m y be c o uched i the fi st c o n s i st n t n d th o o ugh

a a s r e a r

g in g emph si s on the huma n fa ctor in th educ tive p o cess

,

o a e a r
—the V i ew th a t educ ti n m ust be c o n ce n ed w i th hum n a o r a

r el tion s
a .
1

VALUE PREMI S ES O F G ROU P C EN TE RED ED UC ATION -

Alth ugh we h ve n t expli citly st essed the un de lyin g

o a o r r

p h i l o s o phy of gro up dyn m i cs i t h been an un st ted a ,

as a

p em ise in the fo egoin g p ges Thi s phil o s ophy while in

r r a .
,

n o w y in c m p t ible wi th
a sci en tific in vesti g ti n of hum n
o a a a o a

r el tion s h as n eve theless p o sed the p oblem s n d infl

a r r a u

d the c o u se of ese arch in g o p dyn m i s S ci e n t ists

,

e n ce r r r u a c .
,

l ike o the ci ti en s h ve s o ci l c n sci en ce d the i go l

r z ,
a a a o ,
an r a

i n g oup dyn m i cs h
r been the a tt inm en t f a eli ble
a as a o r a

kn owledge of th e con d ition s un de whi ch livin g to gethe r r

ca n best be e l ized Th e th ic l m otive i n the wo ds

r a . e a ,
o r r ,

h as gu ided th g e t bulk of ese a ch in g up dyn m ics as

e r a r r ro a

g
w x w w
Th ere i s n o t en o u h e v i den ce h o e v er to re a s s u re o n e th a t th o s e w h o
1
, w ,

q w
e s p o u s e th i s v i e a re a l a y s a a re o f t h e b a fll in g u es ti o n s

a n d th e p a u ci ty o f e p erim en ta l da ta to co n rm th e ir h yp o th es i s
h ich i t rai ses
fi .
GR OU P DYN AM ICS IN EDU CATION 235

it h asin s m e o the sc ie n ces Whethe th i s m o t ive h

o r ve . r as o r

sh dowed c i tic l in telligen ce i

a r f i q esti n ; on the
a s a a r u o

wh le it i equ lly f i t
o ,
s swe th t they h ave been
a a r o an r a

eminen tly success ful in m int ini g n bjective p o s ition a a n a o

Nowhe e m o e th n in educ tion h the p oblem of the

.

r r a a as r

un de lyin g eth ics f g p dyn m ics c n sci usly n d p

r o ro u a so o o a er

s is t nt l
e
y bt ded oi tsel f T
ru h i s i s un de st a n d ble ; f i n n . r a or o

othe re of life except eli gion i the con ce n f the

ar a ,
r ,
s r or

welf e of the g owin g ch ild n d y uth m o e p m un t

ar r a o r a ra o

th n in the schoo l n d college N owhe e else m e th n in

a a . r or a

the educ tion l p o cess i the e th s m e dete m in tion t

a a r s r e a r a o

a i d th child to g in n un de st n din g of the g oup n d hi

e a a r a r a s

fun ction al pl ce in it I n the f ce of these f cts it i n

a . a a s e ces

s y f o u to ex m in e b iefly the v alue p em i ses wh ich

ar r S a r r

eithe implici tly o expli citly guide the use of g oup dyn m ic
r r r -
a

techn i ques in o schools ur .

BA SI C PRE M SE THE DE M O CRA TI C WA Y O F L FE Th

I : I . e

me n in g f dem o c cy is ch cte ized by n il lus ive im

a o ra ara r a s

p li ci t
y B ec. use we t ke de
a m c cy f g n t d a n d seld om
a o ra or . ra e

a k quest io n s
s b o ut it we e n ot w e f h ow difli lt it
a ,
ar a ar o cu

is to defi n e The e a . wi de diffe en ces con ce n in g it m e

r re r r s an

in g n d m n y d ive ge n t a ct i on s n d tt itudes
,
a a e de f e n ded
r a a ar

in it n am e s O e n eed o n ly p ti c ip a te in g ups whe e

. n ar ro r

philo s phe s s o ci l sci enti sts n tu l scien ti sts n d h i

o r ,
a , a ra ,
a s

t i a n a tte m pt t defi n e it t o bec m e w e of the o n fli t

or s o o a ar c c

in g vi ews wh i ch m n f in telli ge n ce n d goo d w ill h ld e o a o

con ce n in g it Wi tho ut in volvin g o u selves in the n i eti es

r . r c

of defin i ti o n we h ll p ese n t th a t vi ew o f d em o c a cy whi ch

,
S a r r

h a m o st di ect elev a n ce to the issues f g o up dyn m i cs

s r r o r a

in educ ti on I f th i s m ini m i zes the p opul

a . ve em ph s is f ar o r a o

p oli ti l o g n iz tion it i s n ot th t the l tte i unim p o tan t

ca r a a , a a r s r ,

but th a t it i t o n a owly con ceived

s o rr .

D mocra cy as a w a y of life This i the vi ew m o st con

e . s

s i t n tl
s e
y esp used by ce t o
a i n m o de n ph il s o phe s espec i lly r r o r a

John D ewey I t g es bey n d the wi desp e d but n ow

,

. o o r a arr

vi ew in whi ch dem o c cy i eg ded s the ule o f the ra s r ar a r

m aj o ity o p li ti c l t ol in t h h n ds f elected offici ls

r r a o a o e a o a .
2 36 CON FLI CT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
A s w y f life dem c cy i a m e n s o f en de in g lif e m e
a a o ,
o ra s a r r or

f ee I t con s i sts f the Sh in g of p owe nd in te ests —

r . o ar r a r a

p o cess of wo kin g to gethe st ivin g to gethe su ffe in g n d

r r r, r r, r ,
a

e n j yin g t gethe I n th is sh in g of in te ests wi th othe s

o o r . ar r r

the in dividu l n c n t ibute hi “ ap t to the um t t l of

ca o r s ar s o a

hum n f eedom A s B o de put it Libe ty g ws the e a

a r .
,
r ro as ar

o f c o mm n i n te ests i wi den ed ”2
o r s .

Th e de m oc t ic v i ew of h u m n n tu ra A s w y of lif e a a re . a a

dem o c cy i deeply c on ce n ed with the s o c i li z ti n of the

ra s r a a o

i n d iv i du l n d wi th h i a l i t n of h i c n st uctive p o ten
a s re a z a o s o r

ti la s Th ex i ste n ce of
. dem c ti c s o ciety d e s n t l n e
e a o ra o o a o

gu ntee self tu li z tion I t do es n ot eq i e exten s ive

a ra -
ac a a . r u r

d ocum en t ti n to establish the f ct th t when dem oc cy i

a o a a ra s

sc a cely m o e th n a p litic l i de olo gy in sti tuti on it vi ew

r r a o a or s

o f the n tu e of m n m a be n o bette
r th n th t o f n a a r a a a
y
a utoc y An d it foll ws th t un de su h ci c m st n ces it
ra c . o a r c r u a

bec m es a tem pt tion f o tho se w h

o esp n s ible f o the
a r o a re r o r

educ tion of ch ild en t f i st the i w n set of h b its up on

a r o o r o a

the pl sti c n d g owi g child Yet the dem c ti c w y f

a a r n . o ra a o

l if e ,such st esses the di gn ity of hum n pe s n li ty I t

as ,
r a r o a .

r espects the w th of eve y in divi du l I t defin es devel p

or r a . o

m e n t n d g wth in te m s of ff d in g eve y i d ivi du l n

a ro r a or r n a a

O pp tu ity f o the full devel pm en t f h i c ompeten ce

or n r o o s ,

a n d the chi evem en t f m tu e self d i ection

a o a r -
r .

E du c ti o n i n dem oc cy G
a p dyn m ics in educ ti n
a ra . ro u a a o

r ests on the ssum pti n th t on of th chi e f im s of ed c

a o a e e a u a

ti n i to s fegu d the dem o c tic w y of lif e An imp o

o s a ar ra a . r

t n t ed c ti n l techn ique f o the e li z ti n of th is en d

a u a o a r r a a o

i g up sh in g n d c o lle t ive le n i n g T d i t io n l te ch
s ro -
ar a c -
ar . ra a a

i n g m eth o d h s bee n te che o i e n ted a the th n g oup a r- r ,

ra r a r

ce n te ed I t t sk h bee n con ceived to be the im p tin g

r . s a as ar

o f i nf o m t i n to d cile ch ild n d th im p o s ition of w ys

r a o a o a e a

o f beh v i n g dem n ded bya n uth o ity ]oh n D ewey lon g

a a a r .

o exp sed th u n de m o c t i c n tu e o f the p o cess W i t

a
g o e ra a r r . r

in g in 1922 he s i d h ply ,
a S ar

2 B B o de ,
. Dem ocra cy as a wa y o f life ( New Yk or : Th e M a cm ill an Co .
,
238 C ONFLIC
D U MENT OF G ROU PS T AND A J ST

of le de sh ip i n te a ch in g d es n o t
a r gue f o te che domi o ar r a r-

n a t io n but f o i n tell i ge n t e ff ts by the te che to f c ili t te

r or a r a a

the p o cess of le a nin g thinkin g n d dem o c a ti c livin g I n

r r , ,
a r .

th is p ocess no s in gle in divi du l—n ot even the te che —i

r a a r s

in d i spe n s ble Te ch in g is i n sh o t a w y f stim ul t in g

a . a ,
r ,
a o a

a n d gu i d i n g the le arn in g n d th in k in g o f g oup — n d th at a a r a

o f the te a che m e m be of the g o up — l n g such li n es of

r as a r r a o

c ha n ge a o g n i zed s o ciety deem s n ecess y o des i ble

s r a ar r ra .

di tion a lly desc ibed

“
Th i s i s p ob bly n whe e m o e t ue th n in the
r a

d isciplin e G o up ce te ed te ch
r
o

as
e t r r

.
r

r
a
-
n r
ar a

a
ra

in g ejects the t a d i t io n l i den t ific t ion

r r f d iscip lin e w i th a a o

pun ishm en t It p o sits o n the c on t y the n eed f o s elf

.
,
ra r ,
r

d is cip li ne A self d i sciplin ed in d iv i du l

.
-
we h ve l e dy a ,
as a a r a

s ai d is on e w h o h s in te n lized the n o m s f the g oup in

,
a r a r o r

s uch w y th t he con s i de s them t be h i ow n the th n

a a a r o s ,
ra r a

a s im p o s i t io n s by o the s He a cts in a g o up app oved w y r . r -

r a

even tho ugh the g oup m y not be p esen t t ew d o r a r o r ar r

p u ni sh h im D i s i pl i n e i s th s fu n d m e n t lly a g o up p o b
. c u a a r r

l em a n d the object t w a d wh i ch the di sc iplin e i d i ected

, o r s r

i n o t o nly th e in d ivi du l but a ls the gr up Th e in divi du

s

al i sm e m e g in g f om th i s fo m o f d i sc ip lin e i n o t
r r
“ ugged ;
a

r
o o .

s r
”

i t i n o t ebelli o n but a uto n om y wi th in

s r ,
collective f am e a r

wo k r

TH E R A TI O N LE AN A F F M A TI O N O F E ND S Th s o ci
.

A : IR . e

o lo gy o f kn o wledge h a m a de m a n y sc i en t ists c on sc io us of
s

the ole of en ds o v lues in shap in g thei obse a ti on s a n d

r r a r rv

co n clus i o n s No in d ivi du al a n esc pe f o m the n ecess i ty of

. c a r

o s i t in g o setti n g up e n ds
r Whe n eve sc i e n ti st selects a n d r a
p .

c al ss ifies d ta choo ses a m eth o d of tt ckin g p blem

a ,
a a a ro ,

f o m ul tes n hyp o thes i s

r a an d d a ws con clus ion he i ,
a r a ,
s

a ssum in g a set of va lues in the light of wh ich h is a ctivi ti es

t ake on m e an in g A schem e of v lues is a system of en ds o. a r

pu p o ses
r .

G oup cha ter of huma n end s T a diti on al v lue theo y

r rac . r a r

u su lly pl ces en ds o v l ues o uts ide th s itu ti on in wh ich

a a r a e a

they a e lleged to ope te—in the in d ivi dual o in G d f o

r a ra r o r

F om the g oup dynam ic poin t of view a goal i

,

e x am ple . r r -
s
GR OU P DYN AMI CS IN ED UCATION 239

n o t s om ethi n g exte n l to ctivity itself ; it i a h ab it aris in g

r a a s

o t u f the n eed f the in d ivi du l to djust h imself t o hi s

o o a a

g oup E nds in th is view e n o t st ive n f

r . as t a d i t i on ar r or,
”
r

would h ve it but e te m s even ts in dyn am ic el a

a ,
ar r or a r

t i o n h ips A s n eve n t in dyn m i c el ti n ship an n d

. a a a r a o ,
e

cann o t be i s ol ted ; it i o th in g p t f m the el tion sh ip

a s n a ar ro r a .

Th go l seeks the in di vi du l m uch the in dividu l

”
e a a as as a

seeks the go al I t i sim il a t o the h bi t of w lkin g a s de s r a a

sc ibed by D ewey n m ely th at w lkin g i s n ff i o f the

.

r ,
a ,
a a a a r

g oun d m uch s f the legs

r as a o .

S oci l natu e of int lligence A dem oc tic objective of

a r e . ra _

educ a tion i the developm e n t f n eff ective s ci l int lli

s o a o a e

gen ce A supe b ex am ple of th i s i telli gen ce i t o be fo un d

. r n s

in sci en tific e ffo ts to con t l the fo ces of n tu e t hum a n

r ro r a r o

en ds Like the co pe a tive in telli gen ce of sc ien ti sts wh ich

. o r ,

rec o gn i zes n o b a i e s o f a ce o n t i o n a l i ty in d i ssem in t i n g

rr r r r a a

disc ve ies so g o up cen te ed educ a ti on aim s to o g n ize

o r ,
r -
r r a

in tell i ge n ce in the i n te est of the c mm on go d Th i s i edu r o o . s

c ti n con ce ived n ot
a o p ep ti n f life but s livin g as a r ara o or a .

It s a im i s to p o duce h b i ts o f th inki n g a n d beh vi o th a t

r a a r

are c n s n n t w i th the a ctu a l l i fe i n wh i ch m n l ive

o o a Thus e .
,

we do n o t y of m an th t he h a cqui ed a dem c ti c
sa a a s a r o ra

educ ti n f o educ a tion as a p t of g oup lif e is n ot

a o r ar r

chi eved but lived D em o c a tic educ tion d es n ot es ide

, , ,

a ,
. r a o r

o uts i de the g up n o in tom o ow s ew d f o to d y s deed ’ ’

ro ,
r rr r ar r a .

It i s ac n tin u us p o cess of g owth an d developm en t goin g

o o r r

o n he e nd n w
r a o

CO NCLUDI NG R MA KS Th dem o c ti c ethi c un de lyin g

.

E R . e ra r v

gro up cente ed educ a tion we h ve s i d i implici tly s

-
r ,
a a ,
s a

sum ed o expli citly st essed by m o st g o up m in ded educ

r r r -
a

t s I n vi ew of the eff ectiven ess f g o p pe fo m n ce the

or . o r u r r a

st ess on c llective effo t i fully justifi ed

r o r s .

The e i s m e te de n cy t ow d excess in th i s d i ecti n

r s o n ar r o ,

howeve which i n t j stified by the subjecti ve n tu e of

r, s o u a r

the v l e p ef e en ces of it dev tees G o up educ tion will

a u r r s o . r a

n o t n ecess i ly ele se c e t ive p o ten t i ls un de

ar r ll ci cuma r a a r a r

stan ces I t i n ot p n ce but o ly on e m eth d amon g

. s a a a a, n o
 40 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
o the s bette th n m n y but n t g o d s om e the s
r ,
r a a o as o as o r .

Th elev a t ion o f the dem o c t i c eth i to ex gge ted

e ra c a ra

hei ghts i p ti cul ly d n ge us firgt bec use it s n cti n s

s ar ar a ro , ,
a a o

g up depe n de ce t of p p ti n to it kn own v lue nd

ro n ou ro or o s a a

m
,

bec se
,
i t f gets i
au t w n st ess n the s
orc i l n tu e s o r o o a a r

o f kn o wledge by gi vi g us m l justifi ti n f o wh t m y
n a o ra ca o r a a

be o nly ultu l t en d I t ffi n
a c ra scien tific e l ity wh t
r . a rr s as a r a a

m y in f ct be m e ely the l test f sh i n I t m kes g up

a ,
a ,
r a a o . a ro

f c on n se h m ny the n ly v lid m e s e of o e s l y
s u s or ar o o a a ur n
’

a lty t d i teg tion with s o ci ety when in f ct the e e

o an n ra , ,
a ,
r ar

o the tests f n e s s oci l bli g ti n s p o in t wh ich g oup

’

r o o a o a o ,
a r

cente ed edu tion seem s t ve l k I n sh t the too

r ca o o r oo . or ,

ze l s exp on en ts of g up dyn m i s infl te the v lue of

a ou ro a c a a

g oup techn i ques n d un wittin gly d ist t the t uth whi ch

r a or r

they h ve them selves helped t est bli sh

a o a .

I t sh o uld be n o ted th t u c iti ci s m i d i e ted n ot a o r r s r c ,

a g in st the ssum pti n f v lue system b t g in st on

a a o o a a ,
u a a c

fus in g it with the wh le f pe s n s s o i l bl i g ti n H v o o a r o

’

c a o a o . a

i n g st essed the i m p t n e o f
r fun d m e n t l g eem en t on
or a c a a a a r

a set f v lues seve l tim es in the p ges of thi s b ok thi s

o a ra a o ,

d istin cti n sh ld be ve y cle Alm o st eve yth i g we h ve

o ou r ar . r n a

w itten th s f p oin ts p the n ecess ity of g eem en t o n

r u ar u a r

c om m n n om s o st n d ds f o
or e ch in g g o p de i s i n s
r a ar r r a r u c o

a n d m k i n g c mm n
a cti n p o ss ible I t m k es n sen se to
o o a o . a o

spe k of g p belon gin gn ess of sub d in tin g on e s wn

a ro u ,
or or a
’

wi shes to the dem n ds f the g o p un less n eco gn izes a o r u ,

o e r

the p we f v lue system in c n t oll in g the cti n s f b oth

o r o a a o r a o o

i n d iv i du ls n d g ups I n a ve y e l se n se bel o n g in g t o
a a ro . r r a

a de m c t i c g o up m e n s ccepti g i t n o m s —but
o ra r n a a n s r co

s ioc ly n d c i ti c lly a the th n bl in dly An in d ivi du al

us a r a ,
r r a .

w ho ,
m em be o f a g o up i f ee to d i se n g ge h im self
as a r r ,
s r a

f m its p essu e f o c n fo m i ty i m o e l ikely to p ti cip te

ro r r r o r ,
s r ar a

c e tively in it delibe tion s n d a ction s th an n w h feels

r a s

he h as bee n st mpeded into g eem en t by the p we a

“ ra
”
a

a r
o e o

o r
”

o f the m j i ty Anyth in g sh o t o f th i s v i l tes

a or . c d in l r o a a ar a

p in ciple of collective a g eem en t n m ely th t even if n ot

r r ,
a ,
a

eve y i n divid l ctively p ticip tes he h th e ss u n ce

r ua a ar a , as a ra
242 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMENT OF GROU PS
ro o m i n st uct i n nd c ic lum ch
r ges They l o equ i e
o a u rr u an . a s r r

an i n tell i ge n t tt ck dm i ist tive fun ction s in u edu

a a on a n ra o r

ca ti n l st uct
o a e Thi s i n e sy t sk f o in ed c ti n
r ur . s o a a ,
r u a o , as

in el i gi o n n d p o l i t i s ch n ges
r a t on ly unw elc m e b t c ,
a a re n o o u

vi go usly com b ted Th t sk i m de m o e d ifficult by the

ro a . e a s a r

f ct th t ch n ges in the scho l p o g m

a a a n ot m e ely o r ra a re r

ch n ges in n in stituti n l st uctu e but f m o p oin t f

a a o a r r ro ur o

vi ew ch ng in th e beha io of p eop le n g ou ps To effect

,
a a e v r i r .

this ch n ge we m ust n de st d n d pply ou n de stan d

a u r an ,
a a r u r

in g to the dyn m i cs of g o up fo m ti n n d c oll ect ive o a r r a o a a

ti n G up dy n m ics wi th it st ess on the g oup “

,

o . ro ap o cess ,
s r r r

a n d g o p le de sh i p c n ce i ved a
r u a dem o c
a ti c ch an ge
r o s ra

a gen t an thus be effectively enlisted in th c ause of edu

,
”
c e

ca

defin ed “
ti o n l dv n cem e n t E duc tio n a l g o up dyn am i cs i thus
a a a

m eth o d o f s o i l en gi n ee in g wh o se o pe ti n g
as a
.

c a
a r

r
s

ra

p ced es i
ro p te b th dem o c tic i de s an d values
ur n co r o ra o ra a

a n d the k n owledge a n d sk i lls elev n t to ini ti tin g n d on r a a a c

t ll in g the ch n ge p cess
ro a ro
”4

ADM N STRA TI O N A ND S UP ER VI S O N Th a dm in ist tive

.

I I I . e ra

f n cti n f the Am e i c n educ tion l system h t di ti n

u o o r a a a as ra o

a lly kept c iti i sm s f its pe fo m n ce bey n d the p le of

r c o r r a o a

the te che s n d the publi c P ese v ti n f th st “

a r a tus q . r r a o o e a uo

h s bee n n f i ts offe n d in g p a cti ces L ike the vested ”

a o e o r . o r

in te ests sch l dm i n i st a t i n s es i st the p b i n g m i n ds of

r ,
oo a r o r ro

c itics lest they di scove co n dition s th t dem d efo m

r r a an r r .

Wh ile m n y h ve h d little espect f o s o ci l scie tists they

a a a r r a n ,

h ave p doxi c ll y a tta cked them f exp o s in g dm ini st

a ra a or a ra

tive we kn ess L ike m n ge s in in dust y w h o a quick to

a . a a r r ,
re

r ecom m en d ch nges in the wo ke s but n t in them selves a r r o ,

sch o l dm in ist a to s expect im p vem en t in the i te che s

o a r r ro r a r

but ign o e the i ow n need f o ch ge Th is m e n t l st te

r r r an . a a

e ects h igh w ll between dm in ist a t s n d te che s n d

r a a a r or a a r a

blo cks c mm uni ca ti n between them When th i s st te f

o o . a o

a ff i s exi sts it n t o n ly b s im p o t n t in te cti on betwee n

a r ,
o ar r a ra

them but c e tes n em otion l con d ition of d ist ust n d e

r a a a r a r

ch a n
4 Kg D Y k
.

e
.

( Ne w
B e nn e
or
a nd

: Th e
.

D
B M un t y a n Huma n
ry de n P re s s I nc , , .
p
l
re at io ns

. 14 .
in cu rricul u m
GR OU P DY NAMI CS IN EDU CATION 243

s n tm n t Th
e e s pe in ten den t f ex m ple will often i gn o e
. e u r ,
or a ,
r

the wi shes of the te che s d the te che s m y f equen tly a r an a r a r

ecoil in an ge S hould they ti c l te the i esen tm en ts the

,

r r . ar u a r r ,

supe in ten den t will c o st ue these a un e s on ble com

r n r s r a a

pl in ts He di gno ses the difficulti es in h i sch l n t

a . a s oo ,
o as a

hum an el tion p blem i volvin g the pe s n l iti es n d

r a s ro n r o a a

p ejudices f supe in ten den t an d te he s l ike but ex

r o r ac r a ,
as

p essi n s of n tip a th i es between p in cip ls n d supe viso s

r o a r a a r r ,

in d iff e e n ce o n the p t of te che s

r n d n u w ill in g n ess by
ar a r ,
a a n

all of the m t o oo pe te in comm on en te p i se I f the

C ra a r r .

supe in ten de n t should suggest

r i n i t i te ch n ges in the or a a

sch ool p o g am the te a che s m y con ceive them a w ste

r r ,
r a as a

of t im e o s the dm ini st ti n s w y f pushin g them ’

r a a ra o a o

aro u nd I f a s oluti on o f the i sh ed difli l ty i s t o be

. r ar cu

effected h weve ppe l m ust be di ected n t t te che s

,
o r, a a r o o a r ,

supe vi s o s o a dm inist a to s
r r ,
sep te i divi du ls but
r r r as ara n a ,

to the i n eed to see it a

r n o g an i z t i n al p o blem f fu n cs a r a o r o a

ti on l g o up
a A ch nn el of c mm un i c tion m ust be est b
r . a o a a

li h d to e n ble e a ch to see the the

s e a fun ction in g m em o r as a

b er of p blem s olvin g g up ; f o obse va ti on n d study

a ro -
ro r r a

Sho w th a t whe n they pe ce i ve i t g oup p blem they r as a r ro

usu lly fa cilita te the th n es ist ch n ge

a ra r a r a .

P e cep tu l ch n g
r Th est bli shm en t of c mm un i c ti on
a a e . e a o a

am on g the v a i o us cl a sses of p eo ple i n v o lved in the t sk

r f a o

educa ti n d o es n ot t ake pl ce a tom ti c lly when they

o a u a a a re

b o ught in t c n t ct wi th on n o the C omm un i c tion is

r o o a e a r . a

a i ded o h in de ed by the pe cepti n whi ch te che s a d

r r r o a r ,

min ist to ra n d supe vi s o s h a ve of n e n o the

rs , a n d f the ir r o a r a o r

comm on p blem s S in ce the dm in i st a to h the p owe

ro . a r r as r

of i n i t i t i o n i n vested i n h im by the n t ur e of h i s o ffice m uch

a a ,

depen ds up on h i willin gn ess to en te t in n w i de s n d s r a e a a

expe im en t with n w p a cti ces I t is n t e sy f h im to

r e r . o a or

a c ept n w i de s bec use

c e like m o st pe ople he i s h n di
a ,
a , , a

c pped by deeply en t e n ched educ tion l folkw ys nd by

a r a a a a

an i n i ti l d i st a st f the un f m ili These ttitudes p esen t

ru o a ar a r

st n g b ie t pe ceivi g educ ti n l p o bl em s in the

.

a ro arr r o r n a o a r

light f ese ch di sc ve i es Thi s h bee n p ti cul ly t ue

o r ar o r . as ar ar r
244 CON FLI CT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
r eg din g the dm ini st to s pe ception of the le of the
ar a ra r
’

r ro

g oup p o cess in educa tion l deci s ion m kin g He is oft en

r r a -
a

un e d y t see the v lue f g o up dyn m ic ese arch espe

.

r a o a o r -
a r ,

c ai lly s in ce by v i tue o f h is t i n in g a n d expe i e n ce he te nd

r ra r s

t o eg d h im sel f
r ar em in en tly fit f o h i o ccup tion I n
as r s a .

thi s ttit de he i f ou se p tly ight but on ly it p

a u s, o c r ,
ar r ,
as a

plies to the ole of in d ivi du l kn owledge n d skill Thi s

r a a .

s m e kn owledge n d skill m y e ithe n ot f un cti n in

a a a r o a

dem o c a ti c lly iented educ ti o l system o ct s se i

r a or a na r a a a r

ou b s i e t o the a tt in m en t of i ts st a ted o bjecti ves The e

a rr r a . r

p ob ably
r f ew sch l dm in i st to s w h do n ot con s i de
a re oo a ra r o r

them selves expe ts in hum n el ti s n d w h o do n ot

as r a r a on a

the e fo e esen t the suggesti n th t f m ili i ty with a n d

, ,

r r ,
r o a a ar

p a tice of the techniqu s f g o up delibe ti n m i ght s olve

r c e o r ra o

m n y o f the i educ ti on l p o blem s They e i the do n ot

a r a a r . r

kn w o v il them selves of the skills wh ich theo y n d

o r a a r a ac

tion ese ch in g o up p o cedu es h ve m de v il ble to

r ar r r r a a a a a

a ny n e w h
o t kes th t o uble to fam ili ize him self wi th
o a e r ar

them I n ste d of p ti cip atin g in the g oup p o cess they too

. a ar r r ,

f equen tly t n ly i t j dges n d c itics

r ac o as s u a r .

The e r n um be areo f eff ect ive w ys i n wh i h g

a up r a c ro

p ti cip ti n c n effect esults whi ch wi ll be of be n efit to

ar a o a r

a ll w h o c n ce n ed wi th the educ ti n of the ch ild F ee

a re o r a o . r

a n d pe m i ss ive d i scuss io n i
r whi ch ev lu tion n d cen s e n a a a ur

pl y n o p t
a

A g oup ce n te ed discuss i n i n ot
r -
r
“
m o e e ff ect i ve th n i c mm o nly e li zed
ar a re r

bull s ess ion f m o s

a

a
s o r
”
a

ro
.

whi ch eve yon e em e ges wi th h i p ejudi es eithe in t ct

r r s r c r a

o r m o e st on gly c o n fi m ed On the c on t
r r y in dem o r . rar ,
a

c tic g up ben t on e ch in g deci s i n s th t w ill ben efit all

ra ro r a o a ,

eve yo n e h t“
r o m uch a t st ke to pe m i t hi m self the l uxu y
as o a r r

of m blin g t l
a ra I f he sh o uld use th e gro up a
a me ns s a a

o f ve n t in g h i w n splee n th o ughtlessly he wi ll be ch l
s o , a

len ged by o the s w h o pe ceive the pu ely in dividu l ole he

r r r a r

i s e n a ct in g A d i scuss io n g o up m o t iv ted by th e f eel in g o f

p a tn e sh ip in Vit l en te p i se is gu ided in it del ibe tion s
. r a

r r a a r r s ra

by the t sk befo e it n d by the st on gly felt n eed to e gu l te

a r a r r a

it beh vi
s in th i te est o f th e g o up
a or ewh“o len A g oup
r r as a . r

d iscuss ion i J enkin s h p oin ted ou t an on goin g

s, as as ,
 246 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
explo ra ti n unless we n lso ecomm en d an d m ove towa d
o ca a r r

a ct i o n
”6
.

Th e lim its fg o c t i c
ro udec i s i
p d
o m k
e ci sion
n . D em o ra -
a

in g in the educ tio n l p o cess we h ve see n is t n ce de a a r ,

a ,
a o

s i ble n d p o ss ible The e i n o pl ce in g up cen te ed

ra a . r s a ro -
r

educ ation f o p ivileged pe s on s o s ove e i gn i de s E ve y

r r r r r a . r

im p o t a n t p oblem i subje t to g o up ev lu a t io n Th p a ges

r r s c r a . e

o f th i s b oo k e eplete wi th the etic l n d p ctic al

ar r or a a ra

den ce confi m in g the fo eg in g sse ti n s H weve s om e

r r o a r o . o r,

students of g oup cen te ed educ tion ten d to c a y“ r -

thei r a rr r

en thus i sm too f a B enn e“a w iti g on the ethi cs f s ci l

r .
,
r n o o a

e n gin ee in g ho lds th t r demo c a ti c m eth o dol gy [ o f

,
a a r o

s o ci l ch n ge ] m ust be nti indiv idu listic He dds f

a a a -
a .
”7
a ,
o

c se th t th is vi ew d o es n t p eclude the developm en t of

ou r ,
a o r

in d iv i du l c e ti ve n ess He fi n ds the
a r a tion le f o hi vi ew . ra a r s

i n n im puted c onf us i n f the eth ics f l ibe l in d ivi du al

a o o o ra

s
“
i m wi th th a t of dem c cy c o n fus i n wh i ch i

b sed n f lse psycholo gy n d nth op olo gy Thi s h w

a o a a
o in t urn
ra ,

a
a

a r
o

.
”
s,

,
o
,

e ve m y be o n ly a c o n tem p o y t en d n d th e psycholo gy
n th op ol gy o n wh i ch he i mpli c i tly b a ses h is o w n Vi ew
r, a rar r ,
a

a nd a r o

o f in d iv i du l i ty m a i tsel f on e d
a be o u t o f f sh i on B e nn e a a
y y .

sees o n ly tw o alte n a tives in d i ected

l ti
ec ve a
“
pl n nin g or elian ce up n p ovi denti l effo t th
s o c i l ch n ge —co l
r

r o
r

r
a

a
”
a

r ,
e

l tte of which o f “
a r c ou se he ejects He a sse ts th t in di
,
r ,
r . r a

v i du li m te n ds t o th e ten the th an p om te the va lues

M o eove he seem s to igno e the di
a s r a ra r r o

o f i n d i vi du l i ty a . r r, r s

clo su es f the s o ci lo gy of knowledge n d d oes n ot ex

r o o a

p l
r
i ci tl
y ec “
o g n i ze th t h i
r o w n p o s i t i on i

p o duct A t ue psych ol gy n d an th op lo gy i full y

. r
p tly
a a cultu r ls

o a
s

r
ar

o s
a

aw ar e of the We tbez iehu ng ch a cte of sci en ti fic i de s r ar r a .

B enn e s defen se of nti in divi dual ism is cc dingly tou

’

a -
a or a r

de f o c
, ,

Th r e ese ches of g o up dyn ami cs show th t the

. e r ar r a

g o up i n o m o e in dispen s ble th n ar the in d ivi duals w h

r s r a a e o

6
Qu o te d
in A ei er, A avi s , a n d F
. M
802—
. D
le ary , Th e n ew l oo in s ch oo l . C k
26
7 KD
a dmin i stra ti o n , E du c L ea ders h i p , 6

B enn e ,
20 4—
. .

7 I ta li cs ours .
D . 9
emo cra ti c e th i cs in social e n i nee rin , P rog res E duc ,
.
g .

g . .
GR OU P DY N AMIC S IN EDUCATION 247

compo se it A t uly dem o c tic g o up i h i ghly sen s itive to

. r ra r s

the wishes f the in d ivi du al B th the g oup and the in dio . o r

vi dual l ck ny p ivileged p o s ition in the f m ewo k of the

a a r ra r

dem o c atic eth ic Unless th is i r the g oup like the kin g . s so , r ,

of ld bec om es a ty nn y in wh i ch subm i ss i on u n de the

o ,
ra r

guise f con sen sus becom es the c ite ion of 0 m] esp ons i
o ,
r r 5 0 r

bili ty . Demo cra tic edu ca tio n is not a n ti- i n div idua lis ti c .

Howeve on m y tion ali ze o glo ss ove the f ct the

r e a ra r r a ,

ar gum en t f o an ti in divi du li sm m kes the in d ividual ndr -

a a a

the g oup nti“ thetic l a the th n in sep a ble To ar ue o n

r a
g a r r a ra .

the b s is f a s o un d n th op lo gy an d psycholo gy th a t so
a o
”
a r o

ci l pl nn in g must be a c ollecti ve e ff o t i t o
a a i se to an in r s ra

t llect al level wh a t i kn own by c omm on se n se n am ely

‘

e u s , ,

th t the g o up i om n ip esen t n d st uctu es the in divi du al s

a r s r a r r
’

life eve ywhe e r r .

Th exp on e n ts o f an t i in divi du l i sm i gn o e the f a ct th t

e -
a r a

thei ph il s phy c e a tes the ve y co n dition s whi ch they

r o o r r

deplo e S om e c e tive in divi dual s eithe flee f om the ol

r . r a r r c

l ti
ec st it j cket dilute thei p oten ti l s o cial cont ib
ve ra -
a or r a r u

ti n by tim id c omp om ises Whyte b a s in g h i a n lys i s f

o r .
,
s a o

th is si tua tion on exten s ive n d do cum en ted evi den ce m akes a ,

a tellin g c omm e n t y n the an ti i divi du li sts whe n he ar o -

n a

w ites r

A
l
com mi t e e t
m em er m i gh b e in clin e d to su
l
b
o rt a n i e a b u t h e i s t pp
fif lt bl t w ll f dwd ,

a s o n o t i n c i n e d to

con stra in e d
g oo d
p ut u

i
mi tteem en w h o are a ter a ll on
p t
H
h
e
e
g h f
ee s a n o by
or it th a

i g
i b e n ee de

a t io n t o h i s

d ob
e ll o

i k
H e is

w ll
co m

f
e h im
.

ly t y d l
.

lf p j
f f l
r in t o
, g o a
g oo , , ,

se So h e com ro m i s e s n ot rom m ere tirni di ty bu t rom a rea

.

w p
de sire to sh o res ec f or th e o i ni o n o f oth ers E v en if h e h a s trou e
t
mu s erin g u p th e re s ect in s om e ca ses h is goo w i m a y m ake h im
t
p
,

p
d ll
b l .

f ei n
g it .
s
,

exp e im en t by M a ie n d S o lem the e de will e

The r r a ,
r a r r

c ll dem n st a ted th a t g o up s thinkin g c n be up g r ded

a , o r a r
’
a a

by pe m i ttin g a n i n d ivi du l wi th a m ino ity op inio n to p e

r a r r

In c
8 W . H Wh y te Ir Th e
.

228
, .
,
org a niz at ion man ( New Yk or : Sim on 8: Schu s ter,
.
, p . .
248 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
sen t h i i de s with o ut fe of ejection Th esults 9

t a in ly do n o t just i fy the ext em e V i ew held by B e nn e

s a ar r . e r cer

nd r a

s om e o the exp on en ts of clo sed system g oup whi ch in

r a r

effect gues the in divi du l ou t of existen ce

ar a .
10

C U CUL UM CHA NGE We do n o t en te t ain the delus i n

RR I . r o

th t we n y nyth in g b o ut the n eed f o ch n ge in the

a ca sa a a r a

scho l cu i culum tha t h n ot been s i d bette n d in m e

o rr as a r a or

det il by o the s S in ce howeve o n c ann o t w ite on g oup

a r .
,
r, e r r

dy n m ics in educ tion with o ut givin g s om e tten ti n to the

a a a o

cu i culum we sh all ex m in e th p blem b iefly

rr ,
a e ro r .

A l n g st n din g c m pl in t of c itics of the school u

o -
a o a r o r

i u l m but n e wh i ch seld om d o es m uch t o im p rove the

r c u ,
o

c n dition s whi ch e deplo ed i th t it i s n ot ge ed t the

o ar r ,
s a ar o

ch ild en f o wh o se educ tion l welf e it w des ign ed Th e

t dition l Vi ew c on ceives the cu ic lum n owly
r r a a ar as .

ra a rr u a rr a s co n

s istin g of subject m a tte n d the “ m eth d f te chi n g i t r a o o a .

While it i des i gn ed to p o duce thinkin g in divi du l in

s r a a ,

p a cti ce the emph s is i on c n f m ity t n uth i ty

r a s o or o a a or ,
u su

a lly the te che Th m etho d of te ch in g i usu l ly i gi d n d

a r . e a s a r a

a utho i t a i a n wi th l i ttle O pp o t un i ty f o
r r ,
the in qui i g m in d r r r n

to f ll ow i t
o w n i n te ests Th t the te a ch in g p o edu es
s o r . a r c r

f eq en tly go c unte to wh t m o de n psych l o gy h di

r u o r a r o as s

c ve ed to be the devel opm ent l p a tte n of child en an d

o r a r r

y uths seem s h dly to distu b it p a ctition e s

F m the g up dyn m ic View the cu iculum is m o e
o ar r s r r .

ro ro -
a rr r

th an subject m tte n d m etho d o f imp tin g it to m e o a r a a ar or r

less willin g ecip ie n ts I t ls o in v lves pe ple in in te ct ion

r . a o o ra

with on ano the Ch n gin g the c iculum to fit the n eeds

e r . a u rr

o f ch i ld e n n d a dults i n l i v i n g c mm un i t ies in v l es n o t
r a o o v

o n ly the del ibe tion s of th o se w h e offici lly des i gn ted

ra o ar a a

t pe fo m the ta sk but of the e n ti e educ ti n l om

Ali ce M i el h em ph tic lly
o r r r a o a c

m un i ty Th c i culum
. e u rr ,
as as a a

shown i ev yt hing th t h pp ens to you ng p eop le in o n

,
s er a a c

M
N
q g
Solem Th e co n trib u ti on of a di s cu s si on
and

g ff
9 . R . F . a i er A . R .
,

l e a der to u a li ty of ro u p th inkin : th e e e cti v e u s e o f m i n o ri ty

th e
2 7 7—
o p i n io n s , Hu m R e la t 5
1 0 Fo r re o rts o n re ce n t s t u di es
p
I s o c I ss ues , 1 0, No 2
. .
. 88
p ertain in
.
,

to s ch o o l a dm in i s tra ti on s e e
.
.

g ,
25 0 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
a ssum pt i o n s wh i ch by n ow sh o uld be f m il i t o the e a de a ar r r .

Th fi st ss m pt ion w a th t the te che s them selves

e r a u s a a r

m ust des i e ch n ge befo e ch n ge c o uld be eff ected Th i s

r a r a .

des i e w as b o ught ab out by en abli n g the te che s to study

r r a r

the p oblem s by en o u gin g them to ch oo se le de s f om

r ,
c ra a r r

the i o w n nks n d by m ki g it p o ss ible f o the publi c to

r ra ,
a a n r

r eco gn i ze thei con t ibuti n t the on g in g ese ch These

r r o o o r ar .

thin gs we e imp t n t to the te che s beca use they inf o m ed

r or a a r r

the m f the i ow n competen ce in stilled p o fess ion l p i de

o r ,
r a r

in them nd i sed the i st tus in the omm un i ty

th t te che s by Virtue of
,
a ra r a c .

Th seco n d ssu m pt io n w
e a as a a r ,

thei speci l t alen ts n d in s i ghts e ble to m ke a sub

r a a ,
ar a a

s t n ti l c o n t ibut i o n t o the f
a a m ul ti on f
r sch l p g m or a o a oo ro ra .

Te che s
a in the st a teg i c p s i t i n of se n s i n g n d
r a re al t r o o a ev ua

in g the e ct io n s o f ll th o se w h
r a a i nv lved in com a o re o re

m e n din g ch n ges —pup ils p e n ts a dm in i st a to s

a nd ol ,
ar ,
r r ,
a c

le gues
a .

Th th i d a ssum pti o n w
e th t ch n ges ar effected by
r as a a e

the te che s n ot by the p g am itself Th i s involved a

a r ,
ro r .

syn ch on i za tion of the te che s v lues wi th th v lues of

r a r
’

a e a

the en ti e p o g am Un less the e i a felt c om p tib ili ty b

r r r . r s a e

twee n the tw o sets of v lues the te che s p t ic ip tion i a ,

a r
’

ar a s

l ckluste n d she expe i en ces n ge n uin e ch n ge in h

a r, a r o a er

self H effect n h p p ils i n o existen t t iflin g

. er o er u s n or r .

Th fo u th ssum pt i n w
e r th t te che s gi ven the p
a o as a a r ,
o

t n it e g l d i ected an d o i n v o lved in the i w k

p or u
y ar
g oa r e r or
- -
.
,

Th i s pu p o se a n d in vo lvem en t esulted in th e ccept n ce f

r r a a o

them selves o the s n d the t sk to be pe fo m ed Pe s on l

,
r ,
a a r r . r a

i n v o lvem e n t e n c u ged by f ee n d cceptin g s o ci l t

,
o ra a r a a a a

m ph os led t g oup in volvem en t an“

ere , d t k o ien t ti n
o r as r a o .

Th utho s s i gn ific n tly dd th t the p oject eff ected

e a r a a a r

ch n ge in bo th p o g m nd in te che s by ec gn izin g th t
a r ra a a r r o a

wh t ppe s t be te che es i st n ce to ch an ge i e lly

a a ar o a r r a s r a

r es i st n ce to m eth o ds o din ily used to in t o duce ch n ge

a r ar r a ,

an d by subst i tut i n g m eth o ds th t do n o t i n n d o f the m a a

selves in duce esi st an ce r .

15 I bid .
, p 29 2
. .
GR OU P DYN AMI C S IN ED UC ATION 25 1

THE TE CH I NG PR O C E SS Te a ch in g in the U n i ted S t tes

A . a

h as un de go n e i gn ific n t ch n ges du in g the p a st ce n tu y

r S a a r r .

I t beg an s teach a o i en t e d p
a ctice Whe e th is o i en t
er- r ra . r r a

ti on p eva ils the pup il is hn t wh olly depen den t up on the

r ,
a os

te cher an d is expected to th ink n d t in w ys wh i ch

a a ac a a re

“ ccept a ble to h e Th e te a che s fun cti n i to m in t a in

’

a r . r o s a

disciplin e d i ect th ch ild s d inkin g nd beh vio in to

,
r e
’
r a a r

con f m ist p a tte n s a nd to co n cen t te lm o st exclus ively

or r ,
ra a

o n subject m a tte I n th i s p o cess the gu i d n ce o f the ch i ld

r . r a

t w d bec m in g n in depe n de n t but s o ci lly esp on s ible

o ar o a a r

ci tizen i a dven ti tious a the th an cen t l Af te the tu n f

s r r ra . r r o

the cen tur y te ch i g g du lly devel oped th nks to J ohn

a n ra a a

D ewey nd the philosophy of p o g essive education into

,
”
a r r

ctice Wh ile D ewey h im self n eve sub

,

a ch i ld o ie nt ed p
-
r ra . r

sc ibed to the excesses p cticed in h i n m e m n y well

r ra s a ,
a

m e a n in g im i t a t o s h a ve helped to gi ve p g ess i ve educ

r ro r a

tion n ega tive eput tion whi ch it ill deserves

a r a -
.

Ch ild cen te ed te chin g eco gn i zes th im p o tan ce of the

-
r a r e r

g oup Th te che s fun ction i to give eve y ch ild an op

r . e a r
’

s r

o t n it
r u t o bec o m e cqu a in ted w i th m e m be s f the gro up
p y a r o

but n o t to in s ist th t he becom e a p a ti cip tin g m em be if

a r a r

he do es n ot wish to do o Alth ugh the te a che a cts a a s . o r s

gui de she ful fills this fun ction o n ly t the child s equest
, a
’

r ,

or volun t a il y in s i tu a tion s whe e he m i ght h a m othe s o

r r r r r

him self D ispla y of utho ity i m in im ized n d the g e a test

. a r s ,
a r

st ess i pl ced on the tt inm en t of in depen den ce

r s a a a .

A thi d app oa ch to te chin g is g ou p o iented A cco d

r r a r -
r . r

in g t o it dvo c a tes this is dem o c a ti c educ tion a t its best /

s a r a . 1

I nte dep e n dence i the w tchwo d o f g o up o i en ted edu

r s a r r -
r

c ti on n ot only bec ause dem oc a tic ally it i des i ble but

a , r s ra ,

bec a use in p a ctice in te depen den ce i in esc ap able Th

r r s . e

fun ction of the te che i n t to c ompel a pe su de the

r s o or r a

ch ild to be m embe f the g o up but to help h im t fin d h is

a r o r ,
o

fun ction l pl a ce in it th t i to fa cilit te h is a ctive p arti ci

a ,
a s, a

p tio in the ffa i s f g oup li in g I n thi s f m of educ a

a u a r o r v . or

tion the child th ough the ve y ct of p a ticip ti on de

,
r r a r a ,

v el o s an i n c e s in g m e su e of esp o n s i b i li ty f o sel f di
p r a a r r r -

r ection an d decisi n m kin g I t i s D ewey s i de a c i ed to

o -
a .
’

a rr
25 2 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
i t l o gi c l c n clus i n the i de th t gen u in e dem o c cy ca n
s a o o : a a ra

be est bl ished n ly when o u sch ools en co u ge in divi du ls

a o r ra a

t o devel p f ee nd c itic l in telli gen ce D em o c tic o

o a r a r a . ra r

g o up i en ted te ch in g then i w y of life a m e n s of

r -
or a , ,
s a a ,
a

r en de in g life m o e f ee
r r r .

The e i n o bette s o u ce f i n f m ti n eg d in g the e

r s r r o or a o r ar r

su lt o f g o up
s i en ted educ ti n th n the ep o t of the P o
r -
or a o a r r r

g i
re s s v e E duc a t i n A ss c i t i o n n the expe im e n t
o f thi ty o a o r o r

sec n d y sch ols un de it sp on s sh ip Although the

o ar o r s or .
16

chi ef go l of th is study w cu i culum e o g n i za tion the

im p ovem e n t of te ch i n g w s n im p t n t o bject ive M o e
a as rr r r a ,

r a a a or a . r

th n h lf f the sch ls ep ted th t pup il te che pl n

a a o oo r or a -
a r a

n in g w esp s ible f o m n y f v ble tc m es G up

as r on r a a o ra ou o . ro

a ctivity w foun d to be as im p t n t use of in c e sed an or a ca r a

m ti v t i n es o cefuln ess s c i l esp n s ib ili ty n d

o a o ,
r ur n ,
o a r o ,
a a se

s iti ve reg d f n d ccept n e f the s

ar or a a a c o o r .

EDU C ATION AL LEAD E RSHIP

E ve n this b i ef di scuss i n f the p blem s of g up dy
r o o ro ro

n mi
a in educ ti o n h i ghl i ghts the im p o t n e of le de sh i p
cs a r a c a r

no t n ly i n
o dm ini st tive n d cu i ul ch n ges b t in
a ra a rr c ar a u

te chin g m etho ds well Wh ile m st people w h bse ve

a as . o o o r

a n d eflect up n the p o ble m s

r f ed c ti n
o n see the n eed r o u a o ca

fo r e in te p etin g n d m d if yin g dm in ist tive p cti ces

r r r a o a ra ra

a nd ve h ulin g o utm o ded cu icul they ten d t f get the

o r a rr a, o or

te chin g fun ction in the t t l educ tion l econ st ctio

a o a a a r ru n .

Th te che i st ill too c omm o nly c on ce i ved

e a r s n un de as a r

li g w h o m ust t k de s f m the t p While she h s

n
”
a e or r ro o . a

ste dily g in ed in d i gn ity n d st tus she h s n o t been

a a a a a

G oup n
,

gen e lly con ceived

ra n educ t i o n l le de as a a a a r . r -
ce

t e re d ed c ti n h oweve h a been c o ectin g th i s de f ect

u a o r, s rr ,

a n d the te che o le cl ss oom le de is ap i dly be in g

a r5 r as a a r a r r

r eco gn ized
E LY S TUDIE S We h ave“l e a dy n o ted the ole f the
.

AR . a r r o

le a de in the fo m tion of s oci l clim tes Th e study by

r r a a a .
”

Yk
or
g 16 Pro
: Harp er
re s s i v e E du ca ti o n As s o ci ati on , Th irty
81 B ros , .
sch oo l s t e ll th ei r s to ry ( New
25 4 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
truly a p ar ticip an t an d whe e if c a ied to it lo gi c al on r ,
rr s c

clu io n s she becom es lm o st s pe fluo us I n the g o up

,
a u r . r

cen te ed cl ss oom at it best the educ ti n en te p i se i a

r a r s a o r r s

coope tive en de vo in wh ich eve y n e in volved i p

ra a r, r o s a ar

ticip a tin g m e mbe S elf disciplin e the th n free wheelin g r .

-
,
ra r a -

o r pu n i t i ve m e su es is i t s m t iv a t in sp i i t
g a r ,
o r .

An de s on n d B ewe in thei com p a tive s tudy of

r a r r, r ar

te a che domin ted n d dem o c ati c tm o sphe es in the cl ss

r- a a r a r a

r oom fo un d im p o t a n t difl
,
n s i n beh a v i o l o utcom es
r e re ce ra .

I n the cl ss om whe e the te che w

a ro b a sic a lly a dom in a n t r a r as ,

o de in g a n d fo b i dd in g i n d iv i du l
r r -
the studen ts displ yed
-
r a ,
a

self cente edness frust a tion h o stility an d s o ci lly n eg tive

-
r ,
r , ,
a a

beh avi or In the dem oc tic f ee atm o sphe e in whi ch the

. ra ,
r r r

te a che w as el axed an d n o m lly pe m i ssive the studen ts

r r r a r ,

we e f i en dly c oope tive a d s ci lly c n st ucti ve in thei

r r ,
ra ,
n o a o r r

r el a tio ns with on an o the e r .

18

I n n a tte m pt to test C a n t o s the o y o f n on d i ect ive

’

a r r -
r

gro up in st uction th a t is in st uction n ot by m e an s of lec

r r

tu e but th o ugh cl ss discuss ion G ss foun d fu the on

, ,

r s r a ,
ro r r c

fi m tio n of the supe i o i ty Of the g up ce n te ed t th

”
r a r r ro -
r o e

te che d om in“
a ted cl a ss o m atmo sphe e G ss c om p ed
r- a r o r . ro ar

the de g ee f self in s ight a chi eved by C n to s well kn own

r o -
”
a r
’
-

m etho d f te a chin g n d th t of g up des i gn ted a D o e s

’

o a a a ro a s

g up Altho ugh th n um be f c ses studied by G ss in

ro . e r o a ro

the tw o g oups w t sm ll n d th st n d d devi ti n

r as oo a a e a ar a o

o f the s am ple w t l ge f o ny m e n in gf l pplic tionas oo ar r a a u a a

of i go o us st ti sti c a l f o m ul s
r r hi i n vesti g ti o n le n ds
a r a ,
s a

we i ght to the in te p et tion th t C n t s m eth o d do es n r r a a a or

’

c u ge the devel pm en t o f self in s i ght n the p t f

o ra o -
o ar o a

m j i ty of the tuden ts th ough i t m y f i l to e ch

a or s e ,
a a r a a c r
”1 9
t in m in o ity of eve y cl a ss
a r r .

In study de l in g m o e di ectly w i th th e ff ect f the

a a r r e o

s o ci al an d emo tiona l clim ate of the cl ss om up n the le n a ro o ar

i n g p o cess With a ll a dds m e co n fi m in g evi de n ce t the

r ,
or r o

18 H H An ders on
. . an d J w
. Bre er, Stu di e s Of te a ch ers
’
l
c a s sroo m p er

L x
A p p l Ps y ch ol M on og r ,
s o n a l i tie s : I .
, . . . No 6 .

Gro s s , An e p eri m ent al s tu dy

g of th e li di ty of
19 . va th e n on -directi v e
m eth o d of te a ch in , I Ps y ch o l , 2 6 . . 24 6 .
GR OU P DYN AMIC S IN EDUCATION 55

im p t a n ce of the te a che
or n d the a tm o sphe e wh i ch he r a r

c e a tes in the beh vio of the studen t A domin tin g h o

r a r . a ,
s

tile an d ep essive te che h a d isp i itin g effect up on the

,
r r a r as r

stude n t a nd n tice bly inte fe es wi th the effectiven ess f

o a r r o

hi le n in g
s Th i s i s c o n s i ste n t wi th a well est bl i shed
ar .
20 -
a

fin d in g in in divi dua l psycho lo gy n am ely th t em o ti n a l , , a o

d istu b nces and excessive anxie ty ten d to d is o g n ize le a n

r a r a r

in g n d th in k in g
a .

RE C NT S TUDIE S M any s tudies of the effect of le de ship

E . a r

in the cl ss m h ve a ppe a ed s in ce 19 50 L ck f sp a ce
a ro o a r . a o

p ecludes a deta iled desc iption an d c i tic l ev lu ti on of

r r r a a a

these in vest i g ti on s We sh all b iefly exami n e a few of

a . r

them as well s on e study wh ich c n t a dicts or a t le a st

, a o r ,

se io usly question s the “

r esults o f the o the s r r

I n a speci a l i ssue o n C l ss oom D yn am i cs publ i shed in

.
,

a r ,

th Jou n l of E du ca ti ona l R es ea ch seve a l goo d studi es

e r a r r

t ke up the i ssue f cl ss om le de ship F l n de s in an

,

21
a o a ro a r . a r ,

in vesti g tion o f the o le of pe s o n a l s o c i l

a n x i ety i n th e r r -
a a

le n in g p cess foun d th a t self cente ed n d d om in a tin g

ar ro -
r a

te a che s gen e ted an xiety ho stility and a gg si ne in

r ra , ,
res v ss

child en whe e s cceptin g an d supp tin g te che s elici ted

r ,
r a a or a r

ve y little nx iety an d in duced in divi du lly an d so ci ally

r a a

con st uctive beh vir Fu the mo e in the le a ne cente ed

a or . r r r ,
r r- r

te a che beh avio the studen t s bility to ec all an d el bo a te

r r
’

a r a r

the m a te i al s which they we e a sked to le a n we e b o th

r r r r

g e a te th an in the te a che cen te ed s itu tion I n s om e

r r r- r a .

c ses emo tion al di s integ tion w elicited in the dem an d

a ra
”
as

in g n d te che
a supp o tin g a tm o sphe e whe e a s in the
a r r r ,
r

a ccept n t a n d p oblem o i en ted cl ss om em o tion l e a d

a r -
r a ro a r

j ustmen t f equently took place r

Fu the supp t f o the supe io ity of g o up cente ed

.

r r or r r r r -
r

te a chin g is fo un d in a study by B eh ge especially in an a ,

20
JW
i th all , Th e de ve lo p ment of a techn i qu e for th e me as urement
.

clima t e in clas srooms , P h D

of
C g
s o cia l -em oti ona l

hi ca o , 1 9 48 .
di s s erta ti on , Uni v ersity . . of

Ng
V o l 4 5 , No 2
f x
21 . .

A Fla n ders , P ers o n a l-soci a l a nxi ety p eri men tal

22 . . as a actor in e

l e arni n s i tua tio n s , educ R es , 45 , N o 2 . . . 1 00 - 1 10 .

256 CONFLICT AND A DJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
a tm o sphe e o f stude n t te che pl n n in g
r C oope a tive pup il -
a r a . r

te che pl nn in g i m etho d by whi ch a p oblem o ien ted

a r a s a r -
r ,

expe imen t l m in ded g o up can dete m in e its go als n d

r a -
r r a
”2 3
di ect it eff ts tow d the a ch ievem en t of tho se go ls
r s or ar a .

Th study c o ve ed a pe io d o f th i ty weeks in tw o e i ghth

e r r r

de s c i l stud i es cl a sses a t the U n ive s i ty o f C h i c a g o

g ra o a r

L b o ato y S cho l In the expe im ent l g oup the te che

a r r o . r a r a r

an d pup i ls c o pe a ti vely w ked o t the specific objectives

o r or u

o f the cl ses an d deci ded on the m e an s by wh ich the en ds

as

we e to be a tt in ed
r a

Th e esults we e n alyzed b y m e a n s o f a egr ess ion equ

.

r r a r a

tion b a sed on sco es f o the con t ol g oup f o p edi ctin g the

fin l co es f subjects in the expe im en t l g o up Th t
a s r or
r
“ r r

r
r

a
r

r
r

. e
”

test of s i gn ific n ce w ppl ied to the diffe en ces b tween

a as a r e

m n s of the o btained an d p ed i ted sc es Th d iffe en ces

ea r c or . e r

a
r
“
o ve whelm in gly fa v o ed the expe im e n t a l g o up a n d sh o wed

th t the l tte w a m kedly supe io to the con t ol g o up

a r s
r

ar
r

r r
r ,

r r

in the i bility to di sc im in a te between e a s on s whi ch sup

r a r r

p o ted the i hoices of ction n d tho se which did n ot

r r c a a .
”

Th e study sh o ws i n sh o t th a t bette w o kin g el a ti on shi ps

,
r ,
r r r

m y be e ff ected m e qu i ckly in the pup il te a che pl anni n g

a or
“ r
-

g oup th n in the t a dition al te a che o i en ted cl ss o m !1

l in es w m a de by M J
r a r r -
r a r o

An in te estin g study al n g s im ilr o ar as . .

A sch f n on d i “ oective te chin g in psycholo gy His a im in

r a
!5

thi s s t u dy w to ev lu te the ve ll e ffect ive n ess o f n o n

as a a o r- a

d i ective te ch in g of a n un de g dua te cou se in psycholo gy

r a r ra r

as c om p ed t the t dition l lectu e di scuss ion m eth d ”

ar o ra a r -
o .

Th subjects of the expe im en t we e 1 24 stude n ts in the

e r r

sec n d sem este of ye c ou se in gen e l psych olo gy

o r a ar r ra .

They we e d ivi ded in t o th ee c o n t l g o ups n d n

r
p e i r ro r a o e ex r

m en t l g oup an d a ll w e t ught by the in vest i g t o

a r ,
Th e er a a r .

expe im en tal cl ss w as non di ective in which th subjects

r a r ,
”
e

23 KJ . . B eh a
dire ct ed p ro cedures i n ei h th ra de
g e, A
g g
com p a ri s o n of p up i l te a ch er p l an n in
-

s o ci al s t u di e s cla ss e s ,
g an d

e duc
tea ch e r
. R es .
,

4 5 No 2,

24 I bi d
. 111
S e e ur th er H
. f
P er in s
1 1 5—
.

li m a te in u e n ce s . V k C .
, fl g rou p l e arni n g ,

25 M
I educ R es 45 , No 2.

J .
, 19
As ch , Non di re ctiv e t ea ch in
. .

s tu dy , P s y ch o l M on og r , 6 5 No 4 .
.

i n p sy ch olo y :
-

.
,
g .
.

g an e xp eri m en tal
25 8 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
p blem s were used f o b o th g oups t the n d of the
ro r r a e

co u se r .

Th hyp o theses to be teste d by the expe im en t h ve bee n

e r a

the subject m tte f g o up dyn m ics f a l n g tim e n d a r o r a or o ,

a

h ve been on the wh ole con fi m ed by a v i ty f studies of

a r ar e o

g oup beh avio They m y be st ted b iefly a s fo ll ws ( 1 )

r r . a a r o :

studen ts f v dem c ti c cl sses ; ( 2 ) they a ccept thei own

a or o ra a r

decis ion s m o e e dily th n tho se m de by the in st ucto ;

r r a a a r r

( )
3 de m o c a t i c cl a sses m e e
r ff ect i ve th n lectu e cl sses a re or a r a

in gen e t in g dem c a t i c tti tudes ; n d 4 ) studen ts le n

ra o r a a ar

m o e in dem c ti c th n in lectu e cl sses

r o ra a r a .

Th hyp o theses we e c o n fi m ed but i n v yi n g deg ees

e r r ,
ar r .

P ti cul ly imp o t n t
ar ar the“esults eg din g dem o c a ti c
r a a re r r ar r

a ttitudes The e we e onl y sm all in c on s iste n t ch n ges in

r r a

tti tude in b th the dem c ti c and lectu e g oups N e i the

.
,
”
a o o ra r r . r

the lectu e m eth o d n o the dem o c tic pp o h h d n y

r r ra a r ac a a

con s i ste n t effect Atti t de ch n ge c n s i sted n t p im ily u a o o r ar

in the i de m c t i z t io n but in the i te n de n cy t o confo m t o

.

r o ra a r r

th e n orms o f the g o up — fi n d in g c o n fi m ed by n um e o us r a r r

studies f the g o up p o cess A ga in while the dem o c ti c

o r r .
,
ra

cl sses g ain ed m o e knowledge th n th e lectu e cl sses the

a r a r a ,

diffe en ce w s n t s i gnific n t Th expe im e n t st on gly sug

r a o a . e r r

gests th t the dem o ti c cl sses we e g p ien ted whe e

a cra a r ro u -
or ,
r

a s the lectu e cl a sses were g de o ien ted A w n in g i

r ra -
r . ar s

suggested by the esults to the ext em i“ sts n d in do ct in to s

r r a r a r

i n g up dyn m i cs i n the f ct th t the i s ol ted in d iv i du li st

ro a a a a a

m de the g e a test c a de m i c im p o vem en t

”2 7
a r a r

o hn s o n n d S m i th suggest th ee hyp o theses b sed o n th i

.

j a r a e r

in te p et a tio n o f the esults o f the i expe i m e n t wh i ch p

r r r r r ,
ra c

t iti o n s in g o up dyn m i cs in the cl a ss oom m i ght fi n d use

er r a r

ful They sse t th t the m o st eff ective cl ss i ne in whi ch

. a r a a s o

( 1 ) the subject m tte fa cili t tes te am w k ; ( 2 ) the g d a r a or ra

in g system p ovi des group eward ; n d ( 3 ) the in st uct

r a r a r or

is a cceptin g n d deleg tes con s ide ble amoun t of uth

a a a ra a or

ity to the cl ss a .

A s so ofte n h ppe n s in ese a ch especi ally in the b a r r , e

h v io al sc ie n ces wh a t i s est abli shed by s om e goo d i n vesti g a

a r ,

27 I bi d .
, p . 17 .
GR OU P DYN AMIC S IN EDU C ATION 259

t i n s is ch llen ged o c n t dicted by st ill o the s L e nin g

o a r o ra r . ar ,

i t seem s ce t a in d iffe s w i th b o th in d ivi du als n d g o ps

r ,
r a r u ,

a n d g o o d te a ch in g i s g o o d wh teve techn i que o f in st uct i o n ,

a r r

i s used .

An expe im e n t by Wi sp e ch allen ges s om e w i dely a ccepted

r

c on clus i o n s of g o up ce n te ed te a ch i n g Th a uth 28
r w s -
r . e or a

a re
r
“ “
in te ested in fi n d in g a n swe s to th ee question s ( 1 ) Wh a t
the effects of di ective n d pe m i ss ive te chin g! ( 2 ) r
”
r

a
r

r
:

How do d iffe e n t kin ds of stude n ts e ct t o the tw kin ds

r r a o

o f te ch in g m eth o ds !
a ( )
3 Wh a t a the v a i a bles f o n re r r a a

t hey p ed i ct !
“
ly in g esults o n the fin l ex m in a t io n s
r n d h w well do

Di ective te achin g w defined ope tion lly

r r
a
”
a

as
,
a o

ra a

a s subject cen te ed fo m l n d h i ghly st u tu ed Pe m i s

-
r ,
r a ,
a r c r . r

s ive te chin g w studen t ce n te ed in fo m l n d u n t

”
a as -
r ,
r a ,
a s ru c

t u ed r Th e expe im en t w a pe f m ed n e i ght sect i on s f r s r or o o

y co se in S ci l R el ti n s t H v d which
.

a n ele m e n t ar ur o a a o a ar ar

we e m a tched on the follo win g i tem s n objective p etest

r : a r

o n the c n te n ts of the c u se o S ch l stic Aptit de Test o r ,

o a u

sc es secon d y school b a ckg oun d the ye a in college

or ar r r

F
, , ,

“
a n d the s i ze o f e a ch cl ss u
by the di ective m etho d an d fo u by the pe m issive
r
“
f the cl sses we e t ught
”
a . o r o

r
a r

r
a

.
”

A t the fin l m eeti n g o f e ch cl ss the stude n ts we e given a

a :
a a r

TAT typ e test a n d a sen ten ce co m plet io n test in o de to

- -
r r

e l i ci t the m e b s ic a ttitudes tow a d the cl sses n d the

or a r a a

i n st ucto sr r .

Th e det ils of the study a n d the expe im e n t l m n ipul

a r a a a

t io n of the d t a t oo in t i c te t o exp o un d w i th in the l im i ts

a a re r a

o f th i s ch a pte Of c uci l in te est to the g up dyn m ic

r . r a r ro -
a

a pp o ch t o educ a t i o n i
r a the esults Th fin din gs m y be s r . e a

b iefly summ a i zed

r r .

Th e pe m i ss i ve g oups we e ch a cte i zed by stude n t

r r r ar r

p ar t i c i p a tio n stude n t in st uct o i n te

,
ct i on kee n i n te est -
r r ra , r ,

hum o an d m utu al ccept n ce Th d i ective g o ups we e

r, a a . e r r r

m e c u se elev n t n d d i spl a yed the o the ch ar cte i st i cs

or o r -
r a , a r a r

to lesse deg ee A ltho ugh the pe m i ssive section s we e

a r r r r

e n j yed m
.

o e the d i ective section s we e p efe ed by mo st

or ,
r r r rr

28 L . G . Wisp e E v a lu a ti n
, g s ec ti o n te a chi n g m eth o ds in th e in tro du ctory
c o u rs e , I . e du c . R es 45 .
, 1 6 1—86 .
260 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
o f the stude n ts bec use

cle ly defin ed n d beca use of the i p esum ed v lue in

ar
“
Wi p p o in ts o t they we
a
a , as s e

r r
u ,

a
re

p ep in g f o ex m in ation s Th e tw o g o ps fu the m e
r ar r a . r u ,
r r or ,

showed n o si gn ifican t d iff e en ces on th e fin l ex am in tion r a a

when t ken as wh ole but when the tw o te chin g m eth o d

a a ,
a s

we e ex am ined f thei effects on the students it w a fo un d

r or r ,
s

th t the di ective g ps helped the p oo e students m o

a r ro u r r re

th n did the pe m iss ive section s

a r .

E ven m o e im p o t n t pe h ps th n the esults of th

r r a ,
r a ,
a r e

e xpe im en t i it implic ti n f o te a ch in g It ch llen ges th

r s s a o r . a e

ra the in d isc im in te p ise nd use of the pe m i ssive m e tho d

r r a ra a r

by sh win g th at pe s on lity v i bles a imp o tan t I t

o r a ar a re r .

st on gly gues f o an in telli gen t c on s i de tion f the stu

r ar r ra o

den t s em tion l nd in tellectu l n eeds in deci d in g wh t

’

o a a a a

kin d f in stru cti n will ben efit h im m o st Te a ch in g and

o o .

le n in g m ust be vi ewed exclus ively n ei the in te m s of p

ar r r er

s on l it
y va i bles no g o up dy
ar an m i cs but i n te m s o f th r r a ,
r e

in te ct io n o f b th
ra o .

THE C LA SS OO M A s A L A B O RA T O Y R Th e e a de m ust R . r r

h ve been st u k by the f ct th a t m o st of the“

a r c studies on s o ci l a a

clim te we e pe fo m ed on con t ived n d tifici l g o ups

a r r r r a ar a
”
r .

Thi s f ct i m eth d l gi c l l im i t ti n wh i ch h
a s a given
o o o a a o as us

p ti l n d n s i ded p esen t tion s of the te a ch in g le n in g

ar a a o e- r a -
ar

p cess S tudies like th se whi ch we h ve b iefly desc ibed

ro . o a r r

i n the p eced in g p ges h ve r s i gn ific n t dv n t ge th a a a a a a a ,

e

m o st im p o t n t f wh i ch i in ou j dgm e n t th t the g o up
r a o s, r u ,
a r s

wh ich we e subjected to con t olled expe im en tal testin g

r r r

we e obse ved un de n tu l o n o m l c n d ition s I n con

r r r a ra r r a o .

t st to the e ly expe im en t l g oups of L ewin L ipp i t n d

ra ar r a r , ,
a

Wh ite n d the s whi ch we e hi ghly flui d n d imp m

a o r r a er a

J ohn s on n d S m i th h ve p o in ted
, ,

men t the cl ss om i a ro s, as a a

o t u egul p t of the stude n t s outin e f o o n e te m

,
a r ar ar
’

r r r .
”29

Wh t g es o n in the cl ss oom i n o t i nc i den t al but c on sti

a o a r s

tu t s a set o f s i gn i fic n t even ts in the lif e o f b o th the te che

e a a r

a n d the st de t Th even ts wh i ch t ke pl ce
u n . n be on e a a ca c

t olled an d m nipul ted by the expe im en te especially if

r a a r r,

29 J oh n s o n a n d Smi th , D e m o cra ti c l e a der ship , p . 1 .

262 CO NFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T O FGROUPS
ce ned with the in d ivi du l no the g oup but with b oth in
r a r r ,

thei effect upon e a ch othe

r r .

CONCLU S ION
We h ave desc ibed an d n lyzed but sm ll segm en t of
r a a a a

the en o m o us ese ch the etic al an d pe tion al wh i ch

r r ar ,
or o ra ,

ha been publi shed n the g o up dyn am i c pp oa ch t o edu

s o r -
a r

c ti n I n a gen e l w y n d if we a n ot too c i tic l in

a o . ra a ,
a re r a

o ureva lu ti n of it g o up ce te ed educa tion h a left a p o si

a o ,
r -
n r s

tive m k on educ tion l theo y n d p cti ce I t is n ot

ar a a r a ra .

a lways cle whethe the ethic l p em ises f the dem o c ti c

ar r a r o ra

w ay o f l if e o bt ude them selves up o n educ t ion l ese ch

r a a r ar

a n d i n flue n ce the i n te p et t io n we pl ce up n the esults r r a a o r .

Th e bel i e f th t educ tio n i a p o blem in hum a n el t i n s

a a s r r a o ,

th a t it in volves pe ople n d n ot p im ily subject m a tte a r ar r,

would a p io i ten d to c l o o evalu ation f wh a t we h

r r o r ur o o

se ve While this m y n ot be wholly in the in te ests o f

r . a r

t uth it i e inf o ced by p we ful m l di sp o s ition Al

r ,
s r r a o r o ra .

th ough it c n t ibutes to the hum ni z ti n f educ ation it

o r a a o o ,

becom es d n ge ous whe n we becom e p ej diced dhe en ts

a r r u a r

to i ts dub i us cl im s o a .

The ese ch d t o n gr up ce n te ed educ t io n d n t

r ar a a o -
r a o o

“
supp o t s m e o f it
r a lleg t i o n s
o Th e in st n ces in wh i ch
d i ective educ tion l le de c n effect pl n n ed but des i
r
”
a
s

a
a

a r
.

a
a

a r
a

a ble esults r too n um e o us to be i gn ed

a re G oup cen r or . r -

te d educ t io n i s a o y a l o d n e i the t educ ti o n n o to

re a r r a r o a r

dem o c cy Th d an ge s f o im plifi tion a n um e

ra . e r o v e rs ca re r

ou n d they m ust be vi g il n tly gu

s, a ded g in st a ar a a .

Th es lts obta in ed by A sch Wi p n d J ohn s on n d

e r u s e, a a

Sm ith f o ex ample le ve us ve y m uch in doubt egardin g

,

,
r ,
a r r

the effectiven ess of g oup ce n te ed o n n di ective te ch in g r -

r r o r a

Should we be influen ced in ou judgm en t by the stu den ts

.

o w n p e f e e n ces the st uctu ed o

r r di ective te ching f e r r r r a ar s

m uch bette th n the dem c t ic S i gn ific n t to

,

r a th o ra . a ,
o 18 e

f ct th a t in Wi p study the e w n o sh ply dist n gu ish

a s e s
’

r as ar i

a ble supe io ity in le arn in g in ei the type f cl ss o m in

r r r o a r o

st ucti n Pe s on lity v i bles ls o n d no t only g oup

r o . r a ar a a ,
a r

fo ces r im p o t n t in the te ch in g le a n i n g p cess E i

,
a re r a a -
r ro . v
 O DYN AMICS IN EDUCATION
G R UP 2 63

d en ce f om o the stu di es supp o t the c on clus i on th t g o up

r r r a r

cen te ed studen ts a cqui e less kn owledge and elevant

r r r

in fo m a t io n th n th o se w h o p a t i cip a te in d i ected g o ups

r a r r r .

I n seem s th a t lmo st the onl y th in g wh ich g o up cen te ed

a r -
r

studen ts de ive f om thei exp e i en ce wh ich i n ot sh ed by

r r r r s ar

tho se in the c on vention al cl ss m is a s i gnific n tly g e a te a ro o a r r

a m o u n t of s o c i l a n d e m o t io n l s t i s fa ct i n
a Th i s o bse rv a a o a

tion to o c anno t go un ch allen ged S om e eviden ce le a ds one

.

.
, ,

to beli eve th a t g o up o i e n t a t io n t kes o n a k in d of o ve

r r a r

cen tr liza tion of the in te a ction p tte n of cl a ss oom A s

a r a r a r .

the g oup bec om es cen t li zed n d d om in n t in it influ

r ra a a s

en ce som e in divi du ls bec om e in c e sin gly di ss ti sfied

,
a r a a .

No i the e ffective n ess o f g oup le n in g lw a ys ai ded by

r s r ar a

g o up cen tr li z tion Eff ectiven ess i s in l ge p t fun c

r a a . ar ar a

ti n of the in te cti on p a tte n of the gro up p ticul ly its

o ra r ,
ar ar

ch nn els of c omm un ic tio n A s th e si ze of the g oup in

a a . r

c e ses the in te a cti n p tte n v i es an d th effectiveness

r a ,
r o a r ar ,
e

o f the g o up dim in i shes I n a pe i o d o f sw olle n sch o l n d

r . r o a

co llege en llmen ts thi s f cto takes on a speci al s i gn ific n ce

ro a r a .

A dhe en ts to th e gro up dyn amic app o ch to educ tion

r -
r a a ,

fin ll y h ave p ai d in suffici en t tten tion to the tim e f ct o

a , a a r .

The e a e n o s ti s f ct y stud i s o m e a su es o f the el t ive

r r a a or e r r r a

e fficien cy of the di ective n d n n d i ective m etho ds of te chr a o r a

in g an d a dm ini st a ti ve wo k Wh ile m uch of th st e n gth o f

r r . e r

the dem o c a ti c pp oa ch to educ tion li es in i t efus l to be

r a r a s r a

hu ied an d p ecip it ted in to h a sty an d un wi se decis ion s

rr r a ,

hes i t tion c n be f t l A s B n d h a disce ni n gly p inted

a a a a . ar ar s r o

o t e ffect ive n ess an d e ffic i e n cy a

u , n o t p o s i ti vely el t d so re r a e ,

th t p o cedu al techn i que m y be effective wi tho t bein g

a a r r a u

e ffi ci e n t
32
.

the b si s of publi shed ese ch on the subject we n

On a r ar ca

con cl de then wi th the usu l c uti on th t n d i ective

u , a a ,
a on r

educ tion em bo dyin g th dem c ti c p in ciple of f ee dis

a , e o ra r r

c ussio n n d m utu a l espect f te he s pup ils a dm in i st a

a r o ac r , , r

to s n d p en ts n effect v lu ble educ ti n l expe i en ces

r ,
a ar ,
ca a a a o a r

to ll c on ce n ed
a Th t uly g e t ppe l of g o up ce n te ed
r . e r r a a a r -
r

32 C
B arn ar d, Th e
.

Harv ard Uni v ersi ty Pres s ,

I .
fu nctio ns o f the ex ecuti v e ( C am bri d g M e, as s
264 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT OF GROU PS
educa tion however p rt f om wh a t sc ien tific investi ga tion
, ,
a a r

h s d i sco ve ed ega di n g its techn i c a l supe i o ity i th a t i t

a r r r r r s

hum anizes ed uca tion by m akin g peop le the fo cus of its

,

delib e a tion Wh en our schools thei cu i cul a and the

r s .
,
r rr ,

m etho ds of te a chi n g becom e t uly gro up ce n te ed they will

r -
r ,

reflect o emb o dy the revo lution a y ch n ges f lif e th a t h ave

r r a o

bee n goin g on a ce in our s o ci ety du in g the la st quar te

cen tury O nly a
r

p n will o r educ tional p o gr m s become

r

. e u a r a

rev i v ified an d equ a l to th t as k which th ey m ust fa ce

e .
26 6 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
in d st i l psych o l o gy a n d o
u r a un de st n d in g f the wh ole ur r a o

ra n ge f hum n p o blem s in bus in ess a n d in dust y

o a r r .

An o the impetus to the devel pm en t of in dust i l p y

r o r a s

c h o lo gy w the stupe n do us dem n ds of the w effo t in

as a ar r

the e ly 1 940 which im pelled m n y in dust i lists t tu n

ar
’

s a r a o r

to sci en tific m etho do lo gy an d ese ch b o th he e nd r ar ,

r a

a b d f th soluti n f m n y pe plexi n g p blem s of

ro a ,
or e o o a r ro

m otiv tion tti tudes m o ale p ductivity a n d the lik e

a ,
a ,
r ,
ro ,
.

Th i s p pl ic ti on of sci e n ce c e ted
a a p a tte n f pp ch to r a a r o a ro a

p oblem s o f l bo m n gem en t an d the un i n s whi ch i s

r a r, a a ,
o

st m ped up on m o st cu en t ese ch in in dust i l el tion s

a rr r ar r a r a

Despite it b ief histo y indust i l psychol gy h suc

.

s r r ,
r a o as

c f lly
ess u i sed o kn owledge f hum n el ti n s in l ge
ra ur o a r a o ar

o g n i z a t i o n s bey n d s bject ive

r a n d p ec o n e i ved i de s
o u a r c a .

P o g m s f ese h du in g the p a st fifteen ye s h ve given

r ra o r a rc r ar a

us m o e c om plete p i ct e f the p blem s f in dust y n d

a r ur o ro o r a

bette te hniques f o s olvin g them To thi s exten t the on

r c r . c

t ib t i o n
r u f psych lo gi sts s o c i l gi sts an d n th p l g i sts
s o o ,
o o ,
a ro o o

h ve pp eci ably a dded t o scien tific kn owledge f in dus

a a r o ur o

t i l beh vio F u the m o e the theo eti c l n d pe tion l

r a a r . r r r ,
r a a o ra a

r ese ch pe fo m ed h
ar rttested t the scie n tists sk ill in
r as a o
’

hum n el tion n d the w ke s d i dust i l ists c p city

a r a s a or r
’

an n r a
’

a a

f o c oo pe t ive eff t Wi th o ut these tt ib tes m uch f the

r ra or . a r u o

fin w k in the
e or e co uld n t h ve been a ccompli shed
ar a o a .

A CON C E PTU A L FRAME WO RK

A st ikin g f e t e f the bulk of the e ly ese ch in

r a ur o ar r ar

in dust ia l psych lo gy i s th f ct th t i t w
r o in i t i ted wi th o ut e a a as a

the ben efit f theo et ic a l m o del The e w n o d isce n ible

o a r . r as r

o der in the p o g ess f om subject ive n d u n v l i d ted de

r r r r a a a

s c i ti o n
r t o sc i e n ti fic f
s m ul t i A lm o st f m the beg i nor a on
p . ro

n in g em p i i c l stud i es m n y o f the m
,
r a vowedly explo to y ,
a a ra r ,

we e given tten ti n n d sta tus C o n cepts b o wed di

r a o a . rro

e tl
r c f o m psych o lo gy espec i lly f m s c i l psych l o gy a ro o
y r , a o ,

we e e ly pplied t o in dust i l p blem s n d with go d

r ar a r a ro ,
a o

effect .

Th i s un syste m ti c p cedu e wh ile o bjecti o n ble to the

a ro r , a

pu ist w pe h aps bo th in e c p ble n d s alut ary I t w as

r ,
as r s a a a .
H UMAN RELATION S IN INDU STRY 67

in esc a p ble be c use the e we e f ew if ny p ece den ts an d

a a r r a r

bec se mo st f the cu ent v i bles we e eithe ill d fin d

,

au o rr ar a r r -
e e

o o i gin ted i n the field o f i n d i i du a l psych o l o y I n e i the

r r a
g v . r

c a se the v iables we e c ied ve in t the e a of in dus

ar r a rr o r o ar

t ial el ti n s witho t m uch c n ce n f o the i e l ppli c

r r a o u o r r r r a a a

b ility to the study f om p l h m n g niz tion I t w as o c ex u a or a a .

s al ut y be c use the olde con ceptu l f m ew ks we e to

ar a r a ra or r o

r i gi d to pe m i t a n a dequ a te desc i pti o n f

r c mplex in dus r o a o

t i a l o g n i z t io n A s a esult the e ly a tte m pts t f o m

r r a a . r ,
ar o r u e

l te the si gn ifi can t v i bles of in dust i l beh vio we e n t

a ar a ,
r a a r r o

s a ddled w i th the bu den f an inflexible theo y A s an ex r o r .

a m ple f the h a m wh i ch
o i gi d m o del n i m p o se up n
r a r ca o

r ese ch we cite the st dy f the wo ke s in cen tive when

ar ,
u o r r
’

it i s co n ce i ved wh olly i n te m s o f in d iv i du l m o t iv ti on r a a as

desc ibed by c n ven tion l psych olo gy in te m s o f w ges

r o a ,
or r a ,

h u s an d ben efits desc ibed by t dition al expl n a ti n s

o r ,
as r ra a o

o f wh t m kes w o ke s w o k
a a r r r .

I t i n ot o pu p o se t p op o se a the o eti c al m del f

s ur r o r r o or

the dyn m i c study f in dust i al el tion s R the ou s i

a o ,
r r a . a r, r s

the m o e m o dest t a sk of desc ibin g a f ew con cepts wh ich

r r

m ust go in to n y ge n e l di scuss i o n of the s c i l an d p y

a ra o a s

c h o lo gi l f ct o s whi ch dete m in e the beh vi o of m n in

ca a r r a r e

in dust i l s itu ti on s
r a S om e of these c n cepts a e l e dy
a . o r a r a

f m ili to the e a de of thi s b o k

a ar r r o .

S O CIA L S YSTE M Al l dyn mic gro ps f the typ e we h ve . a u o a

been desc ibin g comp i se s ci al st uctu e o system Thi s

r r a o r r r .

st uctu e we h ve seen i a c om plex p tte n f el tion

r r ,
a ,
s a r o r a

ships in volvin g pe s on s and thei oles Any l te tion in the r r r . a ra

r ela ti n shi p of pe s on s n d the i oles esults in ch n ge in

o r a r r r a a

the st uctu e of the g oup nd n y a lte tion in the structu e

r r r ,
a a ra r

o f the g o up aff ects the beh a v io o f the i n di v i du als

r A cco d r . r

in gly the beh vio o f wo ke s a n d m an ge s in n in dust i l

, a r r r a r a r a

pl n t i a fun ction of the so ci l system c lled th f cto y

a s a a e a r .

Th f cto y m y eff ect des i ble beh vio e i the th o ugh the
e a r a ra a r r r

p owe devi ces inh e en t in it hi e ch ic a l o g n i z tion as

r r s ra r r a a ,

“
h as t a d i tio n lly bee n the c s e o th o ugh ve l app in g in te
r a

g a ted o dem oc a ti c p ticip a ti on a s i in c e sin gly the

r ,
r r
”
ar
a ,
r r

,
s
o r

r a
,
26 8 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T O F G ROU PS
p ctice Th e f cto y a s o ci l syste m i n ot m e e coll
ra . a r as a s a r ec

tion of in divi du ls but a s o ci l un ity A cco d in gly n eithe

a , a . r ,
r

the wo ke s n o th e m n gem en t n e ithe the in divi du l n o

r r r a a ,
r a r

the s c i l system ope a tes in i s ol tion Th s o ci l st ucture

o a ,
r a . e a r

i n fluen ces the i n d i vi du l n d the in d iv i du l to the exte n t a a a ,

th t he n exe ci se a ch i ce ff ects the s ci l st uctu e Th

a ca r o ,
a o a r r . e

st uctu e is o g n ized in p op o tion to the opp o tuni ty it

r r r a r r r

gi ves t eve y uni t to pe f m specific t sks

o r r or a .

Th qu l ity o f the hum n el tio n s in n in d st i l o

e a a r a a u r a r

an i ti on depe n ds g e t de l n eve theless o n the b i l i ty

g z a a r a a ,
r ,
a

o f th o se in the uppe st a tus h i e chy to pe ce ive the exten t r- ra r r

t o whi ch the i o w n ct i on s a m o ldi n g the f te f the g o up

r a re a o r

as a wh le Thi s i t ue bec use the dmin i st t s by i

o . s r a a ra o r ,
v r

tue of the i h ie chi c l p o s ition con sti tute a cen te of hi gh

r ra r a ,
r

p o te ti l influen ce in the to tal st uctu e T un de st n d

n a or r r . o r a

th t they m ld in g the wo ke s ct i n s equ i es n o om ni

’

a a re o r r a o r r s

i n
c e n the p
ce o t of the m n geme n t ; but i t d o es eq i e
ar a a r u r

a go d de l of s o ci l in s ight f o m embe s of m an gem en t t o

o a a r r a

u n de st n d th t they
r a them selves p ducts f the s o ci l
a a re ro o a

fo ces which they

r t yin g to c on t ol in the in te est of al l
a re r r r

T N Wh i tehe d well exp essed the ec ip o c l el a ti on s o f

.

. .

w ke s nd m n ge s when he s id Wh t i equi ed i
or r a
“a

a a r
r

a
r

,
r

a
a

s r
r

r s

th t th e so ci l sen tim en ts n d ctivi ties of g oups be re

a a a a r

g ded n o t a hu dles t su m oun t but an in teg l p t

ar ,
s r o r ,
as ra ar

f the bject ive f whi h the o g n ize i s wo kin g ”2

o o or c r a r r .

Tu n in g to the speci fic spects f the s o c i l st ct e o f

r a o a ru ur

a n in dust i a l g an iz tion seve al th in gs st d o t A f c

r or a r an u . a

to y f o in t n ce i
r ,
r g up of pe ple nd p tte n f
s a ,
s a ro o a a a r o

a ctivi ti es who se chie f go l i the p o d ction f c mm o d iti es a s r u o o .

T th i s n d the pe ople n d the i a ctivi ti es m ust be c o

o e a r o r

din ted to ch i eve the g l T the exte n t th t eve y pe s on

a a oa . o a r r

w h o i in v olved in the p cess pl ys h i

s o le s ccess fu lly ro a s r u ,

the gan iz tion will e l ize it c din l objective Acco d

or a r a s ar a . r

i n gly eve y m em be
,
f the wh ole m ust un de st n d h i p o s i
r r o r a s

t i n in it nd c n st n tly a djust h i beh vio in th e in te ests

o a o a s a r r

o f the gro up g l I n th i s p o cess he will be ai ded by the

oa . r

2 T . NW
Harv ard U ni v ersi ty
. h iteh e a d, L ead ersh i p in
Press , p . 85
a

.
fre e s oci ety ( C a m bri d g M e, a ss
27 0 C O NFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
g oup le n in g coll ective p blem s lvin g g up ce n te ed
r ar ,
ro -
o ,
ro -
r

educ tion h m n el tio n s in in dust y o g up psycho

a ,
u a r a r ,
r ro

the py the so c ial psychol gi c l ch cte istics of g o up

ra ,
-
o a a ra r r

rel tio n s e imp t n t People on the job do n t wan t b e d

a ar or a . o r a

a lone ; they ls o n eed the sen se of well be in g wh ich c m es

a -
o

f om b ein g with an d be in g like o the pe ople

r , ,
r .

Th e fo eg o in g st a tem en ts m y be sum m ed up by s a yin g

r a

th a t the s o c ial st uctu e of a f cto y o bus in ess o g ni z r r a r r a r a a

tio n is an in te l ckin g p tte n of techn i ques sta tus hi e

r o a r ,
r

a ch ies a n d psych o lo g i c a l el a t io n s
r ,
m on g pe ople A n eglect r a .

of a n o n e o f the m n o t n ly le a ds t o d i st o t ion but i s in a o r

y ,

sen s a n eglect of all

e, .

AUTH O I TY D eci s ion m kin g in in dust i al s itu ti n s h

R .
-
a r a o as

t di tion lly been the exclus ive functi n f m n gem en t

ra a o o a a .

Th e p o we st uctu e o f bus in ess a n d in dust y h as be en b sed

r r r r a

on the c n cept f supe o d in ti n sub d in t io n n d h s

o o r r a o -
or a a a

been the m a t ix in te m s of which o g n iz tion l le de sh ip

r r r a a a a r

w asun de st d n d p cti ced N eve theless wh teve on e s

r oo a ra . r ,
a r
’

philo s phic al p e fe en ces m ight be ega din g the use o f

o r r r r

a utho ity it is but e l istic to a ckn o wledge the f ct th t

r ,
r a a a

a utho i ty an d p we
r esse nti l in ny typ e of s o ci l o
o r a re a a a r

n i a ti o n the dem c t i c n o t excepted T he e i k n own

g a z ,
n o ra . r s o

s o ci l o de th t i n ot in p t sust in ed by uth o ity vested

a r r a s ar a a r

in s m e pe s n
o in sti tutio n No s o c i ety n t eve n th e m o st
r o or .
,
o

p im itive is exclus ively egul ted by inf m l custom Th e

r ,
r a or a .

con t o llin g f ce of a utho ity sho uld be desp ised n d om

r or r a c

b ted on ly when it becom es ty ann i c l an d co n tem ptu us

a r a o

of the f eed om th a t ch lle n ges i t

r a .

O c on si de tion in th is secti n is not howeve with the

ur ra o , r,

fo m l p ope ties of p owe n d utho ity but wi th the b

r a r r r a a r , e

havio p tte n s wh ich it gen e tes Autho ity i fo m of

r a r ra . r s a r

beh vio exe cised by people with e fe e n ce to on e n o the

a r r r r a r,

a nd s such i t i
a p oblem in hum n beh vio p a ticul arly
s a r a a r, r

gro up beh avio I n n auto c a tic g oup uth o i ty i r . a r r ,

a r s exe r

i d by a n in d iv i du l in the fo m o f c omm n ds wh ile o the s

c se a r a , r

simply bey In a demo c tic g o up especiall y in the kin d

o . ra r ,

we h ave been desc ib in g a utho ity is usually diff used Tho se r ,

r .
H UMAN RELATION S IN IN DU STRY 27 ]

w h a t in cc o d n ce wi th the expect t io n s o f th a uth i t y

o c a r a a e or

do so n t ,
t f bject f eo but o t f n w en ess th at
ou o a a r, u o a a ar

in sub o d in t in g the i o w n tem p o

r a y inte ests to th ose of r ra r r

the g up eve y n e w i ll be bette ff D em o c tic a uth o ity

ro r o r o . ra r

m y thus be m e dequ tely desc i bed a s a fo m o f p e

a or a a r r r

su a s ion in whi ch n on com pletely bdi ca tes h i f eedom of o e a s r

ch ice o .

We h ve s id th t in dem o cra ti c g up people sub o di

a a a a ro r

n a te the m selves t o an a uth o i ty bec a use they a nt i c ip a te the r

welf e f ll in the i ction s H oweve thi s i a s imple

ar o a r a . r, s

o ve st tem e n t
r an d a n i de l i z t i o n Th e p o cess i m o e
a a a . r s r

com plex n d in v lves seve a l fa cto s wh ich we Sh ll de

a o r r ,
a

sc ibe b i efly
r r .

People obey l ws sub d in te them selves t uth o ity a ,

or or a o a r ,

bec use they f e o disli ke s o ci l d is app o v l I t is s afe t

a ar r a r a . o

sa
y th t s o c i lapp o b t i n e n ge n de in g a f ee lin g o f g oup
a a r a o ,
r r

a ccept an ce n d g o up bel n gin gn ess i the b s i c expl n

a r o ,
s a a a

to y p in ciple f m n s subo d in tion to demo c ti c

r r o a
’

r a a ra au

th ity
or I n deed the e i m uch evi de n ce in supp o t o f the
.
,
r s r

vi ew th a t cceptan ce by on e s fellows i essen ti l to n m l

a
’

s a or a

livin g Th e fo ce of bed i en ce to on e s ow n g oup i st t

. r o
’

r s ar

lin gly b ught o t by R ebecc West in h

ro desc ipti on of the
u a er r

t a ito the in d ividual w h o h a en o un ced obed ien ce to h i

r r, s r s

c oun t y S he c lls a tten tion to the m i se y f the t i to s

r . a r o ra r

st n din g in the p i s n e s d o ck a waitin g t ial They we e

a r o r
’

r . r

m i se ble n ot only bec us e they we e goin g t be pun i shed

ra a r o
—the c on ve n ti n l s o ci al s n ction —but bec a use Th e h d a
o a
y a

f ors a ke n th e f ml
a i ia r m e diu m
”4

N ext
.

p t n ce in th e ccept n ce o f a utho ity i an

in im or a a a r s

aw en ess of the dv n t ges beyon d th t f so ci l pp ob

ar a a a a o a a r a

ti on such th t a cc ue t the in divi du l w h o ccepts a

,
as ,
a r o a a u

th i ty
or I n the in dust i l s i tu ti n th i s fa ct o of ten st n ds
. r a a o r a

o t sh
u ply Th e wo ke kn ows th t by o beyin g th b o ss h i
ar . r r a e s

o w n p o s i t io n m be e nh ced I t m y secu e h
a i p o s i t i on an a r s
y .
,

in c e se the p ss i b i li ty f
r a p om tion o an in c e a se in
o o a r o ,
r r

wa ges o ini ti te o the ben efits Th w ke i thus e a dy

,
r a r . e or r s r

4 Th e mea nin g of treason , Ha rp er s M ag az ine ( O ctob er

’

,
27 2 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF GROU PS
t sub o d in a te h is ow n in d i v i du a li ty a n d f eed o m i n clud in g
o r r ,

even the f eedom to p o test in de t e ali ze the be n efits

r r or r o r

which thi s subo din tio n ten ds t beget F u the m o e a

,

r a o . r r r ,

l ge segm en t of a ny p opul a tio n obeys utho i ty bec use it

ar a r a

i e a s i e th an exe tin g o n e s o w n effo t Wh ile hist ic l ’

s r r r . or a

r e a s n s expl ain in p art thi s eluctan ce to ssum e esp on si

o r a r

b ility —wi tn ess the c se of G e m n y be fo e Wo ld W II a r a r r ar ,

when it peo ple bdi c a ted the i des i e t m ake go ve nm en t l

s a r r o r a

decis ion s —it i a lso t ue th t m any people s psycholo gi c lly

r a a re a

unwillin g o in com peten t to t ke the i sks in volved They

r a r .

fin d it less p inful n d o fte n p s i t ively m o e e ssurin g t o

a a o r r a

a ccept the op inion s n d follow the suggestion s f o the s a o r .

I n a d m o c a t ic o g n iz a tio n fin ll y pe ople sub o d in te

e r r a ,
a ,
r a

them selves t uth ity bec ause they a aw e th t only

o a or re ar a

th ough c on ce ted effo“

r t c n ce tain des i ble objectives be
r r a r ra

a tt in ed This is n ot o bed ie n ce in the usu al sen se but is

a .
”
,

a p o s itive eff t to e a ch a gro up con sen sus Th e sub o din

or r . r a

ti on in v lved is a fo m o f ela tion sh ip in wh i ch the in d ivi du l

o r r a

m a y fin d s a ti s f ctio n o f seve l im p t n t in te ests an d

a ra or a r

n eeds such ,
eco gnition in depen den ce fa i ev lu tion
as r , ,
a r a a

o f hi w n beh a v io
s o nd g up belon gin gness r, a ro .

Alth ugh uth o ity is becom in g in c e s in gly sh ed by

o a r r a ar

m o e n d m o e in d i vi du a ls in a m o de n in dust i l o g a ni z a
r a r r r a r

t ion th i s i n ot h weve the pe v s ive p tte n D i st ibution

, s ,
o r, r a a r . r

o f uth o i ty usu a lly t kes pl ce ve t ic all y

a r o th a t m an a a a r ,
s

g i
er a l sub d i n a tes f o ex m ple sh
or e i n i t m uch m o e th n r a ar r a

lin e fo em en N eve theless s i gnific n t con sequen ces aff ect

, ,

r . r ,
a

in g the e n ti e in dust i l e n te p i se stem f om a g e te di

r r a r r r r a r s

t ib tio n o f p owe
r u P o duction in c e a ses qu an tit tively an d
r . r r a

quali t tively wo ke s a ti sf ction in c e a ses bsen teei sm an d

a ,
r r a r ,
a

tu n o ve e educed nd the quality of m n ge i al decis ion

r r ar r a a a r

is imp o ved D eleg tio n o f a uth o i ty a n d ll o c a t io n o f deci

,

r . a r a

s ion m kin g to tho se c p ble

b iliti
-
a
“ o f a ssum in g these

i a n spect o f the fin e a t o f execut ive dec i s io n

es s a
esp n si a a

r
r o
”

wh ich ge n e tes c mpeten ce in o the s he i ghten s m o le an d

ra o r ,
ra ,

a i ds in the est bl i shm en t o f esp o n s ib il i ty a A th sh in g r .

5
S e ar

5 See C
Barn a rd Th e
Harv a rd Univ ersi ty Press ,
. I .
, functions
19 1
o f th e executi v e ( C a m bri d g M e, a ss

p . .
27 4 CON FLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
b ility of m kin g the w o n g im p ess i o n o n h im S m e f th e
a r r . o o

i ll feelin g a n d n t go n i s m o f the f em n m y be n un on
-
a a or a a a c

“
sc io us exp ess ion f h i f e
n eu o t i c se n s i t i v i ty
r
”
r of d i sple s in g the m n a ge
o s

f e ch pe s o n t w d the expect t ion s

o
Th i s
a
ar

r
a

o ar
a r

a
.

o f the o n e im m ed i tely b ove m ay n t be the esult of the

a a o r

w kin g s itu tion such but of the disto tion s an d m isun

or a as r

d t n din g
e rs a i s in g f m i mp i ed c mm un i c a tio n betwee n
s ar ro a r o

them I n desc ibin g this typ e of it tion in the B nk Wi in g

. r S ua a r

Ro m we st essed the im p t n ce f c omm un ic a tion n d

o ,
r or a o a

showed th t the e i c o st n t tempt tion by the w ke to

a r s a n a a or r

withh ld dve se in fo m tion f om the fo em n wh ile the

o a r r a r r a ,

fo em n in tu n s m etim es c n ce ls f cts f om the m n a ge

r a r o o a a r a

m e n t I n th i s s i tu ti on eve y om m un i c n t pl a ces h im self

. a r c a

i n a de f e n s i ve p s i t io n thus dep ivi n g the wh ole dep tm en t

o ,
r ar
—o eve n the wh le pl n t—Of the in f m tion th a t i t m ust
r o a or a

h ve f o effici en t p ducti n nd effective m n gem en t

a r ro o a a a .

I t wo uld be a m i st ake f o the e de t i n fe f om the f e r r a r o r r or

g in g n alys is th t f ilu e in comm uni ca tion ises n ly o t

o a a a r ar o u

o f pe s on a l se n s i t i v i ty o f e a o f th
r e cti on s n d tti tudes o f
r r e r a a a

the v io us m embe s f the comm uni c tive p cess F

ar r o a ro . or

comm un i c tion i a ls o p oblem in sem n ti cs W ke an d

a s a r a . or r

m n ge
a a fte n live in d iff e e n t un ive ses of d i sc se Th
r o r r ou r . e

m e n in gs f w ds o fte n v y wi th the s c i l c o n text ; n d

a o or ar o a a

the s c i l n text in an in dust i l pl n t i l gely dete m in ed

o a co r a a s ar r

by the o le n d st tus f the in divi du ls w h o a in volved

in the p o ductive e ffo t M n ge
r a a o a re

r n d w o ke ls f il to
r . a a r a r r a o a

u de st n d e ch o the the efo e bec ause e ch o ccup i es

n r a a r, r r ,
a a

diff e en t st tus in the s o c“

r i l system f the f ct o y Ro th li
a a o a r . e s

be ge p o in ted o t th t g d p o tion of the executive s

r r u a a oo r
’

e n vi onm en t i ve b l He de als with w ds a n d bst e

r s r a .
”6
or a ra

t i n s f the m st p t whe e a s the wo ke m n ipul tes

o ,
or o ar ,
r r r a a

o bjects n d c mm o dities the sym boli ti n o f wh ich seld m

a o ,
z a o o

r e ches the s m e level of efin em en t E ven tho ugh b o th use

a a r .

t h s m e wo ds in t y in g to c omm un i c a te wi th n e n o the
e a r r o a r,

b o th ten d to use them bs olutes n d e ct to them a s if as a a r a

they we e thin gs They un c n sc i usly ss m e H y k wa

r . o o a u ,
as a a a

6 F .
J
Ro eth li sb erg e r,
.

Ha rv ard Un iv e rs i ty Pres s ,
M a na g e

p
m e nt
. 88 .
a nd m ora le ( C a m b ri d g M
e, a ss
H UMAN RELATION S IN INDU STRY 27 5

h s shown th a t the sym b o l mus t necess a ri ly c a ll t o m in d

a ,

th e th in g sym b ol i zed .

Wh ile m isun de st an d in gs will p ob bly n eve be lim i r r a r e

n a ted f om hum n el tion s they n be ve y subst n ti lly

r a r a , ca r a a

r educed To d te the m st eff ective techn i que in educin g

. a , o r

m i sun de st n d in g in in dust y hr abeen the c e ti n of a r as r a o

wo ke m n a ge en vi onm en t c n ducive t f ee exch n ge of

r r- a r r o o r a

i de s feelin gs
a ,
n d g i ev n ces I n th i s w ay c oo pe t i n
,
a r a . ra o

o a t le st c o di n a ti o n
r a f e ff t —t o w d c omm o n o bjecti ve
o r o or ar a

h a been a chi eved i n s om e in dus t i a l pl an ts B ut it sh o uld

s r .

a ls o be p oin ted o t th t in a c m plex o g an i z ti n like n u a o r a o a

in dust i a l pl an t a in
r sm l l inf m al g o up eve y in di
,
s a a or r ,
r

vi d l m ust p ti cip a te a t le st m in im lly in sh ared kn owl

ua ar a a

edge an d coope tive beh vio Only then c n c mm n i

, ,

ra a r . a o u ca

ti on t uly exi st n d on ly un de tho se ci cum st n ces an m is

r ,
a r r a c

un de st n din g n d ill will be subst n tially educed O

r a a -
a r . ur

desc iption an d an alys i s of g o up st u ture g up p cess

r r r c ,
ro ro ,

the techni que f dem c ti c di scuss i n the con fe en ce o o ra o ,

r

m eth o d of e chin g c on se n sus n d the like subst an ti te the

r a ,
a a

f eg in g con clus i n
or o o .

PE RS O NA L ITY VAR IA B LES Pe ha ps in n o the fo m of dy . r o r r

n a m i e g o up beh vi r th pe son lities of in d ivi du l a or are e r a a

m em be s s evi den t as in w o ke m a n a ge el a tion ships Al

r o r r- r r .

th ough pe s n lity plays a ole in ll gro ups in th l n g

r o a r a ,
e o

ru n in d i vi du l pe s n l i ty fa ct o s o i e n ted t o w
a d g up r o a r a re r ar ro

no m s or e subm e ged i n the a ct o f

r ar e chin g g o up con r r a r

sen sus .

I n d ivi du a l m l djustm e n ts ar o bvio usly o n o f the m st a a e e o

se io us b a i e s Th ch ni c t ublem ake m y h ve n just

r rr r . e ro ro r a a o

g ievan ces f h i beh vio m y stem f m in divi du l f u

r or s a r a ro a r s

t a tio n s o n eu s i s F o tun a te i th e dep a tm e n t wh i ch d es

,

r r ro . r s r o

no t h b t le a st such in divi du l in its m i dst n d

suffe n eg tive con sequen ces f m h i p esen ce M eo ve
ar n or a o e a a

r a ro s r . or r,

m n y wo ke s w p i ted o t in n e li e ch apte
a r r ,
as as o n u a ar r r, are

t o o un a d ptive i n the i tti t des to en ble them to fit in to

a r a u a

Co
7 S I Ha y a
.

In c ,
. kw a a, L an
31
g uag e in a cti on ( New Yk or : Harcourt B ra ce ,

.
, .
p . .
276 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
a ch n gin g w o k s i tu a t i on
a S uch m isfits obviously g in little
r . a

o n r in s i ght n d im p o vem e n t f om a dem o c a ti c p a t i cip

o a r r r r a

tion in the delibe tion s of thei shop ra r .

Th e ffect of pe s n l i ty v a i bles
e e n ot r o o f c o u se
a r a ar ,
r ,

lim ited to m l djustive o n eu o ti c beh avio Th e n m l

a a r r r . or a
”

pe s n b i gs to h i job wh teve he i s s pe s n in cludin g

r o r n s a r a a r o ,

h i p a st c o n d i t i n in g a n d a whole c om plex of custom s n d

s o a

beliefs s well ,
a h i s techn i c a l expe i e n ce n d skill A
as r a .

youn g m an j st o t of c llege w h o believes th t he sh ould

u u o a

becom e jun io executive in few ye s will pp o ch h is

a r a ar a r a

jo b i n d iffe ae n t m nn e f rm n w h o bel i eves th t h i s

a r ro o e a

m o ti ves w ill be judged by the esults wh i ch he p duces r ro .

These d i sti n ct i o n s wi ll m ke f diff e en ces in the expect a or r a

t i n whi ch e ch h c on ce n in g h i job f o they

o a as b sed r s ,
r a re a

on diffe en t c n ception wh ich e a ch h

a r o f h im self s as o a a

pe s n r o .

Th pe cept io n wh i ch a n i n di vi du a l h s o f h im self i s o f
e r a ,

c u se on ly n spect f the p oblem of the el tion ship

o r ,
o e a o r r a

between pe s on lity n d in dust i l o g ni z tion Hi im ge

r a a r a r a a . s a

f o the s espec i ally of th o se w h o in ut i ty i ls

o r ,

ve y imp o t n t Th do cile in divi du l w i ll welcom e di ec

r r a . e
h o are

a
a or ,
s a

t ion an d co n t ol f o these give hi m th secu i ty with o ut

r r e r

which he c nn ot fun cti n S ch pe s n seldom a ssum es

,

a o . u a r o

in i ti t ive
a n d self d i ect i o n
a eg dless of h ow willin g the
-
r ,
r ar

m an ge a n d the g o up a s a wh o le m i ght be t o g i ve h im
r a r

g e a te a ut n om y n d f eed m f ch ice Th e gg ess ive

r r o a r o o o . a r

i n d ivi du al n the o the

, o h n d especi ll y if he i ls o r a ,
a s a re

b lli u a g in st utho i ty p ese n ts

e o s a a diff e en t s i tu tion Hi
r ,
r a r a . s

im a ge o f o the s i f pe ple w h o
r c itic l an d h o sti le
s o o are r a .

i ste d o f e n c o u a g in g n d help ful No m tte h w m uch

n a r a . a r o

the g o up m y be t him d own ve b lly he pe s i sts in h i

r a a r a ,
r s

a tti tude a n d d i ss ip tes h i s e n e gy i n ch o n i c o pp s i t i n

a r r o o .

The e are pe ople fu the m e w h o h a ve d ifficulty i n

r ,
r r or ,
re

l tin g them selves com fo t bly to the s n o m tte h w

a r a o r ,
a r o

a cceptin g of them the s m y be They o n ot t be cl ss i~

r a . a re o a

fi d wi th the ebels n e o t i cs
e r n d m lc n te n ts wh om we
,
ur ,
a a o

h ve m en tion ed f o they
a n t h sti le a n d an ti p theti c
,
r are o o a .

They de l m o st c m f t bly n d success fully w i th i de s o

a o or a a a r
27 8 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
B e n a d tho ughtfully obse ved le a de s can be o bta in ed in
r r r ,
r

quan tity a nd qu lity to su vive the sho t pe io ds when a r r r

st o n g an d di ective le a de sh ip i in dispen s ble

r r r s a .
8

An exp erime nt i n g ou p centered ad minis tr tio n Th ex r -

a . e

ten t to wh ich g o up cen te ed le a de shi p in a fa ct y can be

r -
r r or

a pplied with success is desc ibed in a n expe im en t by ] am es r r

Ri ch d ar .
9

Th e expe im e n t w as pe fo m ed in r m et a lwo k in g pl an t r r a r

em ployin g 325 m n n d wom en The e we e th ee levels o f

e a . r r r

m an gem e n t i n the pla n t Th e top m a n a ge m e n t c o n s i sted

a .

o f the ch i m n o f th e B o d an d the p es i den t E xecutive

a r a ar r .

dep a tm en t he a ds we e the s ales m n ge c n t olle an d

r r a a r, o r r

t e a sure the ch ief en gin ee the di ecto of p u rch ses the

r r, r, r r a ,

vice p es ide n t a n d the pl n t supe in ten de n t Th e supe

-
r , a r . r

n clu d d t n fo e m e n the p o duct io n c o n tro l

e e r ,
r

pe sonn el di ecto n d the p o duction em

r r r, a r

Ri ch a d the d i ecto of the expe im e n t w a r ,

r r r ,
s

the expe im en t w a to ope a te the f

v e of r s r ac

to y th o ugh a le a de ship m eth o d th a t supp ted m n in

r r r or e

the use f thei ow n c ap citi es a the th n by cont ll in g

M ost of the wo k of
o r a , r r a ro ,
”1 0
guidin g n d m nipul ti g them
,
a a a n . r

the supe in ten den t w as p oblem cen te ed an d f ce to fa ce

r r -
r ,
a - -

discussio n w the m o st f equen t p o cedu e His des i e w

as r r r . r as

t o gen e te n tm sphe e f c hes iven ess n d to in duce

ra a a o r o o a

in c e a s i n g self eli n ce in e ch m e m be
r -
r I n th i s a tm o sphe e
a a r . r

deci s ion s we e m de p olici es we e establi shed n d the t a sk

r a ,
r ,
a

of unn in g the fa cto y w as cc mplished E ve y s itu ti n

r r a o . r a o

r equi ed the upe in te n den t to pl ay diffe en t ole—s m e

r s r a r r o

times a a co un selo a t the tim es

s n utho i ty ch nn el
r, o r as a a r a

f or c o m m u n i c a t in g s n ct ion s a n d t st ill o the t im es as a ,

a r

an ccum ul to of f cts s
a a emin de to o the s of the
r a ,
a a r r r

li m i ts of f eed om o s g up the ap ist Th coll b ti ve

r ,
r a a ro r . e a o ra

8 C .

Ha rv ard Uni v ersity ,

I . g
B ern ard, Or a n iz at i on a nd ma na g emen t ( ambri d e C g M , as s

9 I n T Go rdo n

Co , . ch a p
,
G
.

xii
ro u -
p 40
p centered leade rship ( B os ton : Hou h ton
. .
. .

g M ifl i n

1 0 I bi d 315
, p . . .
H UMAN RELATION S IN IN D U STRY 27 9

e“ffo t i best desc ibed in th supe in te n de n t s ow n w ds

’

M y intention w to a t in such a w y th t the supe viso s

r s r e r or

as c a a r r ,

fo em en a n d staff m en co uld le a n th t the i dep a tm en ts

r ,
r a r r

we e in fa ct the i own to u n n d th t deci sion m akin g w a s

r , ,
r r a a -

a p o cess wh i ch di d n o t exclude m e
r but whi ch in cluded ,

them in a n imp o tan t w ay as in divi du als an d s an in te r a r

depen de n t g o up r .
”1 1

I n a sm uch a it w o uld equ i e too m uch p ce t o desc ibe

s r r s a r

the ope a tin g m eth o ds used in the expe im en t the e ction

r r ,
r a

o f th e execut i ve g o up the da i ly eve n ts a nd expe i e n ces o fr , r

the p ticip an ts the n a tu e of the le a de in iti ted con fe

ar ,
r r- a r

en c a n d s imi l
es , m a tte s we sh ll h a ve to conten t o
ar r ,
a ur

selves wi th a b i ef sta tem en t of the esults r r .

On o f the m o st imp o t an t o utc om es w

e the psych o r as

lo gic l g owth of the in divi duals An ex m ple of th is

a r . a

g owt h w as th a t of the stubbo n defi an t n d in a ticula te

r r , ,
a r

fo em an w h o bec m e a s un d think in g st ble an d ticu

r a o -
,
a ,
ar

l te a dm ini st a to A secon d o utcom e w as the devel pm en t

a r r . o

o f st o n g g o up c o hes i ve n ess wh i ch p a ved the w a

r r f the or
y ,

g o up s depen den ce on its ow n es ources Th e u p in

r
’

r . s er

ten de n t fo un d m e su e of this g o up depen den ce in the

a a r r

la ge n umbe of in st n ces whe e he f un d h im self n ot

r r a r o

n eeded An o ther c on sequen ce w as an im p oved m o ale

. r r .

C on c etely thi s m e an t th a t the in d ivi du als ssum ed g e a te

r ,
a r r

r esp n s ib ility Th e supe in ten den t s p oblem w as n o lon ge

o . r
’

r r

on o f m in t in in g d i sc ipl i n e a n d m o t iv a t i n g o the s b t o f
e a a r ,
u

keep“ in g up w i th the g o up s pe f m n ce A s he exp essed r

’

r or a . r

it , I h d t sc oo t to keep up
a o I m p o ta n t t oo w the . r , ,
as

r educti n of unp o ductive te n s ion s—the kin d of ten s ion s

o r

wh ich bec ause of the fe a nx iety an d c onfli ct which ch

,
r, a ,
ar

act i
e r z es them we e psych o lo gi c a lly c ippli n g
, ( Th in
r r . e

v es

r
“
ti g t o d i sc im in a tin gly c o n t sts these te n s i n s wi th the
a r

r
r

m o e n o m al kin ds wh i ch m o t iv te people to h i ghe levels

”
ra

a
o

of a sp i tion ) Fin ally n d s i gn ific n tly the in c e sed p o

ra .
,
a a ,
r a r

d ti i ty whi ch to o k pla ce h a d
uc v speci l ch cte whi ch a a a ra r

the supe in ten den t desc ibed a

r qu ali ty of c e a tivity r s a r .

11 I bi d , p 319
. . .
2 80 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
Th m n put the m selves zest fully in to the i wo k n d di
e e r r a s

pl yed th ughtfuln ess t the s m e tim e T qu te G o d on

a o a a . o o r

a g in the pe ple
a ,
gued and wo ked n d swe ted—but
o ar r a a

wi th espect f them selves espect f o e ch o the espect

r or ,
r r a r, r

f o the i m en a n d espect f o the c om p n y

”1 2
r r r r a

S cientific c ution does n ot pe m it us to gen e lize f om a

.
,

s in gle in st n ce M n y m o e expe im en ts of the ty pe on

a r ra r

a . a r r c

d ucted by Ri ch a d a e n eeded be f e we c n spe k o f the r r or a a

e ffic cy of g oup cen te ed in dust i l o g n iz tion wi th on

a r -
r r a r a a c

fid ne R ich d him self i fully w e th t h is expe“

ce ar im en t s a ar a r

i o n ly a beginn in g N eve theless

.

s he p o in ts o t it ca n
. r ,
as u ,

be don e We would do well to co n s i de“thi s g oup n

.
”
r r -
ce

te re d o ga n i z a tio n
r R ich d d o es a p o cess ,
nd nas ar ,
as r a a

a ttitude m o e th an system ; f o when the o g n iz ti n

,
r a
”
r r a a o

becom es i gi d system p we c n t ls bu e uc t i c m
a r ,
o r o ro ,
r a ra a

n d i n st i tut i n l i zed th o u ht p tte n s te n d t o

M e nwhile howeve we h ve t com e t terms

g
a o a -
a r

st n g
ra a ,
r, a o o

w i th r an d ccept the f ct th t in c mplic ted in dus

a a a a o a

t i l system the py m id o f p owe while no t dem c ti c

r a ra r, o ra

in the ve y best sen se o f co mplete g o up self d i ecti on c n

r r -
r ,
a

be effi cien t just an d hum n e as the m o st a dvan ced

as , ,
a

kn wledge n d skill will pe m it Po we i wi cked n d im

o a r . r s a

m o ral n ly when it i abused—when it explo i ts d ivi des n d

o s , ,
a

dis gan izes

or .
13

PROBLEM OF MOTIVATION

Why do wo ke s wo k ! To an swe th is questi on we r r r r ,

m st tu n t th p oble m of in cen t ives

u r o c ci l e in the
e r ,
a ru a ar a

un de st n d in g of the psycholo gy of wo k Th t uth i s th t

r a r . e r a

eve y p oblem in p o d ction i p oblem in hum n m o tiv

r r r u s a r a a

ti on A deeply en t en ched ttitude ( lth ough h pp ily

. r a a ,
a ,
a

declin in g on ) i th t m n i inhe en tly l zy n d will wo k

e s a a s r a a r

o n ly bec use he h abee n un ble to in ve n t bette w y of as a a r a

I b id , p 3 3 7
fi q
12 . . .

ti ons ( Ne w or : oh nYk J W N
1 3 For o th er con rm a ti ons o f th e u s e o f dem ocra ti c t echn i u e s e s eci a ll

a s i t a p p li e s t o s u p e rv i si on , s e e

il ey
R F
Son s , I nc ,
,

.
p
ai er , P ri nci p les of h u ma n re la

es p eci a lly ch ap s
y

vii i
. . M
. .

a n d ix .
28 2 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
i n ce n t ives we e difie ent M otivation un de lies b th c u ses
ction but it t kes a d iffe ent di ecti n in e ch M n s
r r . r o o r
’

of a ,
a r r o a . a

a tti tude t w d m on ey i b oun d up with hi a ttitude toward

o ar s s

o the s He n o m o e e a cts to mon ey a s n i s ol ated com

r r r a

m di ty th n he e a cts to o the s s if they we e c om pletely

self c n t in ed in d ivi du ls M on ey mo tives an d hum an e
o a r r a r
-
o a a .
, ,
r

l ti n
a o in te tw i n ed
s a re r

M OTI V T O N A ND O GA NI ZA TI O N L CO NTEX T The e is a

.

A I R A . r

l n g t dition in Am e i c an psycholo gy f de ali n g wi th

o ra r o

hum an mtiv tion a if it we e l a gely an in divi du l phe

o a s r r a

n m e n on
o Th i s i due in p t to the in flue n ce f b i ol o gi c a l
. s ar o

a cc un ts of the beh avio of lowe an im ls Wh ile we n o

o r r a .

l n ge subsc ibe t the in stin ct do ct in e in psychol gy the

o r r o r o ,

theo y f d ives wh ich h epl ced it still con ceives m tives

r o r as r a o

f m ewo k of in dividu l ten s ion eductionra r a r .

s o ci l psycholo gy o n the o the h n d de

s o ci lly con dition ed n eeds M tives a e
a ,
r a ,

a . o r

de ived f om the s oci l g up in d iff e en t le a nin g s itu tion s ;

r r a ro r r a

the e fo e they v y n o t on ly with in divi duals but wi th

r r , ar

g oups M n st ive f o such v lues gro up bel on gi n gn ess

r . e r r a as ,

self esteem secu ity an d Simil go ls n ot bec a use they a e

-
, r ,
ar a ,
r

biolo gic l an im ls but b ec ause they a e s o ci l bein gs w h o

a a ,
r a

r esp on d to th ttit des of o the s e a u r .

R ese ches du in g the p st qu te cen tu y h ve bun

ar r a ar r- r a a

d n tly sh o wn th t hum n des i es are n o t s t i sfied in the

a a a r a

s m e w ay in diffe en t s o ci al envi onm en ts Th st uctu e

a r r . e r r

of the g o up h a n t i ce ble e ffect

r n b o th des i es
s a n d the i
o a o r a r

s a ti s f ction A cco din gly the g n iz tion l st uctu e of

a . r ,
or a a a r r

a n i n dust i l pl n t wh i ch c n ce n s us he e will defi n e th

r a a ,
o r r ,
e

n tu e
a n d the m e n s o f s a t i s fyin g th e in te ests o f i t m m
r a a r s e

be s Th s although the hun ge d ive i foun d in b o th the

r . u ,
r r s

m n ge
a n d th e w o ke
a r abec a use they a e b oth b iolo gi c al r r r

a n im ls the m nn e in which e ch s a ti sfies hi need i

a ,
a r a s s

st n gly con dition ed by the st tus wh ich e a ch h olds in th

ro a e

s ci l system of the f cto y

o a a r .

I n cent iv es for p o du ctio n Th study of hum n m o t ives r . e a

i n a n in dust i l settin g i im p o t n t to the stude n t o f g o p

r a s r a r u
H UMAN RELATION S IN INDU STRY 28 3

dyn mi cs in in dust y bec use of the st on g be in g of m o

a r a r ar

ti ves on the p o ble m o f p o duct i n E ve y m n ge w n ts

r r o . r a a r a

the wo ke s to p o duce to the lim it of thei c p city but

r r r r a a ,

the c uc i l question i h ow to m o tiv te them to do so

r a s a .

I t i s n o t n ecess y t o t ess g in the f ct th t m en p e ar s r a a a a r

f e to do th o se thin gs eg di n g wh i ch the i o w n dec i s i o n s

r r ar r

pl yed substan ti al p t They p o duce m o e e a ch thei

a a ar . r r ,
r r

p o duction go ls m o e eff ectively n d expe i en ce g e te

r a r ,
a r r a r

s tis f cti n f om thei wo k th ugh g oup deci s ion th n

a a o r r r ro r a

they do when they esen tfully obey n o de f om ab ove r a r r r .

17

Th use o f de m o c ti c m e n s f or in ducin g p o ducti on

e ra a r

r
“
in c e a se c o n t sts sh ply w i th the t a d i tio n l c n cepti o n o f
wh a t m kes a wo ke wo k Th e sti ck n d the c o t
a
ra

r
ar

r r .
r a

a
o

a rr
”

con ception w the f m e of ef e en ce in wh ich in dust y as ra r r r

o pe ted I n this f m ewo k th wo ke w a c allo usly

ra .
18
ra r ,
e r r s

ex
p l oi t d f the
e be n efit o f the o wn e s
’

or n d m a n ge s f r a a r o

p o ducti n Th h m n izin g qu li ty whi ch we st essed

r o e u a a r

e li e w l gely bsen t O n ly tho se in the uppe level

.

ar r as ar a . r

o f the in dust i a l o g n i z t ion py m i d h a d a n y cle

r i de r f a a ra ar a o

the go l of thei own en de vo s I n thi s si tu tion the wo ke

a r a r . a r r

co uld n ot be expected t devel p p i de in h i o ccup ti n o o r s a o or

S h ow loya lty to the system whi ch h ad deg ded h im I n ra .

th is p o cess as B lum p oints o t in dust y s in glem in dedly

r ,
u ,
r

un de m in ed its ow n p ductive effici en cy

r ro .
19

R ecen t exp e im en ts us in g dem o c a ti c techniques h ve

r r a

dem on st ted th a t the wo ke s in cen tives f o in c e sin g

ra r r
’
r r a

p o duction e st en gthen ed when the w ke s p ti cip t

r ar r or r ar a e

i n sett in g up thei w n qu o t a s E mployes do n ot ccept r o . a

p o duction quo ta s m e ely bec a use they

r subm itted t r a re o

them f om a b ove Th e p o ducti n go al

r Whyte h s . r o ,
as a

p o in ted o t should
a .
“ n o t be est bli shed by the m a n a ge m e n t
u

r
,

lon e Wo ke s a m ov d m ch m e st n gly tow d the r re e

‘

u
a

or ro ar

17 We us e th e term
w p ro du ctiv ity i n b o th a
”
u an tit a ti v e q q q
q ww an d li t a tiv eua

wk
s e ns e

or
.

is
A g rou p i s
a cce p te d a s f gggq
p ro du cti v e
ulfilli n
h en it m eet s th e re uire d
th e u a li t a t iv e s tan dards of th e
u o ta

s h op
h en i ts
an d ,
,

h en
it i s
See F H
Harp er
18
e ffi ci e n t i n

B ro s ,
. .
rea c hi n i ts o a l etc
B lum Tow a rd a democrati c w ork p ro ces s
,

1 63—64
,
.

Yk ( New or
.
pp . .

1 9 I bi d 1 63
, p . . .
284 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
go als they them selves h d a p t in settin g E ven when a ar .

the go ls e en ti ely set up by the m an gem en t the a chi eve

a ar r a

m en t of them i m o e likely a ssu ed when the g up is gi ven

s r r ro

the in itia tive th t it i ghtfully dese ves Wo ke s an d lea de s

a r r . r r r

o f w o ke s g o ups t ke just ifi a ble p i de in sett in g the i o w n

’

r r r a r r

s ights nd a imin g f o them un hin de ed by c ipplin g fe a

a r r a r r

c on ce n in g the m na gem en t s ev lua tion Th evalua tion

r a
’
a . e

wh ich they espect an d whi ch se ves a n in cen tive to con

, r r as

t in e in the i t a sk i s on th t is e s o n able a n d f ee of the

u r e a r a r

pe s on l bi s f the m n ge While ll wo ke s w an t a
r a a o a a r . a r r

go o d p y a te—f o w h o do es no t !—they w n t even m e

a r r a or

t o be espected n d pp ec i ted by tho se wi th wh om they

r a a r a

spen d the i wo kin g h u s I t i a psychol gic l comm on

r r o r . s o a

pl ce a w n t to be liked n d to feel e a a

im p o t n t I n a ecen t survey r a . r

I n G R o ss n d A lvin Z n de a . a a r,

a s w as fo un d th a t th e
n eed f o ec gn ition w r r ve y s i gn ific n t fa ct in m tiv
o as a r a or o

a tin g th w ke s on th e job I n deed the g e a test diffe

e or r .
,
r r

e n ce betwee n th o se w h o qu i t n d th o se w h o e m in ed n the a r a o

j b w deg ee of s a ti s f ct i o n i n the a e a o f ec o gn i t i o n

M n gement h been t dition lly blin d t the le f

o as r a r r .

a a as ra a o ro o

th s o i l system f the f cto y in the lives of it wo ke s

e c a o a r s r r .

Th i s s c i l system i ge n e lly n t n abst ct p a tte n o f

o a s ra o a ra r

wo ke m n gem en t el ti n s but livin g e lity A thi d

r r- a a r a o a r a . r

o f eve y w ki n gm an s d“
r
y i spe
orn t i n clo se c o n t ct a n d
’

a s a

o bse ves
ra
“
i n te cti o n w ith o the s He m ay w n t m on ey
but he als w n ts to be li ked a n d espected by th
r ,
Whyte
o
r .

a
a

r
,
as

p e ple
o he w o ks w i th A n ext d oll ra d
y an d
p t on . ra ar a a a

th b e k f om the fo em n a e nice th in gs in them selves but

ac r r a r ,

t hey n h dly c mpen s a te ( in m st c ses ) f o e ight hours

ca ar o o a r

a d y f o st a c i s m f o m the wo k g o up
a o r r r r .

F goo d es lts in p o duction the e m ust be bette

or r u r r a r

f eelin g betwee n w ke r n d m n gem e n t th n n ow ex i sts in

m n y i n dust i al pl n ts M n gem en t h as n w a t i ts dis
or a a a a

a r a . a a o

20 W W . F . h y te ,
P a tt e rns for i n dus t rial p eac e ( Ne w Yk or : Ha rp er

Y M
B ros .
, p . 19 1 .

21 Th e N e w or k Time s , arch 2 4 , 1 9 57 .
286 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
a n o the s o c i a l syste m
r M an esp o n ds to the t o t l in dus r a
y .

t i l set p n ot o nly to a Sin gle fun ction Thus wh ile m on ey

r a -
u ,
.
,

i imp t a n t bec a use i t gi ves s om e gu

s or n ty o f in d ivi du a l a ra

su viv l an d s fegu ds the welf e of the wo ke s fam ily

r a a ar ar r r
’

i t i o n ly on e f ct o a lbei t a n im p o t n t on
s a in h i s m o t iv a
r, r a e,

t i o n l c o mplex Whe n m n ey bec om es excess i vely im p o

a . o r

t n t o pe h ps all con sum in g the f ult lies s om ewhe e in

a ,
r r a -
,
a r

the bjective el a tion s of the wo ke an d m an ge a n d it i

o , r r r a r, s

a sym ptom o f in dust i l p th olo gy I n ext em e c a ses the r a a . r

i n cen ti ve to m ke m on ey ve sh d ows the wo ke s eth i c l

’

a o r a r r a

judgm en t an d he will t y to get as m uch s he c n f o

,
r a a r as

l i ttle wo k s p o ss ible r a .

The e i n o s in gle f m ul a f o im p o vin g wo ke m an a ge

r s or r r r r- r

n d n o s im ple psycho l o gy f o
a d i ectin g hum an r r

in to p o duct ive e ffo t We are n o t blin d t o the

r r .

the p ese v tion of n on dem o c a ti c m an gem en t

r r a r a

s e ves n eeds a n d m o t i ves th a t

r m e im pe ll in g th n eve n a re or a

i n c e sed p o ducti v i ty
r a Neve theless the p oblem can be
r . r ,
r

b oiled d o wn to the n eed f o de m o c tic m n gement I t is r ra a a .

n o t o n ly a n a ch on i st i c but lso dan ge ous f o in dustry to

r a r r

f un ction a uto c tic ally in a dem o c a ti c s o c iety Th e num e

ra r . r

o us studies of the eff ects of g oup p a t i cip tion group co r r a ,

o pe rati n dem o c a tic le de ship a n d the like be n b i

o r a r ar a o v

less on to m o de n in dust y Only th o ugh m n gem ent

, ,

ou s r r . r a a

w ke coope t io n in wh i ch the in d ivi du l i s t e a ted wi th

or r ra ,
a r

d i gn i ty a n d espect a n d whe e h i n eeds of e co gn i ti o n

r ,
r s r ,

a ut n m y and a just app a is l of h i w k by the m an ge s

o o ,
r a s or a r

a re c on c ete p cti ces n m o de n in dust y get in tun e wi th

r ra ca r r

D emoc tic m an gem en t is

,

t h b a s i c v a lues o f dem o c cy
e ra . ra a

a n e m pty ph a se un less i t i im plem e n ted by a le a de shi p

r s r

p ra ct i ce th t pe m i ts the w o ke
a t o use h ir f ull p duct i ve r r s ro

a n d c e a ti ve c p c i ti es
r A s we s id befo e p o ducti n i
a a . a r ,
r o s

p artly fun ction of the o g n i z tion l c ntext nd n ot

a r a a a o ,
a

wholly of th e m un t of tim e n d e n e gy expen ded by the

a o a r

wo ke I n study of supe rvi s o y p acti ces in h i gh p duc

r r . a r r -
ro

t ion an d l w p o duction g oups in n in s u n ce c mp n y

o -
r r a ra o a ,

K a tz n d h i coll bo ato s fo n d d istin ct d iff e en ces in

a s a r r u r

e fficie n cy S upe vis io n in the h i gh p ducti on g up w as

. r -
ro ro
H UMAN RELATION S IN INDU STRY 287

ch a a cte ized by less supe vi so y di ection gre a te wo ke

r r r r r ,
r r r

p articip tion n d m e con s ide tion of the m o tives an d

a ,
a or ra

in cen tives of the wo ke s Th e study like m an y o the s de l r r .

,
r a

in g wi th th e s m e p o blem c n fi m s the im p ort an ce o f

a r ,
o r

wo ke p a t ic ip a tion in in c e a sed p o duction

r r -
r r r
23

F urthe en cour a gi n g suppo t fo the impo t n ce of g oup

.

r r r r a r

deci sion m akin g in in c e sin g g oup p o ductivity i foun d

-
r a r r s

in d i ectly in a study o f the deci s io n m ak in g c onf e e n ce by

M arquis Gu t kow n d Heyn s which we have al e dy
r -
r

,
e z ,
a ,
r a

cited These investi g to s we e fully aw e o f the fa ct

.
24
a r r ar

th t the ese ch fin din gs eg a din g g oup p o ductivity m y

a r ar r r r r a

v y with the type of group un de in vesti ga tion Fo in

ar r . r

st n ce a sm all d scussion g o up n d a l ab o m n gem en t

a ,
i r a r- a a

c on fe en ce wo uld n ot n ecess a ily yi eld the s m e esults

r r a r .

The e i s n o p io i e s on h o weve to d oubt th a t e a ch c n

r a r r r a ,
r, a

th ow valu ble li ght on the n a tu e of g o up p o ducti vity

r a r r r

Omittin g the fin din gs on m embe s a tisf ction p ticip

.

r a ,
ar a

tion cohes iven ess an d o fo th in thi s study we m ay t n

, ,
s r , ,
ur

t o the esults eg d in g roup p o ductiv i ty m e a sured by

r
g r ar r as

whethe n gen d a item w a com pleted n ot c mpleted o

r a a s ,
o ,
r

p o stpon ed t l ate m eetin g o a r .

O n e m e a su e wh i ch w as s i gn ific n tly el ted to p duc

r a r a ro

t iv ity w a the e xte n t o f s elf o i en ted ( a s c o n t a sted w i th

s -
r r

group o i en ted ) n eed beh avio Th el ation ship w f n d

-
r r e r as ou

to b e n eg ti ve ; th a t is the m o e self o i en ted the n eed b

.

a ,
r -
r e

h a vi o the less p o ducti ve the g up Th im pli c t i n of

r, r ro . e a o

thi s f o wo ke m an g m nt el ti n s sh ould be obvio us

r r r- a a e r a o .

Th e sec n d f a cto wh i ch w o s i gni fic n tly el ted t p o r as a r a o r

uc

to
“
d ti i ty w s d i ectly m o tiv ti o n l in ch a cte
v a

the u gen cy of th e p oblem P oblem u gen cy w s

r
r I t el ted
r
a a

.
”
r
ra r

r
. r a

foun d t o c ela te i gnific n tly wi th p o ductivity ; th t i

orr S a r
”
a s,

th e m o e u ge n t the p oblem
r the m o e p o ductive the
r r ,
r r

g o up
r .

23 Se e DKzN at M a ccoby a n d
.
, ors e P ro du ctiv it y
. s u p e rv is i o n
,
NC . . M ,

C ,

M g
a nd m o ra l e i n a n office s i tuat io n P a rt 1 ( S urv ey R e s e arch en ter ,U n iv er ,

si ty of
24 GD Mq
i chi a n ,
.ar ui s H Gu etz kow an d R
.

s tu dy o f th e de cis i on -m akin c o nf eren ce

, .

i n H Gu etz kow gg C g
Hey n s , A s oci al p sy ch olo i ca l
,

Grou p s ,
.

,
W .

.
g
le adersh ip a nd me n ( Pitt sb ur h : arne i e Pres s , p p 5 5 67 .
-
.
288 D U MEN T OF G ROU PS C ONFLI C T A ND A J ST

of
“Th e th i d m e su e o f el t i n sh ip w
r

p owe el tion sh ips Th e p ssess ion “

r r
f
of
o un d i n the

p we by th
a
a e r

.
r a o

o
as

o
”
r
ar a

g up t p o ceed on it wn uth i ty co el ted ign ifi

ro o r s o a or rr a s

ca n tl
y w i th p o duct ivi ty th at i the m o e ra dequ te the s, r a

g p s p owe the m e p o ductive it tur n ed o t to be

ro u
’

r, or r u .

Pe iphe l to ou cl im of the imp o t n ce of the wo ke s

r ra r a r a r r
’

p ticip a tion b t supp o ti“

ar n g i t n n etheless
,
w uthe in r o ,
as

vesti g t s disco ve y th t sh ed le de f n cti n s n d in

a or
’

r a ar a r u o a

fo m a l g o up p o cedu es p tte n s of fun ction in g whi ch ar

r r r r ,
a r e

o ften es isted by g o ups bec use they

r eg ded by m em r a a re r ar

be s a i n efficie n t did n t educe p ductivity

r s ,
o r ro .
”25

Th study by B e k wi tz wh i ch we desc i bed in o

e di s r o ,
r ur

cus s ion f c lle t i ve p ble m s lvi n g d i s l o sed o ughl y th

o
’

o c ro -
o ,
c r e

l ly im p o t n t he f un d w p ob cu a r r a ,
o ,
as r

pe m i ss iven ess of the le de P blem r a r . ro

ur ge n cy w igni fic n tly ela ted to group m o ti v ti n “

as S nd a r a o ,
a

le de pe m issive n ess w a p o s itively ss ci ted wi th th e

a r- r s a o a

pe cen t ge of ll s l tion p op s in g d on e by the m embe s

r a a o u r o r

when the g o up s p oblem s el tively u gen t

r
’

r a re r a r .
”2 7

Th im p t n ce o f self esteem w a un t il ece n tly hn t

e or a -
s r a os

un ec o gn ized in the in centive f o p ducti n S elf esteem is

r r ro o .
-

de ived f om d iff e en t s ou ces but m o st f equen tly f m

r r r r ,
r ro

s o c i l st tus Altho ugh n o t i den ti l with secu ity s o ci l

a a . ca r ,
a

st tus i clo sely link ed wi th it An in dust y th t gu n tees

a s . r a ara

i t wo ke s secu i ty o f em plo ym en t
s r r n d w ges omm nr a a c e

su te wi th the n eeds of the t im e n m e su bly in c e se

ra ca a ra r a

the psych lo gi cal well be ing f it em ployees This p o in t i

o -
o s . s

cle ly c on fi m ed in the well kn own expe im e n t in th dem

ar r -
r e o

c ti c wo k p o cess of the H o m el C om p n y p ckin g

h ouse in Austin M inn es ot whe e w ges n d w ke s t is
ra r r r a ,
a a

,
a, r a a or r- a

fa ction b th in c e sed Th ave ge H o m el wo ke e n ed

o r a . e ra r r r ar

in 1 9 5 1 wh i le the a ve ge wo ke in the Am e i c n,
ra r r r a

p ckin g in dust y in th a t s m e ye e n ed on ly
a r a ar ar

L kw g kgg
I bi d , p 6 4
25 . . .

26 B er o i tz , Sh arin l ea ders h ip in sm all , de ci s i on m a in -

ro u p s ,
—
.

I a bn orm so c Psy cho l , 48

. . 23 1 3 8
. . .

C
2 7 I bi d 23 7
, p . . .

28 i ted i n B lum , Tow a rd a democra tic w ork p roces s , p 15 7 . .

290 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
volved in the ta sk which they pe fo m When eve a pe s on r r . r r

h as p a t in c e a t in g s om ethin g he w nts t succeed in

a r r ,
a o

c e a tin g it ; f o success in a ch o se n t sk i s ou ce of h i
r r a s a r s

self esteem A t a it which d istin guishes th o se w h o p e

-
. r r

seve e in t a sk an d th o se w h o give it up i st on g n eed f o

r a s a r r

r eco gn i tion fo a n im a ge of o n es self th t is app oved a nd

,
r
’

a r

a pp ec i ted by o the s
r a r

Nume o us ese ches in the ea of g oup behavio in the

.

r r ar ar r r

p a st tw o dec a des how c on clus ively th t when mem be s of S a r a

g o up a involved in m akin g thei own decis ion s they wi ll

r re r

ch n ge in des i able d i ection s D emo c a cy s a fo m of self

a ,
r r . r a r

i n ot n e mpty folk wo d n o
s a becom in g sen ti -
r r a

mental ea t iv e f ce Th expe i en ce of h in g or . e r S ar

in the eff ectu tes ch n ges wh ich a a

un de im p o sed c on d ition s wo uld be e ithe eluctantly c

r r r a

c e t ed o o utri ghtly ejected

p r r

S ince motiv tional en e gies a e influenced by the o gan

.

a r r r

i ti on a l c on text in wh ich a n in di vi du al pu sues h i s v o c a tio n

z a r ,

the m an a gem en t whe the in the pe so n of the p es iden t

, r r r ,

u i n t en den t o supe vi s o
er a ls o beh a ves a cc o d in g t o the
p ,
r r r, r

r o les wh i ch i t i s expected to pl y Th e c on st a in ts f th i s a . r o

r o le expect t i o n h a ve ch n ged e n
a m ously du in g the p st a or r a

fifty ye s Th e executive whethe t the top o the b o ttom

ar .
,
r a r

o f the p o we py m i d c n n o lo n ge o pe te in a n n t m
r ra ,
a r ra u ra

m le d w a y He fin ds i t b o th n ecess y a n d p o fit ble t o
e . ar r a

heed the needs an d m otives of the wo kin g g up whi ch is r ro ,

co n sta n tly g owi n g m o e a ticul a te While the m x im iza

r r r . a

tion of p ofit i still a d ivin g fo ce in m n ge i l beh vio

r s r r a a r a a r,

i t i s in c e a s in gly ci cum sc ibed

r n d c o n st a in ed by th e
r r a r

g oup imp o sed dem o c a tic v lues L ike eve y n o m l hum n

r -
r a . r r a a

bein g th m n a ge is esp on sive to th e v lues of s o ci ety as

, e a r r a

they filte ed th ough to h im by the st tus an d ole which

a re r r a r

are a ss i g n ed t h im eve n tho ugh he m y t t im es let o the

o ,
a a r

s tis f cti n s t ke p eceden ce A com plete theo y of m o

a a o a r . r

ti a ti o n if such be p o ss ible m ust a cc o d in gly be ppl ic ble

v , ,
r a a

to the beh v io o f b o th wo ke a n d m n a ge in a c o n text of

a r r r a r

m utu ally Sh a ed v a lues r .

H UMA N RELATION S IN INDU STRY 29 1

Finally if the dem c tic m eth d in in dust y wo ks— nd

, o ra o r r a

r ese ch h est bli shed the f ct th a t it wo ks m o e ff e

ar as a a r r e c

ti ve ly th a n w s in i ti lly expected — ait i n o t bec a use the a s

dem o c a ti c p o cess p e se is supe i o to ll o the value sys

r r r r r a r

tem s but bec use it i gen e lly f un ded on a s oun de

,
—
a s ra o r

the y of in d ividu l n d g up beh vio Thi s the o y i

or a a ro a r . r s

ch cte i zed by p in ciples whi ch in on w ay o n o the we

ara r r e r a r

h ve uti li zed in thi s b ook These p in ciples are b i efly the

a . r r

fo llowin g ( 1 ) s o ci l p essu e i a p o we ful m o tive to ct

: a r r s r a

i n the in te ests of the g up ; ( 2 ) g o up bel on gin gn ess i

r ro r s

p esen t in all n o m l pe s n s n d helps to dest oy the b a i e

r r a r o a r rr r

between the m n a ge an d the wo ke ; ( 3 ) fo cin g an o the

a r r r r r

in di vi du l t o su bm i t a b i t i ly t o o n e s wi ll i deg d in g t
’

a r ra r s ra o

h im c a us in g h im to ebel a g in st the o the in ste a d o f co

,
r a r

o pe ratin g with h im ; ( 4 ) ec gnition i im p o t n t to eve y r o s r a r

i n d i v i du a l an d i f th i s i de n i ed hi m by exclud in g h im f om
, s r

p ti cip tion in the g o up s delibe a ti n s h i h o stility i

ar a r
’

r o s s

ar o used an d th i s m kes c oo pe a t i o n d i fficult if n o t im o s

,
a
p r

s ible ; ( 5 ) e go involvem en t in the g oup t sk is in dispen s ble

-
r a a

n d des i a ble f o i t in c e ses a n in d ivi du a l s des i e t o p

’

a r r r a r ur

sue the g o up go al o s olve it p oblem ; ( 6 ) pe ople a n o t

r 5 r s r re

exclusively m otiva ted by the n eed f o st bility and s afety r a ,

but st ive f o ch an ge n d n w expe i en ce a well

r r a e r ,
s .

Th e fo egoin g p in ciples r m o ti va ti on al c tego i es I f

r ar e a r .

they a e s o un d— n d ese ch h s supp o ted them exten s ively

r a r ar a r
—then the dem o c ti c beh vi wh i ch they desc ibe sh uld ra a or r o

be suffici en t to se ve a a b a s i s f o hum n e n d m e n in gful r s r a a a

con t ols in in dust y They efute the n o tion held p

r r . r ,
ara

do i c ll y eve n by Ku t L ewin th t a uth o i t a i an m e n s m ay

x a r ,
a r r a

h ve to be em pl oyed t o a ch ieve d em o c a tic en ds They

a r .
32

m ake it d ifficult f o th o se m an ge s n d executi ves w h o n ot r a r a

o n ly w n t to et a in the i p o we but
a r e se arch in g f o i n r r ar r sc e

t ifi c a t i o n a li z tio n s of the i p o s i tion s

r a Thi s a tio n liz a ti on r . r a

gro up dyn am ics n t n ly c ann o t supply but h as been effec o o

t i ely help in g t o dest o y

v r .

32 S ee K L“
R eso lv in s o cia l confli cts ( New
. e w in , g f Y
f k or : Harp er B ro s .
,

w p 50 : Som etim es p eo p le m us t rath er o rce

.

h at de m ocra ti c re sp on s ib ili ty to ard th e rou p a s a w g w ully b e m a de

h ole m ean s
”
.
to s ee
292 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF GR OU PS
ININ G FO R IN D U STRI AL PE RFO RMANCE
TRA

I t is e sy to see th a t i f m utu a l t ust n d c oo pe a t i n b

a r a r o e

tween wo ke s an d m an ge s r t o be i n c e sed s om eth in g

r a r a re r a ,

p o s i tive h s to be don e to ch ieve them Cle a ly the tech

a a . r ,

n i ques o f g o up dy n am i cs fo un ded on the p emi se th t

r ,
r a

i dust i l el t i o n s c o n sti tute

n r a r p oblem in the m n gem en t
a a r a a

o f peo ple n d n o t n ly f m a ch in es
a n educ ti n l
o o ,
are a a o a

device f o b in gin g th is con diti n b o ut Thi s educ ti n l

r r o a . a o a

t ol in cludes the m o e in divi du l pp ch of the cl in i c l

o r a a ro a a

h o ld i t f i t i c o gn i z n t of the f ct we h ve sh o wn
s
p y c
g s ,
or s a a ,
as a ,

p oblem s c n sequen ces“ o f pe s o n lr a re o r a

we sh ll disc ss th i s clini c l p a u a
”
a

n n cti o n wi th c o u n selin g i t i e ffec e ,

s

tive in ch n gin g tho se defen sive nd dest uctive pe s n li ty

a a r r o a

ch a a cte i stics th a t in t f wi th the p ductive effo t

r r e re e re ro r .

T in in g f o im p o ved i n dust i l pe f m n ce d es n o t
ra r r r a r or a o

c n cen t a te on the f ew wi th special t len ts exception al

o r a ,

skills o m n ge i l p otential Th e dem c tic ethi c sup

,
r a a r a . o ra ,

p rted by g o up dyn mic ese ches con ceives t ainin g o

o r a r ar ,
r r

educ a tion n ot on ly f o the uppe t n p ce n t but f o the

b o d b se of f cto y w ke s M o eove the teno of the
r r e er ,
r

r a a a r or r . r r, r

d iscuss ion pe m e tin g thi s b o k i th a t mo st if n o t all

r a o s , ,

wo ke s a e edu able n d th t ve y m n y of them p o ssess n

r r r c ,
a a r a a

a bility th t i s eldom t pped B esi des in dust i al educ ti on

a s a .
,
r a

i n o t o nly c o n ce ed w i th develop in g pt i tudes n d ski lls

s rn a a ,

but even m o e with the vi t l p o cess f ttitudin al ch n ge

r a r o a a .

Th fo ego in g e m ks t ke o n n in c e sed imp o t n ce

e r r ar a a r a r a

when we eco gn ize the f ct th t the t diti on l c on ce n of

r a a ra a r

in dust y wi th th e p o duct io n p o te n ti a l o f it w o ke s h as
r r s r r

been if not cyn i cal then un duly pess imistic Un til th

, ,
. e

a dven t of sci en ti fic t a inin g p o g m s especi ll y tho se b as ed r r ra ,

a

o n de m o c a ti c v a lues n d gr up dyn am i c p in c i ples

r an a o -
r ,

un usu lly l ge pe cent a ge of in dust i l wo ke s w as on

a ar r r a r r c

si d e d t be in c p ble o f pp ec i ble im p vem en t

er o a a Th e a r a ro .
33

Dk
33
Se e F . C
u sh m a n , Th e ore m a n s p l ac e i n th e trai nin

o n a ld, Ha ndb o o k of bu si n es s a dminis trat io n

f ’
gY k g
p ro ram ,
in
M cGra w - Hill
WJ . .

( New or :

B oo C o , I nc . .
294 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
lo gica l f cto s nd on e whi ch m akes m st m em be s m o e
a r ,
a o r r

a wa e an d pp eci tive of the le of c omp om ise an d the

r a r a ro r

p o ductive n tu e of gro up con sen sus Whi le thi s p o cess

r a r . r

is slo w n d in te m s o f t im e c on sum pt io n
a ,
expen s ive the r -
, ,

results it p o duces b oth in the s olution of p oblem s an d the

r r

imp ove m en t o f g o up m o ale fully j ustify i ts exte n s ive use

,

r r r

RO LE PLA YI NG Like the conf e en ce o g oup discuss ion

.
,

-
-
. r r r

technique o le pl ayin g S a fo m f sp on t n e o us c mm ni
r -
I r o a o u ca

ti n am on g m embe s of a g o up n d the es ul ts a s im il ly
o r r , a r re ar

y the m nn e in whi ch the m embe s in te ct wi th a r r ra

which i c onfi n ed to ve b l cu ss io n , s r a

beh vio ole pl yin g c n s ists fun d m e n t lly of ctin g ou t

a r, r -
a o a a a

the p oblem which h a been p esen ted f s lution Wh ile

r s r or o .

di scuss i n helps people to app ec i te o the p oin ts o f view

o r a r ,

ro le —pl ayin g sen s iti zes them to the effect wh ich they h ve n a o

o the s Role pl yin g a ls gen e tes a wholes om e self wa e

r .
-
a o ra -
a r

n ess I n the e mplo ym e n t Si tu a tion o le pl yin g helps the

. r -
a

wo ke an d the bo ss to un de st n d e a ch o the bette f o

r r r a r r, r

e a ch h a n o“ pp o tunity to put him self in the othe pe s on s

s a r r r
’

pla ce n d to see the s itu tion th ough th t pe son s eyes

a a r a r
’

Th b ss f e ex am ple by pl yin g the ole of the wo ke

o ,
or ,
a r r r,

will quickly di sco ve h ow the l tte feels whe n he gives him r a r

o de s o t e ts h im in
r r ,
pe em pto y m nn e Thi s w e
r r a a r r a r . a ar

n ess f the e ffect f o n e s o w n ct i n s up n o the s i p

’

o o a o o r s ar

ticu l arly sh arpe n ed whe n th in te ch n ge f o les t k es e r a o r a

pl a ce imm edi tely n d with out the in te ven ti on of the

a a r o r

o les
34
r .

I t is se ious m i st ke to con ceive of ole pl ayin g a

a r a r -
s

wholly o l gely n in tellectu l p o cess I t b in gs unde

r ar a a r . r r

st n din g n ot nly by sen s itizin g people to on n the but

a o e a o r

even m e t uly—judgin g by the w ite s ow n o bse v tion

or r r r
’

r a

34

g For g f wg L
in trodu cti on to th e u s e of role -p la y i n
a oo d i n s u p erv i s o ry g g
gL
tra ini n , co n s u l t th e ollo in :
di a n o s tic i n s trum en t, P ers on Admin , 8
P Bra df ord, Su p erv i sory tr ai ni n

g
3 7; P B ra d ord an d
.
as a . .

g
— L . . f
R .

3 5 8—
i p p itt , Ro le - p la y in
69 ; A B a v ela s , Ro l e -p la y i n
. g g
in s u p erv i sory tra in in , P ers onne l, 22
a n d m an a em en t trai n in , S o ci at ry , 1

1 83—9 1 Th e so ci a l p sy ch olo i ca l n a tur e of role b eh a v i or i s ull y

g g f
C w
-
.

dis cu s s ed i n h a p ter 12, b elo .

H UMAN RELATION S IN INDU STRY 29 5

a n d expe i e n ce — by p ese n tin g the m wi th n o pp o tun i ty t o

r r a r

expe i en ce a p oblem on an em o tion al level I t h a c a th a tic

r r . s r

v alue bec use i ita tion s n d gg ess ion s can be f eely ex

a rr a a r r

p essed witho ut the pen alty of s om eon e s di s app ov l B y

r
’

r a .

r es olvin g h i confli cts in ole pl yin g an in dividu al i f ee

s r -
a s r

t o f ce a p blem s itu tion con st uctively in ste a d of def en

a ro a r

si ve ly A s he le a n s to a ccept h im self in the o le pl a yin g

. r r -

p o cess he lso c m es to a ccept o the s un de stan din gly in

r ,
a o r r

ste d of c i tica lly

a r

Fin ally ole playin g is valu ble n d eff ctive because in

.

,
r -
a a e ,

a dd it i on to ch a n gi n g pe o ple s e m o t i on s a n d ttitudes tow d ’

a ar

r
“
o the s a n d the wo k S i tu ti o n i t esults n ch a n ged beh vio

a s M a i e h as p in ted o u t Role playin g M aie s ys ca

o
r
“ a

.
,
r I

,
r a ,
a r,

ri es the t a in i n g in t o rctio n eve n if the ction i s on ly at the

a a

level of pl y O nce an a ctio n h a s been exp essed the e

,

a . r r

i t an ce to
s s epetition o f the ction i educed
a r Role a s r .

pl ayin g bec omes th e l bo to y p a t of hum an ela tion s a ra r r r

t i n in g
ra
” 5

THE S YSTE MA TI C I NTE R VIE W Th e in te vi ew techn i que is

.

. r

a g o up m eth o d i n th t i t in vo lves tw o o
r m o e pe ople in
a r r

i n te a ction Th e s ystem a t i c in te vi ew i at on ce a tech n i que

r . r s

f o dete m in in g a w o ke s fitn ess f o a job a n d a devi ce f o

’
r r r r r r

d evel opin g goo d publi c el ti on s Whe n c on ducted by a r a .

s ki llf u l i n te v i ewe this m eth o d c n n ot only elici t v luable

r r, a a

i n fo m t io n but a ls o st im ul a te f ee d i scuss io n Th i s i p tly

r a r . s ar

i nhe e n t in the syste m a ti c in te vi ew i tsel f f —un li ke the

r r or

c a se o f the c o n ve n t i o n a l i n te vi ew—in the system t i c i n te r a r

v i ew the quest io n s g o w u t o f the i n te v i ew s i tu a t i o n

r o r .

Well co n ducted system ti c in terviews c n yield tin gs th t

-
a a ra a

di gno sti c of a wo ke s futu e success n h is job ’

36

M o eove the eli ability of a system atic inte view i in

a re a r r r o .

r r, r r s

c e sed whe n m o e th n o n
r a in te vi ewe m kes n a ssess
r a e r r a a

m e n t of th a ppli c a n t o the w ke e r or r
37

M
.

—
C Jw
35 a i er, f h u m
P ri nci p les
a n re l a ti ons p p
o 9 8 9 9 ; f or ca s e s , p p 1 1 04 38 , . . .

f
3 6 Se e H Hov lan d an d T
.

ce s s rom a s ta n dar di e d i n te rv i e
.

z
W o n derli c, Pre di cti on of i n du s tri a l s u c
a p p l P s y ch o l
3 7 W e o m i t di s cu s s i o n o f th e n o n directi v e in terv i e
23
.

,
.

5 37 — 46 . .
,

wwg .

t h e a b o v e , b e ca u s e i t i s s o m u ch li e n on di recti v e co un s e lin
ti ca l p urp o s e s it i s a ki n d o f i n orm a l p s y ch ot h era p y
,

f k hi ch i s sim il ar t o
th a t f or p rac
.
29 6 MEN T O F G ROU PS C ON LIC F T AND A J ST DU
Altho ugh system tic in te viewin g is ss ci ted m o stly a r a o a

w ith pe s nn el select i n n d m e i t
r o tin gs it g e test v lue o a r ra ,
s r a a

lies in it di scl su e o f in d ivi du l ttitudes A skil led in te

s o r a a . r

viewe n elici t ttitu des with out p essu es thus ssu in g

r ca a r r ,
a r

th t they a a t ue exp ess ion of the in tervi ewee s e l feel

a re r r
’

r a

i n gs d v lues Th e l tte a
an a im p o t n t f o
. s we s i d in a r re r a ,
r a a

th e o pe n in g p a g phs o f thi s ch pte the wo ke b in gs to

ra ra a r, r r r

h i job n o t o n ly h i kn o wledge a n d ski lls but a wh ole p tte n

s s ,
a r

o f a tt i tudes sen t im e n ts v lues ,

n d o the cult u lly co n di ,
a ,
a r ra

di sp o s ition s .

in te v i ew i v lu ble fi n lly f o the in c e sed un de

r s a a ,
a ,
r r a r

t cc ue f m i t t b th the in te v i ewe
a a r nd hi ro o o r r a s

subject An inte vi ew m y cle up m isun de st n d in gs th t

. r a ar r a a

o i gi n te i n em o t i on l
r a i tu a t io n s whe e n e i the the w ke a S ,
r r or r

n o the b o ss w s ve y
r tion l Th in te vi ew sessi on est b
a r ra a . e r a

l ishes del y pe io d du in g wh ich the d istu bed in dividu al

a a r r r

m y fin d h i be in gs n d cl i fy h i thi nkin g Th del y

a s ar a ar s . e a

pe i d i s in effect it i in ind ividu l beh vio

r o , ,
th ught
as s a a r, a o

p o cess du in g whi ch h sty c on clusion s ar checked an d

r r a e

p ecip it te cti n i blo cked

r a a o s .

PE S O NNE L CO UNS LI NG We pp o ch th is techn iqu

R E . a r a e

wi th c n s ide ble t ep i d tion Th well in fo m ed e de

o ra r a . e -
r r a r,

we kn ow W ill be c itic l of a b i e f desc iption o f a ve y

,
r a r r r

complex p oblem ; n d the elem en t y studen t m y n ot get

r a ar a

m uch m e a n in gful kn o wledge f om i t We Sh all lim it ou r .

38
r

di scussion t n on di ective o clien t cen te ed c oun selin g

o r ,
r -
r ,

te m s in t o duced in to th e lite a tu e of psychothe py by

r r r r ra

C l Ro ge s
ar r
39

Non di ective coun selin g in an in dust i l o gani z ti on i

.

r r a r a s

n o t i n te n ded f o seve ely d i stu bed c ses r These equ i e th r r a . r r e

help of a psychi t ist o of p ofess ion lly t in ed psych o a r r a r a ra

the pist I t can be used eff ectively with m ildly di stu bed
ra . r ,

33 For
a p p li ca tio n
a co n ci s e

wk b u t lu cid discu s si on
M
of n on di rectiv e co un s e gwlin , i th
to th e or s i t ua ti on , s ee ai er, P ri n ci p les o f h u ma n l
re at io ns ,

ch a p
39
Se e
M itflin C o
. xiii .

C g
.
. Ro ers , C ou ns e li n g
a nd p sy cho th era p y ( B o s ton : Hou h ton
an d C li e nt -centered th e ra p y ( B o s to n : Ho u h to n M i tfli n g g
,

C o , 19 5 1
.
298 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
h im Th g o up s exp ess i n thus se ves t o cl if y f e s n d
’

. e r r o r ar ar a

a t the s m e t im e c e a tes a i tu t ion whe e such exp ess i n i s

a r S a r r o

a ccept ble When ll m em be s exp ess s om e f e s fu the

a . a r r ar ,
r r

exp ess i n f fe s is f cilit ted th a t even the lesse fe s

r o o ar a a so r ar

c n bec m e exp essed Th f e un ion sh p f o ex ”42

of

m ple as M i e p in ts
a o r . e ar a o ,
r

a ,
t d o es n o t n ecess i ly im ply
a r o ou ,
ar a

des i e f o an open sh op B t the ejection of on e lte n tive

r r u r a r a

pl ces the i d ivi du l in the Open shop c mp S usp i cion thus

.

a n a -
a

F
.

“
h im eve n th o ugh h i p e fe e n ce i cle a
,
e s s r r s r . ar

“
b sed n the im gin ed g o ls f the opp s i
a o a a o o

n e i the s i de h
“
the g als a tt ib ted ”4 3
to i t r as o r u .

Th i s it ti n seem s t be
S ua speci l c se of pl ali st ic
o o a a a ur

i gn n ce n d i n ce im puted m o t i ves a the s ce of the

”
o ra a S re ou r

fe it m i ght be c alled p lu lis ti c f ntas y Th cu e f thi s

,

ar ra a . e r or

plu listi c f n t sy with it elem en ts of i sk n d d n ge i

ra a a ,
s r a a r, s

f o the m em be s c n ce n ed to d i scuss the i sks in v ol ed n d

r r o r r v a

di s eg d an y di scuss ion of p o ss ible g in s ; f o when the

“
to r ar a r

fe s h ve bee n exp essed they c n be of fu the v lue b

ar a r ,
a r r a e

c use they an be ex am in ed an d pe io d ic ally eval ted

a c re -
r ua .

C ON C LUSION
Th subject o f hum n el t i on s i v a st a n d c om pli c ted
e a r a s a ,

a n d th i s ch pte h p esen ted only the l ge fe tu es f the

p blem M uch h d t be m itted n d m uch h been
a r as r ar a r o

ro . a o o ,
a as

t e ted only b i efly We h ve n ot even t uched n th vi t l

r a r . a o o e a

a n d s c i l psych o lo g i c lly in t i c a te p o blem of the

o a -
o le of a r r r

l ab o union s in m o de n in dust y We m ust om it d i scus

r r r . a

s ion of the f ct th a t the o g n iz tion of l bo in t un i n

a r a a a r o o s

h a given the wo ke n o t o n ly
s m e dv n t ge s b r r a or a a a ou ar

g in in g p owe wi th in dust y the eby in c e s in g h i h e

a r r ,
r r a s S ar

in p o li cy n d dec i s i o n m ki n g but i t h as w o n f
a h im th t -
a , or a

d i gni ty n d self espect wh ich s h i wo k a level b v

a -
r ra l es s r a o e

shee drudge y r r .
45

I bid , p 62
42 . .

4 3 I bid 63
, p . .

f g
4 4 I b id 63
, p
. . .

4 5 Fo r a b ri e b u t e nli h ten ed di s cu s si on o f t he role o f l a bor un ion s in

m o dern i n du s tri al so ci ety , s e e Elum s To w a rd a de mocra tic w ork p rocess ,
’

ch a p s i— iii. .
H
'

UMAN RELATION S IN IN D U STRY 9

Th e stud i es c i ted o desc i bed in th i s ch pte as well a s r r a r,

m a n y o the s whi ch we h ve om i tted c ll tten t i n t o the

r a ,
a a o

im p o t a n t g o up fa cto s n d o the s o ci l psych ol o gi c l v i

r r r a r a -
a ar

a bles th a t ffect wo ke m a n gem en t el ti n s They h ow

a r r- a r a o . S

th t n in dust y i s f un d m e n t lly
a a s o c i l system an d a s a
r a a a a ,

s o cia l system it h set o f expect ti n s eg din g pe s on n el

as a a o r ar r .

They de m on st a te th t the wo ke d es n o t w a n t m o n ey
r a r r o

o n ly a lth o ugh i t i
, the s o u ce of secu ity f o h im self a n d s r r r

th se f w ho se welf e he feels esp n s ible but ls such

o or ar r o , a o

im p o t n t psych ol o g i c a l v lues
r a di gn ity n d self espect a as a -
r .

He w n ts h is em ployees an d h is fellow wo ke s to app eci te

a -
r r r a

a n d u n de st a n d h im He wan ts n opp o“
r tun ity to enj o y . a r _

m e n in gful hum n a ss o ci t ion on the j b

a When in dust i l
a a o . r a

le de s eco gn ize these n eeds an d ct t fulfill them they

a r r a o ,

a dd dec i s ively t in dust i l m o le a n d the eductio n of o r a ra r

a voi d ble f iction a r .

”4 6

O di scuss i o n o f t i n in g in hum n el ti n s di d n o t go
ur ra a r a o

to the o o ts of the p o blem o f p o duct iven ess an d the hum n

r r r a

i tio n o f w k I t w s to o b i ef to cc om pl i sh o di fficult a
z a or . a r a s

t a sk I n any ca se the p o in t to be n oted i th a t the imp or

.
,
s

t n ce of techni ques li es no t in them selves but in h ow well

a

they ch n ge pe ople s a ttitudes an d beh vio an d in wh t

a
’

a r a

di ection
r

Fin lly the e i m uch mo e th n un de st n din g o g niza

.

a ,
r s r a r a r a

t ion al st uctu e n d us in g the l a test te hn i c l ski lls in v olved

M o e th n ny
r r a c a

in the im p o vem e n t o f in dustri l el t io n s

r a r a . r a a

thin g else wh t i equi s i te i the dete m in ti on by ll on

,
a s r s r a a c

ce ned to sub o d in a te techni c al p o ficien cy nd the lleged

r r r a a

but spu i us sci en tific objectivity t m o a l on s i de tio s

r o o r c ra n .

The e m ay be sc i e n ti sts w h o ar deluded e n o ugh to bel i eve

r e

th a t thei in vesti g tion s t an scen d hum n v lues but they

r a r a a ,

m ust be ve y sm ll m in ity Rese ches in the l st fif ty

a r a or . ar a

ye s have c e ted g o win g e aliz ti n th t the lin e sep

ar r a a r r a o a a

r a t in g sc i e n t ific o bject i vi ty f
“
m v lue el tedn ess i p
ti c ally non existen t Whe e s ch alleged objectivity exists . r
ro

u
a -
r a s ra c

on
46

th e
B on n er, So cia l p s y ch olo y , p
m o re i n clu s iv e a re a o f
gg g
la r e or
. 375 . For th e m o s t
a n iz a tio n s , s ee s oc
u p - to - da te

. I ssu es, 1 2, No 2
res e arch

69 p p .
300 CON FLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
i t i s a lw ys a n a t if ct of h i st o i c al c on d i tion s an d a n arro w
a r a r

or d isto ted c on ception o f the n a tu e of sci en ce—especi lly

r r a

as i t el tes t o hum n
r a ction s an d p efe en ces I t i f o
a a r r . s r

these e son s th t the eth ics of dem

r a a cy h ve pe s i sten tly o cra a r

“
o bt uded the m selves o n the p a ge s o f th i s b o k
r

ethic a l con cep tion of hum n el ti n sh ips i bsen t a

Whe e th
a
is
r a o
o
”
.

s a
r

c n tempt f o hum n bein gs h weve a tion lized n d on

o r a ,
o r r a a c

it i f o un d t o be the ,
s

I n such c ses n o m tte h ow p eten tio us a ,

a r r

s olvin g hum an el a tion s p oblem s m y be r r a ,

t d o es n o t c m e t gri ps as B lum m a kes cle wi th the

”
i o o ,
a r,

p oblem of the eth ica l n tu e of m n C on sequen tly he

r a r a .
,

c n tin ues
o ,

th ou gh t b f
m an i s
ll w
cu t

e co m e s s h a
off ro m th e
It b ecom es
l p if e -
s rin
g
f
of h is b ein

i n strum en
g an d
tt
s ci e n t i c

im pl e
fi
x pw p p l p pl
o . o t en an o
m en t
fil e i s tin g
lly
s a ti s e d W i th a b a si ca

l p
o

th e u tim a t e re su t of s uri ou s
er os iti on s a n d

”
—th e
g “b t
to m a nim a ke th em
u n dem o cra ti c i n du s tri a o r a n i z a t i o n

i do
Thi s i s
ors hi ty
l
u ate

w t lw p
eo e to
.

j
ld ly
o e c iv i ors
o f th e st a tu s
qu o a s ci enti s co u b e
gu ti t o f 47
.

47 F H B lu m Tow a rd
. .
, a dem ocra ti c w ork p rocess p . 176 .
302 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT O F G ROU PS
dem o g phic ethn o g aphi c an d pu ely ecolo gi c al desc ip
ra ,
r ,
r r

t io n s .

Th e g o up dyn am i cs pp o a ch c lls f o a m e est i cted

r -
a r a r or r r

defin itio n of the hum an comm un ity While the e h ve been . r a

m n y defi n i t ion s of the te m the m st c omm on o t d iti n l

a r ,
o r ra o a

vi ew defin ed the comm un ity l gely but n o t exclus ively in ar , ,

te m s of the l o c l a e —in te m s th t is of n ei ghb hoo ds

r a r a r a or

citi es an d egion s G oup dyn am i cs on the o the

, , ,

2
,
r . r ,
r

c ll s as we h ve s i d f o m o e est icted m e n in g
a ,
a a ,
r a r r r a .

ou p o in t of vi ew c mm unity i n ot p im ily
r a o s r ar a

sp ti l dem g phi c o ecol gic l a e a— lth ugh it is these

a a ,
o ra ,
r o a r a o

thin gs too of c u se —but s o cial g o up in whi ch in te ction

, ,
o r a r ra

i the fun d m en t l p o cess

s O c on cepti n ec o gn izes the
a a r .
3
ur o r

sp ti l o loc l ized n tu e of the comm un ity but the dis

a a r a a r ,

tin g i sh in g m a k o f the l tte

u f m o u p in t f vi ew i it
r a r, ro r o o ,
s s

g up in te ction l ch a cte I n studyin g the c omm un ity

ro -
ra a ra r .
4
,

the efo e we
r n t dese t i n g o u
r ,
m a in p e ccup t io n
a re o r r r o a ,

which i the st dy f dyn am ic g oups but exten d in g u

s u o r ,
o r

c cepts beyon d the sm all inf o m l g oup t the vi ble

on r a r o a

hum n comm uni ty

a .

COMMUNI TY AS A DY N AMIC G ROU P

THE

E ven a p im itive com m un ity whi ch i c on ven tion lly

r , s a

desc ibed st ble an d en du in g i subject to ch n ge when

r as a r ,
s a

seen in the pe spective of tim e H oweve in thi s ch pte r . r, a r

we sh ll dwell on the m de n comm unity wh ich i subject

a o r , s

t o c n st n t a n d of te n a p i d ch a n ge
o a ,
I t s m e m be s p es r , . r a re r

e n t n o t v ol n t
,
i ly in m n y of the c o n t ived g o ups th t
u ar ,
as a r r a

2 S e e A B Holl in sh ea d. .

13 6—
g C
omm u n i ty re se arch : dev el o p m ent an d p re s e n t
,

3W
con dit io n A mer s o ci a l R ev , 1 3
,
. 46
k .

hi le R E P ar de scri b e d th e comm uni ty , p arti cu larly th e city in

. .
. .

a gg
int era cti o n a l te rm s a s e arly a s 1 9 1 5 , h i s con cep t ion w a s n ot f un d am en ta ll y
ro u p - stru ctural a n d - dy n ami c de n iti on

C gg
See R E P ar an d E fi .

C g . . k W
“ C
. .

Bur e ss Th e ci ty ( hi ca o : Th e U n iv ers ity of

, hi ca o Pre ss , His
p a p er, Th e
4 Fo r a n earli er f g
ity , w a s o ri i n a lly p u blish ed i n 1 9 1 5
o rm u la ti o n o f a s im i l ar Vi e s ee E T Hi ll er Th e w ,
.

. .

—
,

comm un i ty a s a s ocia l rou p Amer s ocia l Rev 6

g
1 89 2 0 2 S e e
a l s o I B ern a rd So m e s o ci a l- p sy ch olo i cal a sp e cts o f comm u ni ty s tudy : so me
.
,

a rea s com p a ra ti v e ly n e lecte d b y Am eri ca n s oci ol ogi s ts , B rit

, .

g . .
, .

J So cio l , 2
—
. . .

30 .
GR OU P DY N AM ICS IN COMMUNITY RELATION S 3

we h ve desc ibed but in v lun t ily bec use the e is n o

a r , o ar ,
a r

o the w y f o them to su vi ve
r a r in d ivi du a ls I n vo lun t a y r as . r

m em be sh ip t on ce suggests the questi n f why pe o ple

r a o o

wo k to gethe in g oups f the tt inm en t f c omm on go ls

r r r or a a o a .

While the an swe i c om plex it n be sim pl ified witho ut

r s , ca

disto tion by eite tin g fo m e sse tion n m ely th a t

r r ra a r r a r ,
a ,

gro up belon gin gn ess s such fun dam en ta l s o u ce of a is a r

secu ity an d s a ti s f ction Th is h be en them e unn in g

r a as a r

th o ugh w itin gs f om Pl to s R epu blic to Tonn i es G emein

.

v
’ ’

r r r a

s ch ft u n d G es e llscha ft t o the m o st
a ecen t ese ches of r r ar

g o up dyn m ics Th e gen uin e comm un i ty ch cte i zed

r a .
,
a ra r

by comm on sentim en ts a n d un de st an d in gs i a tt acti ve n d r ,

s r a

h olds people t gethe in the pu suit f comm n bjective

o r r o a o o .

C n sen sus a g eem en t con co d—these h ve alw ys bee n

o ,
r ,
r a a

fun d m en t l in comm unity life 5

M de n s ci l psy holo gical and nth p lo gi c l e

a a .

o r o a -
c a ro o a r

se arches fu the m o e h ve c on vin cin gly dem on st ted th t

,
r r r ,
a ra a

s in ce we o selves p o ducts of g o up m embe ship the

ur a re r r r

feelin g of comm un ity of belon gin gn ess i esse n tial t o n o , ,

s r

m al li vi n g I t m y ve y well be a t uth wh i ch hi sto y m i ght

. a r r r

som e d y demon st a te th t the pe ce an d f eedom bo ut

a r ,
a a r a

which m en d e m will be e ali zed when they un ive s lly

r a r r a

sh e go ls an d obli g tion s wi th one a no the

ar a a r

THE P S YCH O L O GY O F NO T B E L O NGI N G I n h i s b i e f but

.

. r

psycho l gic all y sen s itive an lys is of g o up bel n gi n gn ess

A M w p esen ts a ve y pe ceptive desc ipti n o f the
o a r o ,

. a rro r r r r o

feelin g of n ot belon gin g especi ally it pe t in s t tho se ,

as r a o

m embe s of the comm un ity w h

r e ejected bec use of o ar r a

r a ci a l n a t i on l
, nd eli gio us diffe en ces Th e un equal
a ,
a r r .

gg g
Stu de n ts of g ro u p f g g gg
dy n a m i cs s e em to or et or i n ore th e s en si tiv e an d
di s cerni n ob s erv a ti o n s th a t Ton ni es m a de re a rdin th e el em en tal n ature
o f b el o n i n n e s s a n d co n s e n s u s

L zg
th e co mm u n ity i n i ts m os t e l em en t ary orm
V f
E intrach t ( co n cord ) h e p oin t ed o u t i s

g C
.

Se e F TOn ni e s G em eins ch a ft
, ,

“
. .
,

a nd Ges e lls cha ft

z g
( eip i : Fu es ” erl a
s cha f t) i s ch ar a ct e ri e d b y o r ani c w g
as co n tra s te d
o m m un i ty ( Ge”m ein
i th m ech a ni ca l co n
,

wg
n ecte dn es s a n d s o li dari ty N o s tu den t o f co n t em p o ra ry
. ro u p dyn am i cs
ha s sh o n m ore con si s te n tly th an Tonn i e s th e i nterdep ende n ce o f i n div i du a ls

fq q g g
a n d s u b rou p s th a t co n s ti tu t e a co m m u n i ty in th e tru e h o lis ti c s en se Hi s
re u en t u s e o f bi o l o i ca l an a lo i e s w as p ro b a b l y m e a n t to un ders co re th is

u a li ty o f in terde p e n den ce .
, .
304 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
t e tm en t a cco ded them esults in tw o d iff e en t fo m s f
r a r r r r o

r esp on ses it m y in c e se grou p s o lida ity m n g s om e w h o

: a r a r a o

are r ejected by the d om in n t elem en t of the comm un ity o it a r

m y ge n e te e lf h t ed
,

6
a ra s -
a r .

Th e devel op m e n t of g oup s oli d i ty i p o sitive n d on r ar s a a c

st uctive e action to inequ lity Of t e tm en t Th e ejected

r r a r a . r

o f it o w n Th i s in g o up s .
-
r

in v lves a s in a ll in g o up el t i o n s
o ,
st on g -
r r a ,
a r

o n w i th the n ew g o up P ide in the n w g oup r . r e r

r epl a ces the fo m e sel f c on scio us n ess n d sh m e I n divi du ls

r r -
a a . a

expe ien ce con fiden ce in them selves n d the i self esteem

r ,
a r -

i s he i ghte n ed Whe n these expe i e n ces . i n tegr a ted they r a re ,

st en gthen m le n d help to m ke the g oup m e o

r o ra a a r or c

he i s veA t the s m e tim e the s o li d ity of the n w g o up i

. a ar e r s

st e n gthen ed by it c on ce ted p“
r o test g in st the unf i n ess
s r r a a a r

o f the l a ge c mm u n i ty a n d o p o vi des a n w st e n gth f r

r r o s r e r o

g oup su vival Wh a t h ppen s in effect i s th t n w

r r .
”7
a , ,
a a e

comm un ity is est blished Th n w comm un ity i s obvio usly a . e e

n ot n ec o l o g i c a l e n t i ty
a n t n a dm in i st a t i ve u n i t but ,
o a r ,

r a the n ew f
r a m ew k of v lues n d s o ci l n o m s
ra s o ci l
or a a a r ,
a a

b on d of comm on sym p th i es a

S elf h t ed on the othe h an d is quite obviously n eg

.

-
a r ,
r ,
a a

ti ve nd psych ol o gic lly dest uctive e a cti n bec a use f i t

a a r r o o s

effect up n b oth the in divi du l an d th m ino ity g oup I t

o a e r r .

do es n t le d to n ew com mun i ty f self on fid n t equ al s

o a a o -
c e ,

f o the im of the in div i du l w h o h tes h im sel f f o hi s

r a a a r

min o i ty st tus i s t o esc ape i de n ti fic a t ion wi th th e sub o

r a r

di n te g up Th e self h a t in g in d iv i du a l o bsessed w i th the

a ro .
-
,

n eed t o de n y h i desp ised st tus i foun d in m o st m ino ity

s a ,
s r

g oups Alth ough it m y a t fi st blush appe ar puzzlin g the

r . a r ,

self h te desp i ses h is own people in m nn e s im il a to the

-
a r a a r r

h a t ed sh own by th e p ejudi ced m j o ity to m in ity g oups

r r a r or r .

I n i t m ilde fo m s th i s self h a t ed m y c on s i st o f n o m o e
s r r -
r a r

th n N egro t yin g to p ss o in n imm i g an t ch n gin g

a a r a ,
r a r a

h is n m e I n i ts m o e v i ule n t n d cyn ic l exp ess io n i t

a . r r a a r

reflects ll th ste e o types a n d the de o g a t o y ch ar cte i sti cs

a e r r r a r

7
A .
JM w
arro
.

I bi d , p 8 8
. . .
,
L i v in g w ith o ut ha te ( New Yk or : Harp er B ros .
,
306 D U MEN T OF G ROU PS C ON LI C F T A ND A J ST

a spects n m ely g o up in which ten s ion s c onfl i cts s o ci l

,
a ,
as a r , ,
a

s olid ity n d c ollective h m on y e the d m in n t ch

ar ,
a ar ar o a ar

a cte i t i Th un i ty o f the m o de n c omm un i ty—i t s o ci l

r s cs . e r s a

cohes iven ess —lies less in the liken ess of it in dividu als o i t s r s

p opul ti n l units n d m o e in the ki n d f in te depe n den ce

a o a a r o r

a n d a ccept n ce of d iff e e ces wh i ch we h a ve desc i bed i n

a r n r

L- D C D AC O N
IR E e a l ie ch pte s we in t o
TE TI . In r r a r r

d c d the te m a ct n d int e ct I f we
u e r e g oin g t o
s
g o a ra . ar

beyon d the st uctu l n lys i s of the com m un ity wh ich h

r ra a a ,
as

been the d m in an t app o ch to it study we m ust ex m in e

o r a s ,
a

i t wi th in the f m ew o k f ct io n I f we W i sh t o go fa the
ra r o a . r r

th an a sp ti l a n lys is we m ust study th c m m uni ty

a a a , e o as a

fo m of g o l di ected beh vi
r a Actio n t ow d a goa l i
-
r a or . ar s a

ch a cte i sti c of the comm un ity

ra r it i of th in d i vi du l as s e a .

P ticip t io n in the s olut i n o f c omm un ity p blem s i the

ar a o ro s

m o st im p t n t go l f ll i n di vi du ls w h o
or a c on ce n ed
a o a a a re r

with the comm unity s welf e A ction ese ch h s con ’

ar . r ar a

v in cin gly de m o n st ted th t the su est w ay of in v o lvin g ra a r

c itize n s in the ff i s o f the i c omm uni ty i fi st to a s ce t in

a a r r s, r ,
r a

the i own W ishes n d n eeds n d secon d to en c u a ge them

r a a , ,
o r

t o t ke a ctive n d esp o s ible oles in im p vin g its con

a a r n r ro

ditio n Th i s i
s . n the w y o f s yin g wh t we h ve
s a o r a a a a re

p e t dl
a e
y st essed th t g i ve n the
r pp tuni ty pe,
o ple in a ,
o or ,

in te cti on will devel p i n to self d i ectin g g o ups

ra Th i s i s
o -
r r .

s a yin g too th at comm un ity ch n ge n d im p ovem en t ar

, ,
a a r e

fo m s o f g o up deci s ion m ki n g n d th a t they involve m o st

r r -
a ,
a

o f the f e tu es of co llect ive p o ble m s o lvi n g whi ch we h ve

a r r -
a

ex m in ed—communi c tion le a de ship c sen sus an d the

a a ,
r ,
on ,

like The e is n o dem oc tic commu nity in the absen ce of

. r ra

collective p a ticip tion in the th inkin g pl n nin g n d ctin g

r a ,
a ,
a a

of the e n t i e g o up r r .

I t i bey on d the lim i ts f th i s ch a pte t c o n s i de i n n y

s o r o r a

det ail the objectives f c mm un ity a cti on They m y be o o . a

subsum ed un de the gene l c tego y of c om m unity pl an r ra a r

n in g S ince this h s bec m e a techn ical subject in i tself

. a o ,

o n ly the b est o utlin e is st ted he e

ar a r .
GR OU P DYN AMIC S IN COMMUN ITY RELATION S 307

E ve y mm uni ty m ust fi st s tis fy the phys i c l and

r co r a a

ec on omi c n eeds of i t m em be s This obviously en tails such s r .

specific item s a s employm en t the ccessib ili ty of c on sum e s ,

a r
’

goo ds n d s o un d fisc l e co n om y I t ls o in cludes a com

,
a a a . a

m un i ty o g n i z tio n th t m kes p o vi s i n f o s a n i ta tion

r a a a a r o r ,

r ec e tio n nd liv ble hous in g con diti on s

r a , a a .

Th e c omm uni ty m ust ls o p o vi de i ts c i t i zen s wi th opp o a r r

t n it i
u f o full s o c i l n d psych o l g i c a l develo p m e n t Thi s
es r a a o .

re f e s t o such i m p o t n t m tte s a
r a dequ te educ t i n a l
r a a r s a a o

f cilities cultura l opp o tun ities exemplified by t m us i c

a , r ar , ,

a n d o the estheti c en j o ym en ts n d sim il pu sui ts I n

r a ,
a ar r .

this c onn ectio n the ole of dult educ tion m ust pl y an eve r a a a r

in c e s in g a n d im p t an t o le
r a or r

Fin ll y genuin ely dem o c atic comm unity m ust in still in

.

a ,
a r

i ts pe ople s om e th in g th t usu lly i s n t c o n sc io usly pl a n n ed a a o

of its e lf as
,

n am ely a e n e of a w e nes s s comm u n i t ar

, y a s a ,
as

civili zin g a gen cy f the h i ghest o de Thi s wa en ess i o r r . a r s

m o e th n c i vi c p i de im p o t n t as the la tte i ;
r a the i t i
r r a r s ra r s

i n the deepest se n se a lo y lty to itse lf as a fre e a n d demo

,

cra ti c s o ci et R ese ch ev i de n ce supp ts the bel i e f th t

y
M ny of
. ar or a

th i s vi ew of the c o mm un i ty i n o t n i dl e f n cy s a a . a

the dyn am ic g oups wh ich we h ave desc ibed exemplify thi s

r r

con dition n d studen ts of c omm uni ty life ttest to it exi st

en ce A thur E M o gan an a utho i ty o n comm u i ty lif e
,
a a s

. r . r ,
r n ,

a ssu es us th a t
r t i s pp o x im tely the a ctu l c on d it io n in
1 a r a a
”1 1
n um be less s m ll v ill ges a n d n e i ghb o h o o ds
r a a r .

Like the dyn ami c g oups whi ch we h ve studi ed the r a ,

o g n i c c omm un i ty ec o g n i zes the i ghts o f d i sse n te s m i n o

r a r r r ,
r

ity pe o ples n d the ec o n om i c lly u n de p i v ileged t o pl y

,
a a r r a a

fun cti n a l p t in its deli be tion s I n m y c mm un i ti es

o ar ra . an o ,

eventh se o gan ized n dem o c ti c p in c iples these people

o r o ra r ,

t oo of te n i gn o ed a n d le f t o t o f the g o up s ff i s
’

a re r u r a a r

Fu the m o e the e i tenden cy of a few pe ple by

.

r r r ,
r s a o ,

r e son of thei st tus p esti ge educ tion l qu lific tion s

a r a ,
r ,
a a a a ,

o recon om i c p o s i tion to be ch o n f o th e m a n ge m e n t
,
ov er se r a

o f c omm un i ty le de sh ip n d c i vi c aff a i s Thi s i a s ur e

a r a r . s

11 A . E . M g or an , Th e s ma ll co mmu nity ( New Yk or : Harp er B ros .

,

p . 132 .
308 CON FLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
in duce m e n t to p a ss ivi ty o n the p art of m n y ci ti ze n nd a s a

t o the i even tu al in diffe en ce to c omm un ity well bein g

r r -
.

When thi s h ppe n s it i a i gn th a t the c omm un ity i n t

,
s a S s o

livin g up to it full esp on s ibili ti es as an in teg a tin g a gen cy

s r r

in th / li e o f i t pe o ple
e v s s .

g an y segm en t f om p ar r

tic un i ty ction i exp l ined by p in ciple a s a a r

of l e dy st ted n Ch pte 8 n d whi ch

a r a a i a r a

h s been i go o usly n lyzed by Thele n

a r r I t o pe tes in a ll
a a .
12
ra

p oblem s lvin g s itua tion s and n ot only in the cl a ss oom

r -
o ,
r .

Th e p in ci ple a sse ts th t the s o l tio n o f a p oblem m ust

r r a u r

in clude al l levels in the g o up st uctu e i n cludin g ll in di r r r ,

a

v i du l whose a ction s m i ght c e a te b i e s to the s oluti on

a s r arr r

o f the p oble m s I f d i ss i den t elem en ts f o ex m ple e i

r .
g ,
r a ,
ar

n o ed o if thei o bject i o n s a e n o t c o n s i de ed lo n g wi th th e
r ,
r r r r a

suggestion s f o the s the f eedom of cti n of the whole

o r ,
r a o

g o up i en d n ge ed E ven if thei coope tion i n t given

r s a r . r ra s o ,

o i s dee m ed to be u nn ecess
r y by the m j o i ty it sh ould n ot ar a r ,

be o ve looked ; f o the p o ss ib ili ty of its be in g p esen t h s an

r r r a

influe n ce o n the gro up

THE I NDI VI DUA L S PE CE TI O N O THE CO MM UNI TY

.

R In P F .

seve l pl ces in this b ook we c lled tten tion t o th im

ra a a a e

p t n ce of the g oup s pe cepti n of i tself n d the tt it ude

or a r
’

r o a a

o f i ts m e m be s t o w d the g oup G o up self pe cepti n

r ar r . r -
r o

ra n ks m on g the m o st s i gn ific n t fe t res in the li f e of a

a a a u

commun ity a n d pl ys vi ta l o le n the qu ali ty of it mo le

a a r 1 s ra .

A sen se of aw en ess of i tself s c omm uni ty we p oin ted

ar a a ,

ou t i ,
a n in teg
s l p t of it n tu e Whethe
ra ar n o t j oin t s a r . r or

a ct io n by i t m em be s t o ws d goal wi ll be con summ ted

r ar a a

will be dete m in ed in the n d by thei ttitudes“

r t o w d th e e r a ar

o up as wh o le Pe o ple w h o f eel th a t they bel on g

”
nd
gr a . a

th a t the c mm un ity i the i h om e will app o ch i ts p oble m s

o s r r a r

in a s i gn ific n tly d iffe e n t w y f o m th o se w h do n o t sh e

a r a r o ar

this i den tific ti n This w m de cle ar in our dis cu ss ion

a o . as a

of the psych lo gy o f n o t bel on g i n g

o .

Res
12

.
H A Th elen E n i n e eri n
41
. .
,

579 9 6 —
g .
g re s e ar ch in curricul u m buil di n g , I . educ .

,
3 10 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
h ave seen tha t cohes ive g oup i ch a a cte i zed by st on g
a r s r r a r

motiv a ti n to e n g a ge in m utu al a ctivi ties an d by a p owe ful

o r

n eed t o s o lve the g o up s p oblem s c o llect ively Ob i usly

r
’

r . v o ,

of c om m un ity well be in g w ill m e n n th i n g t o a -

a o

n iti e t o the n eed f o

e s collective p oblem s olvin g
v r r -
.

d fin d pe o ple s go ls e the less

’
-
e e a ar ,

m o tiv ted to st i ve f o the i a ch i evem en t So

a r r r .

c i a l psy h o lo g i c lly g oup m ot iv ti n m e n s c omm un ity

-
c a ,
r a o a

in vo lvem e n t Th m o e c om m un i ty in v olved
. e pe s on i s r -
a r ,

o the th in gs bein g equa l the st on ge will be h i m tive t

r ,
r r s o o

c n t ibute t the c mm uni ty s welfa e ; n d con ve sely the

o r o o
’

r a ,
r ,

m o e s o c i ally m o t iv a ted he i the m o e c omm u ni ty in v olved

r s, r -

he becom es Th is i not a ci cul a gumen t f o s o ci l f cts

. s r ar r ,
r a a

im p o se thei o w n st m p up o n hum an beh avi o

r especi ally
a r,

dyn m i c n d developm en t al beh vi

a a ,
a or .

Th e e m ph s i s o n m utu al p a ti cip t ion n d s o c i a l a cti o n

a r a a

do es no t m in im i ze a p in ciple wh ich we h ve s t essed o n r a r

m a ny o cc a s ion s n m ely the pl a ce of the in d ivi du l in th

a a e

comm un ity self pe ception D em oc a cy we h ave s i d m ust

, ,

-
r . r ,
a ,

le ave oom f o the in divi du l I t is w y f life n ot set

r r a . a a o ,
a

o f rules im p o sed up on the in divi du l by exte n l p ess u es a r a r r .

When a comm unity i o ove o g n ized th t it c o e ces it s s r r a a r s

m e m be s even if on ly by in di ect n d subtle p essu es

r ,
r a r r ,

in to un willin g p ti c ip ti n it i t o th a t exten t ty n n i c l
ar a o , s ra a .

r
“
I t m ust t ole a te the un s o c i a l d e m e f o i n so d o in g i t m y
be en cou a gin g the p i n ee I t owes h im the f eed m to
r o r .
r a r, r

r o
a

be un s o cia l if he choo ses .

”1 4

The e i n evi den ce f om the c om p

r s o tive study of o r ara s

c i e ti th a t th i s fo m of in divi du li sm is h m ful e ithe to

es r a ar r

th pe s o n o to the g o up O n the c on t
e r r y even n o dd in g
r . rar , a

a cqu a in t n ce w i th the h i st o y of i de s w i ll h o w th t in the

lon g un s o ci ety st n ds to g ain f om it M o g n w iti n g on

a r a S a

r a r . r a ,
r

the pl ce f dem o c ti c le de ship in a f ee comm un ity

a o ra a r r ,

shows a sen itive eg d f o it He w ites s r ar r . r

S i ty h t t m h with i ty
,

i gh t t i i t th t th
h ll b h lpf l t h m f l b t th mb i ty
oc e as a r o ns s a e con a c s a an as s oc e

d d i t f
h ld b f t d id f h im lf
s a e e u an no ar u ,
u e nu er an n en s o

su c h t t
con a c s s h m ou e or ea c an o ec e or se .

14 M org an , Th e s ma ll commu ni ty , p . 2 82 .
GR OU P DYN AMICS IN COMMUNITY RELATION S 3I I
'

R l ti ly
e a lit y p lik Spi
ve so H y Th
y p t m y g t w ii wp ii t f g i t lt t t i i ity
ar b y th i
ers o n s e n oz a or en r ore a u e r

A d w h k w wh t d g t ty f l w ll
v er se ara en e s s a e ne v e o n s o re a v a ue o s oc e .

f
lif it g t t l ! A m m y p f t h hi i tim t g
n o no s a e ree o n en s o soc a co n a c s ve

i t
c a es th
s

g
rea es
t
e i d f t i
rea i b v a ue

th hi ighb H wi ll fi d m mm g d
m ll m k th q ni t b ty
s o f
an

a
a

es
re er

n oo
o

s,
av e a s

or e
s

u e
n a e a ss o

e au o

t th
t d will di w y ii whh i h t b i g t th m m
n a u re , ra er an s ne ors .
[
e n so e co on ro u n

f i t
l h hi f d Oth w thi im y b p it t ki g
o n eres , an s cov er a s n c o r n o e so e

f th
hi li i g f m ty d gi i g mm ity
o e v a u es e as ou n . er se e a e a ar a s e, a n

Hi
m y t l t h im b t will t l him
s v n ro g t
s oc e ,
an v n no n n r e ur n . s co un
15
a o era e , u no ov e .

Th p o n o un ce m en ts o f s om e s t u de n ts of g o up dyn am i cs
e r r

h a ve been b a sed n ot on wh t m n a ctu lly is but on wh a t

,
a a a

the i bs t ction s ha ve m de h im ou t to be The e un s

r a ra a . r r

th o ugh thei th inkin g the im pli ci t p em ise th t the mo e

r r r a r

m en in te ct wi th on e a n o the the m o e they wi ll like on e

eve yon e will be B ut t hi s View
ra r, r

a n o the n d the h app i e

r, a r r .

o ve l ooks the well a ttested f ct th t wh ile m n te n d t o be

r -
a a ,
e

unh ppy in i s ol tion they are als o m ise ble when they a e
a a ,
ra r

dep ived of the esto a tive p owe of i s ol tion an d p i v cy

r r r r a r a .

Hum n bein gs e s o ci al—even g eg i us— n im ls n o

a ar r ar o a a ,

doubt a b o ut it ; but they also wan t nd n eed p tn ess an d a a ar

in d i vi du a l i ty When to ge the n ess becom es en gulfin g an d

. r

in esc p a ble m n e ect em o ti on a l b a i e s betwee n th em

a ,
e r rr r

selves When this h appen s the lim its oi p ti cip a tion an d

.
,
ar

comm uni ty h a ve been d n ge ously ove exten ded a r r .

C OMMUNITY O RGANIZATION
Altho ugh c e tain fo m s f c om m un ity o ganiz ti n
r r o r a o a re

con sequen ces of tion al pl n n in g n d des i gn an inf o m l ra a a ,

r a

st uctu e i impli ed in the ve y c n cept of c mm uni ty A

r r s r o o

comm un ity is a fo m of s oci l o g n i z ti n F om the st an d

.

r a r a a o . r

p in t of g o up dyn m i cs comm n ity g n i za ti on is n ot

o r a ,
u or a

n ecess ari ly e ff ected by a c mm i ttee f expe ts o i it o o r ,

n r s

m e ely th gro up s st m p o f pp ova l of the de i s ion of

’
r e a a r c

a n o the I n a dem o c t i c s ci l g up th c i t i ze n y m akes

r . ra o a ro e r

the decis ion s an d puts them in to cti n Parti cip ti n i the a o . a o s

b a si c p o cess an d c oll ective esp on sib ili ty i the d ivin g

r ,
r s r

15 A . E . M g or a n , Th e s ma ll com mun ity ( N ew Yk or : Harp er Bro s .

,

p 28 1
. .
3 12 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
fo ce Th wisd m of its decis ion s n d ction s i s en de ed
r . e o a a r r

depen d ble b y the st o n g i den tifi tion wh i ch the g p

a r ca ro u

m kes the c om m un ity s well be in g n d by its di ’

a -
,
a re a

n ess t o wh i deeply in v o lved o s

in it p s i n o t o n the e o s c

lo gic l dem o g phic o ge g phi c

a ,
n gem e n t of the
ra ,
r o ra a rra

hum n c omm un ity but up n the n eeds n d des i es of in

a ,
o a r

te ra c ti n g m n C omm unity o g n i z ti n in a dem oc tic

e . r a a o ra

s oci ety is n ot p im ily c on seque n ce of econ om i c com pe r ar a

t i tio n p opul ti n d i st ibut io n

,
n d ethn i c i de n t i ty
a o s om e r ,
a ,
as

s ci lo gi sts beli eve but com es in to b in g even m e in e

o o ,
w e or r

sp o se to pu p o seful d iscussi on n d c llective ction

u r a o a .

A g in the o g nized c omm unity desp ite it n am e is n ot

a ,
r a ,
s ,

a ri gi d bluep in t set f ules These r n ecessor a y fo o r . a re ar ,

r

on e c nno t le n to know on e s comm un ity ll a t on ce ; n d

a ar
’

a a

i n the bsen ce of gu i des th a t h ve g own o t of g o up li

a a r u r v

i n g they h ve the i uses especi ally in the imm tu i ty o f

a r ,
a r

g owin g up A p tic ip tin g m embe of dem c ti c g up

r . ar a r a o ra ro

a ts
c ,
the up on ethi c al m o tives i s gu i ded by t ust in
ra r, ,
r

o the s r n d g o ws in c on fide n ce by be i n g
a r f ellow m embe a -
r

TE CH NI QUE S O F C O M M U NTTY O R GA NIZ A T O N S in ce ur ap

.
,

I . o

p o ch to the p oblem of the com m un ity i th t of g oup

r a r s a r

dyn m i csa the th n of s o ci l gy an d f comm un ity pl

ra r a o o o an

n in g we sh ll om i t
,
di sc ss ion of such techn ical m a tte s
a a u r as

c mm n i ty Si ze
o uzoni n g sew ge di sp s l the lo c ti on of a o a a

p ks n d the like O u s is the m o e difli lt t sk of in di

, , ,

ar ,
a . r r cu a

c a t in g h ow m n in g o ups t t o gethe to ch i eve c om m on

e r ac r a

en ds S m e of th m e an s whi ch m n in g o ups use f o th is

. o e e r r

pu p o se we sh ll now ex m in e b i efly
r ,
a a r .

The dis cu ion m et ho d We l e dy desc ibed thi s

ss . a r a r

m etho d on seve l o cc s i on s Th chi e f im of n y di scus ra a . e a a

s ion is to e ch con sen sus by en cou g in g th e f ee exp es

r a ra r r

s i on n d exch n ge of i de s f cts
a n d O p in i n s
a I n the p a ,
a ,
a o . re

c ed in g ch pte we desc ibed it th dem c tic m etho d

a r r as e o ra

p ar excelle n ce F s bst n t ive i llust a ti n

. f th i s m eth o d
or a u a r o o ,

but m o e p ticul ly t ho w its effecti ven ess in m x im izin g

r ar ar o S a

people s p ticip tion in p olicy decis ion m k in g we sh all

’

ar a -
a ,
3 14 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
c llege dminist t ion in ten s ifyi n g eff ts in pl cin g m i
o a ra ,
or a

n o it r
y s a n d o fo th ,
s r .

det ailed n d in te estin g d c ip a r es r

f o p t ic ip ti n i n c omm uni ty r ar a o

a ff i s He e h weve we sh all ex m in e on ly th ee f ct o s
a r . r ,
o r, a r a r

wh i h we e el a ted to p ti cip ti n in the d iscuss ion p o

c r r ar a o r

g am n am ely the subjects con cepti n of the dem c ti c

r , ,
’
o o ra

p o ess c iti c l th inki n g n d i den tific ti n wi th the com

r c ,
r a ,
a a o

m un ity .
13

Th de m o c a ti c p o cess w a c o n ce ived n o t
e r co n s i st in g of
r s ,
as

in te n l i zed s o c i a l in te c o ur se
r a th t is n ot a an im a gin y r ,
a ,
s ar

give n d t ake but a p ti cip a tion in the p esen ce of o the

a , s ar r r

i n d i vi d ls Whe n n in divi du l en g ges on ly in in te n li zed

ua . a a a r a

s o ci l in te c u se he h n o pp o tun ity to dem n st te h is

a r o r ,
as o r o ra

c p city t the s n t o con t ibute ctively to the t sk o f

a a o o r or r a a

the g up Hi el tion sh ips with o the s c on s ist m o stly of

ro . s r a r

“
im a gin a y c o n st ucts His beh vio i ch
by self —
r cte
r

c on ce n o st a tus nxi ety On the o the h n d when

r
i zed l gely
r
.

a
a

.
”
r s a ra

r
r

a ,
ar

he ctiv ely p ticip t s in th e p esen ce f o the s h“

a ar i in te est
a e r o r ,
s r

bec m es “ o p oblem o i en ted He is in duced by the coe cive

r -
r . r
”

effect of public Op in ion to do job o to fin d a s olution to ”

a r

a p o blem
r S in ce failu e to c y commitm ent th ough is
. r a rr a r

o bse ved n d eva lu ted by the s the in divi du l in c e ses

r a a o r ,
a r a

h i e ff o t t c m plete the job The e i a n un wi lli n gn ess

s r o o
“ . r s

pe haps f e !—t be judged

is ,
r

s Wi ls o n a sse ts
a
a
“ a i
ar es lute by o the s
o

self co e ci n in c mm i tm e n t t a r
The e
,
-
s

r
rr

o
o

o
r .

o
r

g oup o to i t deci s i n s This i of c o u se in li ne wi th the

r r s o . s, r ,

p oin t we h ve f eque n tly sse ted— n d wh ich L ew in w

a r a r a as

o n e o f the fi st to e m ph a s i ze —th t pe o ple

r e mo e e dy to a ar r r a

a t up o n a dec i s i o n wh i ch they h a ve the m selves a g eed

c r

up on
D em oc tic p a ticip tion fu the m o e affects think in g in
.

ra r a ,
r r r ,

w ys which we desc ibed in det i l in Ch pte s 4 an d 7

a r a a r .

Active p ti cip tion in g oup del ibe tion exp ses people to
ar a r ra o

d iffe i g op ini n s checks f ulty judgm ent n d elim in tes

r n o ,
a , a a

mo e e r s th n in d ivi dual th in kin g Th e tot l imp ct of

rro r a . a a

18 I bid , p 301 . . .
GR OU P DYN AMICS IN COMMUNITY RELATION S 3 15

the g oup s delibe tion is t o ch allen ge self o ien ted an d

r
’

ra -
r

t rar
y v i ews I
ra

n th i s w
y W i.ls o n bel i eves “
i d io syn c t i c vi ews by c o n f o n t in g them wi th uthe n t i c co n
we c o m e cl o se a ,
r

,
a

to the sc i e n ti fic o bjecti ve of c o n t lled o bse v a tio n

”1 9
ro r .

Th fo ego in g study of pe ople s i de n t ific a t ion wi th the

’

e r

c mm un ity is in a g eem en t wi th wh t we h ve el ted in

o r a a r a

n um e o us pl ces i n th i s b o o k
r We h ve sh own th t ctive
a . a a a

p ti cip ation in c omm uni ty aff i s i el ted t pe ople s in

ar a r s r a o
’

t e t in c omm un i ty well be in g
er s
“
The i c on ce n wi th the
comm un ity s welf e is eflected in o the di ected ttitudes
’

ar r
-
. r

r- r
r

and p blem cen te ed a pp o ch to the comm un ity s im

a ro -
r r a
’

p o t n t i ssues People w h o a ego involved in the aff i s of

r a . re -
a r

the g oup w h o i den tif y them selves wi th the n eeds of the

r ,

c mm un ity are on th wh ole m uch m o e sen s itive n ot only

o , ,
e ,
r

to g o up p essu es but t o th w ll be in g of o the s They ely

r r r e '
e -
r . r

less fin lly on est bl ished le de ship an d m o e on the deci

,
a ,
a a r r

s ion s of the g o up r .

Th e commu n ity cou n ci l Typ ic a lly a c omm un i ty c o un cil .

,

I S c om p o sed of ep esen t tives f om v i us publi c in te est

r r a r ar o -
r

b o dies such the Ch m be o f C omm e ce se vi ce clubs the

as a r r r

L e gue of Wom en Vo te s the P a en t Te che s A ss o ci tion

, , ,

a r ,
r a r a ,

a n d the l ike These g o ups gen e a lly a public —

sp i ited n d r r re r a

S in ce it cuts
.
,

the i c on ce n i s wi th c om m un i ty well be in g
r r -
.

a c o ss
r a ci l p oliti c l nd eli gious li n es the c mm un ity
r a ,
a , a r ,
o

coun cil i usu lly in vuln e ble to th m an ipul a tion s of spe

s a ra e

ci al in te est gro ups

-
r I ts o ve ll a im i t o c o din te th
. r- a s or a e

wo k of the v i us gen cies o in sti tution s of the c omm un ity

r ar o a r

wh o se purp o se i to imp ove the life of the people W ithin it

s r .

When the c oun cil i suffici en tly l ge an d it welf e in s ar s ar

t st
ere a scon s i de bly v i ed the p cti ce h been to
re ra ar ,
ra as

di vi de it in to fun ction in g comm ittees E ch comm i ttee then . a

con cen t a tes on s m e speci l p oblem such a s juven ile de

”

r o a r ,

l in qu n y o the ec o n om i c im p o vem e n t f the c o mm u n i ty

e c r r o .

I n pu suin g these in te ests h weve

r the commi ttee do es r ,
o r,

I bi d , p 308 W e
19 . . . w
is h to rem in d th e rea der th a t , hi le th e re is m u ch
g w
g x
tru th in th e a b ov e st a t em e n t , th ere i s da n er th at soci a l p re s sure m a y dest roy

x w
o ri in ali ty a n d s u p p re s s th e e p re s s i on o f i de as th a t m a y a p p e ar bi arre

onl y i n th e cultura l co nt e t i n hi ch th ey ar e e p ress e d x .

z
3 16 CON FLICT AND A DJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
n t f
o get it p laee i r t h l ge con text of g n i z t ion but
or s r e ar r or a a ,

a im s t o c oo d in te it ctiviti es with o the b o di es —the om

r a s a r c

m i tt o n e o n om i c im p o vem e n t f o
ee c ex m ple wil l f m r ,
r a ,
or a

li is n with the comm un ity s budget offi e n d the c omm it

a o
’

c ,
a

tee on juve n ile deli n quen cy will wo k clo sely w i th the law r

en fo cem en t b o dy
r

Unfo tun tely it h s been the f te of sm ll c mm unities

.

r a ,
a a a o

th t they h a ve been un ble to be the fin an ci l bu den s in

a a ar a r

o
“
v lved in the pe fo m an ce of ce t in se vi ces Fo thi s
r r r a r . r

e s on the c mm un ity coun cil h been n ot on ly sp i itu l

r a o as a r a

help but an econom i c sset a well Wo ke s in c mm un ity a s . r r o

co un cils h a ve been volun tee s f eely givin g the i se vi ce r ,

r r r

with o ut fin n ci l em un e tion o t f l y lty t o thei om

a a r ra ,
u o o a r c

m uni ty n d to the i fello w m n They h ve bee n de m o c t i c

a r -
e . a ra

c itizen s determin ed to p ese ve the v alues of free s ci ety r r a o .

An ex mple o f a f un cti o n in g c om m un i ty c o n c i l m y be
a u a

desc ibed b iefly We ef e in g to the C itizen s A d ’

vis o y C mm i ttee in s m ll M i dweste n comm n i ty Thi s

r r . a re r rr

r o a a r u .

is n on p
a ti s n l oc al study n d a ction gr up whi ch is t
ar a a o a

temptin g to find s oluti on s to its scho l p oblem s th o ugh the o r r

b oa d b se of p articip ti n by it c itizen s I t m embe sh ip

r a a o s . s r

i
s r ep esen t tive of the whole comm uni ty the e
r a te che s : r a re a r ,

fa m e “
r s busin ess n d p fess ion l m en office wo ke s n d
r a ro a r r a

d in y citize n s S om e
, , ,

o the r or ar t xp ye s an d s om e . a re a a r are

n o t ; s m e h ve ch i ld e n i n sch oo l n d s om e do n ot They
o a r a . are

n t expe ts they h ve n o
o r ,
es to g in d n o sect i an o p oli ti
a ax r , ar r

cal d o ct in es t d issem in te They h ve on ly o n p u p o se

r o a . a e r

to im p ve the c om m un i ty by bette in g i ts sch oo ls

ro Th r . e

m eetin gs in fo m la re lth ough c ll ed to o de by an

r a ,
a a r r

elected ch i m an Hi m in fun cti n i to see th t the gen d

a r . s a o s a a a

i tem s whe n the e are any a e c a e fully c n s i de ed by the

r r r o r

g o up D elibe tion s a c i ed on by m e n s of f ee di
, ,

r ra re a rr a r s

c ss ion s in pe m i ss ive s oci l a tm o sphe e D i sc ss ion s n ge

.

a a r a r . u ra

f m the need f cu icul a ch anges t o the des i gn n d lo c

ro or rr r a a

tion f n w h igh schoo l buildin g Th m em be s di mi

o a e . e r ss e

n te in f
a m ti on c n ce n in g sch oo l p oble m s an d t y to m
or a o r r r e

list public in te est in n d supp o t f n w school levy t o

r a r o a e

fi n n ce a b a dly n eeded high school build in g Th e s o le

a . re
3 18 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
a re in fused wi th depe n d ble k n o wledge a n d w ith system a a

o f v a lues in wh i ch just i ce n d f i pl a y a i t h i ghest v i tues a a r re s r .

Th i s dem o c a ti c educ t i on i des i gn ed n t n ly f o the in d i

r a s o o r

vi du al but f the comm un ity in whi ch he will in esc p bly

or a a

live I t ffi m s th t in the abse n ce f n in f m ed s o ci l

. a r a o a or a

i n tell i ge n ce the dem o c t i c c o mm un i ty will wi the n d di e ra r a .

I t h o lds th a t the f ui t of a dult educ t i on i bette civili z r a s a r a

tion f o ll r a .

A dult educ ti n h oweve is n o t success fully effected by

a o ,
r,

t a di tion l m eth ds f te a chin g L ectu es n d eci t ti n

r a o o . r a r a o s ,

which a o imp t n t in con ven tion a l cl ss oom te chin g

re s or a a r a

seldom hi eve the s am e esults in dult educ ti n S im i

,

ac r a a o .

la ly c o u se c ed i ts n d g des seem t o ff d in suffic i en t

r ,
r r a ra a or

mo tiv ti on f o le n in g am on g a dults Altho ugh dult edu

a r ar . a

c tion h a n ot lt gethe f eed itself f om the t a di tion al

a s a o r r r r

p tte n it i a t le st expe im en tin g with n w n es Am on g

a r ,
s a r e o .

these g up discussion i s ap idly displ cin g lectu es and

r a
,

o s
ro

eci t ti n I n this p a tte n the te che i n ot the le de

.
“ r
r

a r
a

s
r

a r
”

but a le n e like o the s in the g o up I n dem o c tic cl ss

ar r r r . a ra a

ro om in ,
dem c ti c comm un ity le de ship i sh ed s
as a o ra ,
a r s ar a

fully a the le a nin g s itu tion pe m i ts

s r a r

We m ust n t h weve deceive o u selves D es i ble n d

.

o ,
o r, r . ra a

effective the n w p tte n of dult educ ti n m y be i t

as e a r a a o a ,

h a n t tt i n ed i t f ull p owe
s o a T d i ti n d i es h d n d t
a s r . ra o ar ,
a a

th m o m e n t dult duc ti o n h as n t f ully em n c i p ted i tself

e a e a o a a

f om cien t p ctices I t i cc d in gly n ot too h ppy

r an ra . s, a or ,
a - -
a

a m alg m t i n of t a d iti n l n d g o p dy m i c m eth ds

a a o r o a a r u -
na o .

C om m u n ity s e lf su rv eys E a l i e in th i s ch apte we a s -

. r r r

s e t d th t a de m o c a ti c c mm un i ty gi ves to i t
r e a pe ople r o s a

sen se f w en ess of itself a s a c mm un i ty I t pe ception

o a ar o . s r

o f i tself if we m y f o ,
the m om en t use het i c l figu ea r a r or a r ,

n im p o t n t ele m e n t i n i t be in g just a n i n d ivi du l s

’

i
s a r a s ,
s a a

im a ge f h im self sheds li ght o n hi psych ol g i c l n tu e

o s o a a r .

Th c m m n ity self su vey ca n f u n i sh

e o u c mm un ity wi th -
r r a o

such pe ception with s ch a p o t ai t of i tself I t i tech

a r ,
u r r . s a

n i que f o eff ectin g c mm unity a cti on o n the b s i s o f f cts

r o a a

r eg d in g vexin g c mm un ity p oblem s Whi le to d te m ost

ar o r . a
G RO P U DYN AMICS IN C OMMUNITY RELATION S 3I9

of the publ i shed su veys de l w i th the p oble m of eth n i c o r a r r

ra ci l d isc im in tion the self su vey techn ique is in p in

a r a ,
-
r r

ci le a ppl i c ble to an p o ble m s de li n g wi th hum a n

a el
p y a r a r

ti on s in the com muni ty .

20

Th c om m u n i ty self su vey tech n i que wh i ch we h a ve i n

e -
r ,

r el a tion s n d in cludes
“
m in d w s devi sed by the C omm mn on C omm un ity I n te
a

Disc imin ati n In dex a

i ss

a r o
r

,
”

whi ch it n m e in dic tes m e su es the bi a s o p ejudice

,
as s a a ,
a r r r

wh ich people h ave to wa d m ino iti es r r

S eve al su veys of Am e ic n communities have been

.

r r r a

m a de by thi s techn i que n d the esults we e publi shed in a r r

the Jou na l of S ocia l I ssu es Th e self su veys were m de

,

21

o f M i n n e p o l i s M o n tcl i
r -
r a

New J e sey an d No thtown n

.

”
a a r, r r a

N Y
, , ,

a n on ym o us c omm un i ty of
“ pe
We sh ll p esen t o nly the N o th tow n su vey
a r
o ple n e ew k C i ty
r
”
ar

r
or .

Th survey of N tht own w

.

e i ni ti a ted in 1947 Th e o ve
or as . r

all p o cedu e c o n s i sts o f f o ur steps

r r n m ely b in gin g the ,
a ,
r

pe ople to gethe stim ula tin g thei p ticip a tion in establi sh

r, r ar

in g p o l i ci es a n d p o cedures g the in g f a cts a n d i n i ti a t in g

r ,
a r ,

ction
M a got Wo m se of the C C I staff w ho he ded the
a .

r r r, . . .
,
a

s tudy go t a p ictu e of the ci ty by t a lki n g with bus in essm en

r

te che s m in i ste s N eg o le a de s a YW CA ffice a d

, ,

a r r r r o r, n

o the s : S he n ext secu ed sp o n s o s hi p o f the su vey by such

, , ,

r r r r

or g niz tion s a the C oun cil of S o ci al A gen ci es the C o un il

a a s c

f J ewi sh O g a n iz ti o n s the L e a gue o f W om e n V te s the

,

M in iste s Associ ti n the Na tion al Assoc—i ti n fo the Ad

o r a ,
o r ,
’

r a o ,
a o r

v n cem en t of C lo ed Pe ople n d o the s thi teen in ll to

a o r ,
a r r a ,

be ex ct I n inf o m in g the deleg tes f om th e sp n s o in g

a . r a r o r

o g n i z a tio n
r a t the fi st m eetin g M a Wo m se cle ly in di r ,
rs . r r ar

a te d th t the su vey w a n ot o f pe ople s tti tudes but of ’

c a r s a

d isc im in to y p actices in vit l e s of c mm unity life

r a r r a ar a o .

Th ge n e l n tu e o f the fi n din gs sh o uld n o t su p i s

e ra a r r r e

us They eve led wi desp e d di sc im in t i on g i n st N

r a r a r a a a e

f g
.

dis cu ss i on of th e s el s urv ey , s e e I Hardi n

e arly

fg Som e
g
20 For an
-
.
,

ba si c p ri n ci p l es of s e l s urv ey s , I s oc I s s ues 5 - 2 14 30 Hardi n . .

, .

C M W C f
co n ce n tra te d o n ci v i l ri h ts .

Se ll tiz a n d H o rm s er ( i s s u e e ds )

g
o mm u ni ty s e l -s urv e y s
21 . . .
,

an a p p roa ch to so ci a l ch an e , soc I s s ues 5, No 2 . .

3 20 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
g o es a nd J ews an d the em o tion l di sp o s i tion beh in d the
r a

sh wn to be a cute Di sc im in a ti n n d
,

d i sc im in a t i n w
r o as o r o a

d N eg es Th dis
.

an t ip a thy we e espec i lly st o n g t o w r a r ar ro . e

c im in t i o n
r n d h o st ility we e cl ss i fied
a a cco din g to thei r a a r r

m a n if est ti on am on g fo ur im p o t n t c om m un i ty fun cti on s

a r a ,

n am ely e m pl o ym e n t ho us in g publi c f c i l i t i es a n d educ a

, , ,
a ,

t i on .

Inthe are a of employm en t the di sc im in tion w gl in g r a as ar ,

e speci lly as eg ds the di s a dvan ta ged p o s iti n of the

a r ar o

N e r es A la ge pe cen t ge o f th e N eg o es w a s e m pl oyed
g“ o .

i n m e n i al o ccup t i on s such s j n ito i l

”
r

n d o the a
r a

a a
r

r a a r

sk ill ed wo k O ve twice m n y N eg o es s C h i sti an

,

r . r as a r a r

w h i tes we e e n g ged in un ski lled o sem i skilled w k Th

r a r or . e

diff e en ce w a m o st p o n o un ced t the h i ghe levels of m

r s r a r e

p l o ym e n t 34 p e ce n t o f the whi te C h i st i n s
: nd r nl y 7 r a a o

er ce n t o f the N eg o es we e m an ge s o p o f ess i o n a l w o k r r a r r r r
p
e rs .

Th et e tm en t of J ews w as m uch bette in thi s es pect

r a r r .

The e we e m n y m e ] ews th n wh i te C h i sti n s in m n a

r r a or a r a a

i l a n d p o fess i o n l p o s i t i o n s —52 ce nt n d 12
g er a r
p p e a er a r

c en t especti vely P ejudi ce tow d J ews did howeve

. r . r ar ,
r,

e xi st s i sho wn by th fa ct th t s om e employe s did n ot

,
a s e a r

h i e J ews an d m ny m e did n o t eply to que i es eg di n g

r ,
a or r r r ar

t h e ] ews qu li fic a ti n s n d the em pl ye s s t i s f ct io n wi th
’ ’

a o a o r a a

th w k of J ews
e or .

Th w o st di sc im in t i on ex i sted in th
e r e f ho us in g
r a e ar a o

i t pe t in ed to N eg o es
,

e spec i a lly as While the e w r a r . r as

p ejud
r i ce a g in st J ews i n d i c a ted by the
a e f us l f e al ,
as r a o r

e st te de le s to sell o en t to them th ey f ed m uch bette

a a r r r ar r

th n th N eg o es Re l est te m en g ve th usu l tion li

,

a e r a a a e a ra a

ttitude n m ely th t the G en tile es i dent

.

z a ti n of the i
o r a a a r s

p esen ce in thei n ei ghb h oo ds N eg o es

, ,

o bjected to the i r r r or . r

m de up pp x im tely 12 p
a a cen t o f the p opul tion but
ro a er a ,

t hey we e est i cted t o b o ut 5 p e ce n t o f the es i de n ti l

M ost of the existin g housing fo N egroes w a sub
r r r a r r a

a re a . r s

s tan d d ar

Disc im in ti on a gainst N eg oes als o existed in est u n ts

.

r a r r a ra ,

h otels and he alth se vi ces J ews di d n t expe ien ce di

,
r . o r s
322 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
self su vey an d the ch an ges in disc im in to y p a cti ces B ut
-
r r a r r .

it i e n ble to supp o se th t wi th the kn wledge an d

s r as o a a o

in s i ght wh i ch the self su vey m a de p o ss ible N o tht wn w

,

-
r ,
r o as

a ble to e o g n ize it c ollective life on a n w level of in te

r r a s e

ra ti o n
g .

COMMUNI TY LEADE RSHI P

Th beginn in g stude n t f g o up dyn m i cs m i ght well be
e o r a

o cc s io n lly puzzled by the st ess

a a n le de sh ip —a w d r o a r or

wh ich co nn o tes the di ection of on pe s on by n the —in r e r a o r

a field f study th t esp o uses a de m o c ti c ph il s phy

o it a ra o o as s

fo un d tion H weve o det iled d iscuss ion f le de ship

a . o r, ur a o a r

i n C h pte 6 a well a o f equen t ef e en ce to it in p c

r ,
as s ur r r r ra

ti c l g up s itu a tion s sho uld h ve e a ss u ed h im I t i by

a ro ,
a r r . s

m e n s f dem c ti c le de sh ip th t do gm tic n d c p icio us

a o o ra a r a a a a r

r egim en t tio n n be a ve ted D em o c tic le de ship we

a ca r . ra a r ,

sa w i s b sed n t o n uth i ty but o n g o up c o n se n sus I t i

,
a o a or r . s

le de sh ip th t i p ticip t y ; i t i s a te mw k in wh ich
a r a s ar a or a or ,

in e l sen se eve yon e i le de This i wh t we m e n

a r a ,
r s a a r . s a a

by sh ed le a de ship I n the l n g n th is kin d f le de

ar r .
”
o ru o a r

ship will p a d oxic lly m ke le de ship unn ecess y Th

,
ar a ,
a a r ar . e

fun ction of le a de i t f cili t te n ot to con t l coope

a r s o a a ,
ro ,
ra

tive beh vi ; n d success ful le de

a or we h ve s i d i on
a a a r, a s a a ,
s e

w h o by pl yi g h i o w n o le well e n bles
,
a the s t pl y
n s r ,
a o r o a

the i ow n oles p ductively I n thi s s itua ti n the wo k f

r r ro . o r o

the comm un ity i effected witho t n y n e fee lin g th t he i s u a o a s

be in g coe ced o dom in ted Th le de d es n ot le d

r r a . e a r o a or

c omm n d in the p opul sen se ; in ste d he beh ves in a

a ar a ,
a

m an n e th t wi ll b in g b o ut the m o st e ffecti ve g up el
r a r a ro r a

t io n sh ip s .

A s befo e h oweve we m ust c ll tten tion to the lim its

r ,
r, a a

o f thi s ki n d o f le a de ship The e t im es in comm unity r . r are

delibe tion when th e ch sen le de by vi tue of hi s com

ra o a r, r

p t
e en o sk
ce i ll m ust irn ject d i ect io n i n t o the
,
e o f gr o up r ar a

p ti cip tion P ticip tion th t d o es n ot get the job d on e

ar a . ar a a

i s n o t e ffic i e n t f o it i w a steful o f t im e m o n ey pe s nn el
,
r s , ,
r o ,

a n d i n d ivi du l c e t ive n ess S wh ile the dem c t i c le de r

a r a . o, o ra a

will im t m ak e him self d ispen s ble he w ill n o t su en de

a o a , rr r
 GR OU P DYN AMICS IN COMMUNITY RELATION S 323

h i o bli g a t io n t o th t f t l v a cill t io n wh ich ften dest o ys

s a a a a o r

effective c mm un i ty a ction o

THE L A DE S PLA CE I N TH CO MMUN TY Th e hum n

.

E R E I . a

co mm un ity un like the sm ll f ce to f e g o ups o g n ized

,
a a - -
ac r r a

f o spec ific pu p ses wh i ch We h ve desc ibed in p evi o us

r r o a r r

ch apte s i n ot n artifici al gr up desi gn ed t o test scien tific

r ,
s a o

hyp o theses R a th e it is vi ble g up with a h i st y an d

. r, a a ro or

a t a di t io n I t c i ti ze n s c ann o t be m n ipul ted in the s m e

e sy w y a the subjects of a con trived expe im en t M any
r . s a a a

a a s r .

pe s on s
r est in ed by t dition n d p a lyzed by in e ti a
are r ra ra a ra r .

C on tem pl a ted ch n ges ouse susp icion an d in duce a sen se a ar

o f i n secu i ty i n m n y pe ple
r I n th i s st te f m in d they ten d
a o . a o

to be un coo pe tive if n o t in deed h o stile ra Hen ce when

,
.
,

ch n ge i s b dly n eeded it will n t usu ll y take pl ce sp n

a a ,
o a a o

t n
a u l
eo
y I t w s i ts f
. o the i n i t i a t ive of th o se w h o h ve
a r a

im gi n t io n w h
a a e b s i c lly g
,
up cen te ed n d w h o
o ar a a ro -
r ,
a

h ve the self confid n t c ou a ge to a ssum e esp on s ib ility

a -
e r r

S in ce commun ity chan ge especially in it beginning

.

,
s

ph a se depen ds so st on gly up on the in itia tive of o the s the

,
r r ,

p esen ce f c iti zen s w h o e sen si tive to the n eeds of the

r o ar

comm un ity a whole n d n ot th o se of ny speci l in te ests

s a ,
a a a r ,

i a m a tte of g e t im p o t n ce Wh a t the c omm un ity n eeds

s r r a r a .

m o e th n executi ve a n d dm in i st a t ive b i li ty i the ca

r a a r a s

acit o f s om e of i t c i ti ze n s to se n se th n eeds of the e n t i e

s e r
p y
comm unity to efle t them b ck to m n in the g oup and
,
r c a e r ,

to enli st the i a i d in c yin g o t a p p o sed cti n

r a rr u ro a o .

Th e le de s pl a ce in the c mm un i ty fu the m o e i n o t
’
a r o r r r s

th t of a dispen se of goo d will G o d will i o f c ou se

, ,

a r . o s, r ,

g o d f o it is m tiv ted by hum n it i n im p lses ; but it i

o ,
r o a a ar a u s

n t g o d e n o ugh
o o We an n eve h ave too m ny g o d im
. c r a o

pulses but they d n ot s olve o r p oblem s even th o ugh they

,
o u r ,

m a ke l ivin g a li ttle k in de While h o t to y tti tudes too r . r a r a , ,

h ave the i v lue in ddin g en c u gem en t an d en thus i sm

r a a o ra a

to the life f the g up they leave b si c i ssues m o stly u n

o ro ,
a

t uched an d lm o st n eve em edi ed I n fin e the dem c a ti c

o a r r .
,
o r

le de m ust h ave ab ove all el e depen d ble kn owledge of

a r s a

m en n d c m m uni ti es a n d the skill to put h i s di sc ove i es in t o

a o r
3 24 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
a ct i o n Th fi st i esse n ti lly an in d iv i du a l a hi ey m n t the
. e r s a c e e ,

s econ d i p oblem in e ffective te am w k

s a r or

Fin lly dem c a ti c community le de i n ot only n

.

a ,
a o r a r s a

o i gin t o o f
r a ction b t p o duce of fo llo we s I n th is du al
r a u a r r r .

co n d i ti o n the t f ole pl yi n g wh i ch i
ac n im p o t a n t
o r -
a ,
s a r

f cto in
a r c on cept ion f le de sh ip i es peci ll y n ti ce
ou r o a r ,
s a o

a ble A c mm un ity le de n m tte h w p ten ti lly ski ll

. o a r, o a r o o a

f ul he m y be i helpless wi tho ut n in telli gen t n d well

a ,
s a a

i n te n t io n ed g up f fo llo we s I f he f ils to st im ul te
ro o r . a a

effective le pl yin g in the s he will be un ble t o pl y h i

ro -
a o r ,
a a s

o w n o le success fully
r

D em c tic f llowe s f o the i p t displ y only on

.

o ra o r ,
r r ar ,
a e

u n fa il in g ch te i sti c they do n t obey bli n dly ; they do

a ra c r : o

n t c o n fuse o bed i e n ce w i th l y lty

o I t i o pe n m i n ded loy o a . s -

a lty wh i ch e n bles followe to ch oo se between goo d sug

a a r

gesti n s n d b d o n es betwee n a s in ce e le de d ch
o a a ,
r a r an a ar

l t an between im p t n t i ssues an d t ivi l on es C n f n ted

a ,
or a r a . o ro

by such followe s the dem o c a tic lea de will pe fo ce g ow ;

r ,
r r r r r

f o they b o n d t ch llen g h im n d im pel h im to wi den

h i o w n h i z n M o g n put i t stutely whe n he w te
r a re u o a e a

“ s

r a
or o

G e t followe ship eq i es in te est nd p ep ti n r

. r

r
a

u r
a

r a r a ra o
ro

as
,

m uch d o es g e t le de ship O n n o the b s is it seem s ”2 3

as r a a r . o r a ,

r e s ble to s pp se c n coope ti n between le de s n d

a on a u o ,
a ra o a r a

f llowe s be effectively est bli shed ; f o a we p in ted o t

o r a r s o u

i n C h pte 6 whe n c i ti n g exp e im e n t l d t in evi de n ce the

a r r a a a ,

le de c anno t successfully pe fo m hi fun cti n if he i t oo

a r r r s o s

a dvan ced f o h i foll we s I n a dem r s tic s o ci ety the o nl y

o r . oc ra

w y f o le de s n d fo ll we s t o c m e cl o se t o gethe i t o
a r a r a o r o r r s

r a i se th level of followe sh ip Wi th the widesp e a d di

e r . r s

s em in tion o f knowledge n d the exten s ive in c e se in dul t

a a r a a

e duc tion this g l n be tr n sfo m ed in to e li ty

a oa ca a r a r a .
24

23 g
M or a n, Th e s ma ll
g
co

g mmu nity , p . 1 77 .

f
f w
Gro u p dy n ami cs h a s l ar el y i no re d th e p erso n a l s a ti s a cti on a n d th e
f w x
24

t h e ir or w kg
s e n s e o f comm u n i ty u s e u l n e s s

o n co m m u ni ty p ro bl em s
h i ch dedi ca te d o llo ers e p eri en ce in
Res earch in th is are a s h o ul d thro .

f g xx w
f L C
v a l u a b l e li h t o n b o th th e le a der an d th e led A bri e co ns i de ra ti on of th i s .

p rob lem i s o u n d i n
L in dz ey
W
e a de rs h ip by A Gibb b e in ch a p

Ha nd bo ok of s ocia l p s y ch olo y , Vol II ( Re a din

A ddi son — esl ey P u blishi n C c , I nc , g .
i v in G
,

ass :

.
. .

g gM
,

.
.

, .
.
326 CON FLI CT AND ADJ U STME NT OF G ROU PS
ful ph se to aw ken in the wh ole pe ople c om mon m o l
ra ,
a a ra

pu p o se —the m te i l n d sp i itu l well bein g of ll m n

r a r a a r a -
a e .
26

Th e TVA is n excellen t ex m ple o f c omm un i ty pl n n in g a a a

with f ew egul at o y m ea su es n d m in im um o f le de sh ip
r r r a a a r

p essu e Wh ile volun ta y m eth o ds s ch tho se em pl yed

r r . r ,
u as o

i n dem c t i c g o ups m ay esult i n m n y m i st kes the goo d

o ra r ,
r a a ,

they p o duce f o utwe i ghs the d an ge s f c o e ci n Lili en

r ar r o r o .

tha l m kes the p oin t elo quen tly when he w ites

a r ,

I f l
g ee t
s r on ly th a t th e ad mi tted i m ita ion s lq t o f v o un a r l t y
m eth o s d ,

di stre ss in g a n d tra gic a s th eir con s e u e n ce s s om e tim e s do n o t

l w y pl
are ,

in v a i da t e th e i s do m o f a m i nim um of coerci on in carr in g ou t

lp l w t
ans

f or re s ou rce dev e o m en For co erci on i s i n s a ti a b e In t

h a e v er
d l pl
. .

o n ce co erci o n b ecom e s th e a cce te re i a n ce f o r m a kin

u ise

f ply
an
g , p g
e fe ctiv e m o re a n d m o re coerci on i s n ee de d I a m d ee

p l ty ly
n in
g , p er .

t
s u a d e d th a h i h a s th e
g
a n d erro rs i n th e e n d th e
ri ce o f v o u n ar

ri ce o f ar i tr a r
,

i s n oth in g es s h an ou r re e dom 2 7 l t
m eth o ds m a y b e in de a s
e n o rc em e n of

f
pa nn in
g
.
b y f t
,

pl
TR A I NN I LE ADE SHIP T a in in g f o
G FOR CO MMUN Y IT R . r r

le a de ship in the com m un ity do es n t diffe in p in ciple

r o r, r ,

f om t in in g f o le de sh ip in ny o the dem c ti c gr up
r ra r a r a r o ra o .

Th c mm o n de n om in to o f a ll de m c a ti c le a de sh ip t a in
e o a r o r r r

in g i the c o n ceptio n o f the le de

s cha n
g g e nt T h e a r as a e a .

con tin ued n eed f o ch n ge in the dem o c a ti c commun i ty is r a r

n o t c o n fi n ed to the f llo we s but h o lds w i th the s m e f o ce o r ,

a r

f o the le de h im self Th e ff ect i ve le de

r a r i ds in ch an gin g . e a r a

the ttitudes of othe s but in the p o cess of ch n gin g o th e s

a r ,
r a r

he un de go es ch n ge h im self Th is i usu ally the m o e

r a . s r

difficult a spect of the ch n ge p o cess C h an ge in the le de s a r . a r

’

a
“
ttitude see m s to be un el ted to hi kn owledge sh o win g
th t gettin g the fa cts as we a e often a dm on ished i s o f
a ,
”
r a

r
s ,

i tself i n suffic i e n t t o eff ect the n eeded ch n ge Pe ople w h o a .

p o ssess m o e kn owledge b out a p blem th n o the s do

r a ro a r

n o t n ecess a i ly ch an ge the i ttitudes m o e e s ily As m t

r r a r a . a a

ter o f f ct s o m e a utha i t i a n le de s p o ssess in g ve y lim i ted or ar a r r

kn owledge f the s bject in volved h ave been foun d t oo u

26 D . E . L il ie n th a l , TVA : de mocra cy on th e ma rch ( New Yk or : Harp er

B ro s
27
.
,

I bid .
,
19 8
p .

p 2 02 I ta li cs i n th e
. .
.

o ri g in al .
 GR OU P DYN AMI CS IN C OMMUNITY RELATION S 327

ch an ge thei a tti tudes with g e te e a se th an s om e bette

r r a r r

inf o m ed de m c t i c in d ivi du a ls
r o ra .

A t the p ese n t tim e a l ge n umbe of o g n iz a tion s

r ar r r a ,

ran g in g f o m sch oo ls n d fa ct o i es t o m il i t
r y se vi ces an d a r ar r

lo c l a mm m i co h ve est bli shed le de shi p t ainin g

u es , a a a r r

p o gr m s The chief stimulus to le a de sh ip t inin g c am e

r a . r ra

f om the psych ol gi c l the o ies an d in vestig ti on s of Ku t

r o a r a r

L ewin altho ugh the p o g ess ive educ tion m ovem en t s om e

,
r r a

ye a s be fo e w a de eply con ce n ed wi th the t in in g of

r r s r ra

le de s f o
a r dem c ti c s o ci e ty Th views of L ewin
r a o ra . e ,

especi lly s they we e be in g tested then ( 1 946 ) a t Th e

M a ss chusetts In stitute f Technolo gy and the philosophy
a a r

a o

esp used by the N tion l E duc tion A socia t on we e j oin ed

,

o a a a s l r

i n to a p o g m i n the F i st N t i n l T in in g L a b o to y o n
r ra r a o a ra ra r

G oup Developm en t in 1947 In June of the s m e ye the

r ,
. a ar

L b o t y est bl ished the fi st Wo ksh op f o t a in in g in

a ra o r a r r r r

v io us ph ses of g o up l ife an d p ti cul ly le a de shi p a t

B ethel M a in e F om i t ve y in ception the L b t y h s
ar a r ,
ar ar r ,

,
. r s r ,
a o ra o r a

de mon st ted th t p ctic in hum n el tion s techni ques is

ra a ra e a r a

the m o st s tis f cto y m e n s of establishi n g and m in t in in g

a a r a a a

a dem o c a t i c c mm un i ty o f m n
28
r o e .

B efo e the B ethel p o g m w est ablished ho weve a n

r r ra as ,
r,

in i ti a l test o f the use of g up dyn m i cs in co mm un i ty el a ro a r

tion s w establ ished a t N ew B it in Te a che s C ollege in

as r a r

C o nn ecticut un de the ausp i ces of the C onn ecti cut S t a te

,

,
r

I n te ci a l C mmi ssion
rra o

A t the fi st W kshop in N ew B itai n whi ch l sted tw o

.

r or r a

weeks 4 1 pe s on s we e e n olled O ve h lf of the m em be s

, ,

r r r r a r

we e N eg o es and ] ews The e w as a sp inklin g of bus in ess

.
,

r r . r r

an d l bo ale de s Th eli gio us affili tion s we e p esen

r a r . e r a r re r

t ti
a veo f the th ee im p t n t den om in a tion s in r s ci ety or a ou r o ,

n m ely P
a test n t R m n C tho li c n d ] w ish Th e whole
,
ro a ,
o a a ,
a e .

effo t f the g o up w to secure th e c ollab tion of s o ci l

r o r as o ra a

scien ti sts educa t s n d p ofess i n al le de s t wa d the

,
or ,
a r o a r o r

g q L
Fo r s om e e a rl i er di s cu s si on s of trai n in t ech n i u e s , s ee R ip p itt , Th e
g
28 .

—
s
p y ch o dr a m a i n l
Fren ch Ir , Retra in in
,

224- 3 7
ea ders hi
.
p tra i ni n ,
S o ci o m
a n a ut ocra ti c l ea der, I

.
etry, 6
g
a bn orm
2 8 6 92 ; I R P
s oc Ps y ch o l , 39 . . .
.

.
. .
328 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
in teg a t io n of ese a ch t in in g
r n d s o ci l cti n wi th
r r ,
ra ,
a a a o ,
a

view t the ppl i ti n f the kn owledge n d skills de ived

o a ca o o a r

f om it to h m on io us livi g in the m o de n c mm un i ty
r ar n r o .
29

Role pl a yin g w used exten s ively s a m eth d of t inin g

-
as a o ra .

R ole pl yin g we p oin ted o t in the p eced in g ch pte go es

-
a ,
u r a r,

bey n d d isc ss io n o ve b al beh vio an d stim ul a tes the

o u r r a r

in di vi du l to a t o t ve b l dec i s io n s n d se n s i t i zes h im t o
a c u r a a

the effect which he h as on othe s I t thus se ves — n d in r . r a

the Wo kshop thi s w a vivi dly b o ught o t— the conn ect

r s r u as

i n g lin k betwee n conceptu l un de st n din g of wh t m ust a a r a a

be d on e an d c n c ete pe fo m n ce in t sk si tu a tion o r r r a a a .

Th esults of the t inin g in the Wo kshop we e p o s i tive

e r ra r r .

They c on fi m ed the m in p in c iples of g o up beh a vi o a

r a r r r s

t hey a pply t o c om m u n i ty el t i on s S t tin g only the m jo r a . a a r

fin din g we an y th at wh ile b o th in divi du ls an d g o ups

,
c sa ,
a r

ben efited f om thei Wo ksh op expe ien ce the g oups h a d

r r r r ,
r

far exceeded the in divi du als in the qu n ti ty n d qu lity f a a a o

p o g ess n d pe fo m an ce in est ablish in g bette c mm nity

r r a r r r o u

r el ti n s Th l a gest ga in s we e m de by th se g o ups th t
a o . e r r a o r a

h a d the st o n gest c om m un i ty f eelin gs th t i s belo n g in gn ess

r ,
a , ,

c ohe iven ess n d hi gh m o a le

s ,
a r .
30

I t i t o be n o ted n d epe tedly st essed th t th e tech

s a r a r a

n i que o f the W o ksh o p — n d by im pl i c t i o n the g o al of a ll

r a a

m eth o ds of t ai n i g f o c om m un i ty le de sh ip —i n ot to t a in
r n r a r s r

le a de s s such but th o gh devel op in g g o up un de st n d

r a ,
r u r r a

in gs a n d ski lls t o en a ble the m to i d the i c omm un i ti es to

, a r

help them selves I t i to be n ted f u the m o e th a t t i n . s o , r r r ,

ra

i n g i n g o up le de sh ip i s d i ected t ow d devel p in g
r a r r ar o a

st tegy of c omm unity cti n T th exte n t th t this kin d

ra a o . o e a

o f t in in g i s a chi eved a n d i t p i n c iples n de st o o d i t will

ra s r u r ,

do wh a t L ipp i tt pe ceptively a w in th ction ese ch of r s e a r ar

29 Se e R . L i p p i tt , Tra i nin g in co mmu nity re lat i ons ( N ew Yk or : Harp er

Bro s
30
.
,

For a com p reh en s i v e a n d

de tai le d rep ort o n th e m eth o ds an d n di n s
C Wk fi g
L
by o n e w h o p la y e d a key role i n th e onn ecticu t o r s h o p n am e ly R o n al d , ,

p as s im b u t p arti cu larly ch a p s v ii — ix xi—

ip p i tt s ee i bi d,

e v al u a tio n o f L ip p i tt s b o o s ee Hum
.
,

Re la t 3
’
x ii

20 1 —
,

14 k
For an
, . .
,
.
, .

.
 330 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
ch an ge oles when eve the com mun ity s itu tion de m ds it
r r a an .

Ac a dem ic sch l s c n testify to the s lut a y n tu e f th is

o ar a a r a r o

r o t tio n
a Th the o i st
. n g in i n s i ght f om the
e r ppl i ed
ca a r a

sci en tist a n d the two in tu n n ben efit f m the p ctic l

, ,
r ,
ca ro ra a

kn owledge of the m n of ffai s When the th ee get thei a a r . r r

he a ds to gethe the em e gen t ide sr, n e i the c oo d in t i n s

r a a re r r a o

n o c om p om i ses m e ely but n w c e t i o n s n o vel dec i s i n s

r r r ,
e r a ,
o ,

a n d m o e e ff ecti ve u n de st n d i n gs
r R ese ch in c mm uni ty r a . ar o

r el a tion s h s demo n st a ted g in a n d g in th t f ui tful in

a r a a a a a r

v es ti ga ti o n equi es the in teg ted a pp a ch o f seve l di

r r ra ro ra s

c ip lin e if n t by c oll b o t i n then th o gh the i c

s, o a ra o r u n rea s

in gly m o e d ifficult o ute o f the s in gle i n d ivi du l Th study

r r a . e

o f the c o mm un i ty i n o l o n ge the exclus ive in te est f the

s r r o

s o ci lo gist investi g tin g c im e delin que n cy p ove ty n d

o a r , ,
r ,
a

o the c uci l p oblem s but the studen t of comm un ity dy

r r a r ,

n m i c fo cus i n g
a s n the p o ducti ve a n d h
o m o n i o us el ti o n s
r ar r a

o f pe ople i n g o ups r .

Whethe c mm uni ty lif e will be s tisfyin g n d p o duc

r o a a r

tive of genuin e hum an el tion sh ips will depe n d fin lly r a a

i respect ive f dyn m i c le de sh ip

r o n d i n tell i ge n t e ff o t
a a r a r

up on the ch ara cte of the l ge m em be ship Pe ople w h o

r ar r r .

live in c omm un ity ga in st thei will like pe ople in ny

a a r , a

g o up w h o h ave n o thin g to y con ce n in g the i f te wil l

r sa r r a ,

h ave li ttle o n in te est in its welf a e This is sh a ply

r o r r . r

r eve aled by the c se of R egen t Hill a comm n it y in vesti

a u

g ted by F stin ge n d Kelley

,

32
a e r a .

R egen t H ill w as a g ve nm en t ho us in g p oject est b o r r a

l ish e d du i n g Wo ld W II A p o ject f b o ut o n hun d ed

’

r r ar . r o a e r

ho us in g units it w lo c a ted in the ce n te of es i den ti l

e of a m ed ium s ized town M o st of the es i den ts lived
,
as r a r a
-
ar a . r

the e e ithe bec use wartim e wo k in the sh ipy ds b ght

r r a r ar ro u

them the e o bec use se i us h ous in g sh o t ge m de it

r r a a r o r a a

Fin din g th em
,

imp o ss ible f o them t o fin d h o uses elsewhe e

r r .

selves in th is unw n ted n d un des i ble s it ua ti n they h d

a a ra o ,
a

n o in te est i n the i
r comm un ity n d it pe ople I n deed
r a s .
,

beca use the c ommuni ty t lar ge con s ide ed thei n e i ghb o s a r r r

32 See L
Fe stin g er
contact ( Ann Arbo r,
.

M
an d

i ch .
H H
:
.

Re s ea rch
ley
. Kl C e ,

e n ter f or Gro u p
gg
C han in a ttit ud es th ro u h
y n am i cs , D g s o cia l
GR OU P DYN AMI C S IN COMMUNITY RELATION S 33 1

as un des i ble people they d is ss ci ted them selves f om

ra ,
a o a r

o the s r n d l i ved l
a ,
gely in i s ol a ti on An a ss o ci tion th t
ar . a a

n or m lly gi ve
a ti f cti o n w a fe ed n d ejected bec a use
s sa s a s ar a r
\
pe ople pe ceived it as r el tion shi p wh ich they did n t a r a o

wa n t To thi s w a a dded a sp i i t of ho stil i ty Plu al istic

. s r . r

i gn o n ce led them to bel i eve th t pe ple o uts i de the i ow n

ra a o r

n e i ghb o h o d h a d th s m e a tti tudes an d thus they de '

r o e a ,

p i
r ve d the m selves of s o c i a l el t i o n s w i th o uts i de are a s r a

lik ewi se The i pe cept i on f the i c m m un i ty w

r r on o r o as , c

sequen tly l gely n eg tive S in ce em o tion s n d a ttitudes

.

,
ar a . a

h a ve te n den cy to sp ill o ve n d a tta ch them selves t o m n y

a r a a

are a s of d i ly lif e a the es iden ts of R egen t H ill n ot o nly

,
r

di sliked the i hom es but the c omm un i ty n d it pe ople

r a s as

well .

Af te dia gn o s in g the comm unity n d its ills F tin g

r a ,
es er

a n d Kelley tri ed t o h n ge the p a tte n of is ol a ti on n d h o

c a r a s

t il ity H oweve they foun d it exceedin gly diffi cult bec use
. r, a

the fi st step th t f en listin g thei co pe ti on w a lm o st

r ,
a o r o ra ,
as

im p o ss ible to e ffect Th i s f ct t o gethe w i th the h o st i li ty

. a ,
r

a nd esen tm en t th t p ev ailed m de thei p g ess n the

r a r ,
a r ro r o

whole di scou gin g On e im p o tan t im pli c tion of thi s

ra . r a

study i s ve y cle h weve un less m em be shi p in such

r a r, o r: r

p ojects i v lun t y an d n eed g a tifyin g it will m im o

r s o ar -
r ,
a r

dest y n i den tific ti n w i th the s which un de m o e

ro a a o o r ,
r r

f vo ble s o c i l c o dition s wo uld p o duce wholes om e com

a ra a n ,
r

m un i ty fee lin gs a n d el a ti on shi ps r .

CON C LU S ION
I n thi s ch pte we h a ve tte m pted t t ke
a r f esh vi ew f a o a a r o

a n ol d p blem Th e study of the c mm un i ty as

ro . sp ti l o a a a

a n d dem o g phic n it i f f om n w n d in te est in its

ra u s ar r e ,
a r

s o c i l an d cultu al lif e h been a con ce n of the cultu l

a r as r ra

a n th op o l o g i st s in e the begin n in g of h i s sc i e n ce
r c Th n . e co

t ib t io n of the s o ci o l o gi st
r u s n d the n th op l o gi st t o ur a a r o o

kn owledge of these spects of c mm un ity life h ve been a o a ,

o n the wh o le im p t t n d all s o c i l sci en ti sts

,
or an g a tef ul
,
a a are r

f o the i c on t ibuti n t o
r r rbette un de stan din g of these
o o ur r r

m a tte s r .
332 CONFLICT AND A DJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
O o bject ive in th i s ch pte
ur h oweve h s b een diffe en t a r, r, a r .

We h ave been investig tin g the n tu e f com m unity dy a a r o

n am i cs A c uc i l elem en t in th is c om m un ity dyn m ics h s

. r a a a

been the pe cepti n s b oth ve i dic l n d di st ted whi ch

r o ,
r a a or ,

pe ople in dyn m ic g oups h ve f e ch o the n d the

a r a o a r, a

h m on y nd c nflict which e ch espectively gen e tes

ar a o a r ra .

We h ve desc ibed s om e of the ten s i on s an d c nfli cts

a r o

which upset the com m un ity equilib ium gen e a te s o ci l r ,

r a

d ish m on y n d im p ai n o m l hum
ar ,
a el ti n s We h ve r r a an r a o . a

desc ibed s om e f the m e an s by wh ich h m on y i evived

r o ar s r ,

h t eds a dim in i shed an d sen se of c omm un i ty i

a r re ,
a s re

sto ed r .

Th in vesti g t io n s in t o c om m un i ty dyn m i cs h ave le f t

e a a a

d l im p ct up on the studen t of g o up lif e Fi st they

ua a r . r ,

reve l a the sh ply th t comm un ity s p e ep t on f i tself

a r r ar a a
’

rc l o

is vit l fa cto in i t well bein g Th pe ple f R egen t

a a r s -
. e o o

H ill we e lon ely ho stile an d f ust ted bec use they c oul d
r , ,
r ra a

n t i de n t ify them selves w i th

o n n o the The i e m o t i n l o e a r . r o a

in vestm e n ts we e l gely n eg t ive n d self des t yin g They

r ar a a -
ro .

h a d n o i n te est i n the i h o us in g p o ject bec a use they h d n o

r r r a

se n se of c om m un ity The i beh vi o an be p ti lly ex . r a r c ar a

pla in ed by the psych ol gy of n ot bel on gin g they ejected o : r

a n d we e ejected bec use r rf st g elem e t f self h t ed a o a ro n n o -

a r .

No c omm un i ty n en d e on b se of d isloy lty t i tself

ca ur a a a o

S ec n d while the e a m any w ys f o c mm unity to

.

o ,
r re a r a o

bec m e aw e of i tself a c ctin g n d c pe tive in di

o ar s oa a oo ra

v i du l n e ffective techn i que i s the com m un ity self

a s, a

su vey I t would be wh oles om e expe i e n ce if eve y om

r . a r r c

m un i ty m de pe io d i c self su veys in
a de to di gn o se b oth
r -
r or r a

its i lls n d it p o te n ti ls f o he a lthy gr o wth

a s a r

G oup le de ship like lea de ship in othe eas of hum n

.

r a r ,
r r ar a

a ctivi ty i essen ti l to c om m uni ty g n i za ti n I n a dem

,
s a or a o . o

c a ti c s o ciety it i b a sed o n the p in ciple of ot ti on I t

r s r r a .

o pe a tes o n ly to the exte n t th t i n i t

r bsen ce the comm un ity a s a

m i ght suffe ; f we s i d befo e on of it ch a cte isti cs

r or a s a r ,
e s ar r

i to en ble pe ple t
s aely less up n it n d m e up on the
o o r o a or

will of all—o a t le st th e will of the m j o ity

r a a r .
C H A P TE R

G roup Rela tio n s in

Po l i tica l Be ha v io r

P li tic l beh avio is

o a l d a o g n i zed s o c i l
r as o How s r a a

eve un til ecen tly the study o f p olitics h s been l a gely

r, r a r

c on ce n ed with p olitic l st uctu e n d o gan i z ti on —wi th

r a r r a r a

p olitic l in stituti n s the th n p o li tic l beh vi To y

a o ra r a a a or . sa

thi s i n o t t be nm in dful f the f ct th at h isto i n s an d

s o u o a r a

p liti c l scie n tists h ve ge e lly been w e of th beh vi

o a a n ra a ar e a or

o f st tes m en n d p l iti c i n s n d h ve p o n de ed o ve the

a a o a a a r r

in t i c a te n d devi us w ys f the l tte s m in ds in e ch in g

’

M o eove we e aw e that the study

r a o a o a r r a

im p o t n t deci s io n s
r a . r r, ar ar

o f p o l i t i c a l beh vi o n d p ol i t i c l dec i s i n m k in g h a ve bee n

a r a a o -
a

the speci l c nce n f s om e o utst n din g con tem p o y

p oliti c l scie n tists n o t ably A thu B en tley Ch les M e am
a o r o a rar

a ,
r r ,
ar rr i ,

a nd H o ld La swell to m e n t i n
ar s which dm e to o c

m in d imm ed i ately! S tuden ts of dec i s ion m k in g i n p olit i cs

,
"

-
a

ow these sch l s s ign l debt ; f o they h ve n ot on ly gi ven

e o ar a a r a

us imp t an t le a ds but wh t is m o e imp o t an t they h ave

or ,
a r r ,

em n cip a ted the study of p oliti cs f m p e o ccup tion wi th

a ro r a

p olitic l in stitution l st uctu es We m y be m ist k en in

a a r r . a a

judgin g p esen t t en ds but the s i gn s seem t p oin t tow ard

r r ,
o

334
GR OU P RELATION S IN POL ITICAL BE HAVIO R 335

a n in c e a s in g devel p m e n t
r f p ol it i c l sc i e n ce in t o a b o o a e

h a io l d i sc ipl in e
v ra

F m ow t of view then the study f p olitics is a

.

ro , ,
o

beh avio al sci en ce Like the o the p oblem s con ce n in g

r . r r r

g oup con fli ct n d a djustm en t wh ich we h ave d iscussed

r a ,

in P art II I p o l i tic a l beh vio i ,

p o cess of g oup ten sion a r s a r r

r eduction g o p p oblem s olvin g an d collective dec is ion

,
r u r -
,

m kin g I n these p o blem s li es the chi e f elev n ce o f p oli t

a . r r a

i c a l beh av io t the sc i e n ce of g up dyn m i cs

r o ro a .

Th c o cepts o f c on fli ct
e n djustm en t es olution f t en ,
a ,
r o

s ion s an d the like wh ich desc ibe g oup p cesses h ave the i
,
r r ro r

c un te p ts in p li ti c l the o y I t i in te estin g t o see

o r ar o a r . s r

p ese n t d y p litic l sci en tists w estlin g with s m e f the

r -
a o a r o o

s am e fun d m e n t l p oblem s s o c i l psych olo gy an d g o up

a a r as a r

dyn am i cs Th con cept f equilib ium —of c on sen sus con

. e o r ,

co d h m on y a g eem en t—h been m a de in to a n imp o t an t

r ,
ar ,
r as r

the o etic l i ssue by at le a st on e c n tem p o y p l iti c l

r a o rar o a

sci en ti st D vid E ston wh ile wi sely ejectin g p ti

. a a ,
r a ar cu

l i s ti c o n cept i n of equ ilib i um fin ds it se ful in h i di

ar c o r ,
u s s

cu ss o i n o f p o l i t i c l dyn m i cs He n o tes the fa ct th t so ci l

a a .
1
a a

equilib ium in con t a st to the mo dyn m ic st tes lways

r ,
r r a a ,
a

in vo lves hum n be in gs in c n st n t a cti vi ty L ik e the dy

a o a .

n m i c g o ups wh i ch
a r the subject m a tte of thi s book are r ,

o the s o ci l g oups in clud in g p litic l system s

r a r ce se
,
o a ,
a re a

lessly ch an gin g A p o li tic l g o up like o the dyn m ic g o ups

. a r ,
r a r ,

wh ile e a ch in g f o equili b ium in delibe ti n an d decisi n

r r r ra o o

m kin g n eve ch i eves st te of c m plete est ; i t s c on di t i n

a ,
r a a a o r o

m ust be desc ibed a d n mi c equ i lib ri um ; i t i s

y r lwasys a a a a

o ce
r T h e b s i c c o n cepts o f p o li t i c l dyn m i cs
ss a the n a a a re
p .

subst n ti lly the s m e th o se o f g o up dyn m ics f bo th

a a a as r a ,
or

a ssum e ch n ge a cti n in te cti n g l di ti n n d th

a ,
o ,
ra o ,
oa -
I ec o ,
a e

like t be fun d m en ta l to p litic a l n d o the f m s of s o ci al

o a o a r or

beh vi o a r

D
.

1 S ee
ca l s cie n ce ( N ew
q
.

o r : Al re d A Yk f
E a s ton , Th e p olit ica l sy s tem : a n i n q u i ry i n to th e s t a te of p o liti
n op , I n c ch a p x i , an d
” im i t s
. K f . L
Am eri can P s y ch olo ica l As s o ci a ti o n , g
o f th e e u ili b ri um m o del in s oci a l re se arch , a p a p er re a d I) h im a t th e
le v e la n d, Oh i o , Se p t 8 , 1 9 5 3 , a n d C C g .

p u b li s h ed a s a p art of a sy m p osi um i n th e h i ca o B eh a v i ora l Sci en ce s

P ub li cati on s , No 1 . .
3 36 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT OF GR OU PS
OLI TICAL SYSTEM AS A G ROU P
THE P

A besettin g we kn ess of m uch h isto ic l n d p ol it ic l a r a a a

th inkin g h been p ti cul ism Th e l atte h s a cco un ted

as ar ar . r a

f o p ol i ti c l in st i tut io n s in te m s o f a p t i cul a c us l n exus

r a r ar r a a .

Fo ex m ple s om e w i te s t ced these in sti tut i on s t o the

r a ,
r r ra

a m b itio n o f st on g le a de ; o the s to the fo ce o f m aj o ity

a r r r r r

o p in i o n ; o the s to a n un expl in ed will of the people ; n d ”

r ,
a a

o the s st i ll t o the ce m e n t in g
r n d exp n d in g p o we o f m il i a a r

ta y gg ess ion ; n d o on F om the st n dp oin t of g o up

,

r a r a s . r a r

dyn am ics the f egoin g f cto s effects n ot ca uses Th

or a r a re ,
. e

beh vio of the le de the le of m j i ty op inion the on

a r a r, ro a or ,
c

sen t of the gove n ed the o ve whelm in g fo e of w r e

,
r rc ar ar

con sequen ces of hum n in te a ction They do n ot m ke the a r . a

hum an g oup ; they a e p o ducts of hum n ss o ci ti n

r r r a a a o .

Popul o dem o c ti c gove nm en t we sh ll see is g o up

ar r ra r ,
a ,
r

o g an i z t i on in a ct i on
2
r a .

THE S O UR CE O F P OLI TI CA L AUTH O RI TY Few top ics in .

politi ca l sci en ce eve a l its t a dition m in dedn ess m o e th an

r r -
r

the con cept of p oli tic l s ove ei gn ty While n o scien tific a r .

studen t of p oli tic l in stitution s n d beh vio t d y t ces a a a r o a ra

s ove ei gn ty—o p oli ti c l uth o ity s we p e fe t c all it

r r a a r , a r r o

to adivin e p owe o to the will of the m n ch th wo d r, r o ar ,

e r

r et in s m uch o f the o i gin l fl avo of p owe

a d om ini on r a r r or

vested in pe s n o in n bst ction c lled the S t te B ut

a r o r a a ra a a .

i n a demo cr ti c grou p whi ch i the esse n t i l m e n in g o f the

a s a a

S t te a we con ceive it autho ity o c nt ol i de ived f om

,

a s r r o r s r r

g o up i tself S in ce con temp o y s o ciety i c omplex

,

th e r . rar s a

z
It is a n a sto un di n gf th a t p oli ti ca l s ci enti sts are
a ct jf u s t n ow com in g to
re al i e

a cti on a
th a t
l vi e w as ear ly

of
as

p ol iti ca l li f
190 8 Arth ur F B en tl ey h a d
e . As a
.

m a tter
g f of
m ul a te d an in ter
or

a ct h i s an a ly s i s o f p o li ti cal

g
b eh av i or w a s in e s sen ce a th e ory o f in ter rou p

g g
th e ro u p n ot a s acti n i n i s ola tion b u t i n sp ecifi c rel a ti o n s t o o th er rou p s
g x g
re l a ti o n s f or h e p erceiv e d
,

p o rta n t i n a s s es s i n
g g
Th a t h e a r u e d i n di v i du a l p sy ch ol o i cal v ari a b le s o u t of e i ste n ce i s im

f h i s co m p le te th eory b u t th is a ct in n o w a y de tra ct s ,
f fi
rom th e ro u p ce nt e re d n a tu re o f th e p o li t ical p roce s s a s h e de ned i t

w k w
-
.

fg
Th e s u b ti tl e A stu dy o f s o ci a l p res s u res o f h i s e ll n o n tre a ti s e o n g ov -
, ,

e rn m e n t i s i ts e l i n di ca ti v e o f th e m o de rni ty o f hi s i dea s

Th e p rocess of
,

o v ernm e nt (

e sp e ci a l ly ch a p vi i
h i ca o : Th e Uni v ers ity of
. .
C g
S ee A F B en tle y
hi ca o Press C g . . .
,

,
338 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
c t ic pe ople to gethe Th e essen tial fe tu e of dem o c a tic
ra r . a r r

a uth o i ty b sed up on c omm o n v lues i

r a n o t the f ct o f a s a

“
s h in g it but o f h vin g p o du ce d it togethe
ar ,

c llective will i n eith exist n t n c ollective it i

o
”
Th a

s
lled
er
r
m
' w

e or
r . e so -c a

: s a

con di ti n of wo kin g n d th inkin g to gethe in de t o e ch

o r a r or r r a

deci s ion s th a t will esult in the well be in g of ll Th e e n e r -

a . r

g i zi n
g i m pulse wh i ch l i es beh in d it i n o t s m e m yste i o us s o r

p a t i ti s m f whi ch o p ofession l p oli tici n s spe k o

r o ,
o ur r a a a s

r a ptu o usly r but the se n se f c om m u ity s li d i ty whi ch

, o n o ar

im pels us to t t gethe to w a d ac com mon objective o r r a

T VE
.

L A W A S A G O UP I M P E F om the st n dp oin t of
R RA I . r a

g up dyn m ics the l w i n ot only a con t ct th t b in ds

ro a ,
a s ra a

people to gethe t obse ve an g eem en t m de in c omm on r o r a r a .

I t i n o t m e ely
s pe m n e n t c de of p in ciples n ot m e ely
r a r a o r ,
r

a set o f ules but leg l p in ciples which ch n ge in cco d

r ,
a r a a r

a n ce w i th the n eeds o f the g o win g c o m m un i ty I n o the r . r

wo ds in a dyn m ic g o up lega l p in c iples e dyn m ic

r ,
a r ,
r ar a ,

t oo ch n g in g a the li v in g c mm un i ty ch n ges
, a s Th h i st y o a . e or

o f ty nn y h
ra dem on st a ted beyon d do ubt th t when l aws
as r a

becom e fixed n d un ch n ge able when the i pe m n en ce h

a a ,
r r a as

bec om e e n c usted in t tuous legali stic in te p et ti n s they

r or r r a o ,

f v vested in te ests an d pe petu te the evi ls of speci l

a or r r a a

p ivilege
r .

It h been wi dely believed the e de will ec l l th at

as ,
r a r r a ,

m en inhe e n tly l zy n d wi ll wo k n ly bec use they

a re r a a r o a

c nno t su vive with out the econ om i c ben efits wh i ch the i

a r r

l ab o bestows up n them An n l o go us belief exi sts

r o . a a re

g ardin g the l wlessn ess o f m an A cco d in g to th is n

a . r co

c t i on o f m n l w i n ecess a y est in in g m e su e t o
a s a ar r ra a
e
p ,
r

cu b h is d ishon est an d an ti s o ci l ten de n cies L aw o on

r a . s c

c i e ve d i s f un d m e n t lly c o e ci ve a a r .

No tion l pe s on wo uld
ra
“ de n y th t s o m e in d ivi du al s
a

pe h ps m n y—h ave to be fo ced by leg l c des to t o n

r a a
r

r
”
a

a o ac

g o un ds o the th n com plete self in te est B ut m o de n

r r a -
r . r

s o ci l psych lo gy gives c eden ce t o th vi ew th t m en obey

a o r e a

l aws n t ou t of fe of s an ction s o of puni shm en t on ly but

o ar r ,

f o v ari o us o the e a s o n s Th e m o t iv a t i on behin d o be di e n ce

r r r .
GR OU P RELATION S IN POLI TICAL BE HAVIO R 339

im pulse f pe o ple i n g o ups to o r

the p o s itive c on sequen ces wh i ch

flo w f o m it Wh ile we l a ck f o the leg l p o l i t i c l
r . e the r a -
a ar a

kin d o f expe im en t l evi den ce wh ich we fo un d useful for r a

dem on st a tin g th e v lu ble con seque n ces of c on sen sus of

r a a ,

g o up p t icip tion in p oblem s olvin g deci s ion m akin g

r ar a r -
,
-
,

a n d le a n in g in educ t io n i n dust y
r n d o fo th the e are
,
a ,
r ,
a s r ,
r

n e i the a p i o i n o e m p i i c l e s n s th a t c a st d ubt o n the

r r r r r a r a o o

vali d ity of exten din g these p in ciples to p ol itics M n obey r . e

l ws f o the s m e e s on s th a t they conf o m to o the s o cia l

a r a r a r r

p essu es G oup conf m i ty a ttitudina l un if m ity the

r r . r or , or ,

feelin g of g o up belo n gin gn ess n d s im il f cto s Con dition

r ,
a ar a r

m en s eth ic al beh avio Pe ople i den tify them selves with the
’

S tate a s they
.

“ d w i th thei
munity L w b idin gness M a cI
.
e
a
“
fe en ce g o up o the i com o

s a i d i s the p a g
-
a ,
r r r

v er
r

,
r r

m a t i c c on d i ti on of n d esp on se to the wh ole fi n m en t of a r rr a

s ci l o de
o a r r .
”3

I f th i s i s n ot fully c on vi n cin g let us eco n s i de sti ll a n ,

r r

o the f a ct o f g o up li f e a l e a dy
r evi ewed on m o e th n on
r ,
r r r a e

o cc a s i o n i n th i s b oo k M n wo k in an d f o thei g oups . e r r r r

beca use on ly th ough s fegu din g the i ghts of o the s ar r a ar r r e

thei own i ghts p ese ved Th g e test in divi d al f ee

r r r r . e r a u r

do m we w c n n o t be a tt in ed in i s o l tion but i
,
sa ,
chi eved
a a a ,
s a

in in te ctio n wi th o the s M n gets h i f eed m by l ivin g

ra r . a s r o

with o the f ee m n Thi s f eedom th ough c ollective s an c

r r e . r r

tion e info ces the o the obli g ti n s to g o up a dhe en ce

r r r a o r r .

I n th i s c on di ti n the v a i o us g o ups th a t c o n sti tute the o r r

comm uni ty n o m tte h ow divided by sep a a tist in te ests

,
a r r r

or con fli ctin g do ct in es n like i den tify them selves wi th r ,

ca a

the b o d pu p o se of the sta te They m y o m y n ot g ee

r a r . a r a a r

with the p oli ci es f p ti cul gove nm en t but s in ce it o a ar ar r

le ves the i f iths l on e n d sin ce i t d o es n t supp ess thei

a r a a a o r r

o p i n i n s they n st i ll be in cc d wi th the sp i i t of the ‘

o ca a or r

l ws
a
”4

3 R . M . M a cI v er Th e w e b , o f g o v ernment ( New Yk or : Th e M acm i ll an

Co .
, p . 77 .

4 I bid .
, p 79. .
340 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
Th l a w so c on ce i ved i a l ivin g th in g n o t a c o u t d o cu
e s ,
r

m e n t o the a gum e n ts f
r g ve n in g b o dy Th l tte
r o a o r . e a r a re

m e ely exte n l m e a n s of i de n t i fyin g it of giv in g it a l o c l

r r a ,
a

h b it tion an d a n am e Th in teg tin g fo ce of the l w

a a .
”
e ra r a

li es n t in wh t the judge nd the c im in l d wi th it but

o a a r a o ,

h ow the g o up f pe o ple c a lled a n o g n i zed c omm un i ty

r o r a

uses it to fo ste its ow n developm en t When the g o up r . r

uses the l w to im p ove itself it is n ot m e ely obeyin g the

a r r

leg l st tutes O bedien ce is p ss ive if n ot n eg ative b e

,

a a . a , ,

h a vi Th g o up th a t uses the l w to e nh an ce i t s well

or . e r a

bein g i c a ting l w f o in o d oin g it i diffus in g justice

s re a ,
r s s

th o ugho ut the omm unity Pe ople n w t l wfully n ot

r c . o ac a ,

o t o f a se n se o f f e
u o duty but bec use they h a ve n w ar r ,
a a e

c on ception of the ll em b cin g comm un ity—a c om m uni ty a -

ra

b ilt by pe ople f o them selves an d f o on an o the

u r r e r .

A p opul w ay of con ceptu lizin g the g owth of d m o

ar a r e c

ra cy by p oliti c l sci en ti sts nd j u i sts h been to desc ibe it

a a r as r

as a g wth f om st tus to con t a ct I n n isto c a ti c o

ro r a r . a ar r r

au th it i n st ate justice w m eted o t in a cco d n ce wi th

or ar a as u r a

a m n s s o c i l p s it i on
a
’

Often the elite of the comm unity

a o .
,

w s b ve the l w
a a o With the g owth of dem o c a ti c in stitu
a . r r

tion s n d the libe li z ti n f ju i sp uden ce the n tion of

a ra a o o r r o

c on t ctu l egul ti n“
ra devel ped I n thi s tm o sphe e ll
a r a o o . a r a

m n we e c o n s i de ed equ l un de the l w
e r rn d e a ch c a se a r a ,
a

wa djudi c ted cc d in gly

s a a a or .

C on temp o y s o ci ety is still l gely c on t olled by the

ra r ar r

c on t ctu l c n ception of hum an el a tion s The e

ra a o s i gn s r . r a re ,

howeve th t ju i di cal ction s a becomin g g o up cen te ed

r, a r a re r -
r .

A s dem o c cy becom es m o e gro up o i en ted c on t ct wi ll

comm uni ty A s M a y Follett e pl in ed it fo ty
ra r -
r ,
ra

give w ay to“ . r x a r

ye s a go We see con t a ct d im inishin g bec use we beli eve

ar : r a

in a d iffe e n t ki n d o f ss o c i a t io n a f st a
r ss o ci tion b a : s a s a a e

c omes comm unity el a tion a f st s in d ivi du ls e eco g

a
‘ ’

r s a a a ar r

n i e d as c om m u n i ty u n i ts j ust
,

z o f a st d o es c o n t a ct fa de
-
,
s r
”5
a wa y Th growth o f the l aw n ow g o i n g o n i f o m co n
. e s r

M Yk
P Fo lle tt, Th e n ew s ta te ( N ew
k L on gm a n s Gre e n
k
5 . . or : Co , I nc , , . .

dy n a m i c g
p 1 25
. Th i s b o o i s a p i on eer
ro u p
.

p roces s .
a ttemp t to thi n o f p o li ti cs a s a
342 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
becom es less imp o tan t a the el a tion in el a tion to o the r s r r r

r el tion s—th a t is the well be in g of the c omm un ity—becom es

a ,
-

cen t l in p oliti c a l a s in o the g oup deci s ion s

ra r r

P O LI TI CS A S A GR O UP P O CE SS One of the deli ghtful ele

.

R .

m en ts in in te di sciplin y ese ch i the d isc ove y of the

r ar r ar s r

in fluen ce o f o n e d i sc ipl in e up o n n o the Fo a t le a st h alf a r . r

a ce n tu y s o ci o l o g i sts h ve bee n desc i b i n g s c i ety a

r a a r o s

p cess a n d studen ts of g o up dyn am ics h a ve been led to

ro r

fo llo w sui t S in ce p ol itic al sci en tists h ve been in te ested

,

. a r

in p o li ti c a l ch n ge it w a but n a tu a l a n d l o gi c l th a t they
a ,
s r a ,

t o o c m e t o pe ce i ve p o li ti c a l a cti v i t i es a p o cesses Th 9
,
a r s r . e

r esult h as been th t the c on cept of p oliti c al in stituti n h a o as

been eced in g in to the b a ckg oun d an d g o up p o cess an d

r r ,
r r

i n te ct i n ra p i dly t akin g it pla ce

o a re r a s .

Th c on cept of p ol iti c l p o cess i s p a ti cul ly elev a n t

e a r r ar r

t o g o up dyn a m i cs bec a use i t i s the f am ew o k in wh i ch

r r r

m n y p oli ti c a l deci s i on s t ake pl a ce S o c i a l o publi c p oli cy

a . r

i n ot
s st ti c thin g ; i t e m e ges f om a p o cess of in te cti on
a a r r r ra

between people n d g o ups usu ll y c alled p essu e g o ups a r ,

a r r r ,

lobb ies cl ss cen te ed in te est g oup an d the like P o lici es

,
a -
r r r ,
.

a n d o the p li tic l deci s ion s a thus vi ewed wi thin fl w

r o a re a o

in g m a t ix o f de libe tin g g o ups

r G oup dyn m ics an d ra r . r a

p litic al scie n ce
o a cc din gly linked t gethe by the co n
are or o r

c e t o f s o c i l i n te
s ct i n n d s o c i l ch a n ge
a P o l i cy m k in g
ra o a a a
p
-
.
,

in tu n i s escued f om the ste il i ty o f i n st i tuti o n a l d

r ,
r r ip r escr

t ion by pl cin g i t squ ely in the inte ctive p o cess I t is

a ar ra r .

thus pe ce i ved t o be n o tr st ti c p o duct but a m de of ,

a a r , o

a ction t w d a go l dyn m i c c on sequen ce of in te ctin g

o ar a ,
a a ra

in d ivi du ls a .

S Sch a ch t er, and K k Bac S o cia l p res sures i n i nformal

w gL wro up s ( N ew
fi Y
ork
“fl
. .
,

Harp er Th e l a t ter s t u dy o e s m u ch t o
K Lw
’

B ro s .
, e i n s d e ni ti on

Yk
in term s
o r : Harp er
of
u e n ce

B ro s
See
in

w
e i n , Fi e ld th eo ry i n s ocial s cie n ce ( New
.

For a v ery p ercep tiv e a n d ri o ro u s c on cep

.

L N g
o f p o li ti ca l p o w
tu a l iz a tio n of p o er th eori es s e e F
er, P o l S ci Qu a rt 55
eu m a nn

.
A p p ro a ch es to th e s tu dy
1 61 —80 .
, . .
,

Ga rcea u Re s e arch i n p ol iti cal p ro cess A m er p ol S ci B en , 45

g
9 Se e 0

—
. . . .
, ,

69 8 5 E urop e a n soci ol o i sts a n d p oli ti cal hi s tori an s u s e d th e con

.

g
c ep t a t th e e n d of th e ni n etee nth cen tury

overnm ent .
See a lso B en tley , Th e p roces s o f .
GR OU P RELATION S IN POLITICAL BE HA VIO R 343

Th upsh t o f the fo eg i n g n lys i s i th t p o l i t i cs i n t

e o r o a a s a s o
—
a fo m l tru cW C but n o n g in g a ct i v i ty a g o up p o e s s
'

Th p o cess Vi ew of p o li t i c l beh vi o whethe in the fo m

r a s ,
a o ,
r r c .

e r a a r, r r

o f a c o n fli ct o v e pol i cy m a ki n g o i n the f m of rst uggle r or a r

-

between a m ultiplic ity of in te est g o ups i fun d m en t lly r r ,

s a a

con cei ved s g o up beh avio O n e st te obse ve f p olit

a r r . a u r r o

i c a l beh vio sho ws the el t io n sh i p cle ly He w i tes

a r r a ar . r ,

Th p pti i w i l l mh t k i f th t tlitti
p w t ggl p li y d t f t i d d p t d l
e roce s s c on ce on v e s soc a e e en s as n co n s a n en

i
xt i t th i l m th B t f pm t liti yl
s on or o er s ru e o v er o c ,
an e as o e o ca

i ti t i t
t d t mi x t l f m t k t fph m
sc e n s s o e r ca e e v a r ou s e e en s or n e en en s u

d th
i ti t th p liti l p ly pl x w
i
n or er o e er ne e e ac ro e o ea c . u or os o ca
“

l p fi lly p l l
sc en s s, i t e o ca r o cess s no on a co e ne or o u an

th e in t era ct io n of P o iti c a
lf p
in teraction ; it i s a s o
ly w pl
s e ci ca g rou s .

”
i e is rim a ri to b e v ie e d as
grou if e .
10

In te estin g ticle on the g o up ch cte f in te

an in r ar r a ra r o r

n a t io n al el t i o n s by L n d r k we fin d fu the suppo t f o
a a ec e r, r r r r

ou rm in thes i s a Po liti c l st tes we h ve s id a 11

a a as a a re

g o ups S in ce inte n tion l el tion s a

.
, ,

r he p oin ts o t
r a a r a re , as u ,

“
.

rel a tion s betwee n g o ups they m ay be pp o p i tely de r a r r a

Dividin g inte g oup el

,

sc ibed
r in te g o up el ti n s
as r r r a o . r r r a

tion s on the b s i s of whethe they di e ct o t a nsm itt d

a r a re r r r e ,

L an deck ttempts to h o w th t the el tion s between

er a S a r a

sta tes in a fede l un ion a e d i ect whe e s th o se between ra r r ,

r a

n a t i o n l s t a tes ar t
a n s m i tted Th e el a t i o n s between f ede
e ra l . r ra

sta tes e di ect in th t the c on ta ct between the p ti cip a tin g

,
ar r a ar

m em be s i im m edi a te w i th o ut the i d o f in te venin g m edi

r s a r a

Thus the el ti n s betwee n a n inh a bi t n t f O hi o an d n

.

r a o a o o e

o f N ew Y o k a ff ected ve y l i ttle eve n p o l i t i c lly by the

r a re r ,
a ,

fa ct f ge g ph i c sep a tion Th e lo yal ty of m em be s of

o o ra ar . r

e ch st te to the n tion i n ot app eci bly affected by the

a a a s r a

f ct th t e ch st te h as a ls o
a a el tively in depen den t
a a a r a

exi ste n ce .

Th in te ctio n between tw o s ove e i gn n ti n s

e ra n the r a o ,
o

o the h n d i s a t
r n s m i tted in te g o p el t i n
a ,
Th p o cess
ra r r u r a o . e r

10 D Yk f
E a sto n , Th e p o liti ca l s y s tem : a n i n q u iry in to the s tat e of p o li ti cal
.

K f
s cience ( N ew
11 W or : A l re d A nop Inc , p 1 75
S L an decke r, I n t e rn a ti on a l rela ti on s as inter- rou p re la t ion s Amer
s oci a l R e v , 5 ( 1 9 40
.
. .

33 54 39.
.

.
, . .

g .

, .
344 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
o f i n te a ct i o n betwee n pe o ple in s o ve e i g n st tes i
r effected r a s

th ugh e ch st te Th fun ction f the st tes in the in te

ro a a . e o a r

n a t i o n a l c o mm u n i ty i thus d iffe e n t f m th t of the st a tes s r ro a

i n a f ede t i n He n ce ralth ough the co n stitue n ts o f fed

o .
,
a a

e a l st a te a in divi du ls the fun cti n of the c n stituen ts

r re a ,
o o

of the i n te n t io n l c o m m un i ty i s dete m i n ed by the i

r a ar a r r
p
ti cip t ion in the lif e o f the n t io n
a a .

r s o

m ust be pe m n ent A s l on g s n tion s fun cti n a t n s

r a
“
The e i n i nhe e n t e a s o n why the fo ego in g c o n d i ti o n r

.
r

a a
r

o s ra

mittin g a ge n ts in in te n ti on a l el a tion s th is con dition r a r ,

”

will p ev il When inte n a tion l ss o ci tion s t s m e f utu e

r a . r a a a a o r

tim e howeve becom e in te g o up ela tion s they wi ll be a

r, r r r s

di ect th o se f fede a l st tes They wi ll then be sub j ect

, ,

r as o r a .

t o the s m e dyn m i c p in c iples th a t g ve n m ll g o ups

M o e specifically inte n tion al el tion s equi e the s m e
a a r o r s a r .

r ,
r a r a r r a

s o t of volun t y sub o din a tion to the wh “

r le th t ch cte
ar r o a a ra r

i zes sm ll c ohes ive g o up at its best

a a
“
com m un ity L n d k obse ves i s n ot n gg eg te of
,
Th e i n te n a t ion l
a ec er
r

r ,
.

a a r
r

a
a

TS but We s A s st uctu l uni ts he p oin ts o t they

‘ ’

r ra u a re

gg eg te N eve theless a st uctural

.
, ,

n o t s bje ts o f th i s
u c a r a . r ,
s r

uni ts s om e o f thei fun ctio n s in the in te n tion l c omm

a re like th se of ind“ ivi du ls in o the
o gg eg tes The e “ u n i ty
r

a r
r

a
a

r
a

a . r

fo e he co n tin ues s in ce the inte n a tion al c omm un i ty is

r , ,
r

a n gg eg te comp o sed of sm ll n umbe of st uctu e un its

a r a a a r r r ,

i t s ch a cte i sti cs ar in v i o us espects the s m e as th o se of

ar r e ar r a

n u m e i c lly s m ll g o ups
”1 2
r a a r .

Th e em ph a s i s o n the gro up b o un d n tu e f p liti c l -

a r o o a

decision s n d a ction s d o es n ot bli n d us to o the f e tu es o f

a r a r

p olitic a l beh vi o E ven an am a teu in the study of p oliti c l

a r . r a

sci en ce s oon discove s the fo ce f in sti tution l f ct s in r r o a a or

po litical deci sion s especi a lly go e mn en t l bu e us n d ,

v r a r a a

leg l gen ci es wh o se el tion s to pe ople e n ot psycho

a a ,
r a ar

lo gic lly but fo m ally defin ed We h ve st essed the g oup

a r . a r r

fa cto f o tw o e as on fi st the l w o s m e o th e fo m l
r r r s : r ,
a r o r r a

a ge n cy i n o t th exclusive m e n s by wh ich ights n d p iv

s e a r a r

ile ges ll c a t d ; and secon d p oliti c l scien ce itself is

ar e a o e , ,
a

12 I bid .
, p 33 7
. .
346 CONFLICT AND A DJ U STMENT OF GROU PS
o f beh vi o a l sc ie n ce a It n a lyzes p o l i t i c l beh v i o
r in .
14
a a a r

te m s o f hu m n re lat ion ; th a t is on the b a s i s of g o up

r a s ,
r

or g n iz tion and g oup p o cess

a a r r .

Politic l g ni z tion and p oliti c l beh vi

a or a n be f u i t
a a a o r ca r

fully studied a p oblem s in g o up dyn m ics I t i s in te s r r a . r

estin g to see h ow s om e stude n ts o f p ol itics while vowedly ,

a

a n lyz in g p o l i t i c l o g an i z t i n by m e n s o f the v
a a i bles o f
r a o a ar a

i n d i vi du l psych o l o g y — p ifi lly p
a o n l y a
i t — in f ct s ec ca e rs a re , a ,

de lin g with it in the con ceptu l l n gu ge of g o up p y

a a a a r s

ch lo o
gy Thus S i m on
. S m i thbu g n d Th om ps o n i n the i ,
r ,
a ,
r

h i ghly c om m en d ble b k n public dm in ist at ion wh ile a oo o a r ,

st ess in g the le f pe s on l ity in p oliti c l o g n i z tion a

r ro o r a a r a a ,
re

desc ibin g m stly the p we ful effect o f the g o up on a dmin

r o o r r

i t ti e
s ra fun ctio in g A dm in ist a tive o g n iz tion thei
v n . r r a a ,
r

ch ief con ce n i they p oin t o t the o g n iz ti n o f g ou p

r ,
s, u ,
r a a o a r

of p eop l Th m ti v t i n s wh i ch they desc ibe

e .
15
e e not
o a o r ar

p im ily in divi dua l but

r ar l a gely the p d cts f in di a re r ro u o

v i d ls in i n te ct io n I n d ivi du ls in dm in i st a tive g ups

ua ra . a a r ro

d n o t usu ally a ct o n the b a s i s of in d ivi du l m t iv tion

o a o a

al n e
o The i p i v te f eel in gs an d m o tives m e ge w i th th o se
. r r a r

of o the s to bec om e a p o duct d iff e e n t f om the em o t i on s

r r r r

an d sp i tion s f any o n of them sep a a tely Th g o up

a ra o e r . e r

st uct e of the a dm ini st tive uni t of whi ch the in d ivi du al

r ur ra

is a p t st on gly dete m in es h i w n deci si n s n d cti n s

ar r r s o o a a o .

I n deed these ct ion s n d dec i s ion s

,
a n ot h i w n ; they a are s o

ar th
e esult n t f the cti n s n d decis i n s of ll o the
e r a o a o a o a r

m em be s c on s i de ed r a t t l i ty o wh le r as o a r o .

A n tu l eto t to the fo ego in g st tem en t m ay well be

a ra r r r a

Wh o h a deni ed i t! The e i a deceptive f am il i ity in wh a t

s r s ar

we h ve s i d n d the cynic al e de m i ght desc ibe it s

a a ,
a r a r r a

me e c omm on se n se Th lite tu e n p lit i c l beh avi o

r . e ra r o o a r,

h oweve sho ws th a t the c itic s obse va tion s e in e l i ty

r, r
’

r ar r a

a fte th o ughts
r Th e p li ti c l sc i e n ti st h a s p i d l ip se vi ce to
. o a a -
r

Th ere i s m u ch con u s ion i n recent p oli ti ca l

14 fri tin s b e t e en th e ro le w gff w
p arti cula rly g D
o f i n di v i du a l m oti v a ti on in p o li ti ca l b eh a v i or an d th e e e ct o f s itu a ti on al ,
ro u p ce n tere d a cti o n -

g , .

V
Yk f K f
15 H Sim on . Sm ith bu r and . Th om p s o n P u bli c ad m i nist rati on .
, , ,

( New o r : Al re d A
Yk M
no p I nc e s p eci a ll y c h a p
. iii, S ee al so . .

H Si mo n , Admi nis trat i v e b eh a v ior ( New or : Th e

. a cm i ll a n C o , .
GR OU P RELATI
%
IN POLI TIC AL BE HAVIO R
the con cepts f inte cti n n d in te depe n den ce b t n ot
o
347

ra o a r ,
u

un til ecen tly h he c on ceived them fun d am en t l to a

r as as a

the o y f p oliti c al p o cess an d p olitic l beh vio A vice of

r o r a a r .

m uch c i ti c l sch o l sh ip i th bel ief th t n o b o dy s a ys a n y

r a ar s e a

thin g n w ; hen ce it i e a sy to co n clude th t if ce t ain

e ,
s a r

c on temp o a y c n cepts we e used in th e p t they we e used

r r o r as r

with thei cu e n t m e n in g Fo in st n ce the vi t li sti c n d

r rr a . r a ,
a a

m ysti c al cco un ts of g o up beh a v io

a a we in d ic ted in r r, s a

C h pte 1 h ve been th o u ghly d isc edited Th g up

a r ,
a or r . e ro

m in d of L e Bo n a n d M Do g ll h been supe seded by the c u a as r

fun cti n l dyn m ic view of con tem p o a y s o cial psych olo gy

o a -
a r r

a nd g up dyn m ics
ro a

We ha ve bee n ca e ful to p esen t a ba lan ced vi ew of the

.

r r

c omp a tive impo t an ce of in divi du al an d collective f ct s

ar r a or

in g up beh a vi o
ro Th e a de will ec all num e us pla ces
r . e r r r ro

i n the p ges o f th i s b o k whe e desp i te o ur e m ph a s i s o n the

a o r ,

g up f ct we did n o t ove lo ok the in d ividu al Th p y

ro a or, r . e s

ch l o i c l v a i a bles o f hu m a n beh a vi o a e b o th i n d i v i du a l
g
o a r r r

a n d c llect iveo We m ust the e fo e t ke n o the lo ok t the

.
,
r r ,
a a r a

r o le o f the pe s o n th i s t im e eg a d in g h i pl a ce in the p olit

r ,
r r s

i c l p o cess
a r .

We sh ll begin w i th th e in te estin g pe h ps n ovel oh

a r ,
r a ,

o f W i n n i co tt An esse n t i a l p t of the dem o 16

s e rva t io n s . ar

c ti c p o cess cco d in g to h im i th t t i p s on w h o is
ra r ,
a r ,
s a I s a er

l cted He d iffe en tia tes between the vo te f o p arty a

e e . r r a ,

p in ciple n d a pe s n An in divi du al m ay of c u se vo te
r ,
a r o .
,
o r ,

for bo th a p ty n d p i n ciple but wh t m arks h im s p y

ar a a r ,
a a s

ch lo ica ll n d p o l i t i c a lly m tu e i the f a ct th t he v tes

g
o
y a a r s a o

f o a pe s o n V o tin g f o
r r pe s on implies tha t the electo te
. r a r ra

beli eve in them elves a pe s ons n d the efo e they believe s s r ,

a r r

in the pe s o n wh m they n om i n a te n d elect

r o a .

Th im p o t n ce o f th i s ph il o s o ph i c a l vi ew o f the ole of
e r a r

the pe s n in politic l life ho weve do es n ot li in u r

r o a ,
r, e, o

judgm en t in the f ct th t the indi vi dual w h i elected i a

,
a a o s s

pe s on but in W innicott s as se ti n th a t the pe s on w h o i

r ,
’

r o r s

ra cy ,
16 DW .

Hu m Rela t
.

.
. W innicott
.
, 3
, S o m e th o u h t s
1 7 5—86
g .
on th e mea ni n g of th e w ord dem oc
348 D U MEN T OF G ROU PS C ONFLIC T AND A J ST
“
elected h s the opp o tun ity t a ct a s a pe s n
a Th P es i r o r o
”1 7
e r

den t f the U n ited S t tes f o ex mple p essed th o ugh

.

o a ,
r a ,
r

he is o n all i des by the n a tu e of h i office by the leg l

S r s ,
a

st uctu e of the C on stitution n d by h st o f special in te

r r ,
a a o r

est g o ups Sh pes the p es i den cy c on s i de bly by the st m p

r a r ra a

o f h i pe s o n l i ty
s He a cts n ot only a n elected ffice but
r a . s a o r

as a pe s o n Th m o st dyn m i c f ou r p es i den ts h ve le f t
r . e a o r a

the i m a k in di ss olubly on the p es iden ti l offi ce Th

r r r a e

C b in et of the s m e m embe s p es i ded o ve by D wi ght

.

a a r r r

E i senhowe n d by Rich d N ixon on d iffe en t o cc s i n s

r a ar ,
r a o ,

w uld h ve diffe en t p ope ties g o ups E ch b in gs t o

o a
’

r r r as r . a r

the s itu a tion h is pe s on li ty n d the in divi dua l an d s o ci al r a a o r

v i bles which ch n ge the ch cte of the wh le

ar a a a ra r o .

The e i s yet a n o the

r e s n lo gi cal well psych o r r a o ,
a as as

l gi c l on f eco gni zin g the pl ce of the pe s n i p l it

o a e or r a r o n o

i l dy n m
ca We beli eve in p t wi th L sswell d K pl n
a 10 s . ar a an a a

when they desc ibe p oli ti c al sc i en ce a de l in g wi th pe s on s

r s a r

n d the i cts n ot gove n m en ts an d st tes Th e l a tte

‘ ’ ‘ ’
a r a ,
r a . r

te m s wh i ch h a ve been cen t l in “
r ,
the l n gu ge of p olitic a l ra a a

sci en ce s these w i te s
,
a re ,
y o f a m b i g o us
a e f e e n ce r r sa ,
u r r

un ti l it i cle h ow they s to be used i n desc ib in g wh t

ar a re r a

people s y n d do Quotin g C tlin w h e ly eco gn ized

a a .
”
a , o ar r

the beh vio l ch ara cte of th p olitic al p o cess they a dd

a ra r e r ,
:

Th s bject m tte f p ol i t i cs is the cts o f in d i vi du ls

‘

e u a r o a a ,

n o t o f st tes ; the i n d i v i du l w i ll i the p ol i t i c l u n i t

’ ”1 8
a a s a .

I n the f a ce o f o u defi n i t i n o f g o up st u cture g o up r o r r ,

r

p o cess n d g up beh vio the p in t m de by L a sswell

r ,
a ro a r, o a

an d K pl n a lth o ugh p
a tly t ue is n ot a b s i c a they seem
a ,
ar r , s a s

t o beli eve The i a ssum pt io n o f the p io i ty—n o t the p y

. r r r s »

ch o l i cal im p o t a n ce s we w uld s —of the pe s o n i s

g o
y r ,
a o a r

b a sed on a con ception o f the g up whi ch ese ch in g o p ro r ar r u

dyn am ics p li city deni es Wh ile eco gn izi n g the im p o

r
ex

tan ce of g oup beh avio these w ite s define it “a p tte n r,

.

r r
r

as a
r

Th i s defin i t io n gi ves n o hi n t—in deed

”
o f in d iv i du l a cts a .
,

L w
I bid
K I tali cs
q
17 1 80 o urs
.
, p . . .

C wY k fk f K f
e ll an d ap lan , a nd

C
18 P o w er Th e ir
ass s o ci ety , p 3 . . u o ta tio n o f
’
a tli n s v i e w a s ta en ro m G E G a t l in , S ci en ce a nd m e th o d of p o li

1 4 1—
. . .

ti cs ( Ne w or : Al re d A . n op , Inc . , pp . 42 .
35 0 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
the op inion le a de wh ile en ga gin g m uch m o e in p liti c lr, r o a

d iscussion s th an the o the s ep o ted th t the fo m al m ed ia r ,

r r a r

“
o f c o m m u n i c t io n i n flue n ced h im m o e e ff ect ively th n
a

s n l in te t i n s This suggests the in vesti g t s p o in t

o a ra c o
p ”
r

a or
a er

th a t i de a s o ften flow f om a d io an d p in t to the op in

.
,

o t u r r r

i n le a de s n d f o m them t o less a ct ive secti on s

,

o r a r f the o

p opul ti n a o .
”2 2

Th e f eg o in g f cts a dd c o n fi m t io n to
or epe a ted a sser
a r a a r

tion in these p ges Un de n o m al ci cum st n ces —w e ex a . r r r a

clu d ebelli usn ess a n d n n con form i sm the p essu e of the

e r o o -
r r

i de a s n d a tt itudes o f o the s i n flue n ces n e s w n beh a v io

’

a r o o r .

Th e im pe s on a l n d em o te n tu e of the n ewsp pe
r a n d the
r a r a r a

r a d io l a cks the c o n st in in g psych o l o gi c l eff ect o f the ra a

p ese n ce of e l people Th com pellin g influen ce of g oup

r r a e r

G oup s an c
.

a tti tudes sh o uld by n ow be well u n de st oo d r r

pp v al c i ti ci sm an d pe s on al e j ection a e
.

t ion s such ,
as a ro ,
r ,
r r ,
r

to o p owe f ul f o m o st pe o ple to ch lle n ge o i gn o e

r r a r r .

A wo d sh o uld be dded fi n ally to expl ain a s L a sf ld

r a , , , z ar e

an d h i a ss c i tes h a ve do n e
s th t the pe s n al c on t a cts
o a ,
a r o

“
wh
p
i ch we h a ve desc i bed a e n o t tho se f urn i shed by the
r ofes i o n l p li t i c al m ch in e
s a wh i ch o o pe a tes o en e
r

a
r

r s r

g t
e i ll
ca
y du i n g elect io n c am p a gn s
r R a the they a co n i . r, re

t cts wi th el tives m em be s of on e s family f ien ds con

a r a ,
r
’

,
r ,

gen i l n e ighb s n d o the fa ce to f ce a sso ci ti n s

a or ,
a r - -
a a o .

POL ITIC A L D E C I S ION MAK IN G -

We m ust em in d the e de on ce mo e th a t decisi n

r r a r r o

makin g in the p o litic l p o cess is a se arch f o dyn m ic a r r a a

equilib ium f o the es olvin g of g oup n d in te gro up t n

r ,
r r r a r e

s ion s I t i a ph se ls o as we h ave sh own in Ch apte 7

. s a a , r ,

of c o llect ive p o blem s o lvi n g I t sh o uld be cle ar fu the

r -
.
,
r r

m o e th a t
r ,
i n te est w a as i t i s n ow in dec i s i n m aki n g
our r s, , o -

w i th in n o ga n i z t io n a l o g o up c o n text
a r a r r .

We have to uched on this p oblem in ou b ie f c on si de r r r ra

tio n of p oli cy m akin g in the p o litic l sphe e We desc ibed

-
a r . r

i t as the p o cess o f p o duc in g a n d sh a in g p e f e ed v lues

r r r r rr a .

22 I bid , p 1 5 1 . . .
GR OU P RELATIONS IN POLITICAL BE HAVIO R \
35 1

We ffi m ed th a t it em e ges f om th in te a ction of pe ople

a r r r e r

i n the p cess o f deli be a ti n

ro r o .

I f the p o cess o f dec i s i n m k in g st ikes o n e a s a m yste y

r o -
a r r

still it m ay be bec a use studen ts o f p oli cy m akin g con ce ive

,
-

the p o cess in too n owly in divi du listic te rm s An in

r a rr a .
23

c e a sin g num be of p olitic l thinke s ar g appl in g wi th it

r r a r e r

n d m ak in g se n se o t o f i t Thus f a g o up dyn amics 24

a u . r, r

suggests the m o st pl a us ible expl n ti n Wh ile g oup dy a a o . r

n m i c seeks sc i e n ti fic expl an a ti o n s i t c a nn o t cl o se i ts eyes to

a s ,

the v alue p e fe en ces n d ch oi ce of the dem o c a ti c fr m e

r r a s r a

of e f e e n ce wh i ch we h ve a l e dy b i efly desc ibed

r r a r a r r

THE M A TRIX O F CH O I C E O ur c on ceptu a l schem e in ari

.

bly le a ves oom f o the a cts of n in divi du l D ecis ion

.

a r r a a .

m kin g a cts in the p o li ti c l a e n a h ve bee n o ve whelm

a a r a r

in gly pe s o n al P liti cs like the est of li fe i a system of

r . o ,
r ,
s

p efe en ces We d aily ch o se between tw o o m o e a lte

r r . o r r r

n t ives
a Th m ke o f dec i s io n s the f o ge o f publi c p o li cy
. e a r ,
r r ,

i pe petu a lly f ced by ptio n s

s r Th ch o i ces he m kes a e
a o . e a r

usu lly h is ow n I n h i ghly f m l ized s itu tion such s

a . a or a a ,
a a

gove nm en t l bu e uc a cy the t sk i m de e s i e by est b

r a r a r ,
a s a a r a

l i h d ule
s e Th psych olo gi c l v lue o f the set o f ules
r s . e a a r

i l ik e th t o f a n esc pe cl a use A s we s i d in o
s a di scuss ion a . a ur

o f bu e uc a t i c le a de sh ip ( see C h pte
r a r i f a p o o ch oi ce r a r r

i m a de
s n n lways bl am e the system —th a t i the
,
o e ca a s,

r i gi dly est bli shed ules Ho weve the im p tan t thin g to

a r . r, or

n o te i th t t a d ition lly g ve nm en ta l pe s onn el we e

s a ,
r a ,
o r r r

r esp s ible f or m any deci sion s th a t pe t in ed to the welfare

on r a

o f a ll .

Politic l scie n ce s we h ve s i d h com e a lon g w ay in

a a a a ,
as

the p st qu te cen tu y in em n cip tin g itself f om the

a ar r- r a a r

sh ckles of in stitution l fo m li sm A t the s am e tim e the

a a r a .
,

im put ti o n of c o n sp i cuo us dec i s i o n m k in g t o in d ivi du a ls

a -
a ,

C g M st il l a m y s tery to som e

D U lri ch et a l
23 It is . S ee E . P . . E xecutiv e a cti o n
,

( m b ri d e
a
24 S e e H
a ss : Harv a rd U n i v ers ity ,

g
, iv i s io n o f R e se arch
.

A Sim on A dm in ist rat iv e beh a v i or, a n d

. .
, B la c , O n th e
kg D .
,

k
ra ti o n a l e o f

x
rou p deci s i o n m a i n , p o l E co n , 5 6 23 434 See
fl
-
. . .

-
kg f
a ls o H Gu e tz ko w A n e p lo ra to ry em p i ri ca l s tu dy o f th e ro le o f co n i ct in
,

decis io n m a i n co n eren ces , I nterna t S oc Sci B ul l , 5 28 6-300 . . . .

35 2 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMENT OF G ROU PS
wh ich h as ch a a cte i zed m uch p oliti c al th o ught h been
r r ,
as

due to subtle con fus ion I t h a con fused dec is ion m kin g
a . s -
a

with the t n sl tion of p olicy in to a ction To d y we kn ow

ra a . a ,

th a t pol ici es e m de mo e a nd m o e by g oups—th o ugh

ar a r r r ,

unf o tun a tely they ofte n a spec i l in te est g oups—even

r ,
re a -
r r

tho ugh thei execution m ay be the t sk f in divi du als

r a o .

Th g i st of wh a t we a
e t yin g to y the n i s thi s Al re r sa :

tho ugh the choice of option s in deci s ion m akin g i ften n -

s o a

in d ivi du l o n e i t i s n o t a lw ys wh o lly so I n a dem o c a ti c

a ,
a . r

s o ci ety choi ces are in c e s in gly m de by pe ople in con ce t r a a r

within a c llective v alue system An y the o y of choi ce

o . r

wh ich m in imi zes the o g n i z tion l system n d the p tte n r a a a a a r

o f v a lues up o n wh i ch i t i s b sed i s i n excus a bly n a ow an d a rr

E ven whe n the ch o ices a n o t dete m ined by

,

o n e s i ded
-
. re r

th e gi ve a n d t a ke of g o up d i scuss io n a n d n eg ti t ion they r o a ,

a re p a t ly g o up de ived in the sen se th a t th ey ar the e

r r -
r e r

su lta n t o f the di ect ion al fo ces of g ni z tion a l ules n d

r r or a a r a

p ecede n ts n t of the put a tive a ction s f s in gle in divi du l

r o o a a

Fin ally if on is dete m ined to be h yp m ti lo s it n be

.
,

,
e r er e cu u ,
ca

shown th t the in divi du l deci s ion m ake i s m kedly infl u

a a -
r ar

enc d in h i e n ge of ch i ces by such g o up b o u n d f ct o s

s ra o r -
a r

a s educ t i n n d cl ss m e m be sh ip
a o a a r .

It w p in ted t befo e i n th is ch apte th a t s om e of

as o ou r r

the c on diti n s whi ch we h ve been desc ibin g

o m o e in a r are r

the n tu e of i de ls th n c on c ete e l iti es n d th a t con

a r a a r r a ,
a

tem p o y s ciety is success ively app oxim a tin g the values

ra r o r

which it i settin g up I n the e lm of cho ice pp ox im ti n

s . r a a r a o

i s elem e n t y Wi th the in c e s in g c om plex i ty o f c o n tem p o

ar . r a

ra y s c i ety the
r o n ge of pu ely in d iv i du l ch o i ces i n a o w
ra r a s rr

in g Wh ile i t i t ue th a t i n th i s im pe s on a l an d c om plex
. s r r

s o ci ety g ve nm en t l a gen cies a e a ssum in g a n in c e s in g

o r a r r a

sh e f deci s i n m kin g th is n eed n o t be so R unn in g

ar o o -
a , .

th ough the sublim in l m in ds of s om e p ol itic al the o i st i s

r a r

the im pli ci t ssum pti on th a t f o p oli cies to be fo m ul ted

a r r a

an d executed a ce n t a l a ge n cy i a bs lutely esse n ti l

r Th e s o a .

success ful functionin g of p imi ti ve s oc ieti es n d of inte r a r

n a t i o n l o g a n i z t i on s in th e
a r bsence of cen t al gove n
a a a r r

m en t ch allen ges the vali dity of the a ssum pti n A s E ston o . a

35 4 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
voice in m kin g them the s afety of dem o c a cy li es in the
a ,
r

con tin uin g p ti cip tion of pe ple in d i ectin g thei ow n

ar a o r r

aff i s a r Th e fi n d in gs o f g up dyn m i cs fo ce fully ttest t o

.

the belief th t the la ge the p tic ip a to y b a se o f o d i

a
“ r
ro

r
a

ar r
r a

n ary c iti zen s is the m o e dispen s able e the m in o ity of

”
,
r ar r

d i ect s t the top

r or a .

An e ffective tech n i que f o in c e s in g the p a t i cip a t io n r r a r

of din y comm un ity m em be s an d c omb tin g the evils of

or ar r a

o ve ce n t
r liz a tion i th ough the type o f dvi s o y g o ups to
ra s r a r r

wh ich we h ave l e a dy ef e ed These dvi so y g ups will

a r r rr . a r ro

c on ce n them selves not on ly with lo c al but with n a tion l

r a

p blem s a well I n a com plex s o ciety like ou r own the e

ro s . r

i s n o the m e n s by wh i ch the m ss o f c i ti ze n s
o r a n t ke a ca a

p art in dete m in in g the i ow n destiny No i the e a bette

r r . r s r r

w y in wh i ch the c i t i ze n s can le n t o u n de st an d the i n

a ar r

t i a i s of g o ve n m e n t
r c c e d to bec om e o the m in ded a n d
r an r-

com peten t citizen s I n these a dvi so y g o ups di scuss ion . r r

a n d se lf educ t io n w o uld be e ff ect i ve m e n s o f pl an n i n g

-
a nd a a

executin g p o g m s f o the b en efit of the wh ole c omm un ity

r ra r .

O ur det iled di scuss ion of g oup le a nin g an d c llective

a r r o

p oblem so lvin g of dem o c a ti c educ ation and g up el

r -
,
r ro r a

ti n s in in d st y b o ught in to sh p f cus the gen e a lly

o u r ,
r ar o r

i gn o ed f ct th a t g o up p ti cip a t io n w ke n s in te est n d
r a r ar a r a

r ele a ses un suspected c e a tive e n e gi es in the s oluti on of r r a

co mplex p oble m r .

An im p o t n t ch cte i sti c of a dvis o y g oups is th a t

r a a ra r r r

they a volun t a y o g aniza tion s They e n ot c onfi n ed by

re r r . ar

fo m l ules They pe f m th e i fun ction with in th p tte n

r a r . r or r e a r

o f n eeds a n d the syste m of expect t i n s f the pe o ple w h o a o o

b e a the life in to them They a as v ied n d n um e us a the

r . re ar a ro s

p o blem s which pe ople fin d p ess in g f o s olution Wh ile the i

r r r . r

chie f in te est is the dv n ce me n t of dem o c a ti c l ife n d go

r a a r a v

er n m n t theye e n on p a t i s n
,
n d n o n sect
ar i n Th i s m r a a ar a . e

a bles the m t o c o n se ve the i e n e gy n d to pply it to wh a t is

r r r a a

u gen t F om th stan dp o in t of hum an el ti n ship the g e t

r . r e r a o r a

est m e i t of dvis o y g ups lies in the f ct th t they pe m it

r a r ro a a r
—o bette e n co u a ge —d i ect p ti cip a ti n by pe ople in th e
r r, r r ar o

a ff i s o f the g ve n m e n t c o n ce ived a
a r o dem o c a tic com
r s a r
GR OU P RELATION S IN Pfi TICAL BE HAVIO R /
35 5

m un i ty I n th i s w y these a dvi s o y g ups m i ght well di spel

. a r ro

th e in diff e e n ce n d p a th y w i th wh i ch c om pl in an ts of the
r a a a

p olitic l sce n e a e ch on ic lly s ddlin g it

a r r a a

S ince dviso y g oups e n ot yet widely used fo m akin g

.

a r r ar r

im p o t a n t p o l iti c a l dec i s i n s the i e ffic cy c a n n o t a t the

r o ,
r a

p esen t tim e be ev lu ted They a e p im ily a p omi se

r a a . r r ar r

r a the th n a fulfi llm en t The i use con t ib tes little t o the

r a . r r u

scien ce of g ve n m en t but they in d ic te wh t i p o ss ible

o r ,
a a s

in p ct i c l p o l i t i cs We c n ay o f them as M a cI er s a i d
ra a . a s ,
v

o f the m yth o lo gy o f sc i e n t i fic g o ve n in g th t they sh o w n ot r ,

a

h ow m n e go ve n ed n
e ar even h ow they s hou ld be go
r ,
or v

e n ed but h ow they c n be go ve n ed If the an alys is n d

r ,
a r
!7
a

r ecom m en d tion f dvi s y g o ups a dd anyth in g t o bette

a o a or r a r

un de st n din g o f the p oliti c al p o cess it lies in the f ct th t

r a r ,
a a

th ey un de sco e on ce m e the im p o t an t shift f om the

r r or r r

in sti tuti n a l t o the beh vio a l a pp o a ch in the study of

o a r r

dem oc tic p o liti cs Th a ccum ul a tio n of fa ctu al d a ta re

ra . e

g ardin g the effic cy of a dvi s y g o ups m ust w i t fo future

a or r a r

r ese arch
S O ME LI M TA TI O NS O N THE DE CI S O N MA KING P O CE SS In
.

I I -
R .

Ch pte 7 we desc ibed ve y b iefly the m ain deci s ion m k

a r r r r -
a

i n g p o cedu es —the techn i ques

r r f vo t in g c o n se n sus p o st o , ,

o n in
p “ g dec i s i o n s a n d deleg a ti o n f dec i,
s i o n m k in g a uth o o -
a r

i ty Wh ile even in s m ll f ce to fa ce g o ups these p o

. a a - -
r r

c de mo e c om p l x tha n o
u res are .

b ie f desc iption of them

r e ur r r

wo uld le a d o n to bel ieve they e even m o e i nvol ved in

e ar r

the e a of p oli ti ca l p olicy m kin g S in ce p oli tic l g o up

,

ar -
a . a r

in gs te n d to be m o e fo m a l a n d im pe s n l th n the f ce to
r r r o a a a -

f ce g ups wh ich we h a d in m in d in Ch pte 7 they

a ro a r ,
a re

m e s bject t i n sti tuti n a l es t a in ts We sh ll ex am in e

or u o o r r . a

these limita ti n s in the p esen t secti n by followin g the

o r o

f uitful le a d by S nyde B uck an d S ap in

r r, r ,
.

See i bid p 8 For a de tai le d di s cus si on o f de cis i o n maki n i n th e

27 .
, . .
-
g
CC
co mm uni ty , s ee F Hun ter C om mu n it y p ow er stru ctu re : a s tud y of de cis ion
.

ma kers ( h a p el Hi ll : U n iv ers i ty o f o rth a ro li n a Press

W
,

B ru c , a n d B S a p in De cis ion ma kin k N C ,

g
Sny der, H
g
28 R . . . as a n .
-
.
,

a p p roac h to th e s tud y

g
of in terna ti o na l p o li ti cs , Fo re i n P o li cy

—
Ana l y s i s
Proj ect , Fo re i n Po li cy Ana ly s i s Seri es No 3 Or ani a ti on a l B eh a v i or Secti on .
, g z
( Prince to n : Prin ce to n Un iv ersity , pp 64 66 . .
35 6 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
Th a uth o s d ivi de the lim it a t io n s on dec i s ion m ak in g
e r -

in t o th ee c te go i es n m ely th o se th t
r a re exte n al t o the
,
a ,
a ar r

system th o se th t e in te n l to it n d th o se wh ich e a
,
a ar r a ,
a ar

com b in a tion of the tw o .

1 Externa l limita tions Th e a uth o s a

. f f om cle a in . r re ar r r

thei iden tifica tion and desc iption f these lim ita tion s I n
r r o .

t e es tin gly e n ough wh ile these l im i t a tio n s h ve a n i n de

r ,
a

pen de n t existen ce the i s i gn ific n ce depen ds n the judg ,

r a o

m en ts of the deci s ion m ke s w h o m ay be pe a tin g un de -

a r ,
o r r

i n te n a l l im i t t i on s a well
r Th exte n t t o wh i ch they l im i t
a s . e

the decis ion s of an a ct will p tly depen d n the deg ee to

subject to h is con t ol M o e
or ar o r

wh ich he pe ceives them r as r . r

con c etely a n exte n a l l im i t ti n i s on e th t is n o t c on ducive

r r a o a

to the a ch i eve m e n t o f st a ted o bjectives Thus t o supply n .

,
a

ex m ple while a c an d id a te m y succeed in convin cin g

a , a

vo te s f the s o un dn ess of h i pl a tfo m hi i de s m ay be

r o s r ,
s a

n lli fied if they f a i l t o the p o lls A st te a g o ve m

'

o t
u
g o o . a r

m e n t bu e u c a nn o t a ch i eve its object i es u n less it h as tech

r a v

n i ques f o m k in g them m te i ali ze These l im i t a t ion s a e

r a a r . r

exte n l in the w ds bec use the judgm en ts a n d p e

r a ,
o r or ,
a r

ce t i n of the
o ct
s o s a dete m i n ed by the i
a p a t i c ip ti n
r
p re r r r a o

in adecis ion m kin g p o cess bec use the deci s ion m akin g
-
a r ,
or a -

s itu ti on i exte n al to them

a s r .

2 I nt erna l limita tions

. These limita tion s imp o sed . a re

up on the deci s ion m ke s by th e decis ion m kin g system -

a r -
a

i tsel f Thus if the bu e a uc a t i c c omm i ttee wh ich m kes the

. r r a

deci sion i affli cted wi th un tow d o p tholo gi c l c on di

s ar r a a

t ion s such a susp icion n d dist ust m on g it m em be s o

,
s a r a s r ,
r

if i ts th ink in g i s w ped a n d deflected by c ippl in g ules ar r r

a n d p ecede n ts the esult in g judgm e n t wi ll be d iff e e n t f om

r ,
r r r

on e o i gi n t in g i n
r con text whe e these c on diti n s do n o t
a a r o

p rev a il T h m o st c om m o n in te n a l l im i t t io n s h oweve
. e ar r a ,
r, e

a l a ck o f n in su ffic i e n cy o i n cc u
,
a cy of inf m ti n f il r a ra or a o ,
a

u e i n the c o mm u n i c t io n o f m ess ges

r unyield in g p ece a a , r

den ts the ch ar cte of the de ci sion m kin g settin g n d the

, a r -
a ,
a

p a uci ty of such esou ces a s tim e skill and m on ey r r , , .

35 8 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
—the eff ect of p we in vestm en t i p tly mi t i g ted by the o r s ar a

f llowe s i den tific ti n with the le de L e de ship i thus

o r
’

a o a r . a r s

m o e e a d ily e n d o sed bec a use the f ollowe s

r r ccept the r r a

le a de in ste d of pp o s in g h im Th is el tion sh ip between

r a o . r a

le de n d fo llowe s i va iously defin ed in te m s of espect

a rs a r s r r r ,

sta tus defe en ce p esti ge n d the like wh ich the le der

, r ,
r ,
a ,
a

be s in el tion to o the c itizen s

ar r a r .

I n a dem o c t i c st te then p o we i defi n ed n ot by how ra a , ,

r s

e u a ll i t is dis tri bu t ed bu t b t h a cces s w h i ch e o le

q y y e
p p
ha v e to i t
zo
n in . mo E ve
st de c t c st te p we
m o ra i a o r i s n ot the
d istributed a m on g all it m embe s ; it i dem o c a tic in the s r s r

sen se th a t eve yon e h a n equal pp t un ity to a cqui e it r s a o or r .

I t v i es f o m st te to st te a L sswell n d K pl a n p o in t
ar r a a ,
s a a a

o u t by the p in c i ples cco din g t wh ich the le de s are

r a r o a r

“
,

r ec u i ted
r Th e p i n c iples o f el ite ec u i tm e n t they w i te
. r r r , r ,

m a y be such a to p o vi de equ l opp tun i ty f o cquisi

s r a or r a

tio n o f p o we o they m ay seve ely est ict its a cqui s ition

r, r r r r

i n v i us w ys Th
ar o ule i equ lit ian in the deg ee to
a . e r s a ar r

which the elite is ecruited in the o n w y a ther th an the r e a r

o the
”3 1
r .

L ADE S A ND BO SSE S L sswell an d K pl n di stin gui h

E R . a a a s

between le a de s n d bo sses L e de s a e deci s ion m ke s r a . a r r -

a r

bec aus e a the utho s info m us they a wielde s of p owe

s a r r re r r

in vested w ith eff ctiv n d form l a

, ,

o rbec ause they a re e e a a u

th o i ty r B o sses n the o the “

. h an d e n ot in vested “ ,
w i th o r ,
ar

fo m al p owe o uth o i ty A boss they s ay is a n in

r r r a r .
, ,

fo m al holde of eff ective p owe

r Hi p o we they expl a in
r r .
”3 2
s r, ,

i s n t uth o i t tive ; i t i s n o t legi t im i zed a n d justifi ed by the

la ge s o ciety M o e th an th a t h i p owe i often cove t n d
o a r a

r r . r : s r s r a

in d i ect ; an d whe n it i
r ve t L sswell a nd K pl n desc ibe s o r ,
a a a r

i t a s n k ed p o we atha t i p owe a ssum ed wi th o ut the con r, s, r

sen t of c on stituen cy Whe n the b o ss s p owe i info m ed by

a
’

r s r

Kf
.

L w
K
’
a p l an s dis tin cti o n ell
’
Th i s i s e ssen ti a lly L a ssw ell s an d
30 Se e as s .

a nd a p l a n , P ow er a n d s oci ety , pp
3 1 I bid
, p 227 .
226
W e stat e emp h a ti ca lly , h o ev er, th a t L a s sw ell s con
. .
. .

w w
’

q
a c u i si tio n o f p o er, a nd b e ca u s e i t e a w
cep tio n i s to o b ro a d , f o r i t a ls o i n cl u des recrui tm e nt

era tes th e
h ich re s tricts th e
un cti on o f p o er in x gg f w
p o li tica l rel a ti on s .

3 2 I bid
p 159 .
, . .
 GR OU P RELATION S IN POLI TICAL BE HAVIO R 359

d v lues he o ften exe i ses c n s ide ble influen ce

a , rc o ra .

lies in h i cl se a dvis o y ela ti n to the legitim i zed

s o r r o

g oup of such dvise s s the utho s p oint o t

r a r ,
a a r u

“
,

h as bee n used exten s i vely i n p li cy dec i s i on m ki n g a n d o -

a ,

h as bee n give n the h lf c on tem ptu us ppell ti on of b a in a -

o a a r
”
t ust
r

Unfo tun a tely the p litic l b ss h h ad p owe ful p o si

.

r , o a o as a r

tion an d influen ce in Am e i c n p liti c l beh vio I n m n y r a o a a r . a

in st a n ces h e h a est bl i shed an al m o st im p egn a ble m a

s a r

chin e y f o the exe cise of h i p owe Th e p oli ti c l m a chin e

r r r s r . a ,

a s eve y sch oo lb y k n o ws o f te n f
r ces m en up o n us w h o e
o ,
or ar

n o t le a de s but p ty b o sses Too f equen tly these m n

r ar . r e a re

cho sen by the p litica l m chin e n o t on the b a s is o f m e it or

o a , r

skill o a sen se of the i esp on s ib ility but by the i p op u

e din ess to d i spen se p a t n a ge M uch
r r r ,
r

l a ity an d by the i
r r r a ro .

of the c o upt io n i n o u p o l i t i c al l if e
rr i well kn o wn i a r ,
as s ,
s

p o duct of b ss ule n d m a ch in e p olitics

r o r a .
33

B o ss in fluen ce i n t cc din g to ou r defini tion a fo m s o ,

a or ,
r

of le de sh ip
a E ven when it i s n ot b sed on un question ed
r . a

lo yalty to the bo ss it p o we lies in arb i t y deci s ion s an d

,
s r ra r

in i o n d i sc iplin e Th e st i ct d i scipl in e helps to keep the

r . r

bo ss in powe ; f o when di sciplin e we aken s the bo ss s p ower

r r ,
’

i s e a s i e t o ch a llen ge I n th i s s i tu a ti on he i dep ived o f h is

r . s r

p owe on ly when hi p a ty i s de fe ted in an election o

r s r a ,
r

when the c o uption of which the b o ss i guilty is of such

rr s

eno m ity th a t public cl m o m kes it imp uden t t pe m i t

r a r a r o r

hi m to c on tin ue a bus in g h is offi ce .

34

Th e vi ew o f le a de ship whi ch we exp o un ded i n C h a pte r r

6 a n d in sc tte ed o the pl a ces in th i s b oo k ch alle n ges the

,
a r r ,

33 Our
g a n al y s i s i s, a nd w
b e ov ers im p li ed f or w e are
ill co ntin u e to , fi ,

omi tti n
wgg
a ny co n s i de rat io n of th e p ro b lem o f p art y p o li ti cs

g k
I n p a rty p oli
ti cs o n e m a chi n e i s a l a y s try i n to e e p a n o th er m a chi n e o u t o f p o er A
.

w .

wf q f g g k S
di s cu s s i on of thi s s tru le li e s o u ts i de th e limits o f th i s ch a p ter .

34 W e o n de r w h y s itu ati on s o f th e ore o in

g gg
in d e sp e ci a lly in ce th ey
- -

,.

q g
are n o t i n re u en t di d n o t a l on

u b i u ity o f th e ro u p
,
ti m e a g o s u e s t t o p o li ti ca l s ci e ntist s th e

Th e dra m a tic n a tu re o f b os s -b eh a v i or i n s u ch in
.

g
wf g
’

s t a n ces s ee m s to h a v e b li n de d th e m to th e rol e o f th e ro u p in th e b o s s s

g
do nf al l Poli tical dy n a m i cs a s a ro u p p ro ce ss coul d h a v e b een born
.

be o re th e a dv en t of ro u p dy n a mi cs .
3 60 CON FLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
s m ewh t M ch i vell i n vi ew held by L sswell n d s om e
o a a a a a a

o the s E l ie in th is ch apte we voiced ou bjection t

r . ar r r r o o

L sw ll c o n cept i n f le a de sh ip n the g un d th t it
“
’

as e s o o r o ro a

d esc ibes i t in t o n
r o w in d ivi du l i st i te m s Th e di
o a rr a c r . s

l e de
a
s

a cc o d in g t o th i s v i ew
rs ,
” “
t in gu i h in g t i t of the pe s o n a l i ty type co mm on t o a ll
i
ra

n e m ph t i c de m an d
r
r

s a
,

f o defe e n ce— h i fly i n the fo m s of p o we

,

r r c n d espect
e r r a r .

Th e lea de r as a p ers o na lity t yp e is preemin ent ly

, , a
p o liti

c duct d ected by c s de t s the a cqui

c ia n : h i s on is ir on i ra io n of

s i ti o n a n de j m e t defe e ce
n o
y n of r n
”3 5
.

Th e a uth s or do n o t oh weve f ll w the l g c l le d o f

r o o o i a , ,
a

t he i sse tion “
r a they sh o uld spec
r
“ i fy th a t de f e en ce i n ot
: r s

l oc a ted in the he t o in the m in d of the le de ; i t im ar

”
r
”
a r

plies the s w h o will de fe R espect i w y in whi ch o the s

o r r . s a a r

r el te them selves to n in divi d l I t is a g o up phen omen on

a a ua . r

a s well a a n in d i vi du l m o t ive
s I n s yin g th i s we ar n o t a . a ,
e

c h lle n g in g the defi n i t i n a a ppl i ed t

a m n y c a ses of le de o s o a a r

s h i p but i t
,
ve exte n s ion No o n we ssum e do ubts th t
s o r . e, a ,
a

s om e in divi du ls m o t iv ted l gely by th des i e f o

a a re a ar e r r

p o we S elf cen te ed beh a vio is too c omm on t be den ied

r .
-
r r o .

The e people in cludin g p oliti c al le de s h oweve

r are ,
a r ,
r,

w h o se beh v i in g o ups in clud in g p ol i t i c l ss o c i t io n s i s

a or r ,
a a a ,

n o t m t i v ted by the des i e f

o a pe s on al p owe o th e typ e r or r r, r

of espect f om the s which i b sed n de fe en ce to the

r r o r s a o r

le de While we kn ow subst nti lly less b ut the p oliti cal

a r . a a a o

le de s dedic ation to the g oup th n we kn ow c on ce n in g

a r
’

r a r

h i lust f o p o we we h ve l e a dy gi ve n
s r p ti l expl n
r, a a r a ar a a a

ti n Wh a t we c nn o t dem on st te by emp i ic al d a t a we
o . a ra r ,

ca n s pp o t by m e n s of inf e e n ces f om the m

u r a r r .

G OUP C NTE ED P OLIT CA L LEADE SHIP F om the stan d

R -
E R I R . r

p in t oi g oup dyn m ics le de ship we w i vi ewed n o t

o r a ,
a r ,
sa ,
s

i n te m s o f in d ivi du l psych o lo gi c a l t i ts
r ltho ugh these
a ra , a

ar e ele m e n ts i n the t o t l sche m e but in te m s o f g o up a o a ,

r r

t i n s Th e le de we s a id is pe s on w h o pl ys h i oles
o . a r, ,
a r a s r

i n such a w y t id o the s in pl yin g the i s ; n d in th i s

a as o a r a r a

r ela tion ship he f cili tates g oup cti n tow d a go l We a r a o ar a .

35 L w a ss e ll a n d K a p l an Po w er
,
an d s o ci ety , p . 1 53 . I ta li cs are o u rs .
362 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF GROU PS
a gen cy B l a u fo un d th t the esteem fo a g ve nm e n t gen t
, a r o r a

sh own by h i co lle gues usu lly in duced them t o f ll ow h is

s a a o

rec omm en d a t ion s Th m embe s w h o we e o i gin lly the . e r r r a

ch o se n gen t s pee s showed eg d an d de fe en ce f o h im

a
’

r r ar r r ,

a n d best o wed supe io st a tus up on him He n ot only in iti r r .

a ted m o e a cts in the wo k of h i dep tm en t but h i s ini tia

r r s ar ,

tion of cts w a in c e a sed by the “

a secu ity which the be
s r r

stowed p estige c e a ted in h im Th f equen cy of the

r r . e r

con t cts a n a ge n t ece ived

a n o t o n ly exp essed but a ls o
r r

helped to dete m in e h is st tus in the g o up r a r .

”3 7

I n n expe im e n t ep ted by Pep ito n e s im il

a r esul ts r or ,
ar r

we e f un d These esults c on fi m on ce m e the belie f th at

r o . r r or

n o t all le de s a m o t iv ted by in d ivi du a l c v in g f o p o we

a r re a ra r r

a n d de fe e n ce but a m o ved in ste a d by a f eel in g of e

r re r

sp on s ib ility to n d a ccept n ce by the g o up I n th i s ex

a a r
38

e im n t s om e m e m b e s o f the
.

o up we e t o ld th a t the i r
p r e
g r r r

t sk w a mo e imp o tan t to the g o up th n we e the t a sks

a s r r r a r

o f o the m em be s H oweve i n e a li ty the t a sks of a ll the

r r . r, r ,

m em be s we e i de n ti c al a lth o ugh the m em be s we e u m

r r ,
r r

a w a e o f th i s f ct
r Th expe im e n t dem n st a ted th a t th o se
a . e r o r

w h o pe ce ived the ir t a sk a be in g m o e im p o t n t develo ped

r s r r a

a st o n ge sen se of esp on s ibility to the g oup n d we e m o e

r r r r a r r

willin g to give tim e an d e n e gy t it A s C artw i ght and r o . r

Z n de p o in t u t in c om m e n tin g o n P p ito n e fi n d in gs i t
’

a r o e s ,

seem s th t a feelin g of wo th an d a ccept n ce by the g o up

a r a r

stimul a tes a e a din ess to pe fo m f un ction s n eeded by the

r r r

g oup
r .
”3 9

The p la ce of lo yal ty in gro u p centered lea de rs h ip Th e -

.

se sen esp s b l ty
of r the g up wh ch we h ve ju t
on i i i to ro i a s

desc bedri equ v le t the p l t c l sphe e the

h as i ts i a n in o i i a r in
a tt tude
i o f lo a lt —
the feel g supp t
in of the des e
o r f o r an d i
y y r

M g g ffi
g g
B la u , P a tterns of m on ci al s
37 P . . i n tera cti on a a ro u p of o in a
o v ernm en t a
38
en cy , Hu m Re la t .

P e p i to n e Res p ons ibility to th e rou p a nd its efiects on the p er

E . A .
,
.
, 7
g 34 8 .

M
g an , re p o rt e d in a rt ri h t a n d A

res ea rch a nd t h e ory ( E v a n s to n , I ll : Ro w , P e ters o n

D C wg
forma nce of m embers ( un p ubli sh ed Ph D di s s ert a tio n Uni v ers ity o f ichi
Za n der, G rou p dy na mics
Co
.
. .

.
,

p p 546
i
. .

47 .

39 C wg
art ri h t a n d Za n der, Group dy na mi cs : res ea rch a n d th eo ry , p 547 . .
GR OU P RELATION S IN POLI TIC AL BE HAVIO R 363

n tin u d ex i sten ce o f the g o up e i the a n t i on

w
—
f tl
’

0q r
e r ,
r as a

n te n t io n l c om m un i ty
40
g s an i r a a .

I n t im es like the p ese n t whe n n ti on i s c on ce n e d r , ou r a r

with it secu ity n d the loy lty of it le de s the p oblem

s r a a s a r ,
r

of m ult iple l o y lty i th ust i n t o the fo eg o un d of

a tten tion
s r r r a .

I n h i d i sce n in g a n lys i s o f th e p blem a it ppl i es to

s r a ro s a

both the gene l citizen an d the p litical le a de G t kow s

,
’
ra o r, ue z

o bse v t io n s dese ve o u c a e f ul a tte n t i on

r a I n n swe in g h is
r r r . a r

o w n quest i o n of h ow le a de s a infl uen ced in the i l oy alt i es r re r ,

e z
“
Gu t ko w h o ws th t c on t a sted w i th o the c i ti ze n s th e
s

le a de s se ve as ch i m en of the Ch am be of C mm e ce s
r r a r
a ,
r

r
r

o
,

r
’

in te n tion l t de c omm i ttee

r a a wo k on U N ESC O s com
ra r
’

m i ss i on s ar elected to the fo e i gn p o licy p o sts of Am e i

e r r
”4 1
c an L eg i on ch a pte s an d o f o th r ,
s r .

L et us con s i de a con c ete ex ample desc ibed by Gu etz r r r

ko w Wh t we a sk i s the n a tu e o f the l o y alty of n i n ter

. a , ,
r a

n a t i o n a l sec et a i a t wh i ch i s c om p o sed of in d iv i du a ls f o m
r r r

a v ari ety o f n ti o n a l st a tes ! C i t in g the v i ews o f pe o ple ex

a

er ei n ce d in the a ff i s o f in te n a ti o n a l b o d i es G et ko w a r r u z
p ,

quo tes them s yin g th t in te n a tion al lo y lty i no t the

as a a r a s
‘

den tion lized l y lty of the m an wi tho ut coun t y but

a a o a a r ,

i th e c o n vi ct ion th a t the hi ghest in te e ts o f n e s o w n

’

s r s o

c o unt y r se ved best by the p om o tion of secu ity an d

r a e r r r

welf e eve ywhe e

ar r r .
’ ”4 2

40 Alth ou h g “
p a tri oti s m h as b een u s ed e ten s i v ely a s a s y n on ym f or x
loy a lty th e , l a tter i s more in clu s iv e P a tri oti sm h a s tra diti on a lly b e en t e
s erv e d f or on e s co un try —p at ria —a n d i s to o n a rro
’
ly a ss o ci a te d i th n a
.

wg ww
g
w e are ta l i n kg
ti on a li s m a n d ch a u v ini sm t o b e de s cri p ti v e of th e ro u p -cen t ere dn ess
a b o u t in th i s b o o
,

Sin ce th e rou p loy a lty kg

h i ch w e en
.
h i ch
gg w w
v i sa e m u s t ul tim a te ly in cl u de a ll

“
ro u p s in cl u di n a

con ce p t o f p a tri o ti sm i s le s s s a ti s actory b eca u s e o f i ts e clu si v e n e ss f

orl d com m un i ty , th e

e sp it e
,

x
w xL Dw .

th e m u ltip l e loy alti e s as Gu e tz kow ca lls th em ,

i t i s s ti ll p os si b le t o dev elop a s e n s e of
,
h i ch e is t in th e
orl d comm u ni ty
“
N w orld,

oy a lti e s ca n b e , .

x
a s h e p o in ts o u t com p l em e n tary

e i s t s i de by s i de
”
,

.
a ti o n al a n d s u p ran a ti o n al lo y a lty m ay

.
.

g
H Gu etz kow , M u lti p le loy a lti es : theoretica l a p p roac h
C
on W
to a p rob le m of int ern a tio nal or a ni z ati on ( Prin ceto n :
o rl d P o liti cal I n s ti tu ti o n s Prin ce t on Uni v ersi ty ,
e nt er f or R es e arch

, p 57 .

q
, M u lt i p le lo y alt ie s , p

f
4 1 Gu e tz kow 52 . .

g
4 2 I bi d u o te d ro m R o y a l I n s ti tu te o f I n tern a ti on a l Aff airs , Th e
, p 52
. .
,

L xf
int erna t i on a l s ecreta ri a t of th e fu tu re : le ss on s from exp eri ence by a ro u p

of former oflicial s of t h e L eag ue of N at i ons ( o n don : O ord U niv e rs ity

Pre ss , p . 18 .
364 CONFLI CT AND ADJ U STMEN T O F G ROU PS
Vi ewed on the b ckg o un d of the p in ciples of g oup dy a r r r

n m ic
a the fo ego in g c on clus ion i n o t s u p i sin g j ust a s
s, r s r r .

the well be in g of the in divi dua l depen ds a g e t de al on the

-
r a

o up o f wh i ch he i s a m e m be so a n a ti o n s secu i ty a n d
’

g r r, r

welf e depen d in the fi n l an lys is up n the he lth of th e

ar ,
a a ,
o a

wo ld comm nity of wh ich it i p rt P t i ti sm an d loy

r u s a a . a r o

a lty a n e i the
re in c o m p a tible n o m utu lly exclus i ve ; they
r r a

c omplem en t e ch othe to f m a hi ghe in teg tion m o e

a r or r ra ,
a r

in clus ive fa i th in the int b l n gin gn e of m n er e o ss e .

Th sketchy k n o wledge wh i ch we p o ssess f u the rm o e

e ,
r r ,

suggests th t while the wo ld c omm un ity i n ot a sm ll f ce

a r s a a

t o f ce g o up w i t l ge the s o lut ion s o f it s p o blem s still

-
a r r ar r

e of in te ction n d comm un i c tion O bli ga

,

li e in the ar a ra a a .

tion to pe oples em o te f om on e s self n be exe cis ed r r

’

ca r

th o ugh the m ech n ism s of m a ss m ed i The e i s n o e i

r a a . r v

den ce f o believin g th t in the p a cti ce of loyalty the fa ce

“
r a r

to f ce g o up i supe io
-
a r t o the g o up th t i
s l im ited to
r r r a s

in d i ect n d em o te c n t a cts
r a r Th e s i gn ific n t f ct o g d . a a re ar

in g b o th levels f dec i s i o n m a kin g i s th t the le de s n d

o -
a a r a

ge n e l citi zen s like m ke loyalty to a wo ld c omm un ity an

ra a a r

in tegr l p t o f the i s o c i l eth ics

44
a ar r a .

The e c ses whe e wo ld b o di es h ave pe s isted in the

r a re a r r r

f ce o f divi ded d opp osed publi c Op in ion Wh ile the

a an .

p ese v tion of the le de s j obs n do ubt pl yed p t in

r r a a r
’

o a a ar

the d bili ty of these in te n tion l g o ups they h ave p

u ra r a a r , er

s isted l gely bec se of the st on g llegian ce of it le de s

ar au r a s a r

a n d f ll we s to the i de a l o f i n te n a t i o n al c oo pe
o o r ti n Th r ra o . e

successes of in te n tion l o g n i z tion s esemble th o se of

r a a r a a r

in d iv i du ls they a cum ul tive n d th i s cum ul a tive effect

: are a a

h as the fo ce of pe petu tin g the g o ups exi sten ce I n these

r r a r
’

b o dies s in sm lle f ce to fa ce g oups con sen sus an d

,
a a r a - -
r ,

a g eem en t give p ti cip a tin g n tion al deleg tes f eelin gs of

r ar a a

f
See Gu etz kow , M u ltip le loy a ltie s p 5 5
g zw wf ww
43 . .
,

4 4 W e a re u ll y co ni a n t o f th e m a ny p o e r ul b arri e rs hi ch s tan d in

muni ty To dis cu ss th em
.

g w
th e w a y o f le a ders h i p to a rd in tern a ti o n a l coop eration an d a
o u ld re ui re m a n y m ore p a es
o rl d co m

Fo r a oo d q M
g g . g
No 6 . 31 pp
f
i n iti a l cov era e o f th e s e b arri ers , s ee G

.
y rda l P s y ch olo i ca l im p e di
m ents to ef ect iv e i n tern a ti o n a l co op era t ion , J s oc I s s ues , S u p p l Seri es ,
.

.
,

. .
366 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
g o up a n ot n tithetic l but to gethe f m m o e o less
r re a a r or a r r

in teg ted wh ole Th e dyn m i c el t io n o f m n we s a i d i s

ra . a r a a , ,

a rel tion in el a tion t the el ti n s

a r o o r r a o .

Th p li t i c l le de m ust h ve m o st wh a t t di t i on lly
e o a a r a ra a

he h s h d lea st n m ely the c p ci ty to c e a te an in te

a a ,
a ,
a a r

gr ted comm unity wi th the help of the s I t i to be n o ted

a o r . s

th t we use the ph se w ith th e h elp of o the Wh ile he i

a ra ,
rs . s

o f c o u se a n i n d iv i du l the le de i
r ls p t f the g up a ,
a r s a o a ar o ro .

He le a ds n ot f m the o uts i de but f m wi thin the g oup A

ro ro r .

we kn ess if n ot a c n ce o us co di tion of Am e i c an p oli tic al

a ,
a r n ,
r

life is th a t th le de especi lly the m ch in e p oli ti c ian n d

e a r, a a a

p oliti c al bo ss h as t oo often est bl ished eithe pe s on al al

,
a r r

le gi n ce o p a ty p t o n ge a the test o f h i pe f m n ce
a r r a r a s s r or a .

I n th i s the e i n o exp ess i o n o f the c o mm un i ty s w ill n o

’

r s r ,

r eco gniti n of l aw a g oup impe a tive n o w en ess o f

o as r r a ar

“
,

the p i n ciple th t the le a de d o es n o t c on t l th ugh p owe

r a r ro ro r,

n aked o o the wi se Th dem o c t i c le de i s h is o w n best

”
r r . e ra a r

vin d ic a ti n f o in h i devo ted beh vio he i exp ess in g the

o ,
r s a r s r

p oliti c al c omm un ity n ot h i in divi du al will ,

s .

Th i s le de sh ip i n w i sh ful ch im e ; it i f un ct i on in g
a r s o ra s

efficien tly in Am e i c n go ve nm e n t We m en tio n n ly tw o r a r . o

o utst n d in g ex m ples
a n m ely civil se vi ce dm in i st a to s
a ,
a ,
r a r r

a n d execut ive le a de s Th e a ch i evem e n ts o f the fi st n o t r r

o n ly i n the U n i ted S t a tes b t i n

.
,

the co un t i es n o t bly u o r r a

E n gl n d n d S wed n e well kn own Th e executive le a de

,

a a e ar r,

w h o i m o st p om in en t in the g o ve nm en t f the U n i ted

.
,

s r r o

S t tes h p oved to be exceptionally c p able of effectin g

uni ted ction Ch les E M e i m a le n ed an d a stute
a ,
as r a

a .

p olitic a l sci en ti st h as desc ibed executive le de ship as o n e

,
“ar .

r
rr a ,
ar

a r

o f the g e a t c n t ibut io n s o f m o de n de m o c
r o cy t o gove n
r r ra r

m en t I t n i cely blen ds the ele m e n ts o f effect ive p opul

”
. ar

r esp on s ibility with th se of un ific tion o f ction I t ests o a a .

”
r

“
on

i s
ge n u in e syste m of in sti tuti on li zed esp o n s i b ili ty
a

f ct of v a st st en gth in the futu e devel pm en t of

a a or
nd

r
a r

r o
,
a

g ve nm e n t Tw o ex am ples ill us t a tin g th i s fo m cc d

i n g t o M e i am
o r r r a or

nd F nkl i n D R oo se
.
,

e W oo d o w Wi ls o n
rr ,
ar r a ra .

velt .
46

C M
YkW e rri a m , Th e ne w de m ocra cy

k a nd th e ne w des p o tis m ( New

46 . E .

or : hi ttles ey Ho u s e , M cGra w -Hi ll B oo Co .

, In c .
, p . 256 .
GR OU P RELATION S IN POLITICAL BE HAVIO R 367

I tfi r aif int e tin g f ct th a t o u dem o c a ti c ph ilo s o phy

er s a r r

h s fte n l o ked wi th d i s f vo o n th e i de a o f le de sh ip
a o o a r a r .

Th i s i in p art due to the f ct th t the c on ceptio n of le de r

s a a a

sh ip m st p ev len t in the mi n ds of m en h a been th t of an

o r a s a

exte n l c on t l D om in a ti n the th n le de ship t o use

r a ro . o ra r a a r ,

a g in P i o s d i st in cti o n h a ch cte zed th s c o n cept i n

’

a
g r a i i ,
s ra r

b o th the y n d p a cti ce or a r .

In o view of le a de sh ip the le a de n d foll owe s wh ile

ur r ,
r a r ,

in teg a ted in a c om m un i ty o f wills

r yet semiautonomous ,
a re

pers on s The i in dividu al f eedom h n t been b o gated

. r r as o a r .

I n m e gi n g the i pe s o n a l i ti es w ith th o se o f o the s in the

r r r r

p olitic al c omm un ity they h ave n o t lo st the i f eedom In di ,

r r .

v i du al ity i f ee to develo p t o it full n d c e tive c ap a ci ty

s r s a r a

Only tho se in dividu al diff e en ces whethe of lea de o fol

.

r ,
r r r

lowe s wh ich c anno t be in teg ted wi th the g o up wi thout

r ra r

in j u in g o dest o yin g it m ust be cu bed Th e a buses o f

,

r r r , r .

ma chin e p oliti cian s an d the ecce n t ic ities n d p a th olo gi es f r a o

p oten tia l dict to s are inimi c al to p oliti c l in tegra tion an d

a r a

must be excluded f om the b o dy p olitic r .

Th e g e a test p o ten ti al i ty f o th e in di vi du al le de t o b
r r a r e

com e even m o e c e a tive li es in the a e a of a ci al d isc imin

r r r r r a

ti on A fa ct of the g e a test s i gnificance in con tem p o a y

. r r r

Am e i can life is th a t the p oblem of a cial disc im in a ti on h s

r r r r a

m a de full circle Th p oble m beg an as a p olitic al i ssue

a . e r

i n the m i ddle of the l a st ce n tury devel o ped i n to n an em i c ,

a

so cial p oblem a t the h an ds of hum ani tari n s sen tim ent al

r a ,

i st a n d do go o de s a f t e
s, the C ivil W ar an d to d y h s at
-
r r ,
a a

t a in e d g in ( but in n in telli gen t an d en li ghten ed fo m

a a a r ,

th an ks to s o ci a l scien ti sts an d wi se ju i sts ) the status of a r

con sti tution al dec is ion I t w as no o di n a y g o up f govem . r r r o

m e n t a l le a de s but m en wi th the i de a l of an i n teg a ted

r ,
r

comm un ity w h o m a de thi s com e to “

,
p ss While n ar ow a n d a . r

selfish m n will c n tin ue to cl im the m a gi c of un e n ed

e o a ar

me i t f or them selves their cla im w in d ily s oun d hollowe

r
”
,
a r

an d less c on v in c in g eve n t o them selves

Th e full imp a ct of the S up em e C o u t ] usti c s deci s io n s

.

’
r r e

h as n ot yet been felt by the Am e i c a n pe ople an d the g e a t r ,

r

q k M
Yk M m ar s i s M a cI v er s Se e R M a cI v er The
’
47 Th e p hra s e in u o tati o n . . .
,

more p erfe ct un i o n ( New or : Th e a cmi lla n C o p . 1 03 .

368 CONFLICT AND ADJ U STMEN T OF G ROU PS
n ess f the i le a de sh ip i n ot yet pp ec i ted They cted
o r r s a r a . a

a t o n ce in d ividu a ls a n d s ded i c ted m e mbe s o f the

as a a r

Am e i n omm un ity Wh t c ould be m o e uton om o us

r ca c . a r a ,

wh a t m o e lo n ely n d s li t y in f ct th n f the g e t
r a o ar a ,
a or r a

judges t p on o un ce g in st the m o st sh m e ful s o ci al a n d

o r a a a

psychol gic l co upti n in o s o c i l life !

o a rr o ur a

At the s m e tim e the e is in this in depe nden ce n d s o li

a ,
r a

t a in s the el a ted n ess t o the s th a t i deeply s o ci al Th e

r e s r o r s .

life of the g o up is exp essed th o ugh e ch n d yet e ch

r r r a a a

r eflects the spi i t n d the collective p u p o se o f the who le

r a r .

Whil e it m ay n ot ple se the t ste of the h yp erfa ctua lis ts to a a

desc ibe it o eve y c e tive t of the in d ivi du l n ot onl y

r s ,
r r a ac a

sets h im p t but est blishes h im m e fi mly in the p ttern

a ar a or r a

o f the wh le Th e p o l i ti c l le de i le de p eci sely be

48
o . a a r s a a r r

c use of thi s el a tedn ess of self to o the sel es He helps to

a r r v .

sust in s ciety while s ciety even m o e t uly sust a in s h im

a o o r r .

Politi l le de ship in m l ike ny g o up dem oc ti c le d

ca a r ,
su ,
a r -
ra a

e rs h ip i st on g sen se of pe s on l esp on s ib ility f o the

,
s a r r a r r

well be in g n o t o nly of n e s n ation but f o on e s n tion s

-
o
’

r
’

a
’

c on t ibuti n to the well—bein g of th w o ld c omm un ity

r o e r .

C ON C LUS ION
While g oup dyn m i cs i s youn g n d im m tu e sc ien ce
r a a a a r ,

it i eg ett ble n n etheless th a t so few wo ke s in the field

s r r a ,
o ,
r r

h ve see fit to use the i im gin a tion n d skill in the s tudy

a n r a a

o f p o l i t i c l p o blem s We do no t wish to det ct f om the

a r . ra r

im p o t n ce o f the i ssues wh ich they h ve invest i g a ted

r a ften a o

i g o o usly n d c e a ti vely Y et they h ve l gely n eglected

,

r r a r . a ar

the a t n d scie n ce of go ve nm en t pe h ps the n blest n d

r a r ,
r a o a

m o st civi li z in g ctiv i ty of ll Ha d th e i e n e gi es bee n di

a a . r r

re ct d e vig ously to the p olitic l p o cess as they h ve

as or a r a

bee n co n sum ed with the p oblem s of educ tion an d in dus r a

t y fo
r ,
ex ample we m i ght h ve to ely less on ti on al
r ,
a r ra

a n lys i s
a .

The e i m iti g tin g fa ct o h oweve in th i s ev lu t ion

r s a a r, r, a a .

Th the o y a n d p in c iples of g oup dyn a m i cs supp o ted in

e r r r ,
r

g
43

a th eri n
E a s ton
g des crib e s
by th e term
“
th e p oli ti ca l sci en ti s ts
h yp erf actu a lis m
”
p re occu p a t io n ith
See E a s to n , Th e p ol it ica l
.
’
w f a ct

sy s
tem , p . 66 .
Pa rt IV

THE PE RS O N I N THE
G RO U P: G RO U P DYN AMI CS
A NDI N DI VI DU A L BE HAVI O R
374 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVI D U AL BE HAVIO R
GR

a n d g o up bu ild in g a n d m in te n n ce o les
r -
s B en e -
nd -
a a -
r a n a

S he ts call them e pe fo m ed by individuals A le i

,

a ,
ar r r . ro s

det im e n tal o n onp o ductive not when it is pl yed by n

r r r ,
a a

in d i vi du a l —f eve y le i o pl“ or yed—but when it in d i

r ro s s a is

v i du l ce n te ed
a -
o when it is n ono i n te d o n eg tively
r ,
r r e r a

o i e n ted to g o up bu i ld in g n d m a in te n n ce
”
r r I n th i s s it a a .

n a t i o n an in d iv i du a l ce n te ed le is un des i ble bec use it -

r ro ra a

i n e ffect w o ks a g a in st the g o up s welf e I n th i s con

’
1
r r ar .

n ct i n it i
e o wo th n tin g th t we do n t spe k of the
s r o a o a

g up s ole but only f the indi vidu al s ole in the g oup

ro
’

r ,
o
’

r r .

A ls we usu ll y desc ibe a ole s om eth in g th t pe s on

o, a r r as a a r

“ h
p
as,
“
o ccu i es in g “
o up I n e i the

pl ys o o ccup i es a ole
”
a
a

,
c a se i t i s the in d i vi du l w h o
”
r

r
.

”
r

r .
a

Pe h aps we h ave s a id en ough t show th t the w d o le

r o a or r

h a n s im ple n d cle
s o m e an in g in s o c i l psych o lo gy a n d
a ar a

g roup dy n a m i cs Wh i le the c o n cept i s used exte n s i vely

.
,

b o th in the o etic l an d em p i i c a l in vesti g ti n s the e i n o

r a r a o ,
r s
“
c o n se n sus eg d in g it defin i tion a m on g psych olo gi sts
,
r ar s , ,

s o c i l o g i sts
o n d a n th p lo gi sts all of wh m use the te m
,
a ro o ,
o r

f eely n d l sely I n the fa ce of its un st ble m e an in g it i s

r a oo . a

n ecess a y t o d i scuss the c o n cept w i th the vi ew of arri vi n g a t

r

a wo k ble definition
r a .

ROLE ITS N ATU RE A ND FUN C TION S

:

C omm on sen se an d n ecdo tal con cepti n s of ole b oun d a o r a

b o th in d aily thinkin g an d in the lite tu e of s o cial sci en ce ra r .

Wo dswo th desc ibin g the ecoll ection s of h is e ly ch ild

r r ,
r r ar

h oo d in h i O de on th e I ntima tio ns of I mmo rta lity w ites

s ,
r

pe ceptively th a t the little A cto con s n o the p a t Th

r r a r r .
”
e

deli ghtf ul lin e is in tu n n ech “ o o f th e s am e i de

S h kespe a e s desc ipt ion of the seve n st tes o f m an

a r
’
,

r
in r ,
a

a .
”
a

On e of the fi st i g o o us a ppl i c ti on s o f the c n cept of

r r r a o

o le t o the study o f hum a n beh a vio a lth o ugh a ph ilo s o ph

the th an an emp i i ca l on is th t of G H M ea d
r r,

ic l
who se View f the self i in tim tely tied up with the p o ces s
a ra r r e, a . .
,

o s a r

fi x w k
1 w
For a
K Dell- n o n dis cu s si on of th e th ree m ain k i n ds o f ro les an d th eir

g
s p eci c e p re s si o ns ,
rou p m embers , I . soc
s ee

.
.

I s s ues , 4
. B enn e an d P Sh e a ts , Functi onal
41 49 —
.

.
ro les of
R OLE DY N AMICS 37 5

of

r
o le t ki n
r

a
I n hi
-
c a

r
/
o n cepts o f psych o d

d am M o eno h s a dded to o un de st n d in g of ole an d

g m a

a
n d s o c io s

ur r a
ra a

i ts pl ce i i in d iv i du l n d g o up beh v io
a

p esen t w i te em a ked elsewhe e is

r
r

r
“ r
M a n as the
o le ta king a ni
r
a

r
a r

r ,
a

a
r .

r -
,

Fo a m o e c om plete un de st n di n g o f m n s in di
”2 ’

ma l . r r r a a

vidua l n d g oup beh vio there fo e knowledge of the

a r a r, r ,
a

n a tu e n d fun ct i on of
r a o le nd le beh avio i essen ti l r a ro r s a

D F NIT O NS A ND D ST NCTI O NS Role pe se cannot be

.

E I I I I . r

defin ed f a s such it h a n o existen ce I t de ives its m e an

,
or s . r

in g f om the s ta tus of the pe s on w h o o ccup i es

”
r ro le r a

S tatus ( lso called po sition ) and le a e in sep ble I t

.

“
a ro r a ra .

i a set f i ghts n d duti es L in ton p o in ted o t ; These 3

s o r a ,
as u .

i ghts n d dut i es dete m i n e the i n d iv i du a l s pl ce or ’ ”

r a r a

p o s ition in the group o c omm un i ty I n view of thi s p o s i r .

tion o st tus the in d ivi du l ca n expect th o ugh a lon g

r a a ,
r

p o cess f s o ciali z tion ce t in f m s of esp on se a nd b

r o a ,
r a or r e

h vio f m o the s n d othe s in tu n c n nti cip te

a r ro r ,
a r ,
r ,
a a a

definite ea ction s f om h im f o these esp on ses o e ction s

r r ,
r r r r a

ar e dete m in ed by the set of r i ghts n d dut ies em bedded i n r a

the cultu e r .

A ole on the o the h n d efe s t the a ction pe fo m ed

r ,
r a ,
r r o r r

by an in d ivi du l w h o h olds ce t in sta tus in n ti cip tion

a a r a ,
a a

o f o the s expect a tion s When he cts in esp on se to the

’

r . a r

r i ghts n d duti es e m bedded in h i s cultu e he i s i d t o be

a r ,
s a

pl yin g the ole th t i expected of h im I t is wh lly im

a r a s .
‘

p o ssible to p a tic ip te in an y g oup o in any s o ci l el

r a r r a r a

tion h ip except by m e n s o f the st tus o le wh i ch eve y

s a a -
r ,
r

a dult i n d iv i du l develo ps th o ugh th cou se of le n in g h i

a r e r ar s

cultu e This i obvi s in the a se of the inf n t w h o h a

r . s ou c a s

n o t yet cqui ed n y of the custom s f h is g o up He c n

a r a o r . a

n ot ctively p ticip te in the li f e of the g o up beca use

a ar a r

he h n ot yet a cqui ed o been ss ign ed ny cle cut

as r r a a ar-

r o le He n pla y oles on ly“

. casym b oli c lly th “ o ugh th e exr a r

ct t i n o f o the s He a b by n d as a b a by he h s
” ”

p e a o i s r . s a ,
a a

Yk L
2 H
k
So ci a l p s y ch olo y : a n i nterdis ci p li na ry a p p roac h
. B on n er, g gC ( Ne w
o r : Am eri ca n B oo
3 R

I nc ,
Co ,
in ton , Th e st udy of ma n ( New
.
p 44 I t a li cs i n th e ori in a l .

or : Ap p l eto n - e ntury -
. .

Yk .

Cf ro ts ,
.
p 1 13 . .
37 6 OU P DYN AMI CS AND INDIV IDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

sta tus in the eyes of o the s ; but th st tus an d hen ce ny r e a ,

a

symboli c oles a tt ched to it r n on fu n ct i on l Hi o le

a ,
a re a . s r ,

in o the wo ds i pe fo m ed n o t by h im se lf but by o the s

r r ,
s r r r ,

wh ich is to s y he h n o le L est thi s s oun d im p ob ble

a as ro . r a ,

we m ight put it in “ a n o the

“
w y An in f n t s p o s i ti o n in r a . a
’

s o ciety is th t of a n in fan t n d the ole he will pl y in

a ,
”
a r a
”

h i f m ily w ill be th t f n in fa n t Th i s m y be n o m o e
s a a o a . a r

th n e tin g sleep in g n d c yin g

a a , ,
a r .

A s the inf n t develops especi lly he begin s to a cqu i e

a ,
a as r

a l n gu a ge h i st tuses in the g up becom e m o e cle ly

a ,
s a ro r ar

defin ed an d the oles wh i h he pl ys in c ea se in n um be

,
r c a r r

a n d c om plex i ty Th hum n self devel o ps in the p o cess

. e a r

by which the in dividu l bec om es an object to h im self a ,

or

in the p o cess o f t kin g the o le o f n the pe s n by m e n s

n s t o u n de st n d the p in t o f V i ew of the
r a r a o r r o ,
a

o f wh i ch he le ar r a o

o the A ch ild bec m es fun cti on l m em be of g oup

r . o a a r a r

when he n t ke the people s o les Thi s i di stin ctly ’

M e d nd
ca a o r r . s

seen in the child s p t i cip tion in g m es ’

Pi get convin cin gly desc ibe it I n a g m e M e d p in ts

ar a a ,
as a a

a r . a ,
a o

o t a ch ild le
u ,
ns t g ni“ze h i les I f he did n o t he
ar o or a s ro .
,

c o uld n t pl y the g m e Th g m e he w i tes

o a
p a . e a ,
”
r ,
re re

sen ts the p a ss a ge in the life of th e child f om t kin g the r a

ro le o f o the s in pl y t the o g n ized p t th t i essen ti l

r a o r a ar a s a

to self c o n sc i us ess in the f ull se n se of the te m

”4
-
o n r .

C le ly then ole i in tim tely ss o ci ted with the

ar r s a a a

g wth of the self well wi th the developm en t f g p

,

ro as as o ro u

beh vio When n i divi du l plays

a r . o le he a cts in
a n a a r ,

a c d n ce with the c ltu l n o m s of h i g oup us ll y

co r a u 1a r s r ,
ua a

r efe en ce g oup within th l ge s o ci l g n i z ti n B y

r r e ar r a or a a o .

kn win g the st tus an d oles of n in divi du l we n p

o a r a a ,
ca re

d i t with s om e f eelin g of ce t in ty h ow he will beh ve

c r a a .

Th i s in i t i l n lys i s of o le st tus m ay be s um m i zed

a a a r -
a ar as

f ll ws
o o

P er s o n a i t ly of w
b eh a v i n g h i ch w e a ttr ib u t e t o o th ers b e ca u se
p l l f
is a w ay
v es b eca u se w e ca n i m a gi n e ou rs e v es e e l in

w f l
we erc ei v e it i n ou rse , g ,

th i nki n g, an d do in g h a t oth ers a re ee in g th inkin g a n d do in g , ,

.

M (C g
g G H e a d, M in d s el f d h i ca Th e U ni v ersi ty f C hi
4 . . an so ci e ty o: o
,

ca o Pre s s , p . 1 52 .
37 8 OU P DYN AMI CS AND IN D IVI D U AL BE HAVIO R GR

ti n h i p
o s C yin g the n lys i s a step f the the n
s . arr a a ur r, or

m l a
”
well djusted pe s on is on e who se ttitudes e
or -
a
”
r a ar

gen e lly like th se f the gr oup of whi ch he is m embe

ra o o a r,

and w h gen e lly beh ves in a cco d n ce wi th it d fin i

o ra a
”
r a s e

t ion s Th devi n t o abno m l pe s on cco din gly i s

. e a r r a r ,
a r ,

n y on e w h o ejects the g up e pected oles n d en cts

M ny
a r ro -
x r a a

r o les wh i ch h ve n o a ccept ble pl ce in h i s g o up a a a r . a

g up ten s ion s n d confli cts n less th an in divi du l on es

ro a ,
o a ,

r esult f m deep n d s om etim es un b i dge ble di sp ity

ro a a r a ar

between n in divi du l s self im ge n d the le n d st tu

a a
’
-
a a ro a a s

th t h i g up h ss i gn ed to hi m
a s ro as a .
6

Th upsh o t o f the fo eg o in g the et i c l n d bst ct di

e r or a a a ra s

io n i th t n in di vi du l s tt i tudes m kedly in fl
’

cu ss s a a a a a re ar u

e n d by h i
ce o le i the g up st u tu e Th is h been
s r n ro r c r . as

suspected f l n g tim e n d the o etic l f m ul ti n h s

or a o ,
a a r a or a o a

been given to it by n um e ous w ite s on the el tion f les r r r r a o ro

a n d a tt i tudes n o t bly by P s on s n d N ewcom b The e i

,
a ar a . r s,

h weve an emb ssin g p uci ty of em p i ic l evi den ce to

o r, a rra a r a

supp o t the the o eti c l di scuss ion I t will be help ful the e
r r a .
,
r

f e t desc ibe L i ebe m n s ecen t in vesti g ti n f th i s

or ,
o r r a
’

r a o o

p blem which len ds em p i ic l suppo t t th f m ul ti n

ro ,
r a r o e or a o .
7

L iebe m n s st dy w s p t of l ge investi g ti n f
r a
’

u a ar a ar r a o o a

m edi m s i zed pl t e n g ged in the m n f ctu e f h o use

u -
an a a u a r o

h ld ppli n es Th st dy ep o ted i th i s secti n in vesti

o a a c . e u r r n o

g ted the effect of les n tti tudes Th expe im en t l

a ro o a . e r a

v i bles we e ch n ges in oles n d the expe im en t l pe i d

ar a r a r ,
a r a r o

w as the len gth of exp o su e to ch n ges in oles Th p i r a r . e ex er

m e n t l g o ups we e ll the e m plo yees w h

a r expe i en ced r a o r

6
“ w f g w
Th e f ore g om g con diti on s h o u l d n ot b e co n u s e d i th th e un di ff eren ti
”

f q
a te d a b s o l u t e

g w g
o r th e s ta t e o f
, a u ti s m h ich Pi a e t a s crib e d to th e mf an t ,

gY k g f
iv i n J g g
b e ore h e a c uir e s ro les , durin
a n ta s y See
o r : Ha rco u rt , B ra ce 8: C o
g .
hi ch h e i s l ar e ly a b s o rb ed i n p le a s ur e
P i a e t, Ju d ment a n d reas oni n . i n t h e ch i ld ( N ew

Y k p 2 44 a n d Th e ch ild s con cep tio n of

’
. .
, ,

L f g
p h y s i ca l ca u s a li ty ( New o r : Harcou rt B ra ce 8: C c p 12 8 , .
, . .

g
i eb e rm a n Th e ef ects o f ch a n es in ro le s on th e a tti tu des o f role
7 S .
,

occu p a n ts , Hu m R e lat 9 3 8 5—402 For a en era l dis cu s s io n o f th e

. .
, .

M Nw g Y k
p rob l em s e e T P a rs on s Th e s o cial s y s t em ( Gle n co e I ll : Th e Fre e Pre ss
D ff
.
, , , .
,

195 1 ) and T

f
Pres s I n c ,
,

g
o f a ca re u l rea din
k .
e

w
com b . S ocia l p sy ch o lo y ( New
.

P a rs on s b o o i s di ffi cul t b u t v e ry m u ch
.
or : Th e
’
ry den

or th th e e o rt
,
R OLE DY N AMI C S 37 9

ch n ges in les du in g the pe io d ; an d the c nt ol g ups

a ro r r o r ro

we e ll the mpl oms w h o di d n ot ch n ge thei oles du in g

r a e a r r r

the expe im e t l pe io d Th des i gn of the exp e im en t p

r n a r . e r er

m it t d th ee step p o cess of m e s
e a r em en t wh
-

“ i ch L i ebe r a ur r

a
“
m n des i gn ted s be fo e m e su em e n t
pe io d n d fte m e su em en t
r
”
a
a

a
expe
a im e n t a l
r a
r

r
a r ,
r

Th b fo e m eas u em en t step w
.
,

e e r the a dm in ist tion of r as ra

a n ttitude questi nn i e to p a ctic lly ll pe s onn el in the

a o a r r a a r

pl n t to t al of
a ,
a w ke s 145 stew ds n d 1 5 1 f e or r ,
ar ,
a or

m n Th quest i nn i e w as des i gn ed to eli c i t the m

e . e o a r e

ployees a tti tudes tow a d th c om p n y the uni n n d the i

’

r e a ,
o ,
a r

j obs
Th e p e ime n t l p eri od co ve ed the t im e between O ct o
.

e x r a r

b er,195 1 n d J uly 1 9 52 du in g W h i ch 23 w o ke s bec m e

,
a , ,
r r r a

fo em en n d 35 w ke s bec m e stew ds
r a or r a ar

D
.

Th ft e m e as
e u em ae nt w ther pe i o d i n ece m be
r as r r,

1 9 52 whe n the f m s th t h d bee n filled o u t by the

,
or nk a a ra

a n d fil w
-
ke s in 1 9 5 1 we e a dm in i ste ed to the followin g
e or r r r

23 w k wh b m f m d i g th xp im t l p i d
w l p f d
or er s o e ca e ore en ur n e e er en a er o ;
46 o rkers b eco m e o r em en u ri n h
w h o di d
p w w
g in a c o n tr o rou
g t e n ot

s am e

t lp d
m en a
tw d
eri o d ; 3 5

a rds
w k
orkers w h o b e ca m e s t e

eri o ; a n d 3 5

p
ur in t h
o r er s i n a con ro

e sa m e eri o d
g
a r d s du ri n

ro u w h
g t h e ex eri

o di d n o t
p
eco m e t l p b
s e
g .

Th econ t o l g o ups we e m a tched wi th th ei p a all el ex

r r r r r

p im
er n t l g o ups

tu din l v a i bles a
en de m o g
a ph
C on seq en tly
i
r a
c m o t
r i v t i n al

L iebe m n s ys ny
.
n d
o
“tt i
u
ra

,
as
,
a

r
o

a
,

a
a

,
a

ch n ges in tti tudes th t o ccu ed in the expe im en t l

a a a rr r a

g o ps but did n ot occu in the con t ol g o ups c o ld n o t

r u r r r u

be tt ib ted to in i ti l diff e en ces between them

a r u a r .
”8

Th hyp o thes i s tested in th i s expe im e n t w

e th a t peo ple r as

w h o o ccupy ce t in ole will cq i e the set of ttitudes

a r a r a u r a

which c n si sten t with the expect ti n s f th t ole

a re o a o o a r .

Thus s in ce the ole of f o e m n im pl i es th t the l a tte i s a

, r r a a r

rep esen t tive f m n gem en t w o l n n w h o becom e f e

r a o a a ,
rq e or

m n w ould ten d t o sh ow sym p thy o

e ttitudes of p a ti ali ty a r a r

towa d m n gem en t S ince the o le of stew d is on e th t

r a a . r ar a

3 L i eb erm a n , Th e e ff
e ct s o f ch a n g es, p . 3 87 .
3 80 OU P DYN AMIC S AND INDIVI D U AL BE HAVIO R
GR

im pl i es th t he i s ep esen t tive of the un ion the expect

a a r r a ,
a

tion is th t the w ke s w h o becom e stew a ds will bec m e

a or r r o

m o e f vo ble t o w d the un io n F in ll y t o the deg ee

r a ra ar . a ,
r

th t the v lues of the un ion an d of the m n gem en t e

a a a a ar

e ithe in com p atible o in con flict with e ch o the we

r r a r,

sh uld expect th t wo ke s w h o becom e fo em en will be

o a r r r

less f v bly d isp o sed tow d th un i n n d the w o ke s

a o ra ar e o ,
a r r

a a
“
m n gem en t I n ge n e l s ys Liebe m an the tti tudes
.
“
w h o bec om e stew ds will be less f v o bly i n cl in ed t o w d ar

ra ,
a
a ra

r ,
a
ar

of w o ke s w h o bec om e f o e m e n te n d t o g a vi t te in a o r r a r
r r
p
m n a gem e n t di ect io n n d the tt itudes of w o ke s w h o
a r a a r r

becom e stew ds ten d t o m ve in p o un ion d i ection ar o a r -

r
”9

S t tistic l sign ific nce of the esults we e dete m in ed by

.

the h i squ e m eth o d M o st of the diffe en ces we e fo n d

a a a r r r

c ar . r r u

to be s i gn i fic a n t but n um be o f the m we e n o t Th d if
,
a r r . e

f n
e re th t we e st ati sti c lly s i gn ific n t we e ll in the
ce s a r a a r a

expected di ection an d m ost of tho se th a t we e n ot ig

r ,
r s

n ifi n t we e
ca ls o in the expected d i ections
r a r .

L iebe m an a ised r n tu a l question c on ce n in g the

r a a r r

ch n ges in ttitudes A the shifts in ttitudes n d ll e

a a . re a a a

g i n
a th t a cc om p n i ed pe o ple s ch
ce s a ged o les st a ble o a
’

an r r

tem p y phen om en !
p o ss ible to n swe thi s question by Vi t e f a
o rar a

It w as a r r u o

set of ci cum stan ces in the pl n t S ho tly af te the 1 9 52

r a . r r

r esu vey the n ation expe ien ced n econ om ic ecess ion
r r a r ,

a n d the f a ct o y f un d i t n ecess y t educe its w k fo ce

r o ar o r or r .

Th i s esulted in the l yin g o ff of m n y

r nk n d fil w o ke s a a ra -
a -
e r r

a n d the etu n of a n umbe of fo em en to n on supe vi s o y

r r r r r r

j obs B y Jun e 1 954 8 of the 23 wo ke s w h o h d becom e

.
, , r r a

fo em en we e etu n ed to the st tus of w ke 12 we e

r r r r a or r, r

still fo em en n d 3 h a d volun t a ily left th pl nt In th

r ,
a r e a . e

s m e p io d 1 4 stew ds we e etu n ed to the w ke ole

a er ar r r r or r r

le vin g only 6 F if teen o a lm o st h alf h d volun tarily left

, ,

a .
,
r ,
a

the f cto y a r .

9 I bid
a tt i tu de ch a n
.
, p .

g fk
393 . It sh o u l d be n ot e d

w th a t i n th e con tro l
le ss m ar k f g ro u p
“
b f
e ith e r no
es to o p la ce , o r th ey e re e d, ro m th e e o re

s i tu a ti o n t o th e a ter si tu a ti o n .
3 82 OU P DYN AMIC S AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R GR

P esc ibed les fall in to the s m e c tego y A p e

r r ro a a r . r

sc ibed ole con s i sts of cts equi ed f the ccup n t of

r r a r r o o a

an
y p s i t i n oT hey a b a sed on the
o . s c i b e d st tus of the re a r a

acto ; th t i the p o s iti n g iven to n i divi du l on the

r a s, o a n a

b si s of an iden tifyin g ch a cte i stic such s ge sex o

a ra r ,
a a , ,
r

v c tion Th sc ibed st a tus of te che f o ex m ple is

o a . e a r a a r, r a ,

b sed upo n h i p ofess ion an d of a g n df the up on h is

a s r ra a r

sen io ity Th e diff e en ce then between ole an d le b

r . r , ,
r ro e

h vio i the diffe e n ce in the f n cti n n d the t p

a r s r u o a ac er

fo m ed by the in d ivi du l it i the fu n ction pe fo m e d

r a : s r r

wh ich i den tifies o le n d the

p ecific ct wh i ch d i stin
a r a s a

i h o le beh v i B i ll J o n es f ex m ple desc i bes

g u s es r a or or a r

the B ttle of W te l o t h i studen ts n d E d S m ith te ches

.
, ,

a a r o o s ,
a a

h i g n ds n t o sh oo t an
s ra w E ch i ssum in g a ole
o a rro .
-
a s a r ,

but the m tive p tte n s involved

ro le but a ole beh vi “o i n the
A le beh vi r
t of e ch i n o t
a

N ewcom b
r

a or . ro
ac

a o r,
a s a

asse ts i r m otiv e p tt e n o n th e p rt of a p ecific i ndi

,
s a a
”1 4
r a s

vi d ua l a s he ta kes a ro le .

Ale beh vio s we see it is a pe s s in te n liz ti n

ro a r, a r on
’

r a a o

of h i s o ci l s les he pe ceives them in such w y th t

a ro ,
as r ,
a a a

h i i div i du l beh vi o i syn ch n i zed w i th th expect

s n a a r s ro e

an i of o the
c es m em be s of h i s g up o co mm un i ty Th
r r ro r . e

syn ch n i z tion of in d ivi du l beh avi o a n d o the s expect

ro a a r r
’

an i i s dete m in ed by h ow
c es cu tely th e pe s n p
r ac ra r o er

i e hi
ce v o le i n the g o up
s s n d by h ow st on gly he i
r r a r s

m t i v ted t o pl y i t Th cle a e
o a nd m o e ccu te h i a . e r r a r a ra s

ro le pe ception and the st on ge h i m o tive t o en ct h i

r ,
r r s a s

ro le the m o e h i beh avio will a g ee wi th the e pect tion s

,
r s r r x a

o f o the s r .

A ole beh vio diff e s f om a n ttit de in th t th

r a r r r a u a e

fo m e i lw ys the beha v io o a ction f pe s n w h

r r s a a r r o a r o o

o ccupies defin ed o eco gn i zed st tus An ttitude i n ot

a r r a . a s

f n d m en t lly des ibed by an cti n ; it i

u a a t en de n y cr a o s a c or

disp o s ition to ct I t c n be n d often i we em ked

a . a ,
a s, as r ar ,

c n ce led f m the in specti n of o the s B e in g te n den cy

o a ro o r . a ,

it n ca n ly be i nf e
o ed f m the c n c ete esp on ses of a rr ro o r r

pe s on o ccupyin g specific ole p o s ition

r a r .

14 I bid .
, p . 330 . I ta lics in th e ori g in a l .
R OLE DY N AMICS 38 3

Role a n d o le beh avio e el ted by the f ct th a t b o th

r r ar r a a

a re o bject i ve a n d o bse v ble f m s of hum n ct ion U n r a or a a .

like m o tives /a fl a ttitudes which c n be c n ce led an d

r a o a

fals ified ole n d ole beh vio e open to publi c in p c

,
r a r a r ar s e

ti n Th oles wh ich we pl y in el tion t o the s

o . e r a r a o r a re

o bse ved an d r e cted to by the s They f m n in te

r a o r . or a r

a cti ve p tte n Of beh vi o a whi h we c ll the g oup Th e

r a r c a r .

g oup i a dyn am i c co nfigu tion of oles and ole beh avi s

r s ra r r or .

L ewin s a sse tion th t

’

g o up tm o sphe e c n be con
r a a r a r a

c i ed
e v p a tte n of ole pl yin g expresses o p o in t
as a r r a
”
ur

ex ctly a .
15

P ob bly eve y s o c i l psycholo gist is d iss tisfied with the

r a r a a

te m in olo gy of le the o y I n n unpublished an alys i s o f

le the o y M tin M t l h ecen tly in jected con s ide r
r ro r . a

ro r ,
ar ar e as r a

a ble a m o u n t Of la ity in t thi s va gue subject A s ep ted

c r o . r or

t o the p ese n t w i te i n p iv te c o esp n den ce by J M cV

Hun t M a tel holds th t the e e th ee b s i c con st ucts in
r r r a r a rr o . .

,
r a r ar r a r

r o le the o y These c on st ucts

r the foll owin g ( 1 ) the
. r a re :

sta tus defin ed in te m s of c ite ia wh i ch a of ten fo m l r r r re r a

a n d n m ed such
a in the c se f the P es i de n t o f the
as a o r

Un ited S t tes ; 2 ) the n o m s expect tion s on the p t

,

a r or a ar

of pe o ple c n ce in g wh t n in d i vi du l in a give n st tus o

o rn a a a a r

p s ition sh l d do ; n d ( 3 ) th ctu l beh vio

o ou ction
a e a a a r or a

o f n in di vi du a l in a st a tus
a

I NDIVI DU L RO LE B EHA VI O R Th i s a n d the n ext tw o

.

A .

ch apte s the r de will observe ex m in e the pe s on in

,
re a r ,
a r

the g o up They in vesti g te the el ti n between g up

r a r a o ro

dyn am i cs n d in dividu l beh vio G o up dyn m ics h

.

a a a r . r a as

un de st n d bly n eglected the pl ce of the i divi du l but

r a a a n a ,

in o d o in g it h
s n o wed it s sc o pe n d im p i ed i t fulle
as a rr a a r s r

un de st n din g f g oup beh vio We

r a th e ef e ex
o r a r . are , r or ,

ten din g the c on ception Of g o up dyn m ics t incl de p r a o u er

s o n li t
y a espec i a lly in the n ext ch pte
,
I n so d i n g we a r . o

ho pe to wi den the ho i zon of the study f g up beh vio r o ro a r,

in c n s on n e wi th ecen t develop m e n ts thus deepen in g

o a c r ,

15 Se e K Lw . e i n , R es olv i n g s o cia l
w k
con flicts ( New B ros Yk or : Harp er
w
Th ere a re o th er t erm s
p . 50 .

h av e u s e d i n di erent p a rts of th is
n orm s , in terlo c i n
ff
kg
ro l e s , a n d ro le s y st e m
h i ch de s cri b e thi s , m o st o f
b oo
h i ch w e
Th e m o s t co mm on a re sh are d
.
.
384 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

our p oten tia l in s i ght in to the n a tu e of both in dividu al n d r a

g o up dyn m i cs
r a .
16

E ve y n o m l in divi du l i in s om e w ys un ique —o t
r r a a s a
”
r a

an a te d iff e e n t f om the s — n d in s om e w ys like o the s

r r o r a a r
y r

o f h is g up Thi s diffe en ce n d liken ess i ch a cte i st ic

ro . r a s ra r

o f h is le beh vio s ls but it is due to diffe en t f cto s

ro a r a o, r a r

S elf pe ception i one of them S elf pe epti n is p tte n

.

-
r s .
-
rc o a a r

of o le pe cept io n s — n expe i e n ce wh i ch
r r esults f om an a r r r

in d ivi du l s pe s on a l el ti on sh ips wi th o the m e m be s f

’

a r r a r r o

h is g oup I t i vo lves the a b ili ty to an ti c ip a te n o th

r n
p a er er

s n s beh vio Of c ou se the e a s i gnific n t in divi du l

.

o a r . r ,
r re a a

d iff e en ces in this ab ility Th e pe s on in wh om th is ski ll i

r . r s

well developed e s ily n d c ectly pe ceives a n o the s a a o rr r r

’

p int of vi ew Th e in dividu l who se pe spective i p oo

o . a r s r

or un developed shifts with difficulty f om on ole to n r e r a

o the B y playin g the ole of n othe a pe s on ep o duces

r . r a r, r r r

th e o the s a cti o n s in co p o tes them in t o h i ow n beh vi o

’

r r ra s a r

p tte n a nd a cts in w ys s im il to the o the pe s on Yet

,

a r ,
a ar r r .

in the wh o le p o cess he i s exp ess in g h is ow n o le bec a use

r r r ,

h i o le beh a v io i s b o un d up wi th h i s pe cept i on of h im self

s r r r

as n i n d i v i du l
a Th t im i d pe s n f o ex m ple a . el a tes e r o ,
r a ,
r

h im self to othe s o pl ys h i le with efe en ce t o them r r a s ro r r ,

in hes i tan t n d depen den t m nn e He a cts wi th in

a a a r . a

f am e of efe en ce wh ich lth ugh it i publi c it is als o

r r r ,
a o s ,

deeply p iv te Th is s itu tion c onfi m s

r a .e li e st te a r ou r ar r a

m e n t th t n owhe e else pe h ps in the wh ole

a e of g o p
r r a ar a r u

p he n m en o i the e as cle sy
a n thes i s of in d i i du l
s nd
r ar a v a a

g oup v iables
r in the c o n cepts of o le
ar nd le b
as r a ro e

h vi o
a r .

Th distinct ch cte of in dividu l oles is n o m lly

e a ra r a r r a

o bscu ed by the i r st on g te n den cy t fo m n etw ks of r r o r or

in te el ted o les They ct in sets o p tte rn s Th n t

rr a r . a r a . e e

wo k c n ce als the i st on gly in divi du l n tu e Th e sets

r o r r a a r .

16 As i s al w ay s th e c a s e , on e is
x
n o t al o n e in s u ch m a tt ers
Jg g. A f ew o th ers
h a v e b ee n sim ilarly co n cern ed See

M f
m etri c s truct ur e in p ers on a li ty an d
.Sh e ri a n d O il son , Grou p M . . W
.
,

g f
f or
ro u p
e am p l e ,

re la t i ons
or
H H .

m a ti on b ein ch a p xiv in
,

at the cross roa ds ( N ew or :

. e nn in s,

.
Soci o

Yk
Harp er B ro s , .
386 OU P DYN AM IC S A ND IN D IVID UAL BE HAV IO R
GR

c mplete in teg tion f les A m n w h i gen tle f the

o ra o ro . a o s a a r

a t h om e m ay be n ut c t in h is office f cto y An
a a o ra or a r .

o the on e m
r be a sel f a ssu ed chess pl ye
a but sh ow n o r a r
y
-

con fiden ce in bus in ess t n s ction Li fe i full of sucha ra a . s

ex m ples n d it is imp ofit bl to bel b the p o in t Th

a ,
a r a e a or . e

c ux f the issue i s th t the in n s iste n ci es

r o i n di vi du l a co a re a ,

n ot g up in comp tib ilities E ch ole beh vio i m e an s

ro ,
a . a r a r s a

by wh ich the in divi du l t ies t m eet the dem n ds m de a r o a a

up on h im by the g ups t which he belon gs Th wh le ro o . e o

p o cess of s o ci liz ti n f g owin g to be n ccept ble

r a a o ,
o r a a a

m em be of g oup lies behin d h i ole pl ayin g Th ch ild

r a r ,
s r -
. e

le a n s to pe fo m on le the th n n the t o beh ave

r r r e ro ra r a a o r,

thi s w y the th n th t w y bec use th o ugh the gui din g

a ra r a a a ,
a r

r est in t of h i p e ts n d the s he i st ivin g t o f shi n

ra s ar n a o r ,
s r a o

h i o w n l ife T the exte n t th t he h

s . succeeded in
o a as

em e gin g f om the p cess an in d ivi du ted pe s on he h

r r ro as a r ,
as

played h is oles dequ a t ly r a e

PLA CE O M O TI V T O N I N RO LE B HA V O In c llin g
.

F A I E I R . a

a tte n t i n t o the d i ect i o n l n tu e of the self t

o i t im p l
r a a r ,
o s u

s ion tow d a des i ed Object ive we implicitly suggested the

ar r ,

pl ce f m otiv ti n in le beh avio Th b i ef desc ipti n

a o a o ro r . e r r o

of o le beh vi
r i n te m s f expect n cy
a or n t i c i p ti o n ls r o a or a a a o

suggested the el tion ship Not ll ole beh vio s h ow r a . a r a r ,

eve pe f m ed in esp on se to the expect n ci es f othe s

r, a re r or r a o r

or t o the de m n ds f g o p n o m s S in ce i n d iv i du al o le
a o r u r . r

beh vi s h oweve sh ped they m y be by s o ci l in fl

a or ,
r a a a u

e nc s e ls o p iv te an d pe s on l they m y ls o be
,
a re a r a r a , a a

desc ibed b sed on in divi du l m o tives When he en cts

r as a a . a

a r o le pe s n i n t on ly esp n din g t th expect tion s

,
a r o s o r o o e a

o f the s ; h i beh vi
o r i a ls o gui ded by h i p iv te w i shes
s a or s s r a .

He m y pe fo m a o le f n o the
r e a s n th n th t he
r a r or o r r o a a

fi n ds the a t ple su ble an d s tis fyin g Th wi sh f o g oup

c a ra a . e r r

bel n gin gn ess m y be s tisfied by pl yin g expected oles

o a a a r ,

f o pl yin g the expected

r a les i a cc om p n ied by the ro s a re

w d f a ccept n ce by the s Th ew d of ccept n ce

ar o a o r . e r ar a a

st on gly e in fo ces the m ot iv tion to pl y on e s les ex

r r r a a
’

ro

pe tly E ve y n o m l in divi du l w n ts s o c i l ccept n ce

r . r r a a a a a a ,
R OLE DYN AMI CS 3 87

a n d he w ill st ive t o ple se o the s —th t i s pl a y the

r o le o f a r a ,
r

a f i e n dly
r nd cceptin g in divi dua l—beca use of the an ti ci
a a

p ted bel n gin gn ess th a t wi ll cc ue f m it

a o a r ro .

Th fo egoin g desc iption but em ph s i zes on ce m o e

e r r a r

divi du al n d s c i l n tu e of ole beh vio a o a a r r a r .

on e s o les cc m pli shes b o th pe s on l n d ’

r a o r a a

s o c i a l fu n ct i o n s Th e in d i vi du a l s ti sfies h i pe s on a l n eeds
. a s r ,

e speci lly th t of a ccept n ce by the s an d the g oup s

a a a o r ,
r
’

secu ity an d c ontin ui ty is ssu ed by the in divi dua l s p

r a r
’

er

f o m n ce of wh teve a cts the g up s v lue syste m m y

’

r a a r ro a a

e xpect of h im Yet while th e in divi du l en cts m o st o f h i

.
,
a a s

r o les in esp n se t the exp ect tion s o f h is g o up he h

r o o a r ,
as a

wi de la titude f o thei pe fo m n ce Alth ugh e ch ole r r r r a . o a r

i pl yed in c on fo m i ty wi th s o c i ety s ules e ch i n eve

’

s a r r ,
a s, r

th l d ist in ct n d i divi du l bec use the ct which th e

e ess , a n a ,
a a

i n d i vid u l pe f o m s h a it ow n spec ific pl ce in the n t

r r as s a e

w o k of le beh vio s No tw o oles c n be pl yed i den

r ro a r . r a a

t ic lly n d n tw o pe s on s en ct the i oles sim ila ly in

a ,
a o r a r r r ,

e ve y det ail Roles

r sh a ed but they e n ot sh a ed
. a re r ,
ar r

e x ctly like
a a .

Th e cle a est ex m ple of th i s f a ct is f un d in the ole o f

r a o r

the le a de O deta iled n lys i s n d desc iption of le de

r . ur a a a r a r

s hip sho uld m ake thi s cle a R le pl yin g in a g p r . o -

a ro u

r e ches it m axim um deg ee f in dividu lity n d pe s on l

a s r o a a r a

m o ti v ti n in the le a de
a o
“ A s we sa w he i s

p oten ti l He i m o e f ee in the se n se th a t he in itia tes

a . s
ce n te o f h i gh

r
r .

r
”
,
a r

m o e o le beh vi s th n o the s I n s of
r r a as he i m t i v ted
or a r . ar s o a
—a in deed he i s —n ot n ly by the des i e t o f ci lit a te ole
s o r a r

p l y ai n g in o the s but by st on g pe s o n l m t i v t i o n t o
r ,
a r r a o a

i nitia te le beh avio in the s h i cti n s

ro in d ivi du l
r o r s a o a re a

Obvi usly we h ave in m in d the dem oc tic le de

,

i tis c . o ,
ra a r .

Th e uth i t ia n o a uto tic le de i m o tiv ted by dif

or ar r a cra a r s a

f e rent o le beh a vi o s
r Hi p im y wi sh i s n ot t o f ili t te r . s r ar ac a

a n d in i t i te the o le beh vi
a f o the s but t c e te
r sta te a or o r o r a a

o f depe n de n cy in h i followe s To be su e when they s r . r ,

depen d up on h im they a ls o pl yin g les b t thei o les re a a ro ,

u r r

a re th o se Of p ss ive subm iss ion l ckin g in in divi d l m o

a ,
a ua

t iv t i n n d i n i t i ti ve
a o a While the e i n em pi i l s pp t
a . r s o r ca u or
388 OU P DYN AMIC S AND INDIVI D U AL BE HAVIO R
GR

f o the d i st in ct io n we ve n tu e to
r
y th t the
,
e i deg ee r sa a r s a r

of s m e n ess i n
a ut c a ti c le de sh ip foll owe sh ip oles th t
a o r a r -
r r a

i seld m dupl i c ted in the dem c ti

s o s itu ti n
a o ra c a o

S um mi g up the fo egoin g discussi n we an y th t

.

n r o ,
c sa a

in i n f m l g o ups of the type we h a ve bee n desc ib in g

or a r le r ,
ro

beh avio i ch cte ized by in divi du l—s m e wo uld y

r s a ra r a o sa

un i que—qu liti es of m otiv tion an d cti n

a a a o .

RO LE B HA VI OR A ND GR O UP M E MBE SH Alth ough th

E R IP . e

subject m tte of th is ch pte i oles n d in dividu l l

a r a r s r a a ro e

beh vi a d iscuss i n f it i in ten ded p im ily to shed

o r, o u r o o s r ar

fu the li ght n the n tu e f g up st tu e n d g oup

r r o a r o ro ru c r a r

beh vi o S in ce g oup i p a tte n of f n ction l les

a r . a r s a r u a ro or

a n i tegn tion f st tus cts in t

ra un ified wh le kn wl
o a -
a o a o ,
a o

edge f the p t pl yed by the m em be ship i ve y im p

o ar a r s r or

t n t We m ust un de st n d the ole f g oup m embe s in

a . r a r o r r

the m in ten n ce n d g owth f g ups

a a a r o ro

B en n e n d S he ts de a de g c lled tten tion t th

.

a a a c a o a a o e

fa ct th a t stude n ts f g o up dyn mi cs especi lly in thei o r a ,

a r

p cti c l c on ce n with le de sh ip t in in g h ve t di tion

ra a r a r ra ,
a ra

a lly eleg ted m em be sh ip oles t p o si ti n f secon d y

r a r r o a o o ar

im p o t n ce r a E ven w se m o st in vesti g to s h ve t itly

. or ,
a r a ac

i de n t ified m em be sh ip wi th f ll o we sh ip Th i s i den tifi

r o r . ca

ti on h oweve seem s t be in c n si sten t wi th thei vowe d

,
r, o o r a

in te est in eff ect ive g up f un ct i o ni n g Fo if m em be s

r ro . r r a re

o n ly f o llo we s w h o m ust be gu i ded by ski ll f ul le de s th

r a r ,
e

c n cepts of g o up esp s ibility n d g up p o ductiven es

o r r on a ro r s

which l om la ge in the ese ches f g oup dyn ami cs h av

o r r ar o r e

a dub i o us st tus F th i s e s o n the

a . gum en t f o g e te
or r a ar r r a r

st ess n m em be ship les in g oup psych l gy p ti u

r o r ro r o o ,
ar c

l ly i n g o p t in in g i s un d n d tim ely
ar r u ra s o a
18

B e nn e an d S he ts p o ceeded on the p emi se th t m o in g

.
,

a r r a v

tow d g p go l i g oup esp on s ibil ity n t the wo k

ar a ro u a s a r r ,
o r

o f a f ew dom in n t in d ivi du ls o f a f m l le de Th
a a r o or a a r . e

l tte
a we p in ted o t in C h pte 6 i h im self a m embe
r, a s o u a r ,
s r

wh o, t gethe wi th the m embe s sh es in the p on

o r o r r ,
ar res

s ib i li t o f w o k in g t o w d c o llect i ve g
r l T h g i zar a
y o n oa . e r a a

18 See B enn e an d Sh e a ts , Fu n cti ona l l

ro es of g ro u p m emb ers .
39 0 OU P DYN AMIC S AND INDIVI D U AL BE HAVIO R GR

of i n o l em e nt in the g o up s p o cess Th i s m y t ke the

’

v v r r . a a

f m of cyn ic i s m n on ch l n ce h o sepl y n d o the m o

ro ,
a a ,
r a ,
a r re

o less stud i es f o m s f o u t of fie ld beh v i o

‘ ’

r r o a r .

Th m in p o in ts of the fo eg in g O bse v t i n a
e a fi st r o r a o re r ,

th t these in divi du l oles m ust n ot be c nf used with th

a a r o e

in d ivi du l i zed ch a cte o f o le e n tm en t a we desc ibed

a ra r r ac s r

it in the p ece di n g tw o sect io n s ; n d secon d th t they

r a ,
a are

in tu li ty s imple f m s of inte g o up con flict

ac a or r r .

We tu n n ow to th se cl sses of oles s o utlin ed by

r o a r a

B en e n d S he ts which t uly involve i di i du ls in g oup

,

n a a ,
r n v a r

f u n t i n in g
c o .

1 G o u p tas k o l
. r A s the te m im pl ies these oles e
-
r es . r ,
r ar

t a sk cen te ed I t en ct s b o th le de s n d n onl d
-
r s a or a r a ea ers ,

wo k to gethe to s lve c omm on p oblem S in ce n spe

.
,

r r o a r . o

c ifi c le i fo m lly ss i gn ed to an y m embe e ch in d i
ro s r a a r, a

vi du l m y success ively p a ticip a te in

a a m n y o le b r as a r e

h vi o s
a the o cc a s i n pe m its o dem n ds Th m in
r as o r r a . e a

thin g i s th t eve y m embe p ticip tes h the f eedom

a r r ar a ,
or as r

o f ch i ce t o p oti cip te in the f cili t ti n n d coo din tion

ar a ,
a a o a r a

of g up effo t tow d s lvin g the g up s p oblem ’

ro r ar o ro r

S in ce oles pl yed by in dividu ls n t by g ups s

.

r a re a a ,
o ro a

such g o up ta sk les exp ess them selves in specific fo m s

,
r -
ro r r .

They b iefly des ibed bel w in the de in whi ch they

a re r cr o or r

in B en n e s n d S he ts ep o t
,

a ppe
’ ’
ar a a r r .

Th i niti to con t i bu t
e suggests n w i de a s o difl n t
a r- r or e r e re

w ys o f eg d in g g o up p oblem This m ay t ake th

a r ar a r r . e

fo m Of p op o s l of n w go l n w defin ition of th
r r a a e a ,
a e e

p blem suggested s olution o n w w y of m ob i li zin g

ro ,
a ,
r a e a

the g up s effo ts n d skills in p oblem s olvin g

ro
’

r a r

Th info m tion s e ke
.

e sks f o eluci d tion of p op o s ls

r a -
e r a r a r a

a nd f f a ctu l o uth it ative inf o m tion p t inin g to

or a r a or r a er a

the p blem ro .

On th o the h n d the opi nio n s ee ker i l oo ki n g n t f o

e r a ,
-
s o r

f cts but f a cl ific ti n f th val ue p em i ses which

a or ar a o o e r a re

r el ted to the p oblem

a r .

19 I bid .
, p . 45 . I ta li ci z a ti on s o f de scri p tiv e p hras es a re n o t i n th e ori g i n al .
R OLE DYN AMICS 39 ]

C om p a ed wi th the inf o m a tion seeke the informa tion

r r -
r,

ct s b in gs h i o w n expe i e n ce t o be a
g i v er
W f a ,
on r s r r

the p oblem o fo m ul tes e s on ble gen e liz ation s

r r r a r a a ra

Un like the op inion seeke the opinion giv er exp esses

.
,

-
r, -
r

W h teve bel i e f s he th inks m i ght be elevan t t o the t sk

a r r a ,

p arti ularly h i op inion of wh a t the g o up s values ought

c s r
’

t o be .

Th e la bora tor con c etely spells o t o i llust a tes i de a s

e r u r r ,

p esen ts e s on s f o suggestion s m de by the g o up mem

r r a r a r

be s n d t ies to p edict h ow a suggesti n o a p op o sed

r ,
a r r o r r

s olution wo uld wo k ou t r .

A coordina tor cl a ifies ela tion ships m on g i de a s t i es to r r a ,

r

pull the i de s to gethe o ttem pts t c oo din te sep a te

a r, r a o r a ra

a ct i vi t i es in t o an e ff ect i ve g up effo t ro r .

A n ori e n ter summ a i zes th d i sc ss i on s n d a ct ivi ties o f r e u a

the m em be s in o de to en ble them to see the i p o s ition

r r r a r

with espect to the g oup g l o ises question s con cem

r r oa ,
r ra

in g the d i ecti o n wh ich the g up d i scuss i n i t ak in g

r ro o s .

e a lua tor criti c a tte m pts t o ev a lu a te the g o up s

’

Th e v - r

a ch i eve m e n t in te m s of the g o p t sk He m y do thi s by

r r u a . a

ev lua tin g the lo gi c o fe sibility of p p s ls m de by the

a r a ro o a a

m em be s r

S ince g oups do not lw ys pe f m at a high pe k n

.

r a a r or a a

e ner i z er i s a use ful m em be

,

H i f un ct i on i s t o st im ul a te
g r . s

the g oup n o t on ly to pe fo m but t pe fo m t a hi ghe

r r r ,
o r r a r

qu a li ta tive level .

The e a m an y g o ups wh se cti n s

r re e i ded o im r o a o ar a r

p ed de by the pe f o m an ce o n eglect o f v a i o us
r mrech a r r

l p o cedu es Th e proc du l t e ch n i ia n fulfills th i s

”
ni ca r r . e ra c

fun ction He expedites the g up s w k by pe fo min g

. ro
’

or r r

such o utine t a sks as di st ibutin g m te i ls e n gin g the

r r a r a ,
r a rra

se a tin g n d o fo th ,
a s r .

Th reco der pl a ys the

e le f g o up m em o y He
r ro o r r .

keeps n cc un t of suggesti s deci s ion s the esults of

a a o on , ,
r

group di scuss ion etc , .

2 G o up bui ldin g a n d m i n tena nce o le

. r -
Th e oles in -
a r s . r

th i s c tego y a a conce n ed with the fun ction in g of the

r re r
392 OU P DYN AMICS AND IN D IVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

g ro up as g o up M oa e spec ri fic lly th f.u n ct i o n of these

r a e

r o les i t o f o ste
s n d m a in t i n g o up ce n te ed
r a ttitudes n d a r -
r a a

beh a vi o s f o the purp o se of m ain ta in in g stren gthenin g

r r , ,

a n d pe petu a t in g the g o up a
r a g o up L ike the g oup r s r . r

t sk oles these e pe fo m ed by in d ivi dua ls and the e

a r ,
ar r r ,
r

fo e e m anifested in specific an d i den tifi ble fo m s In

r ,
ar a r .

p esen tin g them belo w we a g in f ll w the cl ss ifica tion

r a o o a

n d desc i pt i n g i ve n by B e nn e a n d S he ts
,

a r o a .

Th e n cou a ge a ccepts the c o n t ibut i n s of the m em

r er r o

be s with wa mth n d app ov l He a dia tes a sp i it o f

r r a r a . r r

a c ept n ce an d un de sta n din g of o the s i de a s a n d gg s

c a r r
’

su e

t ion s by m e an s Of p i se an d en c ou a gem ent ra r

S ince all ctive n d p o ductive g oups a m ked by

.

a a r r re ar

d issen s ion n d di s a g eem e nts ha m onize plays n eff e

a r ,
a r r a c

tive p t in c e tin g n d m in t inin g g oup cohes i on He

ar r a a a a r .

is m ed i a t o i n d i sputes n d d i s g eem en ts a n d a fa c il i t tor

a r a a r a

o f te n s io n ele se in the m embe s B ec ause of th is ski ll in

r a r .

con cili tion he h s been c all ed a s o ci l Oile

a ,
a a -
r .

Th e comp o mis f cilita tes th g o up s p g ess towa d

r er a e r
’

ro r r

o l by y i eld in g h i w n p s it i on i n d i spute He m d
a
g a s o
y o o ,
a . a

t h i s by a dm i tt i n g h i o w n m i st ak e by m o d ify in g h i s o w n
s ,

i de s f o the s ke Of g up p o du t iven ess by self c o n t o l

a r a ro r c ,
-
r

i n th in te est of g o p h m o n y
e r n d the l ike r u ar ,
a .

Th im p o t n ce f eff ective c om m un i c t io n in g up b e
e r a o a ro

h v io h
a been f equen tly emph s ized Th ga te keeper
r as r a . e

a nd
p e di te
ex f ulfi ll s the f un ct
r i n o f keep in g the ch nn els o a

o f c o mm un i c t i on o pe n He do es th is i n v io us w ys
a . ar a ,

depen din g of c u se on h is im gin tion n d skill Th e

,
o r , a a a .

m st common w ay i by en c ou a gin g n d help in g o the s to

o s r a r

p ticip te in the g oup s delibe a tion s C n c etely he

ar a r
’

r . o r ,

m y do th i s by skin g f m e m be A s i de s by suggest ’
a a or r a or

i n g th a t in d i vi du l co n t ibution s be l im i ted in le n gth in

a r
,

o de
r to pe m i t
r m an y pe s on s as p o ss ible t o m ke sug
r as r a

gestion s .

Th st nd d et ter sets up
e a ar goal f the g oup to st ive
-
s a or r r

f o an d est bl i shes
r c ite ion f o ev lu tin g the qu lity of
a a r r r a a a

i t a chi eve m e n ts
s .
39 4 OU P DYN AMIC S AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

SHAR ED FRAM E S O F RE FERE NCE The te m f m e of “ . r ra

r efe e n ce is widely used in con tem p o y s o ci l psych l

r
”
rar a o

o
gy I.t e f e s to the c n text wh i ch dete m in es
r r pe cep o r ou r r

tion s of Objects pe s n s n d even ts ; o the system of ,

r o ,
a r

f n ction a l el ti n s c n s istin g of in fluen ces Ope tive at

u r a o o ra a

given tim e A f m e f efe en ce n t nly dete m in es o u

.
”2 1
ra o r r o o r r

a ttitudes b t o pe cepti n s of o u o les R les de ive

ur r o ur r . o r

the i m e n in gs f m the f m e of e fe en ce f om the p t

r a ro ra r r ,
r a

te n f fun ction lly el ted pe ception s by m e n s of whi ch

r o a r a r a

we un con s i usly h bitu“lly ev l te

c o expe i en ce or a a a ua ou r r .

Th f m e of ef e en ce i sc le by m e n s of whi ch we ”
e ra r r s a a a

j dge the s o ci l en vi onm e n t n d o p s iti n in it An

u a r a ur o o .

Object n even t o n expe i en ce is st uctu ed o g n ized

,
a ,
r a r r r r or a

in t o am e n in gful wh le by the f am e Of e f e e n ce o the

a o r r r ,
r

sc le Of values which we sh ll see we cqui e l gely

a ,
as a ,
a r ,
ar

f om the g oup in which the object even t

r r expe i en ce i , ,
or r s

embedded Acc o d in gly wh ile we a t in li m ited w y

. r ,
c a a

o n the b s i s o f in d iv i du l f
a m es o f e f e e n ce —o beh vio a ra r r ur a r,

as we h ve s i d is alw ys to s om e exten t in d“
a a i v i du li zed o
,
a a r

un i que — cti n s a f the m st p t n ch o ed in

”
ou r a o re or o ar a r
”

a f m e est bli shed by the g oups wi th whi ch we i den tify

ra a r

O u selves
r .
22

G oup f me f fe nce While attitudes h ve n

r ra s o re re . a a

in d ivi du l l o cus n d m o de o f exp ess i n they

a f o the
a r o ,
a re r

m st p t g o up dete m in ed We cq i e them f om o the s

o ar r -
r . a u r r r ,

n d they exp ess the m selves l gely within the g oup s ’

a r ar r

b oun d ies I f pe ple pe e ive objects pe s n s o even ts

ar . o rc ,
r o ,
r

s im il ly it i bec use they sh e the s m e f m es of efe

ar s a ar a ra r r

en ce If they eject N eg o es o Jews it i be use the

,

. r r r , s ca

gro up s wi th which they i den tify them selves vo id o con a r

d m n these m in o i t i es Th f m es o f e f e e n ce
e n t
r . e ra r r are o

o nl y i n te n l i zed by eve y i n d iv i du l b t
r a c om m n i r a u are u

ca t d toe n d sh ed with othe pe s on s All s ci l ttitudes

a ar r r . o a a

f M CW f g
Yk w Sh eri and Sh e ri ou t li n e o s ocial p s y ch o lo y
21 . . .
, An f ( re v . ed ; .

New

M f
22 A
or :

rev i e
Harp er
of th is jC B ros
su b
.
,

e ct , i n cl u di n
p .

g
41 .

g
n um e ro u s e m p i ri ca l s t u di e s , is f oun d

YkJ W
in
or :
. Sh eri
oh n
an d H
il ey 8: Son s , I n c
. a n tri l ,

.
,
The p s y cho lo y o f e g o - in v o lv e m e nts ( N e w
ROLE DYN AMICS 95

i d wi th in
a publi c f m e of ef e en ce Thi s i s

q ha t m k them i gid n d en du in“

li
ar e u re a ra r r

l a ge
.

r
‘

g When they
a es r a r .

ch n ge it i n t gen e lly bec se pe s on sees the l ight

a ,
s o ra au a r
”

o r
p e ce i ves
r the e of h i w ys but bec use the f m e o f rro r s a ,
a ra

r efe en ce whi ch he h h ed with the s h bee m o di

r as S ar o r as n

fie d by ll of the m A h n ge i n s i l tti t des the n i

a . c a oc a a u , ,
s a

g oup phen om en n n t s olely n in d ivi du l ch n ge o f

r o ,
o a a a

m in d .

O ch i ef c on ce n in this section h weve i n o t with

ur r ,
o r, s

ch n ge f ttitudes but with beh vio l ch n ge Th f mes

a o a a ra a . e ra

of efe en ce
r g p h ed pe eption s ; they f un ction
r a re ro u -
S ar rc

m o stly i n g o ups C h n ge in beh v i o r c n t sted wi th

. a a r, as o ra

ch n ge in ttit des h it i gin in the efe en ce f m es of

a a u ,
as s or r r ra

inf o m a l n d est bl i shed g ups I n

r a de to n swe a ro or r a r our

question eg din g wh t g oup f cto s c use ch n ge in

.

r ar a r a r a a a

r o les t be foll owed n ot n ly by ch n ges f ttitudes but

o o a o a

even m o e im p o t n tly by ch ges in ti n we m ust ex

r r a an ac o ,

a m in e the n tu e n d fun ct i n s f ce t in g o ps in wh i ch
a r a o o r a r u

f m es of efe en ce pe te
ra r r o ra .

1 R fe e n ce g ou p
. e Th c o n cept f ef e e n ce g up
r r s .
23
e o r r ro

h s bee n used ext e n s i vely in the l st dec de t in d i c te the

a a a o a

s ou ce Of ttitudes n d the i m o dific tio A ef e en ce

r a a r a n . r r

g oup i on with which n in divi du l cl sely i de n tifies

r s e a a o

h im self Th in te n li z ti n f v l es f wh ich we h ve
. e r a a o o a u o a

sp ken on seve l o cc s i n s wh ich im pels pe s n t o pe

o ra a o ,
a r o
‘

i
ce v e the g oup s v lues h i w n n d to feel th t he i s
r
’

a as s o a a

a ctin g n t un de c mp ls i o but n the b s i s of the g o up

o r o u n o a r

v lues wh i h he h
a pp op i ted t kes pl ce in
c e fe as a r r a ,
a a a r r

en ce g o p r u .

R efe e e g ups d iffe f m the kin ds of g ps in the

r nc ro r ro o r ro u

r e di ess f pe s o n s to e t blish l se i den tifi ti n with

a n o r s a a c o ca o

them An in divi du l n m lly bel n gs t v i us g oups

. a or a o o ar o r ,

t s m e f wh i h he i
o o n ly exte
o lly o p ss ively el ted
c s o rn a r a r a ,

o r t s om e in whi ch h i m em be ship confe s p cti c l d

o s r r ra a a

f ff g
Th e term re eren ce ro u p w a s rst u s e d by Hy m a n i n h i s i n v es ti a
23
fi g g
ti on o f ra m es o f re eren ce

g
Ps y ch o l N o 2 69
r o u p s s e e Sh e ri
,
.
,

an d
Se e H Hy m a n Th e p sy ch o lo y of s ta tu s A rch
.

f W
.

For a co m p reh en s i v e di s cu s si o n o f re eren ce

i ls o n Gro u p re lati ons at t h e cros sroads , ch a p ix
.
,

f
, .

, . .
396 OU P DYN AMI C S AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

van ta ges o to o the s l gely g in st h is own wi shes A

,
r r ar a a .

r e fe en ce g oup i n ss o ci a tion of pe s on s t wh ich he

r r s a a r o

w a nts t o bel on g n d in wh i ch he fin ds s ti s f a ct i on s whi ch

a a

o the g o ups do n ot gen e lly ffo d h im Th i s g oup he

r r ra a r . r

f eels i his g o up n d the fun ction s whi ch it pe f m s are

s r ,
a r or

a ctivi ti es with whi ch he wi shes to i den tify h im self A .

r efe en ce g o up no t only expects devo tion f om h im but i t

r r r

gives h im dev tion in etu n This m utu al s ati sf ction

o r r . a

helps to b eed the sen se of s oli da i ty of whi ch we sp oke at

r r

len gth in Ch apte 3 r

F om the p ucity of empi ical eviden ce t h n d on e m y

.

r a r a a a

te n t tively sse t th t ch an ges in le e ss o ci ted wi th

a a r a ro ar a a

ch n ges f st tus in the g oup o with shif tin g n e s a lle

a o a r r o
’

i nc t n o the r e f e e n ce g o up Th e fi st pe cept i ble

g a e o a r r r . r r

ch n ges in these s itua tion s ar in the ttitudes of in d ivi d

a e a

ua ls These ch n ges
. con sequen t up on a ch n ge in
a a re a

f m es of e fe en ce f llowed by ch n ges in self pe ception s

ra r r o a -
r

whi ch le d to ch an ges in a ttitudes

a .

Now in ce ,
ch n ge in e fe en ce g oup in evi t bly in
S a a r r r a

volves ch n ge f om n g oup to nothe o m o dific

a a r o e r a r, r a a

ti n of fun ction s wi th in the o i gin l g o up the in d ivi du l s

o r a r ,
a
’

beh avi o ch n ges t m eet h i n w st tus n the g o up He

r a o s e a i r .

a cqui es n ew ole o set of oles These oles c ll f

r a r ,
r r . r a or

n w fo m s
e f beh vi o ; f
r un less h i s beh vio ch n ges to
o a r or a r a

fulfill the n w fun cti n s he c n n o t se ve as n e ff ective

e o ,
a r a

m em be We w thi s s itu tion illust ted in the ex amples

r . sa a ra

o f ch n gin g f om w o ke to fo em n o t o stew d In
a r r r r a r ar .

ch n gin g h i st tus f om n e to the the the in d ivi du l

a s a r o o r, a

c han ged h i oles to m eet the dem an ds of the n w p o s iti on

s r e .

Th i s i n vo lved a e o i e n t a t ion o f tt itudes A tt itudes coul d

r r a .

n t e m in l o cked up i n s i de the se l f of th e in d i vi du l ; they

o r a a

led to the pe fo m n ce of new fun ction s Hi ction s now

r r a . s a

d iff e ed in defin able w ays f om th se which h cte i zed

r r o c ara r

h im be f e he ch an ged h i or o les Th fo e m n f o ex m s r . e r a ,
r a

ple n ow h d t ssum e a p o s iti n f supe o di n ti n

, a o a o o r r a o ,
or

pe h ps even of dom in n ce Th e m nn e f el atin g h im

elf to h is fo m e fell ow w ke s un de we n t ch n ge M n y
r a a . a r o r

s r r -
or r r a a . a

o f h i fun ct io n s Obvi o usly h d to ch a n ge a n d these ch n ges

s a , a
398 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO RGR

s on s f eel in gs
’
ch cte i zed b y we ak a ren on ex i ste n t ara r a or

sen se f l y lty an d el tedn ess This i t e of m n y sec

o o a r a . s ru a

on dary g o ups in wh i ch n i n d i vi d a l s c on t a cts a f m l ’

r a u re or a

an d less o in vo lved n d wh se n o m s he h s n o t cle ly

g e a o r a ar
-
,

in te n a li zed Hi s el tio n to the m i l gely m g in a l These

r . r a s ar ar .

m em be sh ip groups m y r n the e n ti e g m ut of a flil i ti o n s a ru r a a

f om the fam ily to the cli que the chur ch n d the p oli tic l
r , , a a

p a ty While e a ch on e of these is usu lly ls o e fe en ce

r . a a a r r

g oup if the in divi dual clo sely i den tifies h im self wi th it it i s

r ,

a m e m be sh i p g o up in th t the i n d iv i du l exe c i sed li ttle

r r a a r or

n o ch i ce in bec om in g
o m e m be a r .

When it d iffe s f om e fe e n ce g o up m em be sh ip r r a r r r ,
a r

g oup is t
r

an beh avio bec use of h i m embe sh ip in it We

d r f a s r . are , o

c ou se ls o influen ced by g oups w ith wh ich we

r ,
a n ot r a re

i de n ti fied a well s by the a tt i tudes n d a cti on s f m em be s

,
s a a o r

of g o ups to wh i ch we bel o n g
r Fo th i s e s on the f un ct i on . r r a

o f the tw o k in ds f g ups i f eque n tly the s a m e b o th o ro s r :

a ffect ttitudes n d beh avio

a a r

Good ex m ples of m em be ship g ups—which m y h ow

.

a r ro a ,

eve als o h ve ch acte istics of e fe en e g ups — th se

r, a ar r r r c ro a re o

loo se ss ci ti n s whi ch h avi n g n f m lly defin ed n cho

a o a o ,
o or a a r

a ges o f am es Of e fe en ce im pel in divi d ls sp nt n e usly

r r r r , ua o a o

to fo m g o ups in o de t o
r ch ieve s om e st b ility in thei
r r r a a r

i n te el t io n s C l i ques n d g n gs illust te th i s type f g o up

rr a . a a ra o r

fo m a tion E a ch gives to i ts m embe s f am e of efe en ce

r . r a r r r ,

N
fY k Mw 26 e co mb s fi f
f C W Kf M
’
de g
n iti o n is in h i s S o cia l p s y ch olo y , p 2 25
ou n d S ee . .

urth er

or : Ha rp er
. Sh eri

f g
an

B ro s
d

K M“ K
. C
,
(
Lz
. Sh eri , G roup s i n h a rmo ny a nd tens i on New
.

R erton an d A
. . S i tt o n tri b u ti on s . .
,

f
to th e th e o ry
eld
o f re e re n ce

Stu dies in th e s cop e a n d m eth od o f

K
ro u p b e h a v i o r, i n R

th e A m eri ca n s old ie r
e rt on a n d P F a ars . . . .

f
( Glencoe , I ll : Th e Free Pres s
u n cti o n s o f re e ren ce

Ha rtley ( e ds
.

ro u p s in G E Sf g pp
wg
405 1

ans on T H N w Yk L
05 ; a n d H H

R ead ing s in s ocia l p sy ch o lo y rev e d ; Ne w

(
e
e ll ey

com b a n d E
Tw o

or : Henry
,
,

. .
.

, .

.
.

.
. .

,
,

. .

Holt 8: C o I nc , pp 4 1 0- 14 . . .
R OLE DYN A MICS 399

or a system f o anch o a ge p oin ts by

r ,
m e a n s of whi ch they
l c te o pl ce
o a r a
‘

the ng l s i n a web ve o f s o c i a l r el a ti on sh ips .

Th e interre la ti on f d m e m b ers hi
p g rou s
o p f
re ere n ce an .

Th e rel a t i on sh ip betwee n re fe re n ce gro ups an d m e m bersh ip

grou ps is an yth in g but s imple Ou r descripti on of the tw o .

h a s sh o wn th a t wh ile abstra ctly they a re sep ara ble i n con

, ,

crete p ra ctice they ten d to m erge or in terpen etra te C om .

m o n se n se a s well as em p iri c a l rese a rch sh o ws th a t a tti tude s

a n d a ct i o n s a re in flue n ced by the v a l u es o f the gro ups i n

which on e h a s m em be rship A t the s am e tim e the rese a rche s

S N
.

of H m a n he rif ewc om b a n d o the rs wh i ch W e h a v e

y , , ,

cited dem on stra te the stron g n eed to o rien t on e s a ttitude s ’

a n d beh a v i or i n the d i rect i on o f selected g ro ups th a t i s , ,

r e fe en e g o ups
r c r .

Th cl se el tio n sh i p betwee n the tw i sh ply b o ught

t i n the st dy by M e t on n d K i tt wh i ch we h ve c i ted
e o r a o s ar r
27
ou u r a ,
a .

I n th i s st dy m e m be sh ip g ups
u kin d of efe en c r ro a re o n e r r e

g oup Th is i illust ted in s ldi e s ev l ti on s of p m o

r . s ra o r
’

a ua ro

tion opp t n i ties in the m ed f es A p a d oxi c l fin d

or u ar o rc .
28
ar a

in g w th t the les s the Opp t n ity f p m o ti on the mo e

as a or u or ro r

f v ble the ttitude tow d p m ti n opp tunity Thus

a o ra a ar ro o o or .
,

f o ex m ple wh ile the A i C ps h d ve y h i gh p om o t i n

r a ,
r or a a r r o

te Ai C ps m en we e m ch m e c iti c l of p om tion
Opp o t i ties th n y th M ilit y P li ce in wh ich p om
ra ,
r or r u or r a r o

r un a ,
sa ,
e ar o ,
r o

tion Opp o t n ities we e p b bly the wo st in the wh ol

r u r ro a r e

A m y Th e sa m e c itic l ttitude ch cte ized the bette

r . r a a a ra r r

educ ted s oldie even tho ugh h i ch n ces of p om o tion we e

a r, s a r r

m ch hi ghe th n th o se o f the p o ly educ ted on es

u r a or a .

Th expl n a t io n o f the p
e adox l y p tly in the f am e a ra a ar r

of efe en ce of g oup a tes f p m ti n S in ce a h i gh a te

r r r r o ro o o . r

o f m b ili ty ff o ds f equen cy of s ci l c on t cts n d ch n ge

o a r r o a a a a

o f j o bs it stim ul a tes st on g h o pes f p om t i n S in ce h o w

, r o r o o .
,

eve the supply of des i ble j bs i lim ited m an y m en a

r, ra o s ,
re

27

th e th eo ry
M e rto n an K
f g
d
o f re ere n ce
i tt , i n M
ro u p s
ert o n

.
an d L a z a rs f e l d C o n tri bu ti on s to

V A s rep orte d in de ta il in S A St o ufl er et
g
28
. . a l
Th e Am eri ca n sold ier
.
, ,

o ls I an d II of Stu di e s i n s o cia l
.
p s y ch o lo y i n W orld W a r I I ( Prin ceton
Pri n cet o n U n iv ers ity Pres s ,
4 00 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVID U A L BE HAVIO R
GR

f ust a ted in thei wi shes a n d becom e d isco u ged by the

r r r ra

p oo p o spects f o p om o tion Th is ep esen ts a di sh m on y

r r r r . r r ar

between the i hopes n d chievem e n ts el tive t o o the s

r a a r a r

in the i g o up I t m e a n s th t the i m em be sh i p g o ups are

r r . a r r r

n o t the i ef e en ce g o ups If we then th ink Of the s oldie s ’

r r r r . r

ra nk th e g o up — a y of c o p o a ls —t o wh i ch he bel on gs
as r s r r

( m e m be sh i p g o up ) a n
r d h i a sp i ed a n k —
y o f se
r ge n ts s r r sa r a
—a s the g p to which he w n ts to el te h im self ( e f e en ce
ro u a r a r r

g o ups ) hi ttitudes an d ction s tow d the A m y e the

r ,
s a a ar r ar

r esult n t of the com b in ed influen ce of the tw o g oups

a r

Newcomb s well known B enn in gt on study ( 1935—39 )

.

’
-

a ls o sh o ws th a t a lth o ugh m e m be sh ip g ups n d efe e n ce

,
r ro a r r

g o ups a d istin ct they in te ch an ge f equen tly I n dividu ls

r re r r a

i n the B e n n in gton c omm un i ty a c q u i ed W i dely

.
,

pp ved r a ro

a tt i tudes t the exten t th a t the m embe sh ip g o up se ved

o r r r

as a p os itiv e
p o i nt o f f
re eren ce .

Th e B en n in gton m em be “ ship g o up w as c omp o sed of r r

a b ut o 250 wom en studen ts el tively h om gen e o us in e ,

r a o r

spect t o h om e b a ckg o un d f m u b an econ om ic ally r ro r ,

p ivileged fam ilies wh o se s o ci l ttitudes we e c on se v

r a a r r a

tive ”29

M ost in dividu ls in this m embe ship g oup of 250 wom en

.

a r r

wen t th o ugh m ked ch n ges in ttitudes tow d im p o t n t

r ar a a ar r a

publi c i ssues In m o st c ses a we sh ll see the m embe

. a ,
s a ,
r

ship g o up a ls se ved a s the efe en ce g o up in wh i ch the ir

r o r r r r

a tt i tudes ch n ged a .

I n f m t io n c n ce n in g the m em be sh ip g o up w
or a ob o r r r as

t a in e d by m e n s of a L ike t ty e sc le o f P l it ic l n d E o
a r a
p
-
o a a c

n om i c P o g ess iv i sm wh i ch de lt w i th such c o n te m p o ary

r r a r

public issues un em pl ym en t publi c elie f an d the i ghtsas o , r , r

o f o g a n i zed l b o —a ll v i t a l quest i o n s i n the 1 9 30

’
r a r s .

I n d i vi du l p est i ge t B en n in gt o n w a a ss ci a ted w ith

a r a s o

n on n se v ti m the st dy
co eve led Th e m e a su e of p es
r a s , u r a . r r

ti ge w a the f equen cy of ch oice s one f five studen ts

s r a o

g
29 T . M .

th e B en n in to n
Nwg e co mb ,

wg
A ttitu de de v elo p m ent a s a un c ti on o f ref e re n ce fN w L
g s tu dy , i n G E S an s on , T H co m b , an d E
Yk
ro u p s : . . e . . . .

Ha rtl ey R ea di n s in s oc ia l p s y ch o lo y ( rev e d ; New o r : Henry . .

Holt Co .
, I nc .
, p 42 1
. .
4 02 OU P DYN AMIC S AND INDIVI D U A L BE HAVIO R
GR

num be of st te m e n ts t ke n f om the P oli ti c l a nd E c o n m i c

r a a r a o

P g ess ivism S c ale Th e tw o w ys we e foll ws ( 1 ) t o

ro r . a r as o :

exp ess a g eem en t o di s g eem en t with such st tem ents

r r r a r a as

Th e budget sh o uld be b l n ced be fo e the g ve n m e n t a a r o r

spen ds ny m n ey on s o ci l se u ity n d ( 2 ) to estim te

a o a c r ,
a a

the pe cen t ge of f eshm en j n i s sen i s n d f culty

r a r u or or a a

m em be s w h o w ould g ee w i th the st tem en t F m the i

, , ,

r a r a . ro r

resp o ses n in dex of d ive ge n ce f ow tti tudes f m the

n a r o n a ro

e stim ted m j ity f junio s n d sen i s w c mputed In

a a or o r a or as o

h is n lys i s o f th i s in dex N w om b w i tes th t

.

a a e c r a ,

p iti i d x th p t f i i di ht thth d g f h t
whi h h w p a os ve n e on e ar o a s en o r n c a es e e ree o

m ti
l m t d g ti i d x th d g t whi h th y l
c er o n t re s on ses a re ore co n s erv a ve an o se o er

w d x l
c a ss a e s, an a ne a ve n e e e ree o c e a re ess

f f lly
co n serv a tiv e

a ith u
Th o s e sen iors . h ose
re fle ct s th e t ru e difl er e n ce
iv ergen ce in de
et
m ore or ess
e en ow n a n d c a ss a t ti tu de

m a y ( or ma y n ot ) b e u s in g th e c a s s a s a n a t titu de re eren ce grou ; l

b w
f
l
p
w
t h o se h ose di v ergen ce i n e e s re resen a n e a ggera t e dx p t x
o r m in i d
m i z e d v ersi on o f th e tru e re a ti o n shi b et een ow n a n d c a ss a titu e l p w l t d
l ly t d f p
ly fi t
a re c e a r n ot u s i n
g t h e cl a s s a s a n a t it u e re ere n c e
gr ou or i f so , ,

1
on in a c iti ou s s en s e 3 .

Th eesults of the in i ion

r o i of the vest g t supp t the V ew
a r

d i stin ctn ess n d el tedn ess f m e m be sh ip g o ups n d ef e

a r a o r r a r r

e n ce g o ps I n the B enn in gton c mm un ity

r u . i n m st o ,
as o

o the s m em be sh ip i
r ,
n o t n ecess i ly e fe en ce p in t f o
r s ar a r r o r

a cqui in g ttit des ; yet t the s m e tim e th e cqui s i tion of

r a u a a ,
a

a ttit des depen ds on the p cess f el tin g on eself to

u ro o r a a

g o p These fin d in gs supp o t the thes

r u .

“ i s in o the w o ds
th t pe s on s ttitude devel pm e n t i f un cti on Of the
a a r
’

a
r

o s
,

a
r r ,

w a y in wh ich he el a tes h im self b o th t o the t o t l m em be r a r

ship g oup n d to n o m e e fe en ce g o ups

r a o e r or r r r .
”3 2

Wh t i the elev n ce f th is type of k wledge to the

a s r a o no

un de st d ing of oles n d o le beh avio ! Th n swe i

r an r a r r e a r s

qu ite cle nd n be st ted b i efly

a r, a Th ch cte of a ca a r . e a ra r

co mm n i ty wh i ch i to say a g up i eflected in th
u les s ro s r e ro

Nw g
, ,

M f f
A tt i tu de dev e lo p m en t a s a un cti on o f re ere n ce
mb
w g Nw Y k
31 T . . e co ,

L
g rou p s : th e B en n in t on stu dy in G E S a n s o n T H
g
e co m b an d , . .
, . .
,

E . Ha rtl ey
. R eadi n s i n s ocial p sy cho lo y ( rev e d ; Ne w or : . .

Henry Holt C o I nc , p 423 .

, . . .

3 2 I b id 430
, p . . .
R OLE DYN AMI C S 40 3

wh i h it a c epts a n d ejects In B enn in gt on the pp oved

c c r . a r

o le w as n o n c n se A pe s on s ole beh vior ex ’

r ti m o rv a s . r r a

p essed itself in ttitudes n d cti n s whi ch we e com

r a a a o r

m n i ty o i e n ted ; th a t i
u -
r it eflected bs o ption in om s, r a r c

m un i ty a ff i s i n te est in stude n t ct ivi t i es

a r ,
ccept an ce of
r a ,
a

c m pus st d ds n d c des of beh vi

a an ar n d the l ike a Th o a o r, a . e

un pp oved ole w s c n se v t ism o a l a ck of in te est in

‘

a r r a o r a ,
r r

comm un ity p oblem s n d ff i s n d es ist an ce t o its co des

r a a a r a a r

o f beh a vi o E ve y in divi du l whethe con se va tive o n n

r . r a ,
r r r o

c on se va tive djusted he self t the tot l c omm un ity

r ,
a r o a

th o ugh the specific oles which she pl yed in the m em be

r r a r

shi p g oup to whi ch she belon ged the ef e en ce g up t

r or r r ro o

whi ch she a sp i ed r .

L A D R RO L S In ou discuss i n of o le beh v io n d
E E E . r o r a r a

g o up m embe ship we gued th t im in g tow d a g up

r r ar a a ar ro

go al is th esp on s ibility n t only of fo m l le de but of

e r o a r a a r

the en ti e g p Th e lea de we s i d i s him self m embe

r ro u . r, a ,
a r

wh sh a es esp on sib ili ti es with o the m embe s A s we

o r r r r .

h ve s i d epe tedly h i h ie f ole i to fa cilit te le b

a a r a ,
s c r s a ro e

h vio in o the s even tho ugh he pl ys o the les bes i des

a r r ,
a r ro .

Thi s i s bvi o usly a b o d n d ge n e l st a te m en t ; the f ct f

o r a a ra a o

co urse i th t beyon d th i s gen e al ole of in ducin g o the s to

s a ,
r r r

pl y thei les eff ectively the le de like eve y n e else in

a r ro ,
a r, r o

a g o up pl ys m n y les n d in v ious wa ys Th v iety

r ,
a a ro a ar . e ar

of o les wh i ch the le de
r pl ys i f n ction f h i pe s n a r a s a u o s r o

a li t the st uctu e of the g o up s i t t i n the n tu e o f the

y ,
r r r ua o ,
a r

g up t sk the oles of the m embe s n d o on Als o we

ro a ,
r o r r ,
a s .
,

m st em in d the e a de we do n t e f e he e t
u r r ll types of r, o r r r o a

le de ship but on ly to the dem o c ti c le de in g up

a r ,
ra a r a ro

a m n g o the m em be s I n C h pte 6 we excl ded d om in

o r r . a r u a

tion s a t it f le de sh ip I n d in g we did n ot den y

a ra o a r . so o

the existen e f a type of di ective beh vio ch cte ized

c o r a r ara r

by th n eed t dom in te o the s n d t h ve o the s depen d

e o a r a o a r

up on the des i gn ted le de N e ithe dom in ti n n o de a a r . r a o r

p end n by ethe s m
ce ks the ge n u i ely de m c
o t irc le de ar n o ra a r .
33

I n dd it ion t the ge n e l o b s i c o le the le de a ls o

a o ra r a r a r

pe fo m s wh teve speci fic o les the expect tion s of hi

r r a r r a s

33 We ret u rn to thi s in a m ore detai led dis cu s si on in C h a p ter 1 5 .

4 04 OU P DY N AMIC S AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R GR

g o up equi e A numbe of these we desc ibed b i efly in

r r r . r r r

ou r discuss ion of g o up ta sk oles a n d g o up m in ten n ce r -

r r -
a a

r o les An im p o ta n t f a ct a b o ut these oles wh i ch w

. r not r ,
as

st essed in the fo m e di scuss ion i th a t these specifi c le a de

r r r ,
s r

r o les a a ls sh ed by o the m em be s Th e Sh in g of
re o ar r r . ar

le de les stim ul tes th e g o up a wa en ess n d m tu l p

ti ip tio n wh i ch we h a ve just m e n t ion ed M o e yet i t ten ds
a r ro a r r a u a ar

c a r

S hin desc ibin g the re

.
,

to in c e se g o up p o duct i vity
r a r r ar r

lt of n un publi shed study by S ah M

.
,

su s a li sh o ws th a t ar az e s,

the sh a in g o diffus ion of le a de oles m axim i zes b oth the

r r r r

qu n tity n d qua lity of g o up s pe f o m n ce Th le a de

a a a r
’

r r a . e r

ro les of e ch in divi du l in fo in depen den t wo k g oups

a a ur r r

we e coun ted n d eco ded “

r M li s hyp o thes i s as st a ted
a r r . az e
’

by Sa b in w fo llows p o d ctivity will be g e ate

r ,
as as : r u r r

a m on g g o ups whe e the v ari ous le a de o les

r e e n cted by r r r ar a

m o st o f the g o up m e m be s ; p o duct ivi ty w ill be less whe e

r r r r

the le de les a en cted by a s m ll p op o tion of the

r ro a re a a r r

g oup m embe s
r Th i s g ees wi th H a e s fin din gs i n h i s
r .
”3 4
a r r
’

study of p ticip a to y n d supe vi s o y le de sh ip in sm ll

ar r a r r a r a

di scuss ion g o ups wh ich we d esc ibed in Ch pte 6

r ,
r a r .

M e li s hyp thes i s w
az c on fi m ed I n a g o“
’

up t sk e
o as r . r a r

qui in g pl n n in g f o in st n ce it w f un d th t the qu lity

r a ,
r a ,
as o a a

o f the p o duct a ted by th judges w s di ectly el ted

r ,
s ra e ,
a r r a

t the d iff us io n o f the v a i ous le de

o les m on g the g o up r a r ro a r

m em be s S pe m n n k d iffe e n e c
r . el tion between in
ar a ra r c o rr a

dex of ole d iff s i n n d p o ducti n tin g w a s

r u o a r o ra

Wh ile it would be g o ssly un wa n ted to ge n e li ze t oo r rra ra

m uch f om o li ttle evi de n ce the esults st en gthe n the vi ew

r s ,
r r

th t le a de sh ip i n ot nly uni quely in d ivi du l ole but ls o

a r s o a a r a

a g up m embe sh ip ole Th effective g up le de seeks

ro -
r r . e ro a r

n ei the to d omin a te othe s n o to pl ce them in p o s it ion

r r r a a

o f d epen den ce o n h im self Hi ole i to gu i de the th n . s r s ra r a

di ect A t ny te dem c t ic le a de les c n fun ction

r . a ra ,
o ra r ro a

effectively in th bsen ce of the c n ve n ti lly sc ibed e a o on a a r

T R Sa rb in , Role t heory b ei n ch a p v i in G L in dz ey
34 . .

book of s ocia l p sy ch olo y ( R e a din as s : A ddi s o ng ,

e sl e y P u bli s hi n
Ha nd
Co ,
g
gg M .
. .

-
W g .
,

I nc
wk Vol I , p 233 Th e o ri in a l s tu dy Th e re la ti o n o f role di ffus i on
. . .
-
.
, ,

to or p ro du ct iv i ty i s a n u n p u b li s h e d m a nus crip t
,

3 5 Sa rh i n Ro le th e o r
, y p 2 33 , . .
406 OU P DYN AMI C S AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

p im ily f o h i b ilities d i de s but by h ow p u p o sefully

r ar r s a an a ,
r

he p ti cip a tes in the g oup s d isc ssi n n d del ibe tion

ar r
’

u o a ra .
39

I n th i s v i ew pe s o n l i ty v a i bles n d ole beh a v io r e a r a a r r ar

in teg ted t ra cc un t f the pl ce of the le de in a syste m

o a o or a a r

o f in te l ck in g o les
r o r .

C ONCLU SION
We Open ed this ch pte with the sse tion th t the on a r a r a c

c e
p t of s le n d o le beh v i o m
ro k the a beg inn in g Of r y n a r ar a s

thes i s of in divi d l n d g up v i bles in the st dy of g o up ua a ro ar a u r

beha vio R le theo y i the m eetin g g o un d ls o f psych o

r . o r s r a o

l gic l an d s c iol o gic l con cept li z a ti n s f in di i d l n d

o a o a ua o o v ua a

s o ci l beh avio I f the syn thes i s i n ot s m u h n ctu li ty

a r . s a c a a a

as i t m i ght be the d ifficulty l i es in the p uc i ty o f

, p i a ex er

m e n t l d t a n d the in he e n t difli lty o f the subject m tte

a a a r cu a r

i tself Wh i le stute s o c i l psych ol o g i c l th in ke s l ike C o ley

M e d h ve given us fl shes of in sight into the
a a -
a r o

nd G H
.

a . . a a a

ext din a y im p t n e of oles in hum n beh vi they

ra o r r or a c r a a o r,

di d n t b se the i fo m l ti n s n expe im e n t l d t
o a r It h r u a o o r a a a . as

r em in ed f o m o e i go us in vesti g ti n s li ke th o se of
a r r r ro a o

S he if N ewcom b P s n s n d the ese ches published in

r ar o a r ar

the A me ic n S o ldi whi ch de ls with v i ety of tti t des

, , ,

r a er, a a ar a u

a m o g se vi e m e n in W ld W
n r II t c i se the subject t or ar ,
o ra o

a m e depe n d ble f o m f
or n ceptu l i z t i on a r o co a a .

Th i s ese ch h r given us bette un de st an d in g of the

ar as a r r

n tu e o f
a r o les nd le beh vio We n n ow defin e les
r a ro a r . ca ro

a s a set f expect t i n s by o the s eg din g a pe s o n cc py

o a o r r ar r o u

in g dete m in te st tus R le beh vi then i a system

a r a a . o a or, ,
s

of a ct io n s i n esp on se to the set of expect tion s est bl ished

r a a

by the g oup in which we h ave m em be sh ip G oup l ife i t

r r . r

self m y thus be con ceived s a dyn m i c p o cess f ole

a a a r o r

a ssum ption n d ole beh vio a r a r .

Th e de m ay h ve b o gged do wn in t yin g t un de
e r a r a r o r

st n d the p eci se diff e en ce between m em be ship g oups

a r r r r

a nd efe en ce g oups He is n ot lon e in th is f o n e i the

r r r . a ,
r r

39 See P Sla ter Role diff eren ti a ti on in sm all ro u p s A mer s ocia l

300—
. E .
,

f g L
, . .

C
R ev 20 3 10 Se e urth er, C B B ell a n d R
o n si s te n cy of in di v i du a l l e a ders h ip p o s iti o n in sm all

memb ershi p , I a bnorm s oc Ps y cho l , 45 . 7 64—.67

. Fren ch , Jr ,
ro u p s o f v ary i n
. .
. .

g .
. .

g
.
R OLE DY N AM IC S 07

the p nM it n o the s w h o h ve m de the d i stin ction

re s e er or r a a

h ve been lt gethe cle Th is imp ec is i n i due in p a t

a a o r ar . r o s r

t o the f a ct th a t i t i s ve y difli cu lt to a sce t i n whethe a r r a r

pe s on as su m es th a t he sh es ce t ain values with o ther

r ar r

in d ivi du ls If we kno w th t he ssum es sh ed v lues we

a . a a ar a ,

c a n be su e th a t the g o up w i th wh i ch he sh
r es them i a r ar s

re fe en ce g o up Un less we kn o w th a t he sh es f m e o f
r r . ar a ra

re fe en ce we c nn o t kn o w the g o up in whi ch he cts

r ,
a r a .

A gai n we m ust n o te th a t wh ile m em be ship g ups m ay

, ,
r ro

a lso fun ction efe en ce g ups n ot ll e fe en ce g o ups

as r r ro a r r r

s N ewc om b h a
, ,

“
a

m o st f us o
p o i n ted o t a e m e m be sh i p g

ls o influen ced by the no m s of s om e g ups

a re a
s ups fo u ,
r

r
r ro

ro
,
r

in wh i ch we e n t ec o gni zed by the s a bel n gin g

ar o r o r s o .

Thus n y g o up to wh ich a p s o n a sp i es eve n o n t o wh ich

a r er r ,
e

he hopes to belon g in the f utu e f o ex m ple college r ,

r a ,
a

f te n ity
ra r s o o ity which a high school stude nt hopes
or r r

o n d e t o j o i n ca n a ff ect h i
a tt i tudes n d beh vi o by wh a t s a a a r
y ,

he in te p ets t o be it system of n m s
r r s or
40

Finally the elation of les to pe s on lity which we have

.

,
r ro r a

o n ly ketch ily t e a ted com plic tes the p blem of o le b e

S r ,
a ro r

h vio Wh ile o the p oblem s in g o up dyn am ics m ay be

a r . r r r

d ifficult a n d v gue the e p b bly i n on e th t i mo e om a ,

r ro a s a s r c

plex In deed whe n we ttem pt to gi ve a the o etic al a cc oun t

.
,
a r

o f hum a n beh av io in te m s f o les a n d o le e n a ctm e n t we

r r o r r ,
.

ar e m o vi n g o n a h i ghly a bst a ct n d c om plex level o f ex r a

plan tion a .

All in ll desp ite the h lts f lse st a ts an d el tive n g

a ,
a ,
a r r a e

lect o f ole beh vio ou knowledge o f t h as cle ly n d

r a r, r I ar a

u n qu est io n a bly m o ved f om ph i l s o ph i c a l a n a lys i s t m r o o e

p i i
r cal ese ch r G i ve n the t im e
ar the ene
gy
. an d the i n ,
r ,

e n it of n in c e s in g n um be o f in vest i g t s le
g y u a r a
p y r a or ,
ro s

ch o lo i s dest in ed to m a ke n im p o t a n t c n t ibut i n t
gy a r o r o o

the un de st n din g of b oth in dividu l n d g o up beh vio

r a a a r a r .

40 S ee N“
wW
S o cia l p s y ch olo y p 226
e co mb ,

g w w g Se e urth er th e Sh eri s , . . f f ’

s t a te me n t :

in g i s a l s o th e
h en th e rou p
ro u p ith
i th
g w w
h ich th e in di v i du al is a ctua ll y a s s oci at
hi ch h e i den ti e s h im s el , i nt eri o ri z i n it s fi f f g
g
v al u es a n d n o rm s as h i s o w n a tti tu de s , th e n h is m e m be rs h i p a n d re ere n ce

ro u p s are o n e a n d th e s a m e ,

ch o lo g y , p 631 .
” “
Sh erif a n d Sh eri , An o u tlin e of s o ci a l p s y
.
f
C H A P TE R

G roup Dy na mics an d
Pe rso na l i ty Dy na mics

On seve l o cc a s ion s we st essed the i de —an d the ev i

ra r a

de n ce we h a ve a dduced te n ds to supp o t it—th t o n e c ann o t r a

sa
y m uch c on ce n in g the beh vi o
r of a g o up by kn o win g a r r

o n ly the pe s on l ity v ri bles o f i t s m e m be s Y et the s i tu a

a ar a r .
,

tion is n ot o sim ple nd in th is ch apte we sh ll p esen t a

s ,
a r a r

detai led n d m e b al n ced d iscussion of thi s subject

M ode n soci l psycholo gists a g ee th at pe son lity is
a or a .

r a r r a

effecti vely m olded by the g o up in whi ch the ch ild i s s o

d M o de n g o up dyn am i i sts a
r

ci a li ze . r r of on e m in d in c re

believin g th a t the a ttitudes and beh avio of pe son s e r r ar

mo dified w ,
sho wn in the p ecedin g ch apte by thei
as as r r, r

m embe ship an d efe en ce g o ups To gethe the tw o di

r r r r . r, s

ci l in e —s o c i l psych ol o gy n d g o up dyn am i cs —h ve s o l i dly

s a a r a
p
est bli shed th e con clus ion th t pe s on al ity o gan iz ti on n d
a a r r a a

g oup o g n iz tion e in tim a tely el ted They h ave sh own

r r a a ar r a .

th a t eve y pe s on eflects i n h i ow n pe s on li ty th e st uctu e

r r r s r a r r

of h i s g o up ; an d th t all g o ups
r e t o s om e exte n t
a ffected
r ar a

by the pe s on alities o f thei m embe s G o up dyn am ics n d

r r r . r a

pe s on ality dyn m i cs like othe in divi dual a n d s o cial phe

r a ,
r

n o m en a e in sep
, a ble
ar ar .
4 10 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVID U A L BE HAVIO R
GR

z a ti on ec ip o c all y infl ue n ce e a ch o the

r r In th i s ch a pte we r . r

sh ll ex m in e th is el a tionsh ip in det ail pl a cin g g e test

a a r ,
r a

em ph s is on the effect of pe son lity vari bles on g oup

a r a a r

fun ctionin g .

G ROU P FA CTO RS IN PE RS ON A LI TY DY N

A full di scuss ion of the effect of o n the in di

vi du l would equi e a c om plete evi ew of wh a t we h ave

a r r r

exp un ded in thi s b ook p t n w Th i s is n e i the n ecess a y

o u o o . r r

no fe s ible B es i des the un velin g of s o ciety s effect on

r a .
,
ra
’

the in divi du l it fo m a tion of the self an d its in tegra ti on

a ,
s r ,

of the pe s on ali ty are the p ope

r dom i n of gen e al s oc ia l r r a r

psych olo gy A cco din gly we m ust c on cen t te on the con

. r ,
ra

c ete g o up fa ct s whi ch im pel a pe s on to beh ve in ce

r r or r a r

t a in n d wi th in n o w limits p edi ctable w ys We begi n

,
a arr r ,
a .

with the pe s on ality th t is lrea dy fo m ed ; we do n ot de

r a a r

sc ibe the p o cess of it fo m ation We seek o u t th g up

r r s r . e ro

fa cto s whi ch desp ite defin able pe s on ali ty v i bles c a use

r ,
r ar a ,

a pe s o n to w o k w i th a g o up ch n ge h i
r a tt i tudes t o w ard
r r ,
a s

it en g ge in the s o lut ion of its p o blem s an d th li ke

a r e

S tuden ts of c llective beh v io have lon g kn own what

.
, ,

o a r

they h a ve yet n ot dequ ately expla in ed n am ely th a t an a , ,

in d i vi du al will pe fo m a cts in a gro up th t he wo ld n ot r r a u

co m m i t as a s o li t y in di i du l Th e psych olo gy of c wd
ar v a . ro

beh a vi o f o ex ample h as st essed th st te of hei ghten ed

r, r ,
r e a

suggestibi lity a be in g l a gely esp on s ible f o its i at ion al

s r r r rr

a n d o f te n vi o len t fo m f exp ess ion The e i s in thi s f rm r o r . r o

of beh a vi o a eduction o even the com plete o bli te a ti on

r r r r

Un de these con diti n s pe ople e a s ily

, ,

o f self c o n c i o us n ess
-
s . r o

r ela x n d even d isca d thei n o m al a n d c onven ti on al re

,
a r ,
r r

st aints
r .

We ar n ot in te ested in thi s b o k h oweve in the n a tu e

e r o , r, r

a n d fo m s of c o llect ive beh vi o

r but wi th th effect of the a r, e

sm all g o up up on the tti tudes an d beh avio of p eople

r a r .

THE PR ES SUR E TO W AR D CO NF O M I TY Wh ile it i usu ll y R . s a

im p o ss ible n d the e fo e un wi se to fit c m plex p o cesses in to

a r r o r

s imple st tem ents we sh ll sse t th a t when ll is s a i d and

a ,
a a r , a
GR OU P AND PE RSON ALITY DYN AMICS II
'

d on e the effect of the g o up up on the pe s on is a p re s u e r r s r

t o w d o nfo mity Th i s p essu e wh i ch we a ls o c lled the

,

ar c r . r r ,
a

p essu e tow d n if m ity ( see C h pte

r r ar i m ked
u OI a r s a ar

ch cte isti c of ll g o ups f om f m ilies an d o the info m l

a ra r a r ,
r a r r a

g oups to c omm un iti es n d n tion s We h ave epe tedly

r a a . r a

sh wn by m e n s of theo etic a l n d em p i ic al ese ch th t

o ,
a r a r r ar ,
a

un ifo m ity o conf m ity of beh vio in g o ups 8 due to the

r r or a r r 1

di ective fo ce of g oup n o m s nd st an d ards O d ip

r r r r a . ur e s cr

tion of the in te ci l ho us in g p ojects in C h pte 5 dem on

rra a r a r

st tes th v ali di ty of the sse ti n G o up n o m s fi ect

ra e a r o . r r a

pe ple n d c e te un ifo m ity th o ugh the g up s tt cti e

o a r a r r ro
’

a ra v

n ess to i t m e m be s a n d by the e a se of com m un i c t i on

s r a

a m n g themo When eve a g o up no m opera tes t in fluen ce

. r r r o

pe ople s beh avio the deg ee o f co nfo m ity ( un if o m ity )

’

r, r r or r

i
s r el a ted to the cohes iven ess f th g o up Th m e o o e r . e or c

h i es v e the g oup the m o e it ten ds to influe n ce it m em be

r ,
r s rs

t c o nf o m t o it st n d ds ; whe e s the less co he i ve it i s

o r s a ar r a s ,

the m e it in duces devi n t b h avio

or a e r .
2

G ou p p essure a nd ttitudina l cha nge We h ve shown

r r a . a

th t tti tudes seldom ch n ge m uch in esp n se to ve b l

a a a r o r a

pe su s ion p p gan d ppe als t g d will n d s im il

r a ,
ro a a, a o oo ,
a ar

i n flue n ces L ewin s expe im e n t in ch n gi g foo d h b its nd

’

. r a n a ,
a

o the stu di es which we h ve eviewed Sh ow th t ttitudes

r a r ,
a a

ch n ge m o t e adily when an e nti e g “up m kes it o w n

a s r r ro a s

dec is ion ega di n g im p t n t p oblem s

s r r
“

or a r .

The e seve a l go o d in vesti g ti n s ( som e of wh ich we

r a re r a o

h a ve a l e dy desc ibed ) which show th t

r a the p essu e r a ,
as r r

f o c o n f m ity in c e ses the m a gn itude of ch n ge in o p in

r or r a ,
a

i n s nd tt i tudes ls in c e ses
o a a I n a study by F tin g a o r a . es er

a n d Thib ut it w as s h o wn th t the d g ee
a f p essu e t o a e r o r r

w d un ifo m ity m akes m e s ble d iffe en ce Divid in g

,

ar r a a u ra r .

the p essu e g o ups in to hi gh m edium n d l w these au

r r r , ,
a o ,

th s f un d th t ch n ges in the s bjects espo n ses c o e

or o a a u
’
r rr

s o n d to these th ee deg ees o f p essu e t h l o w p essu e r r e -

r r
p r r ,

w C L
Th e re a de r o uld do w e ll to re v i e w h a p ter 5 a b o v e a n d Fe s nn g er
Yk
2 .
, ,

S Scha ch ter , an d K Ba ck S ocia l p res s ures i n informa l g rou p s

. .
, ( New or :
Harp e r 8; B ro s , 19 50 ) ch a p s v a nd v i. . .
4 12 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R GR

gro up ch n gin g le a st an d the hi gh p essure g oup ch n gin g

a -
r r a

mos t in the am o un t of uniformity .

3

Th e te n de n cy to ch an ge o n e s a tti tudes o t be es i st an t
’
r o r

t o ch an gin g them is el a ted t o the degr ee t o wh i ch n e r o e r

la tes him self psycholo gic lly to o the g o ups I nfluen ce com a r r .

in g f om s om e o ther g o up th an the o n e in wh i ch a pe s on
r r r

h as m e mb e ship or on e in wh i ch he h as n o st n g e fe en ce
r ,
ro r r

o i en t a ti on ten ds to be es i sted by h im
r ,
Th i s c on fi m s wh a t r . r

s o ciol gists h ave been s ayin g f o m an y dec des n m ely

o r a ,
a ,

th t the p essu e by the p im ry o fa ce to f ce g oup i

a r r r a r - -
a r s

p owerful ; and on ce an in divi du l h as comm itted h im self to a

its st an d a ds he pe s i sts in h is a tti tudes a n d beh a vio s in

r ,
r r

the fa ce of p owe f ul influen ces exe ted up on h im by othe r r r

g oups Th e ese a ches of g o up dyn am ici sts h ave en de ed

r . r r r r r

the s o ciol gists obse va tion m o e ce t ain Th e in vesti ga

o
’

r r r .

t ion s of e fe en ce g oups a dd fu the supp o t t the im

r r r r r r o

p o t ance of g oup p essu es in c e a tin g s o ci l un if m i ty

r r r r r a or .

Th e m o e a pe s on pe ce ives o the s as a e f e en ce gro up f o

r r r r r r r

h i n s elf the m o e he ten ds to c on fo m to the i n o m s The e

r ,
r r r r .
4
r

a e n o expe im e n ts
r h oweve th a t test the f equen tly Ob
r ,
r, r

se ved phe n m enon tha t un if m i ty often le ds t om

r o or a o c

p l a ce n c
y .

G pp ro u
p f A ece n t expe im e n t by
res su re a nd er o rma n ce . r r

B ehm and F stin g gives fu the supp ort to the imp o t n ce

r e er r r r a

o f gro up p essu e t o w a d u n if m i ty I n th i s expe im e n t 5

r r r or r

s“
.

-
r
“
ixty g o ups th i ty in e ch o f tw c o n d it i on s des i g n ted s
,

H i gh Im p o t an ce C on dition n d L ow I mp o t n ce C on di
r
r a
”
a
o
-
r a
a a

t“io n p a ti c ip ted in g o up t ai n in g sess i on s c on ce n ed wi th

,
”
r a r -
r r

te a chin g pe ople h ow to m ake a ccu te judgm en ts ab ou t ra

o the s E a ch g oup w as comp o sed f five c llege studen ts

r . r o o

w h o h a d vo lun tee ed to t ke p t in the t ai n in g sess ion s r a ar r .

The g o ups we e d ivi ded equ a lly by sex the subjects we e

r r ,
r

g
3 L . Festin g er J
Thi ba u t I n te rp e rs on al comm un ica ti o n i n s mall
an d .
,

—
L f
rou p s , ab norm s oc P s y ch ol , 46 92 9 9
. . . .

4 See f or exam le Festin g er, In o rm a l soci a l com m u ni ca tion Ps y ch ol

p
27 1 —
. .
, , ,

Rev , 57 . 8 2 a n d Festin g er et a l So cia l p ress u res , ch a p s v , .

5
Jg
an d v i

Brehm an d
.
.

in rou p s , Hum R elat , 1 0 8 5— 91 .

L
Fe s tin g er Pre ssure to ard uni ormity o f p e r orma n ce
.

.
, w f f
414 OU P DYN AMICS AND IND IV ID U AL BE HAVIO R GR

lette by wh ich j udgm en ts an d sco es we e m ked would

r r r ar

be i den tified Fo thi s i den tific a tion e ch pe s n s n m e w a

. r a r o
’

a s

w itte n al on gs i de the lette wh ich h d u p to then i den tified

r r a

h im Th subjects we e then sked t o c m plete a quest ion

. e r a o

n a i e wh i ch w s o ste n s ibly in te n ded t o a i d the e pe im en te

r , a x r r

i n p ep a in g f o the sec n d sess i n but wh o se e l pu p o se

r r r o o ,
r a r

w a t m e a su e a tt a cti on to the g o up ev lu te the i ca

s o r r r ,
a a r

a it o f judg in g the s dete m in e the i c n fide n ce i n the

p c
y o r ,
r r o

evalua tion of the i own a b il ity a nd n Whe n the l as t r so o

questi nn ai e h d been submitted the eal pu po se f the

.
,

o r a ,
r r o

expe im en t w a expl ined

r s a .

Th esults m ay be st ted b iefly in the investi g to s o wn

e r a r a r
’

wo ds r

E ach
b p
b j
i
su

h
ec

m h
t
h
co u

l
ld
fi ect th e scores o f oth er ers o n s in th e
try to
s o n th e u m
a

nt s h a h d
p
t t
i i w i j g t
w d f t p xt
g rou
y g v n
g t e
g or o ra t n
g e e

t
o h ers m a de a b ou h im If t u ni orm i e is s we

ld xp t t w l p pl
ressu re t o ar .
y

t pt b
sh ou th a th e hi gh score rs ou d ra t e o th er e hi gh er

w l t t p pl l w
e ec eo

a n d low s co rers ou d ra e o h er er in a n a t e m rin

l t l l w ld l xp t d t
eo e o to g
t
o h ers c o s e to h eir ow n ev e It a so b e e th a th e
p t w d f ty
ou ec e .

s tro n er th e u ni orm i t
th e more m arke d th i s eff ec
w l g
p w d f ty w ld
res s u re o ar

ou d b e a n d th at th e u ni o rmi b e s tron ger

d t w
, res s ure t o ar ou

t t
f b
in th e h i gh im p or a n c e c on di i on
w p pl fi
Th e secon ra i n gs ere
g i v en
-
. ,

o f co urs e a t er th e s u t j ec s kn e h e h a d m a de th e

d t w f y w
, t e sco re s eo rst

tim e .

e a ch h a d m a de th e

p
fi
Th e th i r ra in gs
rs t tw o ti m es

d
ort a n c e co n di ti o n s o n b o th th e s eco n
b
ere m a de a ter e v er on e kn e

t
d
th e scores
I n o h h i gh a n d l ow —
a n d th i r
im
ra ti n s
g th e hi gh
i t
v e th e hi h e s
,

lw t
ra ti n s a n d th e l ow sc o rers i v e th e
,

g g
w d g
s corers es
g o

t
ra in s T h e diff ere n ces h ar e m ore m arke n th e h i h im

p t w ld xp t tw d
g . o e v er ,
i g ,
-

or a n ce co n di t io n

f ty
orm i t
b
h ere w e s h ou
df
to b e gre a er F or th e se co n d ra ti n g th e
y
,e

fi b
ec th e

tw
.
p re ssu re o

i f eren ce e
ar un i

e en
th e a v era ge ra ti n gs giv en
tl l p d fi
h i gh a n d low s corers i s s i gn i can t a t th e
2 p er cen ev e i n th e hi gh im ort a nce con i tion bu t i s n ot s i gn i can
p t t
t -

bl twl
a t a ll i n th e l ow im o rta n ce co n di ti o n (

d ly b y d
O n th e hir d ra tin g
-

th e iff ere n ce e e e n th e h i h a n d l ow sco re rs i s s i n ifi ca nt

p dt ly
e on
g g
th e 1 p er ce n t e v e f or th e h i gh im ort a n ce co n i io n b u t o n a t th e

l l p w
-

f ere n ce b tdw
5 p er ce nt ev e f or th e low -im ort an ce co n di ti on Ho ev er th e di f

con di ti on s
e d
e e n th e se

fi t d
p
i ff eren ce s i n th e h i gh a n d low im ort an ce
o e s n ot rea ch s i gn i ca n ce e i h er f or th e s ec o n or f or
.

-
,

d t
th e th ir ra i gs n
6
.

Jg
6 . L B rehm
—
a ndw f
Fe s t in g er, Press ure to
. f ar d u n i ormi ty of p er o rm an ce

in ro u p s , Hum Re la t 1 0 . 88 8 9 .
GR OU P AND P E RSON ALI TY DYN AMIC S 15

S umm a i zed the exp im ent shows tha t the p essu e t

r ,
er r r o

con fo m i effective in the s itu ti n s desc ibed and it

r s a o r ,

fu thermo e suggests a s the in vesti ga to s p o in t ou t th a t the

r r ,
r ,

deg ee of the p essu e in c e a ses s the impo tan ce of the

r r r r a r

a b i l i ty to the pe s on i n c e a ses r r

esults of the f ego in g expe im en t a dd Ob j ective

.

Th e r or r

con fi m tion to the well kn own f ct th a t g oup p essu es

r a -
a r r r

W hethe in the fo m r f ew ds punishm en ts whether r o r ar or ,

th o ugh custom s in stitution s o p im y g o ups —p o duce

r , ,
r r ar r r

s im il iti es in a ttitudes n d b eh a vio To un de stan d thi s

ar a r . r

phen om en on to gethe wi th the m o e c omplex p atte n of

,
r r r
’

the pe son a li ty we m ust kn ow a g e t de a l con ce nin g the

r ,
r a r

st uctu e an d fun ction s of the g oup

r r r .

A r ca pitu la ti on Th fo ego in g in vesti g t io n s c o n fi m

e e r a r

wh t h been am ply est blished by a l a ge amoun t f

.

a as a r o re

se ch in the s o ci l scien ces We h ve dem on stra ted in this

ar a . a

book tha t the g up in wh a teve fo m —whethe la ge o ro r r r r r

sm ll inf o m a l
a ,
in sti tuti o n l i zed —m o lds
r n in d iv i du l s
or a a a
’

a tt i tudes beh vio pe s n ality o any psych lo gic l v i

, a r, r o ,
r o a ar

ble We h ve desc ibed the e ff ects of a d lescen t cli ques

B oys ; of M i ddletown an d E lm
a . a r o

a n d g n g ; o f th e C o n e
a s r r

t wn ; of the B nk Wi in g Room in the W St m E lect ic

o a r e e r

plan t ; of the utokin eti c phenom enon ; of s ci l clim tes

a o a a ,

le de ship a n d m em be sh ip ; o f le nin g g ups p blem

a r ,
r ar ro ,
ro

s olvin g g o ups n d decis ion m akin g g o ups ; n d of m embe

r ,
a -
r a r

ship g o ups n d efe en ce g oups All these an d o the s to

r a r r r . r o

n u m e o us to m e n t io n g i ve us s o li d kn o wledge o f the n tu e
r a r

o f the structu e n d beh v i o f g o ups

“
r n d the i e ff ect up o n

the behavio o f the in divi dua l Th d ivin g fo ce behin d

r
a a or

.
r

e
a

r
r

r
”

these g oups we fin d i self m in ten n ce nd the a chieve

r , ,
s -
a a a

m en t of com m n g o ls o a .

I n o de t m a in t in i tself a n d ch i eve i t g o ls eve y

r r o a a s a ,
r

g o up exe ts p essu e upon its m em be s to conf o m ; f o in

r r r r r r r

c n f m ity lies p ti l gu an ty of its self m in ten an ce an d

o or a ar a ar -
a

pe petua tion N g oup an chieve it go ls in the fa ce of

r . o r c a s a

pe ilo us dive gen ces a n d divis ive d isputes While it may

r r .
,

a s i n the c se of dem o c a t i c o self d i ect in g g o ups

a m r r -
r r , e

co u a ge diffe en ces it do es so wi th its eyes fo cused on th e

r r ,
4 16 OU P DYN AMIC S AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

la ger con sen sus th a t p om ises to foll ow when ll pe s on s

r r a r

a n d i de a s h ve h a d an a ud ien cea Wh ile m embe s of dem . r o

c a tic g oups des i e ch oice in thei c on t ibution to g o up

r r r r r r

m a in te n n ce a n d go l a ch i eve m e n t they kn o w f o m ex
a a -
,
r

n ce th t a su e w of a cc om pli sh in g the g o up s p u
’

p i
er e
y a r a r r

p ose a well s thei ow n is th o ugh unifo m c onfo m in g

s a r r r or r

beh vior To thi s exten t co nfo m ity i p a cti ced n ot wi th

a . r s r ,

a sen se of Opp ression o ebelli n but wi th the su e kn owl r r o ,

r

edge of its a dv n t ges Th e typ es of d t a whi ch we h ave

a a . a

subm itted ch allen ge the t dition al n o tion th a t the in di ra

vi du l opp o ses the g oup n d h tes the conf o m in g beh avi or

a r a a r

whi ch it in duces in h im Th e d ta sh ow th t eve y no m al . a a r r

in d ivi du l i c on sc i us o f the p esen ce o f o the s a n d a djusts

a s o r r

h i s beh a vi o to the i exp ect a tion s E ven the a t of ch allen g

r r . c

in g pp o s in g the g oup i s a sure i gn of the in dividu al s

or o r S
’

a w a en ess of it p essu e o its in ducem e n t t o c on form

r s r r r .

E ven the ebel h to c omp om ise and a djust h i beh avio

r as r s r

to g o up O p in ion s a n d expect a ti on s
r .

Th g up p essu es t o c o n form a e n o t n ecess ily on

e ro r r r ar c

i
s c ou sl
y i m p sed up on m em be s by i n i t i t in g le de s ; cus
o r a a r

tom s n d t d ition s a lon e e ften ufli ci n t to eff ect ni

a ra ar o s e u

f o m ity Th p cess f in stituti on li z ti n t wh ich we h ave

r e ro o a a o o

c alled tten tion th t i the cultu l p ocess of st n d a di zin g

.

a ,
a s, ra r a r

people s beh io i ften m o e p owe ful th n the influence

’

av r, s o r r a

o f ny i n d i vi du l
a g oup of in divi du ls Thi s is s o cio
a or r a . a

lo gic l comm onpl ce wh ich w a system ti c lly fo m ul a ted

in a st dy by M e i
a a s a a r

u I n st itution al i z a ti on pe h aps m e th n
er .
7
, r or a

a n yth in g else m akes gro up n orm s ,

i g id un if m an d ditfi r ,
or ,

cult to ch an ge .

Th p eced in g an lys i s c a lls tte n t ion to the n eed f

e r a a or

in te d i sc ipl in y i nvest i g a ti on in g o up dyn m ics

r ar Th e r a .

g o ups th a t we h ve desc ibed an d n lyzed e typ ic al of

r a r a a ar

Western s o c iety n d the esea che s w h h ve studi ed them

,
a r r r o a

are al m o st e n t i ely p o ducts o f it cultu e

r They see g o upsr s r . r

th o ugh Weste n eyes n d thei m etho dol gy i em bedded

r r ,
a r o s

in the c o n ceptu al f m ewo k of Weste n s o ci a l sc i e n ce We

ra r r .

7 F . M erci
—
23 3 9
,

.
Grou p le adersh ip an d in s ti tu ti o n ali z a ti o n , Hu m R elat . .
, 2
4 18 OU P DYN AMIC S AND IN D IVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

n eeds p owe ful m otiv tin g f cto s in g o up form ation

a re r a a r r

a n d gr up fun ct io n in g
o We a ls o p o in ted o t h oweve th at . u ,
r, ,

wh ile g o up depen den cy pla ys a m aj o ole in g oup li fe the

r r r r

coope tio n an d g eem en t wh ich they exa ct f om the n di

ra a r r I

vidu l m y als o be dete en t t in depen de n ce n d in di

a a rr s o a

vi du l c e a tiven ess Thi s them e h been pe a ted in

a r . as re

o u s pl ces in the p ges o f th i s b o o k

a A g in eve yon e w h o
a . a ,
r

h as h a d expe i en ces wi th g o ups wi ll h a ve di sc o ve ed th t

r r r a

the go l of con sen sus m y esult in a c onfo m ity wh ich

a a r r

le a ves p oblem s un s olved n d dis uptive ten s ion s un re

r a r

s o lved In ste a d of educin g o co fli cts in g o ups we thus

. r ur n r ,

s om etim es ten d to con ce l them We a then in a sta te f a . re o

plu ali tic i gn o n ce whe e an Objective so lution of o p ob

r s ra r ur r

lem s c nn o t be e s ily fo un d
a a .

A gain in ou an alys is f the psycho lo gic al st uctu e of

,
r o r r

the g o p we desc ibed s m e o f the m o st imp o t an t m ti t

r u r o r o va

in g fo ces in g o up bel o n gin gn ess We w i sh t o ex m in e th i s

r r . a

top i c g in but m o e system tic ally in O de to b in g in t

a a ,
r a ,
r r r o

sh ar pe fo cus the imp o t n ce of the in divi dua l psychol gic l

r r a o a

variable in g oup beh vio r a r .

A g la n e t the F eud ia n v iew I f o n i n o t t o ubled by

c a r . e s r

a p a uci ty f em p i i c a l d expe im en t l d t a in h i the y

o r an r a a s or

o f g o up develo pm e n t o n c ann t fin d a m o e i n di v i du li st i c
r e o r a

expl n tion th n F eud s A cc d in g to F eud g oup b

,
’

a a a r . or r ,
r e

lon gin gness i b sed on the ep ess ion f lib id in al n d g

s a r r o a a

ss i in st in cts or im pulses T h i s ep ess i i m l ly

g re ve o n n o . r r s r a

in i ti a ted in the fam i ly in th e e ly ye s of ch ild s lif e ’

ar ar a

G oup belon gin gn ess the wish to ssoci te wi th othe s the

.

r , a a r ,

des i e t love n d be loved by them and o on are t n s

r o a ,
s ra

form tion s in g up life f the e arly em o ti n l depen den ce

a ro o o a

of the ch ild up n h i s p a e n ts Roughly spe kin g then de

o r . a , ,

end n o n the f m ily i s the p o t o type f ll s c i l g ups

p e ce a o o r o a a r

a n d g o p p o cesses
r u r .

Th es olvin g of g oup ten sion s an d c onfl icts a cco din g to

thi s View an be a ch ieved on ly when th in divi du ls w h o
e r r r

,
c e a

m ake up o s ci ety succeed in est abli sh in g l ib idin l

ur o a ,
or

in d ivi du l affect ive ti es w i th on e n o the

a -
Thi s wo uld h o ld
, a r .
 GR OU P AND PE RSON ALI TY DYN AMIC S 9

t ue of b oth m ll f ce to fa ce g o ups n d a up a so i al
r s a a - -
r a s r c

wo ld c omm un i ty
r .
8

The e e o f c o u se ch a a cte i st i cs o f g o up l ife whi ch

r ar ,
r ,
r r r

len d them selves t th is type f expl n tion but on ly on o o a a

the o eti ca l g un ds Th ch ief lim it tion of F eud s expl an a

,
’

r ro . e a r

tion i s th a t it i essen tially un testable I ts m a in v lue is th t

s . a a

i t f o ce f ull y c lls tte n tion t o th e o le of i n d i vi du l psych o

r a a r a

lo gica l va iables in g oup beh a vio r r r .

S elf actua liz tio n In Ch pte 2 we a sse ted followin g

-
a a r r

Go don th at g ups s atisfy the desi e fo self ctualiz tion

.
,

r ,
ro r r -
a a .

E ve y he althy pe s on l ity h a ten den cy t o g ow to fulfill

r r a as r , ,

a n d to e nh n ce i tse lf A pe s on wan ts to bel n g to g ups

a . r o ro

beca use they aff d h im opp o tuniti es to g in ec gn iti on or r a r o

a n d a ccept a n ce S elf a ctualization we said e lie i a w y .

-
,
ar r, s a

o f e a li zin g in d ivi du a l go ls o bject ively i n the p ese n ce

r a ,
r

o f o the s Thus such a ss o c i a t i o n s of pe s n s as dis cuss ion

r .
,
r o

g ups p blem s lvin g omm ittes an d a cti n g o ups p o

ro ro -
o c o r r

vi de s m e in divi duals with hi gh deg ee of self a ctua liza

, ,

o a r -

tion wi th the e aliz a ti n of thei p oten ti li ties In thi

, r o r a . s

c n ection Helen J en nin gs h a m de a s o un d an d useful

on s a

d i stin ction which i eleva nt to o discuss io n : S o ciom et i c s r ur r

fi n d in gs she a t in dic t th t pe ople ten d to f m tw o

'

,
sse r s , a e a or

kin ds f g o ups e ch s tis fyin g diffe en t n eeds The e a e

o r ,
a a r . r r

g o ups in whi ch the indivi dual as a pe s on eceive s us te

r r r s

n n ce
a

h ims e lf
‘
The e a
,
r

.
o

a ls o g o ups in wh i ch
’ “
ec gn ition pp v l a n d a pp eci ti n f ju t be in g
the in divi du a l sr
,
a

re
ro a ,

r
r a o or s
’

eff ts n d ide ls ar fo cused t w ds Objectives which

or a a e o ar a re

n t hi
o a l n e but s ep ese n t the f lfillin g of go ls which
o r r u a a

n um be o f in d i v i du ls g ee t seek Th l tte ki n d Of ”9
r a a r o . e a r

8 B e s i de s Freu d s
’
ow n f
or m u l a ti o n
L
of g ro u p re l a ti o ns
i n h i s G rou p p s y

L L
ch o lo g y a nd
ly s is of th e eg o ( o n do n :
a na I n te rn a t io n a l P sy ch o a n aly tica l

L g f w g
ibrary 1 922 ) a n d C iv i li z a tio n a n d its dis con te n ts ( o n do n : I n t ern a ti on a l
,

P s y ch oa na ly tical

N
ibrary
S Sch e i dli n g er P s y ch oa nal y s is a nd
.
,
w e h i hl y rec o m m en d th e
ro u p b eha v io r ( N e w or :
o llo
, in
g Yk WW . .

o rto n
9 H H
Co I n c
e n n in s
.

g J g e s p e ci a lly ch a p v i
.
, .
,

M
So cio me tri c s tructu re in p ers on a lity a n d ro u p orma
.
,

f M
. .

W g f
tion b ei n ch ap x iv in
h
«at t e c
g
o ri i n a l
,

ro s sro ad s

.
Sh e ri a n d
( N ew orks Ha rp e r 8: B ro s
. O ils o n
Y
G ro up re la ti ons
.

p 3 32 I ta li cs i n th e
. .

.
, . .
420 OU P DYN AMICS AND IN D IVI D U AL BE HAVIO R
GR

g oup h s been the chi ef c on ce n of the p eced in g l e

t
r a r r v

ch apte s Th e fo m e i ou p esen t in te est

r r r s r r r

S elf a ctu liz tion in g oup elation s i depen den“

. .

-
a a t on the r r s

in d i vi du a l 5 c a p a c i ty to el te h im s elf t o o the s wi th o ut
’

r a r

p e o ccup a tion with wh a t is the the thinkin g of m e ! as

r o r
’

J enn in gs puts it I t i e nh an ced furthe by the pe s on s s r, r

’

S elf ctu liz tion

.
,

a b i l i ty t o e nh a n ce th i s f eel in g i n o the s r .
-
a a a

i s a c on d iti on in wh i ch the pe s o n i s n o t helplessly depe n den t r

up on th e g o up is el a tively utonom o us an d i n depen den t

r ,
r a ,

of i t ; yet n o t wh o lly det ched f om i t I n deed the self a r .

,

ctu li zin g pe s on ea s ily i den tifies him self with o the s He

M sl w h a sh wn deep c pa city f ide tifyin g
a a r r .

h as , a s a o s o ,
a a or n ,

eve n fusin g h im sel f with the s wi th ut lo s in g h i in divi d

,
o r o s

u a li t
y T.h i s
10
i desp i te i t su f a ce p a d ox
s, i n l in e wi th s r ar ,

ou rwh ole n lys is of g o up st uctu e an d g oup beh avio

a a r r r r r,

n am ely th a t the i n d ivi du a l n o m a tte

,
h ow uto n om o us he ,
r a

m a y be i lw ys in el tion l complex with o the pe ple ;

,
s a a a r a a r o

n d th t the g o up n o m a tte h ow exte n s ively i t m e n ulf

a a r ,
y g r a

the in divi dua l i alw ys depen den t up n h im ,

s a o .

Th fo eg in g ch a a cte i st i cs a
e r n o t f un d in
o ll g o upr r re o a r

r el a ted people The e is n o i gi dly est blished evi den ce to

. r r a

a cc o un t f o thei p ese nce o bsen ce M l w d t sug ’

r r r r a . as o s a a

gest th at pe s on s p ossess in g such ch a cte i stics e el a

r ar r ar r

ti ve ly s m all n n um be a n d eve n c mm on sen se o bse v t ion

I r, o r a

r eve als th a t the e e few pe ople w h o n a ccept them selves r ar ca

o n ly pu sue s of h ighly in divi du al go ls I t s n ot imp ob

as r r a . I r

a ble th a t m o st he lthy pe s o n s h ve p o te n t i l i t i es f o a self r a a r

a ctu li z a t i on in
a g oups but these e thw ted by n r ar ar a

essen ti ally inh ib itin g s cializ tion S o ci od m a ti c d t dd

,

o a . ra a a a

creden ce to thi s hyp o thes is sh o win g th t th c p c ity to ,

a e a a

exe cise cho ice da ing n d cho i ce initia ti e in est bl ish in g

r -
r a -
v a

p o s itive hum n ela ti n shi ps develops e ly n d m y be

a r o ar a a

pe m an en tly d am ged in ch ildhoo d n d d olescen ce

r a a a .
11

See A H
10

h eal th in ol WWf
a sl o

( ed
,
. . M w
Va lu es in p ers onal ity res earch ( N ew o r : Gru ne
f
Sel a ctu ali in p e op l e : a s tu dy in p sy ch o lo i ca l -
zg Yk g
—
. .
,

W
Stra tton I n c ,
1 1 See H H

i lson
,

J g
Sy m p o si u m No 1 , p p 1 1 3 4
.

e nn in s , S ocio me tri c s tructur e , in

. . Sh eri an d
Gr ou p relat i ons a t th e crossroads , p 3 60 Th e itali ciz ed
O
. .

M
.
.

.
f M . .

term s are h ers .

422 U DYN AMIC S AND INDIVIDU L BE HAVIO R
G RO P

s a tisfa cti n n d self esteem in ttitudes an d ction s th t e

o a -
a a a ar

in te n ally c n s i ste n t He
r o n p ticip te an d d isch a ge h is
. ca ar a r

o bli ga tion s in a g o up m st effectively n d g tifyin gly if

r o a ra

he can be t ue to him self A g o up th t b in gs p essu e to

r . r a r r r

be ar up on an in divi du l t c n fo m m ust t ke due co gn iz an ce a o o r a

o f h is te n de n cy to es ist it if the de m a n d f o r g eem en t 8 r a r 1

in con s i ste n t w i th h i im ge o f h im self I t i a p ejud i ce to

s a . s r

l bel the es i st n ce n ega ti vi s“

a r m a n d t o desc ibe a pe s on
”
a r r

beh avi n g in th is m anne a s m al djusted I t i gn es the r a .

”
or

g oup dynam ic p in ciple th t pe s n will ch n ge h is h

r -
r a a r o a e

ha vio —b a in g fo ce o co e cion f co urse —on ly when he

r rr r r r ,
o

kn ows th a t he h as don e n h i o w n in i t i t ive Th p in so o s a . e r

ci l e of self c n s i sten cy p in ts to the u ge n t n eed f o

o e o r r r
p
-

se che s in g oup dyn m i cs to investi g te the ole of the

ar r r a a r

self in g o up beh avio p blem th a t h s been lm st com

r r, a ro a a o

le te l n eglected I n n c se we m ust ec g n i ze wh a t r o
p y y . a a ,

c om mon sen se knows to be t ue th t eve y he lthy pe s on l r ,

a r a r a

ity wi ll es i t such en c
r s chm en ts a e in con si ste n t w ith ro a as r

h i self im ge I f a g eem en t a n d con sen sus dem an d a s u

s -
a . r r

r en der of h i selfh oo d a n in d ivi du al wi ll eithe a ctively es ist

s ,
r r

them en g ge in gro up i elev an t a ctivities o in dulge in

,
a -
rr ,
r

o t of fiel d beh a v i o
u - -
r .

R esea ch in m en t a l he alth h s d cum ented the cl im th t

r a o a a

n e i the ext em e ebelli s ness n tim i d con f m i ty e

r r r ou or or ar

ch ara cte i sti c of a he l thy pe s n ality A psych l gic lly

r a r o . o o a

hea lthy in divi dual c n fo m s to the expect at i n s f o the s o r o o r

o n ly if the c o n f m ity en h n ces h i n d o the s well be i n g

’

or a s a r -
,

but the cho i ce to onfo m m st be h i w n Th sen se f c r

~
u s o . e o

i n depen de n ce a n d the ch i ce d in g wh ich i a p t o f it o -

ar s ar

m ake fo c e tive ness n d le a de ship ction s Th ab ility

r r a a r a . e

t o wo k co n st uct i vely wi th o the s i de i ved in p a t f o m the

r r r s r r r

self con fid n e wh ich i ge n e ted by f eed om of a ction

-
e c s ra r .

C on fiden ce in n e s self le ds to confiden ce in othe s wh ich

o
’

a r ,

in tu n le a ds to g o up e n h n c in g el ti on sh ips
r r -
a r a .

“
The e a e s i tu t io n s h oweve whe e the i n teg ity o f the
r r a ,
r, r r

self c n be m in tain ed o nly by com plete in volvem en t in an d

a a

loy lty to the g oup especi lly the g oup in whi ch the in d i
a r , a r

vi du l h as a deep an cho a ge The e a m n y ca ses of th i s

a r . r re a
GR OU P AND PE RSON ALITY DYN AMIC S 3

in c om b a t s i tu tion s du in g a w a I n b at tle a n in divi du a l

a r r .

c a n Of te n s fi v i e on ly th ugh the con ce ted a ction s of his

r v ro r

com des He a cc o d in gly develops n un sh akable loy lty

ra . r a a

t the m f o he kn ows th t he o wes the p ese v a t ion o f h is

o ,
r a r r

se lf t them An y o the o a d le ds to inju y de th o b e k

o . r r a r ,
a ,
r r a

d wn Of the self His self con s i sten cy n ow lies in h is im a ge

o .
-

of h im self a s l y l m em be of h i c om b t un ion
a o a r s a .

I n h i a ttem pt to a cc oun t f o the fa ct th a t a ch an ge o f

s r

o les n o t o n ly le a ds to a ch a n ge of a tt i tude but a ls o t o

"

a m o d i fic t i on f a ct ion s L i ebe m a n it wi ll be recall ed

a o ,
r , ,

a sc i bed the p o cess p

r tly to the influen ce of efe en ce
r ar r r

g o ups ( see C h pte

r He als o t ied to a cc un t f o it by
a r r o r

the p inc ip le of s elf cons is te ncy Th i s “

r
p i n ci l
p a fli m
-
th at . r e r s

peo ple n eed t h ve thei a ttitudes in te n ll y con si sten t

o a
”1 3
r r a

wi th thei a ction s r Th p i n c iple o f self c o n s isten cy n

. e r -
e

a bles an in d i v i du a l t o o i e n t h is ch a n ged beh a v io t o h is r r

ch an ged ole Alth o ugh L iebe m n p tly desc ibes this

r . r a ar r

co n s isten cy a f o m of just i fic t i o n o
as f a t i on l i z t i on
r a r o r a a

( wh i ch i t n o d o ubt i i n m n y c a ses ) he i m o e i ght

s i t a s r r

“
,

see m s to us whe n he s ys th a t it e n ables the

,
le o ccup n t
a ro a

t o ma ke tio n l h i ch an ged ole beh vio —th a t i t o

ra a
”
s r a r s,

pl ce h i a ction s in f m il i f m e of efe en ce In n
a s a a ar ra r r . co

t st to the e fe e n ce g o up p in ciple whe eby a pe s n s

ra r r -
r r ,
r r o
’

a ttitudes in fluen ce h i a ction s the c n s isten cy p in ciple h lds s ,

o r o

th t a pe s n s a ction s i n fluen ce h i s a tti tudes I n V i ew of

’
14
a r o .

the ecip o c ity of in divi du a l s o c i l a ction s this ci cular fo m

r r -
a r r

of ar gum en t sh ould n o lon ge as toni sh anyon e A s Li ebe r . r

m an em arks r lthough d t a a e n ot a va il able to settle the

,
a a r

i ssue b o th p in ci ples m i ght pl a us i bly a cc o un t f

,
r the es lts or r u .

I n terp e ona l com pa ti bi lit y I t i cle

rs th t n o g up . s ar a ro

ca n i se
ar— ce t in ly c
i t a nn o t f
r au n ct i o n a n d e n du e — un less r

i t m em be s be
s tow d one a n the a t le st a m in im al
r ar ar o r a

a ccept n ce The e m ust be

a . b s ic c m p tib ility if th
r a a o a e

b est com m ni c a tion i t t ke pla ce When con stell ti n

ar u s o a . a a o

o f c m p t ible pe ple ex i sts i t m

o a the kin d of group th a t
o ,
s

13 S . L ie b erm a n , Th e e ff ect s of ch a n g es in ro l e s o n th e a tt i tu de s o f ro le

occu p a n ts , Hu m Re la t . .
,
9 p . 39 9 .

1 4 I bid .
, p 400
. .
4 24 OU P DYN AMI C S AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

comp ises the subject m tte of th is b o k The e can b e n o

r a r o . r

co n se n sus if pe o ple b si c lly in co mp tible as in divi du ls

are a a a a .

When c m peti t ive n ess ebellio usn ess withd w a l an d the

o ,
r ,
ra ,

l ik e ex i st in te pe s o n a l sh in g c ann o t t ke pl a ce
, r r n d the ar a ,
a

o up m ust even tu lly d i s i n teg te

gr a ra

Nothin g p ints up the imp o tan e f the pe s n lity in

.

o r c o r o a

g oup beh vio

r m uch a th is c m p tibil ity comp on en t
r as as o a ,

t h i s c p c i ty f the i n d i vi du l to el te h im sel f w ith s om e

'

a a o a r a

d eg ee of a ccept n ce an d i n t im a cy to o the pe ople S o ci l

r a r . a

psych olo gy h a s amply dem on st ted the exi sten ce f th is ra o

pe s on lity c om pon en t alth ough it c nno t yet tell us f o

r a ,
a r

ce ta in it s o u ce I t m ay ve y well o i gin a te in th e e a ly
r s r . r r r

a ss o c i t io n sa f the ch ild wi th hi s p a e n ts a n d s iblin gs Wh a t

o r .

e ve i ts s o u ce m
r be pe o ple in i n te
r ct iaon m u st p o ssess i t ra
y ,

t o f o m a fun ction l g o up
r a r .

L ike all o the hum an t a its in te pe s on al comp tib ili ty

r r ,
r r a

v a ies wi th the pe s on I n s om e in divi du als it i st n gly

r r s ro

developed in o the s it i s we k B enn is nd S hep d desc i be

.

,
r a . a ar r

a
” “
t w o ext e m es o f th i s c o m p o n e n t wh i ch they c ll
r

s on l an d coun te p s n a l E a ch e fe s t the deg ee of

r
e
p
er o .
”1 5
,

r r o
a ov

r
r er

i n tim cy th ta pe s on an esta blish n d c omf o t bly be ar

a a r c a r a

wi th an o the in dividu al Th e o p on l m em be i on
r . v er ers a r s e

w h o i n o t s t i sfied un t il he h
s a est blished a hi gh deg ee of as a r

in tim a cy w ith o the m em be s Th e o u n te

p o n l in d i
r r . c r e rs a

vi du l f eels un c mfo t ble in in tim te el ti n s with o the s

a o r a a r a o r

a n d te n ds to a vo i d the m
16
.

B es ides be in g o e p son al and ou nte p on l indi v r er c r ers a ,

v id l
u a s are a
“
l s o des i bed by th e degree of the i depe n den ce
up on one an o the D epe n den t pe s on s a e tho se w h o fin d
r .
cr
”
r r
r

c o m f o t an d st b il i ty in h i ghly st uctu ed g
r a up s itu tion s r r ro a ,

su ch ar ch a cte i zed by a gen d“

as e as
ar ules of p o cedu e a
r ,
r r r ,

le de n expe t n d th like C ou nt dep n den t p er

a r, a r ,
a e . er e
”

15 W
Hum R e la t , 9
B enn i s a n d H A Sh ep ar d, A th eo ry o f ro u p dev el op me n t,
. G .

4 1 5—
. . g
.

1 6 I bi d
,
.

p 4 1 8 Si n ce th e
. .
37
ord . I n ti m a te w
h a s co nn o ta ti on s
.

h i ch h a v e
k f w
a n d li i n kx g Of
n o p l a ce in th i s di s cu s s i o n , w e s im p ly re mar

f
th a t i t re ers t o a cce p tan ce
o th e r p e rso n s in s u ch a w a y th a t th e re la ti o n b e t ee n th em

i s rela e d a n d com ortab le in s tea d o f an i ou s a n d de ens iv e x f .

w
426 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R GR

b h mi d f tthmi thd biy tthh ii t tfi th lf di lt d mt wt df th

e a v o rs e er ne e se o r en a on s a re re c e o ar en

l
lf i th i f th th , di i t g ti f tmh tit ti d H
s av e t en o e o er n e serv ce o e se , e n s av e en o e

th y p t th tti g l i fi ti f d m tw g p
se n e s erv ce o e o er or s n e ra on o e s ua on . e n ce ,

l
e rev en e se n , c ar ca on o ,
an ov e en o ar rou

s h ared
18
go a s .

sho t pe s on li ty va iables
In r a n in teg
,
l p art of the
r a r are ra

study of g up dynamics They help in s i gn ific n t wa ys to

ro . a

m ke o d i ss o lve
a g oup they help o hin de in effective
r a r ,
r r

w ys its devel pm en t ch n ge p ductiven ess d the li ke

a o ,
a ,
ro ,
an .

in te depe n de n ce ep ese n ts n o t o nly

r
“
Th p o cess f ch n ge f m depe n de n ce to in depe n de n ce to
e o

ch an ge in em ph a s is
a

r r
ro

f om p owe t ffection but a ls o f om le t pe s on lity

r r o a ,
r ro o r a .

I t ep ese n ts n t o n ly a ch n ge f om such d i stin ct i o n s

r r o a r as

cl ss ethn i c b a ckg o un d“
a ,
p o fess ion a l in te ests a n d simil r ,
r r ,
”
ar

d iff e e nt iati n s but als o a deepe c n ce n with pe s n lity

r o ,
r o r r o a

m d li ties such as ea ct i n to f i lu e w m th et li t i n
o a ,
r o a r ,
ar ,
r a a o ,

a n x i ety etc
”1 9

“
.
,

Th p in c iple of in te pe s o n al co m p a t ib i l ity i f u the

e r r r s r r

va lid a ted in an in te estin g a n d in gen io us study by S chutz r .

Th i s in vesti g t ion i h weve too in t i c a te to le n d itself t

a s, o r, r o a

c lea summ y A cc din gly we sh all select th o se fe tu es

r ar . or a r

which a di ectly elev n t witho ut dest o yin g the esse n ti l

re r r a r a

u n i ty Of the i n vest i g t i n H oweve while we sh ll no t a o . r, a

d i scuss ll the f cto s i n the expe im en t a l des i g n we bel ieve

a a r r ,

i t i n ecess y fi st to e n um e a te them in o de t o p o vi de
s ar r r r r r

th e con text f tho se th a t e le va n t t o u im m edia teor ar re o r

i n te est r .

Th e study i d ivi ded in t o tw m in sect i n s n m ely a s o a o ,

a ,

d es crip tion of the m etho d for co ns tru cting com pa ti ble gro up s ,

a n d a dis cus s i on of th e s ocio metr f ers o ns a nd

y o
p g rou s
p .

Th e m e th o d f o r co n struct in g gro ups i n o rder t o test th e ir ,

ro ducti vi ty in c ludes : exp s t f the pe s l ty

p ( )
a a n o i i o n
,
o r o n a i
a ssum t i on s th a t a cc o un t f o r the c o n cept o f c o m p a t i b ili ty
p ,

( b ) defin ition s th a t supplem en t and spec ify the b a s i c i dea s ,

18

H um Rela t 9 .
W
B e nn is
. G .

.
an d H A
41 7
.

.
. Sh ep ard, A the ory of gro u p de v elop m en t,
,

W C— z W k g
1 9 I b id
p 436 .
, . .

2° Sch u t
. .
,
h a t ma es ro u p s p ro du cti v e ! Hum . Re la t 8
429 6 5 .
G RO UP AND P RS E ON ALITY DYN AMIC S 427

( )
c a tech i que f c o n st
n uct i ng pe s on li ty test t o m e s
or r a r a a

n i n d iv i du l s in te pe s o n l el t i on te n de n cy nd ( d )
’

ur e a a r r a r a ,
a

a m eth d f o c on st uctin g c m p tible an d in c om p a tible

o r r o a

g oups
r .

Th s o c i om et y f pe s o s a n d of g o ups w
e rin vesti g a ted
o r n r as

by m e n s of s ci m et ic questionn i e dministe ed a t the

a a o o r a r a r

en d o f the fi fth m eet in g o f the g o up nd g in t the n d of r ,

a a a a e

the ten th fin l m eetin g He e howeve we sh ll n

or a . r ,
r, a co

cen t te exclus ively on the fi st n am ely the co m p tib ility

ra r , ,
a

o f g o ps n d the o le of pe s on a li ty in c e a t i n g c o m p t ib ili ty
r u a r r r a .

o a
“
C m p tib ility o g eem en t on m kin g in te pe s on l
deci s i n s i b sed on a fun d am en t l pe“
o ,
s a
,

s on lity t ait
r a r

a
a

r a
r r

r
a

.
”

”
The e a e tw o s o u ces of th i s t i t ( a ) the p o we el t ion s
r r r ra : r r a

“
in vo lved in i n te pe s on a l dec i s ion s such
le de s an d s o fo th ; an d ( b ) the lo ve el ti n s such s
a r ,
s ules r l
r
ws r ,

r a
a

o
r

,
,
a

a
,

clo sen ess n d likin g which exist b etween people whe n they
a ,

m ke dec i s i on s
a .

I f pe ople g ee on the el a ti ve im p o t an ce o f the p we

a r r r o r

rel t io n s n d the lo ve el tions they gen e a lly w k t gether

a a r a ,
r or o

effectively I f they m a kedly di s g ee on the

co ope a tive effo“
r
.

“ i im p o t n ce
t e d iffi cult to a chi eve Thi s diffi culty
r s ar
r a r r r a

S chutz writes will n ot be ea sily esolved sin ce it i b sed

.
,

r s a

f
,
”2 1
on de ep a nd u n da me nta l p ers ona lity cha ra cteris ti cs .

T hese pe s on ality ch a cte i sti cs

r e ithe comp tible o ar r a re r a r

in comp ti b le p tte n s A com p ti b le p tte n i c m p o sed

a a r . a a r s o

of ccept n t supp o tive an d so ci lly secu e

a
”
a , n th e t r , a r u r a

en ed ) in dividu ls These a pe s on l n d in depen den t in a . re r a a

thei i en t tion An in com p tible p tte n i c om p i sed of

r or a . a a r s r

pe s on s es ist n t t clo se pe s on l el ti n s depe n den t on

r r a o r a r a o ,

o the s espec i lly le de s

r , n d p o we figu es an d o f l ow t o
a a r a r r ,

m edi m sse ti ve n ess

u a r .
22

I n sm uch the ch ief p blem of S h t in ves ti g tion ’

a as ro c u z s a

is t o dete m in e the e ff ect f in te pe s on l c om p t ib i l i ty n

r o r r a a o

g oup p ductivity we sh ll ex m in e the p oblem b iefly

r ro ,
a a r r .

z
1 bi d , p 45 6 I tali cs are ours
z
21 . . . .

22 S ch u t ch a ra ct eri e s th e co m a t i b l e
p p at tern by th e t erm p erson aln ess
”
a n d th e i n com p a ti b l e p a tt ern b y dep en den ce I bid , p 45 8 . . . .
4 28 OU P DYN AMI CS AND INDW IDUAL BE HAVIO R
GR

B y g oup p o duct
a pp o im tes
r
r

x
“ iv ity i m e n t the exte n t t wh i ch a g o up
r

the optim l pe fo m n ce of a ta sk
a
s

a
a

r r a
o

.
”
r

Th ee g o up t sks o p o ble m s we e g ive n t o 120 e nl i sted

m n f om the N a v l T in in g S t ti on t B in b i dge M a ry
r r a r r r

e r a ra a a a r ,

l n d between the ges of seven teen n d twen ty on e All

a ,
a a -
.

m e m be s o f e ch g o up h a d bee n in the t in in g u n i t f o
r a r ra r

eleven weeks They we e divided in t g oups of five sub

. r o r

j
e ct e ch
s A cqu in t n ce a m on g
a . n
y five m n in a gro up
a a a e

va i ed f om clo se f i en dship to c su l cqu a in t n ce No

r r r a a a a .

five m n h d eve m t e g oup be fo e They v ied in

a r e as a r r . ar

i n telli ge n ce sc es f m 76 to 1 32 Th t a sks we e
or ro . e r

n e w to eve y on e n d the e w s n o e s on t o bel i eve th t

r a n r a r a a a
y
subject h d b ckg un d th t would give h im n dv n t ge
a a a ro a a a a a

o ve an r o the s A p i ze of five d o ll s w s offe ed f o

r the r ar a r
y r

b est in divi dual pe fo m an ce am on g fou g oups A p ize

.

r r r r . r

o f fi ftee n d o ll a s w as ffe ed f o the best pe fo m n ce in

r o r r r r a

e a ch section of fou g o ups r r .

Th th ee p blem s o t sks m a y be b i efly desc ibed

e r ro r a r r .

m em be s f
r
“
Th i nte cept p o blem equ i ed g ee m e n t am on g the g o up r

eve y dec is ion m a de in an a lte n a te m ove

r or r
r r a r

r -
r

n e m y ve sus f i e n dly b d gam e E ch m ove p ese n ted ”

e -
r -
r o ar . a r

the s m e p oblem s itu ti n f o e a ch m em be J udgm en t f

a r a o r r . o

wh a t m a de goo d decis ion o m o ve could n ot be m de im

a r a

m edi tely Th e tim e ll owed w s g du lly ch n ged f om

a . a a ra a a r

unlimited tim e t o on m in ute then t th i ty secon ds ,

e ,
o r .

Th p lott ing p o bl m equ i ed c ope ti on n d d iv i s i n

e r e r r o ra a o

o f l b o t o pe f o m m n y t sks
a r t th s m e t im e n m ely t o
r r a a a e a ,
a ,

plo t the co urse of m n y pl n es on a l a ge ve tic l plo ttin g a a r r a

b o d Th t sk equi ed speed Tim e p essu e w v ied

ar . e a r r . r r as ar

by in c e a s in g the te of inf o m a tion t n sm i ss ion to the

r ra r ra

g oup
r .

e
“
Th cod ing nd ide ntifica tio n p o blem equ i ed m in im l
c oope tion I t c on s i sted o f tw o h i ghly in“
ra .
a

tellectu al p b
r r r
”
ro
a

lem s n m ely deco din g m ess a ges an d a lo gic l exe ci se

,
a , a r

ph a sed s n v l p oblem t be completed in the sh o test

r a a a a r ,
o r

t im e n d wi th the fewest e o s
a rr r .

E a ch g up w as give n f m tw o to five run s on e ch o f the

ro ro a

th ee t sks I t sh ould be a dded th a t the t sks di ffe ed in

r a . a r
43 0
V
G UP D A I S
IND I IDU AL BEHAVI O R
RO YN MC AND

the te m n te pe s on l c m p tib ili ty o the ab ili ty t o est b

r i r r a o a ,
r a

l ish w a m ffecti n a te an d a ccept n t el ti n ships between

r ,
a o ,
a r a o

o n e s self a n d o the r i n d i vi du a ls
’

I ndioid ua l diffe ences A lth o ugh we sh ll desc ibe the m r . a r

m o e bri efly th an the ir s i gn ifica n ce dese ves in divi du al dif

r r ,

f e en es ar a n imp o t a n t set of psych o lo g ic l f cto s in

r c e r a a r

g o up beh a vior They Ope a te in m o st hum a n el a tion shi ps ;

r . r r

but s in ce we obvio usly c nn o t di scuss these el tion s he e a r a r ,

we sha ll in ste a d select an are a o f hum n beh avio l e dy a r, a r a

d iscussed a t len gth in th i s ch pte wh i ch h s d i ect be ar a r, a a r

in g n the p o blem f pe s o n li ty st uctu e in g up el a t io n s

o r o r a r r ro r
-
n a m ely in di vi du a l d iff e en ces in g
,
up conf ormity r ro .

I n the sect io n o n g o up p essu e n d tt i tud in l ch an ge r r r a a a

we a sse ted th a t th ten de n cy to ch an ge on e s ttitudes o t o

r e
’

a r

be es ist an t to ch an ge i ela ted to the deg ee in whi ch o ne

r s r r

r el tes him self psycholo gi c lly to o the pe s on s Th con

a a r r . e

c ept of in te pe s n l c o m p a t ib i li ty h a sh o wn th t ge n e all y
r r o a s a ,
r

spe kin g the o ve depen den t o c nflicted pe s on esp onds

a ,
r r o
”
r r

d iffe en tly t g up p essu es th an the in depen den t o n

r
”
o ro r r r u

c o n fli ct d in d ivi du l Th e ext e n t to wh i ch a pe s o n c an
e a . r

f ee him self f om the ub i quitous in fluen ce of the g o up i in

r r r s

l a ge p t a m a tte of in divi dua l d iffe en ces wh ich a e s om e

r ar r r r

tim es ve y ext em e Th e study by S E A sch whi ch we

,

r r . . .
,

h ve al e a dy desc ibed be a s thi s p o in t o t ve y well

a r r ,
r u r .
23

A h s in vesti g t i n sh owed f o ex am ple th t the e we e

’

sc a o ,
r ,
a r r

i n d iv i du a ls subjected to i den t ic a l gro up i nfl ue n ce w h o e r

m in ed in depen den t in the i judgm en t th oughout the ex

a r r

i m n t an d th t the e we e o the s w h o
e h n t i
a n v a i a bly r r r a os
p er ,
r

a g eed w i th the m j o i ty
r On fo u th o f th e c i ti c a l suba r . e- r r

i t sh o uld be n o te d e m a in ed c om pletely i n depe n de n t

j e t
c s, ,
r .

A s im il d iffe ence w a foun d in the subjects feelin g o f

ar r s
’

s elf co n fid n c
-
in the f a ce of the m j o ity judgm en t
e e S om e a r .

s ubjects e m a in ed c ompletely confide n t th ough out the ex

r r

i m n t whe e a s a t the o th e r ext e m e we e pe s on s w h o

e r
p er r r r

b ec m e d o ubt i dde n a n d eve n di s o i e n ted S in ce the

,

a -
r
p i r . ex er

. . ff
jg Cg g
S E As ch E e cts o f ro u p p re ssu re
23

torti o n o f u d m en ts in H G u etz ko w
,

.
g u p on t he
G rou p s ,
fi
mo di ca ti on an d dis
leade rs h i p a nd men
, ,

( Pi ttsb ur h : arn e ie Pres s ,

GR OU P AND PE RSON ALITY DYN AMICS 4 3]

m e n t a l s itu t i n th t i the deg ee of g o up p essu e w a s

a o a s, r r r r

the s m e f ll the subjects the diffe en ces m ust be a sc ib ed

, ,

a or a ,
r r

to in d ivi du a l psych o lo gi c l ch a cte i sti cs a ar r .

Th fo eg o i g d iff e e n t i l e a ct i n s t o g o up p essu e m a y
e r n r a r o r r r

thus be b iefly summ a i zed The indep ende nt in divi dual s

r r .
’

in depe n de n ce w b sed on pe s on l con fiden ce in h i p r

as a r a s e

ce ti o n a n d exp i e n ce A sch p a ti cul ly

erst sses the i n de r ar re
p .

pen den t pe s on s vi go ous to le an ce of the g o up s oppo s ition

r
’

r r r
’

even tho ugh he w as sen s itive to it n d h i pe s isten t elian ce ,

a s r r

up on h is own pe ception r

Th in depen de n t but w i thd r w n et a in ed h is o w n j udg

.

e
“
men t n t sp on t n eously but o n the b a s is of expli ci t p in
o a
a r

ci l
p es c o n ce ni n g the n ecess i ty of be in g
r n in d i i du a l a v

Th in depen de n t b ut do u bt ridden pe s on dh e ed t o h is
.

“
e

judgm ent on th ba sis of a felt n ecessity to de l dequ tely

e
-
r a

a a
r

wi th the ta sk .
”

Am n g the subj ects w h o yi elded to g o up p essu e the

o r r r

foll owin g in divi du l diffe en ces we e foun d ( 1 ) Th o se a r r :

w ho e p erceptions w ere di stort e d o f wh om the e we e f ew

s ,
r r ,

but w h o we e n o t aw a e th a t the di sto tion w due t o the

r r r as

m j i ty in flue n ce ( 2 ) Th o se —a n d the e we e m n y
a or . r r a

w h o e ju dgmen ts w ere dis t orte d They expe i e n ced d ubt

s . r o

an d l cked c n fide n ce in the i o w n jud m e n t a n d we e a

a o
g r ,
r o

c or din gly im pelled to a g ee wi th the m a j o i ty ( 3 ) Th o se _

r r .

w h expe i e n ced d i sto ti o n o f a ct ion but w h

o r st i ctly spe ak r ,
o, r

in g n e i the yi elded n o a dm i tted th a t they we e wr n g

,
r r r o .

They h a d an o ve p o we in g n eed t a ppe a to be d iffe en t

r r o r r

a n d c o ld n t t le a te the i de a th a t they we e in fe i
u o o r in the r r or

eyes of o the s They supp essed the i pe cepti on s an d s id ed

r . r r r

wi th the m j o i ty full y w e of wh t th ey we e“
a r ,
d oin g a ar a r .

A sch m kes the followin g fi n l obse v a tion Th es l ts

a a r : e r u

are s uffi ci en t to est bli sh th a t in depen de n ce n d yi eldin g e

a a ar

n o t psycho l g i c ll y h om o ge n e o us th t subm i ss i n t o g o up
o a ,
a o r

p essure ( an d f eed m f om p essu ) c n be th e esul t of

r r o r r re a r

diff e en t psych olo gic l c n dition s

r a o .
”24

I bi d e a rl i e r, soci o m e tri c ,

J g dy of i n di v i du a l diff er
f
24 1 84 For an s tu
.
, p . .

e n ce s i n in t erp e rs o n a l re la ti on s , s ee H H . . e nn i n s, I n div i dual dif eren ces

i n th e soci a l a to m , S o cio met ry , 4 2 69L 7 7 .
432 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

Fu the testim ony to the ole of pe son lity diffe en ces in

r r r r a r

g o up beh a vio i to be fo un d in Go den s study of the ela

r r s r
’

t ion s h ip betwee n a n in d ivi du l s p iv te op in io n a n d d fin i

’

a r a e

tion Of the s itu tion a nd h is exp ess ion of publi c op ini on in a

a r

g o up Go den s in vesti ga tion w s a p rti cip n t observa

r
25
r
’

a a a

tion of 24 m e mbe s of a Coope a tive livin g p oj ect App o i

.

r r r . r x

ma tely h alf of the mem be s we e studen ts ; the est we e r r r r

en g ged in a va i ety o f p of ess ion s s m ip of ions n d o c

a r r ,
e r ess ,
a

cu a ti o n a n g in g from c o llege i n st uct o

s r in o n e c a se to a r r
p
wa it ess in anothe All but on e m embe h d a c ollege
r r . r a

educ a ti n They an ged in ges f om twen ty on to thi ty

o . r a r -
e r

fiv e ye ars They we e equ lly d i vi ded by sex They sh ared

. r a .

the ho usehold ta sks an d te the evenin g m ea l to gethe in the a r

c omm on d inin g oom Politi c lly the e we e fif tee n D emo r a r r

t s fo u tee n ex P o g ess i ves fo u S o c i l i sts

.
,

c ra r n e C o mm un
-
r r r a o

i t a n d o n R epubl i c n A ll the seve n N eg o es we e D em o

, , ,

s , e a . r r

c ra ts but we e n o t i ce bly m o e c o n se rv t i ve th a n the wh i te

,
r a r a

m embe s r .
26

Fo the expe im en t l s i tu a t ion O p in io n o n R uss i w s

r r a a a

select d bec a use of it em o tion l c onten t the wi de n ge of

e s a ra

f eelin gs towa d the S oviet U ni n an d the n wi n g n ge

,

r o ,
a rro ra

o f exp ess i o n f publi c o p in i o n eg di n g i t

r o r ar .

Th ee t ypes o f d t we e c llected Th p i a t e o p in io n
r a a r o . e r v

o f e a ch pe s on eg d in g R uss i w r bt in ed by a Like t
r ar a as o a r

type attitude sc le Th pu blic opinion of the subjects w as a . e

elicited by the exp ess i n of thei views in th p ese n ce of r o r e r

the i fell w m embe s Th e tima te of g ou p op inio n

r o r . es r as a

m e a su e f e ch pe s o n s defi n i ti on of th s i tu t io n w m de ’

r o a r e a as a

o n the s am e i tem s .

Th e 24 m e mbe s we e d ivi ded in t o tw o sub g o ups m tched

r r r a

a cco d in g to ce o ccup a tion sex a n d n k de f the

r ra , , ra or r o

to t l sc e on the priv a te Opinio n Th tw o g oups we e

a or ir . e r r

s im ult n eously in te vi ewed but in diff e en t om s Tw o

a r r ro .

in te vi ewe s w ked wi th e a ch g o up
r r I n o n g o up b o th
or r . e r

L C w fi
x
I n tera ction b e t ee n a tti t u de a n d th e de ni t ion o f th e
o rden ,
25 R
—
. .

j
26 Th e di s cre a n c
p
s u b e cts i s du e t o th e act th a t th e f w
s i tu a tio n i n th e e p re ss i o n o f o p in i o n , A m er s o ci o l R ev 17
y b et ee n th e p oli tica l tota ls a n d th e to ta l n um b er o f
50 5 8

g
ro u p w a s o ri i n a ll y co m p o s ed o f more
. .

g
.
,
.

members .
4 34 OU P DYN AM ICS AND IN D IVI D U AL BE HAVIO R
GR

depe n den t pe s on d es n ot withd w from the s o ci l field ;

r o ra a

he con t ibutes t it in h i w n w y n d usu ll y expe i en ces a

r o s o a a a r

feelin g of exult ti n in bein g p t of the g p yet n o t

a o a ar ro u ,

be in g en gulf ed by it p essu es n d dem n ds j ust the s r r a a . as

he lthy pe s n a lity m i n t in s h i in depen den ce with ut

a r o a a s o

dese tin g h i s o ci al wo ld the self nh in g pe s n li ty i s

r s r ,
so -
e ac r o a

g o p el ted yet el tively uton om us

r u -
r a r a a o

Fu the m e the self enh n cin g pe s n especi l ly th e

.
,

r r or ,
-
a r o a

on e w h o i ch a cte i zed by in te pe s on l c m p tibili ty

s ra r r r a o a ,

en i ches the g o up s a ctivities n d

r r we w in c e ses it
’

a ,
as sa ,
r a s

p ductivi ty I t wo uld be pp op ia te to desc ibe h i o le

ro . a r r r s r

as c e tive ; f o he not n ly enh n ces h i w n pe s on li ty

r a r o a s o r a ,

but ls in c e ses the well be in g o f the g oup He a s

a o r a -
r .

“
s im i la tes o th e p eo ple s n xi eti es the eby e nh n c ing th e
’

r a ,
r a

emo tion l ton e of th e en ti e g o up Thi s qu ality we s i d

a r r . a

seem s t be m anifested e ly I n desc ib in g twelve ye

o ar . r a -
ar

o l d pup il t o the w i te sch l p in cip l em ked th t r r, a oo r a r ar a

the boy en thus i stic lly to k on o the child en s p oblem s

a a o r r
’

f o o the pup ils we e c n st n tly seek in g h im

r r t—w i th ut
r o a ou o

bo the in g them with h i w n Th p ese ce f ch n

r s o . e r n o su a

in d ivi du l whethe he be a ch i ld
a ,
n dult effectively
r or a a ,

ch n ges the tm sphe e f h i g p

a a o r o s ro u .

Th e se lf c n st i ct i ve f ct s n o less th n the self n

-
o r a or ,
a -
e

h n in g t a i ts
a c deeply embedded in the p s n l ity o
r ,
a re er o a r

ch cte st uctu e of the i d i id l While we kn w n o

a ra r r r n v ua . o

mo e b ut thei s o u ce th n of tho s of the sel f enh n c in g

r a o r r a e -
a

in d i vi du l the self c n st i cti ve f cto s ar

a ,
gen e ally b
-
o r a r e r e

li ev ed to be i g i d an d el ti vely e n d in g
r r a ur .

Fo e a s n s th t w uld vas tly ove exten d our defin i ti on

r r o a o r

o f pe s lity vari bles we sh ll exclude f om

r on a a d iscus s i n ,
a r our o

o f self c on st i ct i ve f ct
-
s bvi us p th olo gic l c on dition s
r a or o o a a .

While p thol gic l in d ivi du ls d p arti cip te in fun cti n in g

a o a a o a o

g ps n d while thei eff ect on these g oups m y be d m

ro u ,
a r r a a

a gin g they ge n e a lly do n t lon g em ain effective p r o r as ar

ej ected by o the s F i st let us

,

t i ip n t be fo e they
c a s r a re r r . r

c on s ide th m o st im p o t n t fa cto self i s l tion

r e r a r: -
o a .

S elf i ola ti n This i obvi usly el tive te m n gin g

-
s o . s o a r a r ,
ra

a ll th e w f o m o cc s i n al c o n ta cts to co m plete wi thd a w a l

a r a o
y r .
GR OU P AND PE RSON ALITY DYN AMIC S 435

S in ce th e completely withd wn pe s on is p b bly p sy ra r ro a

ch o ti c we sh all exclude h im f o m c o n s i de
, tion We sh all r ra .

c on s i de on ly th type of in divi du l whom Helen J enn in gs

r e a

desc ibes s el tively s lf bou nd

r a r a e -
.
30

Th i s o l te i ch ara cte i zed by

e a dim in i shed sen s itivity to
s r a

th f eel in gs a n d a cti on s o f a n o the pe s on

e Thi s i n se n s i t i vi ty r r .

i d i stin g ui shed f om phys i c l al on en ess wh i ch d o es n ot

s r a

n ecess a i ly c on st i tute psych ol g i c l i s o l t ion

r An in d ivi du a l o a a .

m y be phys i c a lly i s o l a ted n d yet be keen ly esp on s ive t o

a a r

o the r pe o ple He i an i s ol te when he i deficien t in p

. s a s er

ce i in
v
g the e ff ect f h i s beh a vi or up on o the s I n c mp
o ing r . o ar

h im w i th the m o e s o c i a li zed pe s on the i s o l a te i s n t r r ,

o as

skillf ul in takin g the o le of ano the Th pe s on li ty of the r r . e r a

i s o l te i s c on st i cted bec a use he c a nn o t e a s ily im gin e h ow

a r a

a n o the pe s on feels an d th inks ; f o pe s o n a li t

r r i a p tte n r r s a r
y
Of beh v io whi ch we a ttribute to o the s bec u se we p e
a r r a r

c eive i t a ls in o u selves o r .

When a n in di vidu l s in sen s iti vi ty to a specific o the a

’

in d iv i du al is ge n e a li zed o t a n s m i tted t o a wh le g o up r ,
r r o r ,

it m y h a ve d am gin g c on sequen ces f o b o th the pe s o

a a nd r r n a

the g o up C e t inly the e can be n o s a tis fa ct y g up

r . r a r or ro

m ovem en t of an y kin d e i the in the fo m of s olvi n g p ob ,

r r r

lem s le nin g p o ductivity m o dific a tion of go ls and a tti

,
ar ,
r ,
a

tude o wh teve Th i sol a te s p esen ce h a dve se effects

,
r a r . e
’
r s a r

o n the g o p even if i t i m i n im al f o it d m pe n s the g o up s

’

r u s ,
r a r

es ri t de co
p p I t i d a m a g in g t
r the i
s s o
. l a te bec a use s o re

s on i n s t o w a d h im i s cu t a i led an d ch o i ce
s ve f h i m s o a a
p e s r r

s o ci l pe son i min im i zed o com pletely wi th held Ao

a r s r .

ce t n
p a f h im depe
ce o n ds m a kedly on h w he el tes h im self r o r a

to o the s h w well he in te n l i zes in h i s ow n o le syste m the

r , o r a r -

r o les o f o the pe ople r .

An in te esti n g a n d pe n et t in g n a lys i s of thi s i s ol tion

r ra a a

of the self w ecen tly m de by G ffm an His study

as r a o .
31

30 H H .

g J g M
So ci o m e tri c stru ctu re in p ers on a li ty a n d ro u p orm a
. en ni n s,

f M W g f
ti o n be in ch a p xiv i n
,

a t th e crossro ads p
Sh e ri an d

Y k
.

,
O il son ( e ds
.
Grou p re la t i ons
.
.

340 S ee a lso H H enn in s L ea de rs h i p a n d is o lati on .

.

. J g .

,
.

2d e d ; New
31 E

47- 6 0
.

ff
or : L o n gm a n s , Green Co In c ,
Go m a n , Ali en ation rom int eracti o n Hu m R ela t
.
. 10 f .
,

,
.

. .
,
4 36 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

b in gs ou t sh ply the n tu e of self i sol tion o ali en tion

r ar a r -
a r a

f om in te a cti n n d it effect on b oth th i s ol ted in divi d

,

r r o ,
a s e a

u al n d h i s a ud i e n ce
a .

I n te ction we h ve sh o wn is m e th n
ra ,
c on ta ct b e
a ,
or a a

tween tw o in di vi du ls I t i con j o in t co gn iti ve an d ffective

a . s a a

i n v o lve m e n t of tw o o m o e pe ople in comm on expe ien ce r r a r ,

in wh i ch e a ch p ti c ip n t g i ves s om eth in g o f h im self t o the

ar a

o the n d in wh i ch the pe s o n li ty of e ch i m o d i fied by the

r, a r a a s

en coun te betwee n them U s in g sp on t n e ous c n ve s a

r a a o r

tion s h is exampl o f thi s el tio n sh ip G offm an desc ibes

.

a e r a ,
r

i t s a li ttle s o ci l system with i t o w n b o un d y m in t ain

a a s ar -
a

in g te n de n c ies ; a li ttle p tch o f c m m i tm e n t n d l o y al t

y a o a

with its ow n he o es an d its own vill in s r a .

”3 2

C onve s tion between tw o o m o e pe ple exem pli fies a

r a r r o

fun d m en tal ch cte i sti c f s cial c n t ol n d i

a ara vivi d r o o o r a s a

illust ti on of the o le pl yin g p o cess I n c on ve s t i on the

ra r -
a r . r a

in d i vi du l m ust n o t on ly be kee n ly in v o lved h im self but pl y

a ,
a

h i o le in such a m an n e as to im pel o the s t o m in t in in

s r r r a a

v o l e m nt
v A t the s am e tim e he m ust be ble to ely up on
e . a r

the o the s t pl a ce thei own symp thi es at hi c mm n d

r o r a s o a .

C on ve s a tion is thus see n t be t uly an d deeply g o up

r o r a r

phen om en on .

a
B ec use “ of i t f
a g ili ty c o n ve s t ion e d ily pe m i ts a li en
s

tion o m i in ol em ent I t i s C offm n p oin ts ou t a

r s v
ra

v
“ .
r a

s, a
r a

a
r

p ec io us un ste dy st te th a t i likely t ny tim e t o le a d

r ar a a s a a

the d v du l in to s om e fo m of a lien a ti on
i n i i a
” Th i s a li en a r .
3

tion t akes va ious fo m s s om e of wh ich r desc ibed in r , a re r

C off m n s ti cle We sh ll desc ibe these fo m s of a lien a

’

a ar . a r r

tion in the foll owin g p a g phs ar ra .

1 E t e n l preo ccu pa tio n A s th e te m im pl ies th i s

. x r a . r ,

fo m of beh vio i n ot fo cused on the conve s tion I n this

r a r s r a .

sta te n in divi du al s c on ce n may be un c onn ected e ithe

a
’

r r

wi th the subject o f conve s a tion o with h i fellow p ti ci r r s ar

p n ts o with e ither His p e occup a tion m ay still be f o cused

a ,
r . r

o n s o m eth in g n ted a tin g th e c onve rs a ti on al e n co un te o o n

a r r

32 I bi d p 47 .
, . .

33 I bi d , p 49
. . .
4 38 GR OU P DYN AMI C S /
AND INDIV IDU A L BE HAVIO R

th a t she fin ds it im p o ss ible to gi ve he self up

to h o wn r er

p ty
ar .
”3 4

Th d i ss ip a ti on o f s m ll t lk i s a furthe illust t io n o f
”
e a a r ra

in te ctio n c on sci o us n ess Th e pu p o se o f s m a ll t lk i s t o

ra -
. r a

p ovide supply of c nve s a tion th t will keep the p ro cess

r a o r a

go in g Whe
selves in
.

“ n the s m ll t a lk i s depleted pe o ple fin d them

a

st te o f t alk but with n o th in g t o t alk ab o ut

a a
,

.
”

Th usu a l in te a ct io n c o n sc io us n ess in th i s c o n d i t io n i s typ i

e r -

”
c ally desc ibed a s a p inful s ile n ce
r a .

4 O the r cons cious nes s A s in sel f c on sci ous n ess so in

.
-
.
-

o the c o n sc i o us n ess the in d i vi du a l i

r- d ist a cted f m the s r ro

fo cus o f con e s a tion His a tten tion is di st a cted by n

v r . r a

o the p r ticip an t w h o bec m es an Object f tte n tion The e

ar o o a . r

ar e m an y e a s o n s f o th i s p e o ccup a t io n w i th o the s but the

r r r r ,

m o st typ i c a l in c o nve s a t i n a l e n co un te s a in s in ce i ty n d
r o r re r a

a ff ect a t i on Pe ople w h o d ispla y these t its b e k the mo

. ra r a e

t io n l t i es betwee n pe ple i n c o n ve s t i o n bec use they a t

a o r a a

t a ct a tten tion to them selves in ste a d of th subject

r

f equen tly they a o use ho stility in o the s When the

r r
“ No t e

r .
.

“
i n d iv i d a l se n ses th a t o the s a e in s in ce e o a ff ected
”
u C off r r r r ,

m n w i tes he te n ds to feel they h ve t ak e n un fa i a dv a n

a r ,
a r

t a ge of the i comm un ic a tion po s ition to p om ote the i o w n

r r r

i n te ests ; he f eels th a t they h a ve b o ke n the g o un d ul es

r r r r

o f i n te a ct ion
”35
r .

A s fo m s of self i s l a tion the fo ego in g typ es o f lien

r -
o r a a

tion f o m in te a ction a imp o t an t f o their effect on the

r r re r r

ro up T hey e n o t o n ly s o u ce Of offe n se o i n ju y but

g . ar a r r r ,

are c uses of g o up disequilib ium n d dis uption People s

a r r a r .
’

feelin gs a aro used by the im p op iety o offen s ive n ess of

re r r r

the lien a ted pe s on s beh vio Th e lien ted pe s on suf

a r
’

a r . a a r

fe s f o h i Offen se by bec
B oth
r r s
“ om in g a n o bject o f

o ff e n ses a g in st in v o lve m e n t o bl i g t i on s
a re a
ese n tm e n t

f o b o th a
r
”
r
.

the in teg ity of the g oup A s G offm an

,

en d n ge o dest o y“
a r r r r r .

s o n i cely p h ses i t Th m e e wi tness in g f an in volvem en t

ra , e r o

Offen se let a l n e its pun ishm en t an c a use a c im e a g in st

, o ,
c r a

the in te a ction the vi ctim of th e fi st c im e h im self bein g

r ,
r r
GR OU P AND PERSON ALITY DYN AMICS 439

m a de a c imin a l Thus du in g sp oken in te ction whe n o n e

r .
,
r ra ,

in di vi du al is st i cken w ith un e a s in ess o the s o f ten c om e

r ,
r
”3 6
down wi th the d ise a se .

THE L E AD AS A P E SO N We h ve give n a g ea t de al of
ER R . a r

a tte n t i o n to le d sh ip in thi s b ook O di scuss ion s Of the

a er . ur

subject h ave been l gely con ce n ed with the le de sh ip re ar r a r

l tion an d th e le a de ship cts in iti ted by cen t l pe s n s m

a r a a ra r o

a g o up E xcept t n gen tially we h a ve s id ve y li ttle b o ut

r . a ,
a r a

th pe s n lity f the le de Thi s pe s n lity v i es o f

e r o a o a r . r o a ar ,

c u se with the g o up n d th e t sk to be pe fo m ed by it s
o r ,
r a a r r ,
a

well a wi th th e in d ivi du l ch a cte st uctu e of the le de

s a ar r r r
’

a r.

Thus the dem c ti c ,

uth o i tari n lai ssez f i e le a de
o ra ,
a r a ,
or a r r

fun ction s best in g o ups wh i ch m o st st n gly elici t the in r ro

dividu al a ttitudes v lues n d ch cte i sti c beh vio s whi ch ,

a ,
a a ra r a r

m ke up hi pe s on l ity These t i ts h oweve

a s r n ot a . ra ,
r, a re

e a s ily chan ged by the g o up of whi ch he i s le de f they r a r, or

li deep in the pe s n l i ty st uctu e o f the i n divi du l a s a

e r o a r r a

c n sequen ce of h i lif e expe ien ce

o s r .

L e de ship we h ve f equen tly s i d i a lw ys a fun ction

a r ,
a r a ,
s a

of acen t l pe s n in in te ction wi th othe pe s on s n d l

ra r o ra r r ,
a a

wa ys im pli es the exi sten ce f pe s s w h t up n h i sug o r on o ac o s

gestion s o h is ini ti tin g cts H weve whethe the cen t al

r a a . o r, r r

pe son o le a de wi ll use o the s t s tisfy p i v te o s ci l

r r r r o a r a r o a
”
en ds will be dete m in ed e y l gely by h i pe s n lity r v r ar s r o a .

Whethe he will be skillf l in el tin g h im self p ductively

r u r a ro

t o the pe ple will depen d l gely on such psych lo gi c l

o r o ar o a

ch a cte i sti cs skill in le pl yin g pe ceptiven ess of p o

ar r as ro -
a ,
r e

ple s m tives n d the pl ce of these m o tives in g o up ela

’

o a a r r

ti on sh ip sk ill i n c om m un i c t in g wi th o the s the c a p a c i ty to

s, a r ,

en g ge in te m w k p oblem so lvin g n d o the s

a a or r -
,
a r .

I t is m i st ke t th in k of all dem c ti c le a de s t o re fe r
a a o o ra r

be in g ve y m uch alike D em o c a ti c
,

o n ly t o th i s kin d ,
as r . r

le de ship i in iti ted by diffe en t kin ds Of dem o c ati c p

a r s a r r er

so n l it i
a Wh ile thi s c nn t yet be emp i ic lly est bli shed
es . a o r a a ,

I bid
g w
36 .
p 54
, . .

37 We ur e th e
der to rev i e i n th i s c o nn ecti o n th e co n trib u ti o n s o f
rea

Adorn o et a l on

o ur di s cus si on of E
.
,

Fre n el Brun sw i k s de scri p ti o n in

. k
th e a u tho ri tari a n a n d dem o cra ti c p ers on ali ti es
h a p ter 6 abov e
-
an d
’

,
C ,
,

.
440 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R GR

dem o cra ti c le de s p o ssess o n su e t a it in common they

a r e r r :

will n o t ind isc imina tely pla y ll kin ds of oles but o n ly r a r ,

tho se whi ch a e com p atible wi th thei dem oc a ti c value sys

r r r

t m
e Thus a de m o c a t i c le a de
. eg dl ess of the expect a
,
r r, r ar

ti n s of o the s will no t ssum e a d icta to i l o uto c ti c

o r ,
a r a r a ra

p s ition in el a tion to othe s ; n d in an a utho itari an st ue

o r r a r r

tu e he will est blish a set f oles th a t will ch an ge i t t o a

r a o r

m o e f ee n d pe m i ss ive on
r r a r e

I f th i s is t ue —an d we b eli eve it i s—then the pe s n ali ty

.

r r o

Of the le de m ay ve y well be the on e c mm on den om in a tor

a r r o ,

desp ite in dividu l v i tion s of all le a de s a ar a ,

r .

Th v li di ty of the f eg o in g sse ti on will m o e li kely

e a or a r r

be confi m ed by inten s ive c se stud ies th n by deta iled ex

r a ,
a

i m en t o f the type we h a ve desc i bed Th i s w ill in v olve

p er s r .

in te n s ive but l a gely u n st uctu ed in te vi ews a n d clin i a l r r r r c

in vest i g a ti on s S uch studies of which the e too few .

,
r a re ,

will p ob bly show th t le de ship i

r a complex fun ction a a r s a

which is dete m in ed m uch by the pe s on lity of the le de

r as r a a r

a by the st uctu e of the g o up

s r r r .

A s n ex m ple of a dem o c ti c le a de wh o se beh a vi o is

a a ra r r

desc ib ed exclusively n ei the by the s itu a tion n o by such

r r r

conven tion l lea de t a its d om in n ce gg ess iven ess self

a r r as a ,
a r ,

con fi d n e a n d th e like we sh ll p ese n t a c on den sed a

‘

c e a r o

c un t of the pe s n lity of R y An d ews in B a s i c S ki ll

, ,
”
o r o a a r a

T a in in g G o up t the N t i n l T in in g L a b o to y
,

38
r r a a o a ra ra r .

Wh ile the investi ga t s ccoun t is largely in te p etive it i or

’

a r r ,
s

b sed on d t bt in ed by a v a i ety f psych lo gic al tech

a a a o a r o o

n i ques in cludin g the R o sch a ch Test the The m a ti c A r er

pp
S
, ,

ce ti on Test the e n ten ce C om plet i on Test n I de o l o gy a

p , ,

I n te view Questi onn i e

r nd self a dmin iste ed L ife Hi a r ,
a a -
r s

t o y I nte vi ew
r r .

An d ews w foun d to be a hi ghly in telli gen t pe s on wi th

r as r

c e tive im a gin tion Altho ugh he w s n a c dem ic m n

r a a . a a a a ,

h is th inkin g w p ctic al a th e th an the eti c l n d b as ra r r or a a a

st ct Th e S en ten ce C ompletion Test eve al ed th t th is

ra . r a

w as p ob bly due to st n g d o ubts b out hi in tellectu al

r a ro a s

c ompeten ce .

g
33

ro u p ,
M
I
.

.
D
80 0
e u ts ch ,

. I ss ues , 4
A . P e p ito n e , and

3 1—
40
A
.
. Zan der, L ea dersh ip in th e s m al l
442 OU P DYN AMICS AND IN D IVI D U AL BE HAVIO R
GR

Th p ictu e of An d ews the h i ghly success ful di scuss i n

e r r ,
o

le de do es n ot c o esp on d to the con ven ti n al im ge of

a r, rr o a a

h“ i ghly sce n d n t d om in an t type of i n d i vi du l w h o by h i

a a ,
a ,
s

st n g pe s on li ty impels o the s to ccede to h i wi shes

ro r a ,
r a s .

R the it co n fi m s ou epe ted Observ tion s th a t le de s

a r, r r r a a a r

diffe do o the pe o ple S types of pe s on a li ty st uc t ure

r as r . O r r

fun ction effe tively in s om e g oup s itu tion s n d in ffe

c r a a e c

ti ly in o the s
ve L e de sh ip beh avio to epe a t on ce mo e
r . a r r, r r ,

is fun ction o f pe s on a lity va i bles an d Objective gro up

a r r a

s itua tion s
CONCLU S ION
Afte m an y epetition s f the them e it shoul d n ow be
r r o

c yst al cle ar th a t the in divi du l n d h i g oup a in te

r a a s r re r

depen den t A self di ectin g dem c ti g up i bu ilt by

.
-
r ,
o ra c ro s

f ee an d s o c ially esp on s ible in dividu ls ; n d in depen den t

r r a a ,

g up cen te ed in divi du als a molded by the c ollective

ro -
r re

a tm o sphe e in wh i ch they h a ve the i

r bein g r .

I n th i s ch pte we h ve pu p o sely st essed the o le Of

a r a r r r

i n d ivi du l psych o l o gi c a l v i ables especi lly pe s on li ty in

a ar ,
a r a ,

the life an d ction of a g o up Thi s w don e to give m o e

a r . as a r

b l n ced vi ew f g o up phen m en th n on
a a o n get by r o a a e ca

lookin g to cl sely an d too lon g t the a ss o ci tive ch a cte

o o a a ra r

i s ti c of s o c i l l if e a .

C ll b o ti n in c llective eff ts d es n o t obvi ously t ke

o a ra o o or o , ,
a

pl ce ut m ti c lly I t equi es n ot nly in di i du ls w h o

a a o a a . r r o v a

a re in te ct in g wi th o n
ra n o the but such in divi du al ch e a r, ar

a t
c er s i ti go d in telli gen ce c mm un ic ti n skills the
cs as o ,
o a o ,

a b il i ty t o el te on e s self p ductively a the th an d f n ’

r a ro r r e e

i ly to the s le de sh ip c p ci ty espec i lly th e k in d th t

s ve o r ,
a r a a ,
a a

i best d sc ibed s syn c et i st i c

s e r co ll b o a tiv n d the
a r or a r e, a o r

psycholo gi c al t its ra .

I n c o n s i de in g the f ce of pe s o n l ity i n g up el t ion s

r or r a ro r a

we m ust c efully di sti gu ish between th o se w h

ar b si n o a re a

c lly self seekin g n d th se w h o th o ugh thei self ctu li z

a -
a o ,
r r -
a a a

tion n d in depen den ce help the g o up to m ove tow d its

a ,
r ar

Objectives I n depen de n ce nd ton m y

. wh les m e a au o a re o o

g als only if they enh an ce the well be in g of the g o up

o -
r .
GR OU P AND PERSON ALITY DYN AMICS 443

O the wi se they end in self i s l tion o alien a tion f om in te

r ,
-
o a r r r

a cti n a n d o the sel f c n st i ct i ve c on d i t io n s wh i ch

o r -
o r ha m
a re r

ful to the in divi dua l an d the g oup a like Un less we be a

r . r

this d istin ction in m in d we becom e n ti in divi du ali stic in

,
a -

o u a tti tud es a n d w o sh i pe s of a n ew de i ty the g o up

r r r : r .
C H A P TE R

G roup Psy cho the ra p y

I t isun e a son ble to supp se th t s in ce n ono g n i c

n ot r a o a r a

psycholo gic al distu b an ces ar l argely g o up in duc ed they

r e r

sh uld be am en ble to g o up t e a tm en t S in ce f ust tion s

o a r r . r ra ,

inh ib i ti o n s supp ess i on s

,
ep ess ion s n d the like arise in
r ,
r r ,
a

resp n se to g up expect ti on s n d dem an ds the ten s ion s

o ro a a ,

a n d c n fl i cts t o wh i ch they Of te n le d sh o uld be

o es lv ble a r o a

th o ugh c n st uctive in te a ction with o the pe ple in a

r o r r r o

the peutic s itu tion In a wo ld whe e the in divi du l i

ra a . r r a s

i evo c bly j oin ed wi th o the i n d ivi du l s whe e he begi n s

rr a r a ,
r

hum n lif e in in tim te ss o ci ti on wi th o the hum n be in gs

a a a a r a ,

whe e he a ctuali zes h im self becom es a pe s on th ugh

r or r ro

p ti cip a tion restora tion o f psycholo gi c a l he lth when i t h

ar ,
a as

been di ssip ted can be effectively ch ieved in the peuti c

a a ra

g oups Th e g o up p o cess by m e an s of which n in d ivi d

r . r r a

u a l s psych o lo g i c al he a lth i s esto ed is kn own g oup

’

r r as r

psych othe py ra .
1

g
1 Thi s term
w Oj
crea t esm i ed rea cti on s Th e hi s tori cal a n d
v ari o u s an d xg .

g
lin u isti c p uri s t

q
i ll b ect t o i t on th e r o un d th a t s in ce a
n o t h av e a s e n s ori um o r p s y ch e
ffi
rou p does

i t ca nn ot b e trea ted b y p s y ch o lo i cal

,
,

g
techni u e s Th i s di cu lty i f s u ch i t b e n e ed no t de t a in us ; f or w e m ea n

g
.

g w
,

by i t no m ore a n d n o les s th an th e p sy ch olo ical tre a tme n t o f i n di v i du al s

in a rou p s e ttin Th is i ll b e m a de cl ear in th e p a e s t o oll o
.
,

g g f w .
446 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVI D U AL BE HAVIO R
GR

en ce he foun d th t an effective w ay of c ectin g fa ulty a orr

pe s on ality developm en t is th ough g oup the apy

r r r r .
4

Th e in c e s in g p o pul i ty o f g o up psych the py h

r a ar r o ra as

b een cc m p nied by e s which it i well t poin t p at

a o a rror s o u

the ve y beginn in g Fi st it i n ot m e ely an applic a tion t o

r . r ,
s r

seve al pe s on s in a g oup Of a m eth o d th t i us ed in the

r r r a s

t e a tm en t f an in divi du l I t sh ould be ve y cle a by n ow

r o a . r r

th a t a ny psych o l o g i c l p cess i n i s l a ti n —if th a t in deed be a ro o o

a e ali ty—i ch n ged when it i b ought in to el ation wi th

r s a s r r

o the psycho lo gi ca l p o cesses Th c om p os iti n a n d s ize of

r r . e o

a g o up the ch a a cte
r ,
Of the in te a cti on between it m e m
r r r s

be s an d o fo th m ake diffe en ces in the to t l p o cess I n

r , s r r a r .

the secon d pl ce g o p psych o the py i n t substitute

a ,
r u ra s o a

f o in d ivi dua l psycho the py I t i

r a the the use of g o up ra . s, r r, r

rel a t i n s f o the im p ovem en t Of the pe s on liti es f g oup

o r r r a o r

m em be s A s such it equ i es a kn o wledge f g o up dyn am i cs

r . r r o r

a n d the sk i ll t o e ff ect des i a ble ch n ges i n i n d i vi du a ls i n a r a

g o up context I t d iff e s f om o the fo m s f g up d i ection

r . r r r r o ro r ,

such s le arn in g o p oblem s o lvin g by bein g em pl oyed ex

a r r -
,

cl s i
u ly f o th e a p eu tic pu p ses Th i s m e n s th t the
ve r r r o . a a

the p i st in a g oup s itu a tion m ust un de st n d n t o nly in d i

ra r r a o

vi du l the py but m ust be a ble t o utilize group fo ces f o

a ra ,
r r

the a ch ievem en t f indi vidu al m e n t l he alth A kn owledge o a .

of i n d ivi du l the py i n ot h oweve

a gu an ty of success
ra s ,
r, a ar

in g o up the a py
r r

G oup psychothe py i n ot cont a y to p opula belief

.

r ra s ,
r r a r ,

a the peutic sho t cut I m p o tan t a

ra the ec onom i es of
r . r s a re

tim e n d m on ey g o up the py whe n p ope ly used i

a ,
r ra r r s as

th o o ugh an d tim e con sum in g a in divi du al psych the py

r -
s o ra .

L ike goo d in dividu l the apy g up the py i f un dam en a r ,

ro ra s

t lly a p o cess of e educa tion n d educ tion t akes ti m e

a r r -
,
a re - a .

A ga in unlike in divi dua l the apy in wh ich th e devel p

,
r , o

m e n t o est tion of ole pl yin g is p im ily ve b l group

r r o ra r -
a r ar r a ,

4 P Schi lder I ntro du cto ry remar s on

83 —
.
, rou p s

g z
I s oc P s y ch ol 12 k g , . . .
,

p ys ch ia t , 1 0
1 0 0 ; So ci a l o r a n i a tion a n d p s y ch o th e ra p y , Am er J O rth o
. 9 1
g
1 —
2 6 For a m ore co m p re h en s iv e rev i e . o f th e

W w . .

l it e rat ure on ro u p p s y ch o th era p y u p t o 1 9 43 co n s u lt G

Gro u p Ps y ch o th era p y : a revi e

5 166— 80 .
w Th om a s ,
of th e rec e n t l i tera tur e , P s y cho so m M e d ,
. .

. .
GR OU P PSYCHO THERAPY 447

the py co n s ists in the ena ctme nt of oles in th e p esence o f

ra r r

o the s w h o a r pl yin g thei o les If the i any econom y

re a r r . re s

o f t im e in g up the apy then it i due con s ide bly to the

ro r ,
s ra

fa ct th t in g o up the py n e s o les
a r played d i ectly in ra o
’

r are r

r el tion to o the pe ople s oles I t is e s i e to bec m e a w e

a r
’

r a r o ar

o f o n e s in de q u te a n d de f e n s i ve beh a v i o
.

a a f exam ple r, or ,

when f ced a t on ce n d in the s m e s itu tion by the defen

a a a a

s ive a nd the self s a tisfyin g beh a ior of the pe ople in a -

v o r

permi ssive gro up atm o sphe e I t i usu lly e s ie to i de ntify r . s a a r

on e s s elf an d be a ccepted by o the s o bject ively i n g o up

’

r a r

th an in the s o c i lly est icted a tmo sphe e of in d ivi dua l a r r r

t e a tm e n t
r .

Thi s do es n o t m e a n f u therm o e th a t g o up the a py i r r r r s

e ither supe io or p e fe ble to in dividu l the apy O nly

, ,

r r r ra a r .

skilled di gno si s of in di vi du a l c a ses on the on h n d can

a ,
e a ,

dete m in e which in divi dua l will g in mo e f om one th an

r a r r

f om the o the ; n d on ly n in d ividua l wi th f ull un de stan d

r r a a r

in g o f the n a tu e li m it t io n s n d p o ss i b i l i t i es of the g o up
r ,
a ,
a r

p cess n the o the is qu lified t m ke fin al judgm en t

ro ,
o r, a o a a .

a nd
“
I t is im p t a n t fin lly t o n o te the f ct th a t g o up the a py
or

so ci l g o up wo k a e n o t i den tic l Wh ile b o th a

a r
,
a

r
,
”
r
a

a .
r r

re

c on ce n ed with effectin g ch an ges in the in di i du l s o ci l

r v a ,
a

g oup wo k a im s usual ly by in fo m a l d iscuss ion an d rec e a

r r ,
r r

ti o n l a cti vi ti es to gui de s m a ll g o up m em be s t o w a d in
a ,
-
r r r

c e a sed se lf egula tion an d in divi du a l well be in g

r -
r -
.

THE RAPY AS A G ROU P PROCE SS

I n Ou d i scuss i o n Of hum an el t io n s in in dus t y in C h p

r r a r a

te 9 we c lled tte n tion to the fa ct th t t the beginn in g Of

r , a a a a

system tic ese a ch in th t e a the e w a s n o m o del to f ll ow

a r r a ar r o

a n d n o c o n cep t ua l sche m e t o g i ve i t di ec ti o n I n the in dus r .

t i l field th i s di d no t p o ve to be a di sa dvant ge I n ex
r a r a .

p un din g the ese arch cont ibution s howeve we fo un d

o r r , r,

th t th e con st uction Of a con ceptu l f am ew k w a di

a r a r or s s

tin tly help ful

c .

I n the field Of g o up psych the a py o n the o the h n d r o r , r a ,

a un fy i n g f m ew o rk i n ecess ary fi st step to cle

i ra s a r a ar

un de stan din g of it as g o up p o cess n d in o de n ot to

r a r r a r r
448 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

i m p o se a p e f e ed syste m o f i de a s up on it I n the bsen ce

r rr . a

of af am ewo k the pi sts of v a ious pe su a s ion s wi ll u n n

r r ra r r co

s ci u s l
o
y pe ce i ve the t sk
r be f o e the m th o ugh the i
p of e
a r r r r s

s i on al o i e n t t i o n
r Thus a psych i a t is t a s o c i l w o ke a n d
a . r ,
a r r,

a g o up w o ke
r e ch inte ested in the apy th ough the g oup
r r, a r r r r

p o cess m ight ea s ily in te p et it m e anin g d iffe e n tly

r r r s r

THE THE R AP E UTI C FR A M W O R K A desc ipti ve schem e in

.
,

E . r

g o up therapy must pl a ce p ope n d b al n ced emph a s is on

r r r a a

the diffe en t fa cto s involved I t m ust be able t a ccoun t

r r . o

f o the in teg a t ion of the in d i vi du l wi th the g up f om

r r a ro r

whi ch he h bec m e alien ted witho ut educin g h is st tus

as o a ,
r a

a s a n in d iv i du a ted pe s o n O n the c on t a y successf ul g o up

r . r r ,
r

the a py en ables n in divi du al to ccept hi m self wh ile he i

r a a s

be in g a ccepted by o the s S elf ccept n ce an d a cceptan ce r -

a a

by othe s go to gethe It i not n ecess a y to establish the

.

r r . s r

p i o ity of on e o ve the o the Th e p cess i con tin uous

r r r r . ro s

an d c a nn o t be sli ced in t o p ts Thi s i but fu the on ar . s a r r c

fi m ti on Of a b a s i c g o up dyn m i cs p in c iple n am ely th t

r a r a r , ,
a

the p art a nd the wh ole the in divi du l n d the g oup ,

a a r ,
ar e

deeply in te twined A s in any o th e g oup in a the apeutic

r . r r ,
r

g up p ti cip a ti n le ds to a bette un de st n din g n d o

ro ar o a r r a a a

ce t n a of in d ivi du l d iff e e n ces

ce T h on ly g o ups i n
a
p r . e r

whi ch the e i a l ss of self e tho se in wh ich the in di vidu l s

r s o ar a
’

self con scio usn es s is oblite a ted a s in mobs an d othe c owd

-
r ,
r r

fo m a ti n s They do n ot con ce n us in th is b ook

r o .
5
r .

Ou desc ipt ive f am ewo k i a s im ple on

r r I t s t esses
r r s e . r

th ee in teg ted fa cto s in the the apeuti c s itu a ti on ( 1 )

r ra r r :

the clie ntele w h o a to be helped ; ( 2 ) the th e a p is t wh ose

re r

chi ef t sks a e to cl arify eflect b a ck to o the s thei affective

a r ,
r r r

a n d o the psych o l o g i c l te n de n c i e
r a n d se ve a c a t l yze
a s, r as a r

Of g o up lo com o ti on ; n d ( 8 ) the i nte a ctiv e cognitiv e

r a r

ro ces s t ak in g pl a ce a m on g u ts the ”
afie cti e v ll th i f
p n o a e

f
s el
5Stu den ts Owf
co ll e cti v e be h a v i or h av e lo n

in th e cro d a n d th e b e i nnin s g g Of x g
b een a are of thi s l o ss o f
e p erim e nta l re s earch c on rm i n
w fi g
,

L M Nw
it h a v e b e e n m a de by Fes ti n g er a n d oth ers , w h o des crib e th e p ro ces s a s
de-indi v idu a tio n See
q Fe s ti n g er, A P e p iton e an d T
. .

Som e con se u en ces of de in di v i du a tion in a ro u p I a bn orm soc p s y

ch o l , 4 7
. 3 82 8 9 — .
-
e co mb .

g ,

, .
. .

. .
,
450 OU P DYN AM IC S AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

Typ o logica l c ite ia c o din g to Sl“ a v on a e fo m s o f

r r ,
a c r s ,
r r

beh vio wh i ch
a rcon sequen ces f the pe s on ali ty type o f
a re o r
”

the in d ivi du l E x am ples e the hype kin etic o ove ctive

a . ar r r ra

i n d i vi du l w h o d i stu bs o the s a o un d h im ; the m t o typ e

a ,
r r r o r ,

w h o fi n ds s a t i s f cti n p im ily in d o in g th in gs n d c nn o t
a o r ar a a

a djust h im self to a m o e in a ctive s ituation ; the i gin tive r or a

pe s on who se p o clivities t ow d inven tin g an d expe i“

r ,
r m en t ar r

in g a ren o t s t i sfied a n d w h o c n seque n tly bec om es a p o b

a o r

l m f o h i g o up ; the f n t sy l a de n ch ild w h o builds a

e r s r a a -
,

fen ce ar un d him self n d keeps eve yon e outs i de “

o it ; the a r
”
schizo i d in d ivi du l w h withd a ws excess ively ; the goic a ,
o r e

child w h o esp on ds to o exclus ively in te m s of him self ; an d

,
r r

“
the e m a scul ted boy w h o i gen e a lly un able to fulfill h is
a ,
s r

bio l gic l le n d m ay even tu lly becom e hyp o ch on d i c l

o a ro a a r a a

an d h om o sexu a l .

Th e cl ie n tele ca n ls o be selected f om the m o e est i cted a r r r r

po pul ti n of m en t l ho sp it ls Th is pe m i ts th in clus ion in

a o a a . r e

ro up the a py o f m o e seve e c a ses Of m e n t l d i s o de thus

g r r r a r r,

f a difli lt to t e t by the g oup m eth d Wh ile the e a li est

r cu r a r o . r

wo k with thi s cli en tele w a d n e in E n gl n d it i ap i dly

devel p in g in the Uni ted S t tes M xwell Jon es the B iti sh
r s o a ,
s r

o a . a ,
r

psychi t ist desc ibes this g o up th e apy p opul a tion the

a r ,
r r -
r as

th e peutic com m un ity

ra .
10

Th the peuti c c om m un i ty g o up d iff e s f o m o the

e ra r r r r

the py g oups in tw o espects F i st it in co p o a tes uxil i y

ra r r . r ,
r r a ar

figu es r n i n teg l p t in the the pe ti c s itu tion in

as a ra ar ra u a

a dd it io n to cl i e n ts n d th e the p ists n am ely the n u ses n d a ra , , r a

j ob supe vi s o s T h e l tte
r a e im p o t a n t be
r

or
use
.

the clien ts w k expe ien ce in gen uin e j obs in pl ce of th e

they “
g i ve
r
a r r r ca

m e e tim e kil l in g ch cte isti c of O ccup a tion al the apy ‘ ’ ”1 1

r -
ara r r

S econ d it develops a cultu e of it own Th cultu e i s

.

,
r s . e r

l gely m in t in ed th ough the staff a the th n th o ugh the

ar a a r r r a r

p a tie n ts an d c on s ists of educ a tion al techn iques such a dis

, , s

c uss oi n g o ups the p vi s i on of s o c ia l n d v o c a t ion al o les

r ,
ro a r ,

a n d the l ike .

9
10
I bid , p p 9 1—98
M on e s
.
.

J .

Th e thera p eutic comm un ity ( New

,
.

g w
o r : B a s i c B oo Yk k s, I nc .
,

1 1 I bi d G a tso n s Fore
.
, ord p . v ii W
Pu bl ish e d i n E n l a n d un der th e ti tl e of Socia l p s y ch iat ry
’

, . .
.
GR OU P PSYCHOTHERAPY I

cli en tele of g o up the apy it i cle a ep esen ts a

Th e r r ,
s r, r r

la ge segm en t of the un ive se of the m e n tally ill They in

r r .

cl du ch il d en n d a dults n e tics and s ome psychoti cs

e r a ,
u ro ,

psycho som a ti ca lly di stu be d s o ci lly m ala djusted an d p e r ,

a ,
r

s o n all
y u n h ppy n d f ust a ted i n d iv i du a ls
a T hey a e ls o a r r . r a ,

a s Jon es desc ibes them th e f ilu es in s o c i ety ; m an y of

r ,
‘

a r
’ ”

the m com e f om b o ke n h om es a n d m n y r e un e mplo yed ; r a ar

bec a use of the i f ilu e they h ve devel ped n ti s o ci l r a r ,

a o a a

a ttit des in an ttem pt to de fe d them selves f om wh t

u a n r a

a ppe a s to them as a h o st i le e n v i o n m en t Ab o ut h lf h ve ”
r r . a a

b oken m ar ia ges n d they m ake little effo t to m in ta in th e

‘

r r ,
a r a

c o nven tion l sta n d ds f d m esti c beh avi o

a ar o o r
}2
,

A kn owledge of the cli e n tele o f g up the apy i n ece ro r s s

s a y bec use lth o ugh the p cess of t e a tmen t l ies in in te

r a ,
a ro r r

a cti n it i lw ys d i ected to“

o ,
w d the in d ivi du l Th e
s a a r ar a .

g o up i used a I llin g em a ks t fu the in d ivi dua tion to

r s s r r o r r

G oup the apy unlike the

, , ,

s t im ul a te n d to c om plete i t
”1 3
a . r r ,

f o m s of g o up beh a vi
r wh ich we discussed in the ch p
r or o r a

te s i n o t di ected tow ard a g ou p go al I t c on s ists a the

r ,
s r r .
,
r r,

i n the use o f g o up p o cesses to m ake c o n st uct iv psych o r r r e

lo gic l ch n ges such a s eduction of an xi ety y o an in

a a ,
r ,
sa ,
r

cr e as e in self confi d n ce in in divi du ls in a g up settin g

-
e , a ro .

I n g oup the a py the c li e n ts use n o the a n d the

”
r ne r o a r

t he p i st—o bette
ra they use the g o up p o cess —to e ffect
r r, r r

pe s on l g wt h n d s o cial a djustmen t
r a ro a .

I t sh o uld be dded p e n thet i c lly th a t eve n s om e n o n a ,

ar a ,

the peutic g o ups such as p oblem s olvin g g o ups m y

ra r ,
r -
r ,
a

h a ve the apeuti c c n sequen ces B y bec m in g t sk cen te e d

r o . o a -
r ,

o up in vo lved n d g o up g o l o i e n ted a p s o n fi n ds m
g r o
-
,
a r -
a -
r , er e

ti on a l s a tis f cti on a n d self f u lfillm n t To th is exten t he ex

a -
e .

i
er e n es pe s on a l g o wth a n d in d iv i du a t i n wh i ch e as
p c r r o ar ,

w n o ted imp o t an t O bjecti ves o f g o up the a py

e , r r r .

The e i fin ally a type o f cli en t w h o i s un us u lly well

r s, ,
a

s ui te d f o g o up the py bec a use he fin ds in di vi dua l the py

r r ra ra

t oo th e a te ni n g an d a nxi ety p o voki n g

r Th e tran s fe e n ce r . r

I bid
g C J g g
12 .
, p . xv u .

13 H A Illin
. .
, . G . un on th e p res e n t tren ds in ro u p p sy ch o
t h era p y , Hu m R e la t . .
, 10 p . 82 .
452 OU P DY N AMIC S AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO RGR

phen om en on th a t is a oused in in dividu al psycho the py r ra

c e tes som e nxiety in all clien ts but in s om e it i o ve

r a a ,
s r

whelm in g to the p oin t of p o ducin g p n ic Alth ough g up r a . ro

the py ls o o uses anxi ety it do es n ot a Sl son h a

ra a ar , ,
s av s

shown e ch the in ten s ity m anif ested in in divi du l the

,
r a

Th e p ese n ce of o the s in a gro up ll a ys n i ety an d t n s

r
“ a py

r a a x
a r

ra
.

fe e n ce is diluted n d m o d ified by in te m em be t an sf e
r a
”
r- r r r

en ce n d m utu l i de n tific tion I t seem s th t a w aren ess

a a a . a

th a t o the s in the g o up h ave the s m e feelin gs an d th e

r r a

secu ity which c om es f om supp o t by the s in the s m

r r r o r a e

p edi c m en t di ss ip a te an xiety
r a .
14

C li en ts in the a peuti c g ups en a ct diffe en t oles a do r ro r r s

m em be s i n o the ki n ds of ss o c i t io n s S uccess ful gro up

,

r r a a .

the apy esults in n o sm all degree f om the o pp ortun ity f o

r r r r

clien ts to pl y oles an d f om the the ap ist s u n de st an d in g

a r r r
’

of the i pl ce in the to ta l g oup the pe tic p o cess Th at

r a r ra u r .

such oles ecu —p ob bly bec use m o st n eu otic in divi du l s

r r r r a a r a

are w estlin g w i th s im il a psych o lo g i c a l p o ble m s —h

r been r r as

n o ted b y seve l in v sti ga to s A t the begin nin g Of t e t 15

ra e r . r a

m en t a nd f o s om e tim e l te these oles se ve techn i que

,
r a r, r r as s

o f self de f e n se When the oles give w y t o “

-
m ore co n st u
. r a r o

tive nes the clien t m ay be s i d to h ve ecove ed I t

o ,
a a r r .

wi ll pe h ps in c e a se the e de s un de st n di n g of th e
r a r r a r
’

r a

group the pe tic p cess if we i den tify and b i efly desc i b

ra u ro r r e

s om e of these oles r .

Although R edl des i gn“ tes the p tt n s of beh avio wh ich a a er r

we are c llin g oles a s form s of g o up es ist an ce the dif

a r r r ,
”

fe en ce i essen ti lly te m in lo gic al Th e f m s of es ist n c

r s a r o . or r a e

are w a ys of esp on din g to the to t l the peuti c g o up ; they

r a ra r

in vo lve im ges by the cl i en t Of h im self

a f o the m e m be s ,
o r r ,

o f the the p ist n d of the n a tu e o f wh t i g o in g o n in th

ra ,
a r a s e

the peuti c p o cess They ar ch cte i stic psycho l gi c l

ra r . e ara r o a

sta n ces p o s iti n s o oles wh ich th clien t is

,
o un in
g , r r e a ss r

th ough the co u se of t e tm en t
r r r a .

14 R Sl av s o n
S . . D ff
i eren ti al dy n am i cs o f a cti v ity a n d in terv i e
2 93—
, r ou p wg
th erap y , Am er
1 5 S ee
,
O rtho p s y ch ia t 7 1
.

x 3 02
f or e a m p le , F Re dl , Re s ist a n ce in th era p y
30 7—1 3 ; T B ry ,
ro u p s ,
. Hu m
.
,

V
.

g g .

Rela t , 1 .

ch o th era p y , I n t I ro u p Ps y ch o t h er , 1
. . g
ari e t ies of re s is t an ce i n

1 0 6— 14
ro u p p s y
.

. .
45 4 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVID U AL BE HAVIO R
GR

,
“
i t the b oys l i te lly ask f pun i shm en t in o de t o con
ra
‘ ’

or ,
”
r r
”
fi m the i im ge of the pun iti ve dult They a k f o the
r r a a . s r

pun ishm“ en t n ot s a m e n s of ton em en t but a defen sea a a as

a g in st i d n tifi tion—su en de TO th i s nd they use all

a e ca rr r .
”
e

s ts f i it n ts n d exa sp“
or o e a t in g a cts t o upset the the a p i st
rr a a r r

so th t they c n put h im in t n y on o f the c tego i es of

a a o a e a r

the i t a um atic lif e h ist y o as t get id of thi s d n ge o us

r r or ,
s
”1 7
o r a r

en em y of the i delin quen t f un r .

G u i lt e c p e t h ou gh dis p la ce d conflict i a o le o ften e

s a r s r r

s ted t in wh i ch the in divi du al begin s t feel guilty but

or o o

in wh i ch he wil l t c n t itely o n ly t o w d h i the py g o up

ac o r ar s ra r .

Th i s still le a ves h im g e t de l o f oo m f o h tin g n d com a r a a r r a a

b tin g the w ld o uts i de Thus the b oys m y w ith n o sen se

a or .
,
a

o f gu ilt Offen d n inn o ce n t byst an de t th publi c b th in g

a r a e a

.
,
a
“
be ch n d th w st n es t m to i sts w h o p ss them n ro

h ike I n th is le they es i st the to t l s u en de of guilt ro

o

r
a o r

a rr
a

r
o a

exem pt delin quen t f n H vin g al e dy m de “ el ct n t u . a r a a r u a

c on cess ion s to the the p ist n d the the py g up th ey fl y ra a ra ro ,

t o escue the est f the i l if e f om be i n g en gulf ed in th e

r r o r r

p o cess of dom estic a tion

r
”1 8

R o le co nfus io n c on s i sts o f a st t
.

f bewi lde m e t ega d a e o r n r r

in g the expect ti n s o f o the s p ti cul ly th o se f th th e

a o r ,
ar ar o e ra

p i st Th bo ys in R dl g up qui ckly lea n ed wh t they

. e e
’

s ro r a

co ld n d c o ld n t“
u expect of the the p ist Thus they ex
a u o ra .

e d h im to be g d sp t o ve l o k m in o
”
t nd t i n
p ec a oo or a o r o r

f tion s Off en ses but they did n t expect him t li f

ra c or ,
o o e or

them to get them ou t Of t uble o t p eten d th t he p

,
ro ,
r o r a a

p oved eve y spect Of the i m isdeeds Th i s ve y diff e en ti

r r a r . r r a

ti n h oweve c used c nfus ion ; f they c ul d n t ant ici

o ,
r, a o or o o

p te ll h i e ction s Thus“
a a m n y b o ys ccused the the p i st
s r a .
,
a a ra

Of bein g n info m er sque le when eve he co n sulted

a r or a r
”
r

with o the st ff m em be s ev n b ut m tte s th t we e u m

r a r ,
e a o a r a r

r el ted t d isciplin e A s R edl p in ts o t by us in g wo ds

a o . o u ,
r

a
l ike sque le wh i ch ar used to desc ibe g ou p me m be
nd a
a r,

pplyin g them to the g up the a pi t they g t w a y “ e

ro r
r

s ,
r

o a
rs ,

17 I bi d .
, p 3 10
. .

18 I bi d .
, p 311
. .
GR OU P PSYCHOTHERAPY 45 5

w i th qu ite lo t of subve s ive an tilea de p op a g a n da befo e

a r r r r

the o the ki ds even ec o gniz ed it In th is w y the o ther

r r
”
a

boys wo uld becom e an gry with and ac cus in g of the the a

.

,
r

p ist wi th o ut b othe in g to check the ve a city of the ep o ts r r r r

ma de by o the s r .

E s ca p e i n to v irtu e e f e s t o the role o f see m in g ec o ve y r r r r

especi ll y if it begin s s oon a fte t e tm en t I t i“

,

a s ve y com r r a . r

m on in ind ivi du l the a py whe e i t i s c a lled esc a pe in t o

a r ,
r

hea lth I t develops as s oon the clien t sen ses the o n com e
.
”
as

o f i de n t ific a ti on fa ces h i de fect ive st a te an d ec o gn i zes th e

,
s ,
r

n eed to ch a n ge I t c on s i sts o f c on ce a lin g the s ym pto m s or

.

the offen s ive beh a vio th t o cc sion ed th n eed f o therapy r a a e r .

Th e cli en t in sho t im p oves n o t i ce bly a n d qu i ckly in the

r r a

un c n scio us h ope th t the t e a tm en t will b e termin ate d

, ,

o a r .

R edl desc ib in g th i s s itu a ti n eg d in g delin quen t bo ys

,
r o r ar ,

tells us th t he h as h d b oys in h is g o ups w h o a“

a fte n a r ,
r a

exception lly sho t pe i d of tre a tm en t developed a m o st

a r r o ,

l ud able im p ovem en t in the m an a gem en t of thei ff a i s

a r r a r ,

an ston ishin g a ccessibili ty to e a s on in g an d n a stoun din g

a r a

”
,

r eduction in the i o pen delin quen t explo its r .

19

An in te rest in g study of le beh vio in g oup the apy i ro a r r r s

presen te d by F nk n d “ h is ss o c ia tesra A lth ugh the in a a .

20

”
o

v e s ti
g t o use
a the te
rs m beh a v io p a tte n wh t they a r r r a re

i n fa ct desc i b in g i s o le b eh vio
,

r The e tw clien t
r a r .
21
r are o

r o les o

F an“
r
r a
“
beh vi p tte n s desc ibe d in thi s study whi ch
or

k n d h is ss o c ia tes te m help ejectin g compl a in e

a a
a r

r
r

r
-
”
r
”
a n d do cto s a ss i st n t These ro les e m e ge d early in g o up
’
r a . r r

the py n d we e the efo e li ttle if t ll m o d ified by it

ra a r r r a a .

They we e in o the wo ds the h b i tu al expect an ci es o f the

r ,
r r ,
a

in d ivi du a l n ot a set o f beh vio p esc ibed by the the a

s, a r r r r

e u ti c ses s i o n s T hey we e the o les wh i ch they b o ught

p . r r r

wi th them to the the apeutic gro up an d the explan a tion in r ,

JD
I bid
k
19 .
, p 3 12
. .

20 Fra n et a l
Tw o beh a v i or p attern s in th era p e u ti c g ro up s an d
2 89—
. . .
,

th eir a p p arent m o tiv a ti on Hu m R e la t 5

2 1 I bid
, p 290
.

“ w
315 ,

fi
Th eir de ni ti on of b eh a v i or p a tt ern a p p lies to ro le
. .
.

w
.

b eh a v i o r : P a ti ents o uld b e sai d to s h o th e s a m e beh a v i or p a ttern if

th ey a p p e ared to be try ing to h an dle th e sa me con i ct in th e s am e w ay ,
th a t i s , i f th eir beh a vi or h a d th e s am e m ea ni n or inten t
”
g fl .
456 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVID U AL BE HAVIO R
GR

p t of the pe s on s m al a d aptive beha vio

ar r I t w a s e arly
’
r .
22

fo un d tha t s om e p ti en ts ejected the the p ist s a dvi ce a r ra

’

a n t g on i zed o th e c li e n ts a n d ge n e a lly d i s rupted the g o up

a r r r

O the s Offe ed a dvi ce con ceale d thei symptoms and t i ed

.
,

r r ,
r ,
r

t o keep the g o up p o cess go in g How em in i scen t these ar

r r . r e

Of the blo cke a gg ess o domin a to op in ion give hr, r r, r, -

r, ar

m on i e z n d e n co u a ge wh om we d i scussed i n C h pte
r, a r 12 ! r a r

Th e he lp rej ecting com p la ine rs of wh i ch the e we e tw o

-
,
r r

“
w o m en an d o n e m a n in a g o up o f se e n usu lly di d n o t
seek help d i ectly but c ompl in ed in an a g grie ved w y t
r
r

a
v ,
a

a
”
o

the the pi st or o the clien ts in th e g o up B e in g st on gly

ra r r . r

self o i en ted they i gn o ed the n eeds an d a ttit u des of the

-
r r

o the s except p oten ti l iva ls f o the the ap ist s fa vo s

r , as a r r r
’

r .

The i self cen te edn ess bl in ded the m t o the ill c o n ce a led
r -
r -

ri d i cule wh i ch they f eque n tly eli c i ted f om o the s Ch c r r r . ara

t i ti c lly they be li ttled o the clien ts com pl ints n d ’

er s a r a a

ten ded to blam e o the s f the i di ffi culties r or r .

The i beh vio w a typ i c al o f m al djusted a n d o f cert a in

r a r s a

p a n o ic p a tien ts w h o a C am e on p o in ted o u t in pplyin g

ra ,
s r a

the c n ept Of ole playin g to beh vi o d is o de s we e

o c r -
a r r r ,
r

n e i the a ble to pl a y the i

r o les sk illfully n o c o ectly t p r r r rr o er

i
ce v e the oles Of o the s F nk n d h i“
r a ss o c i tes m th r .
23
ra a s a su e

s itua tion up cle ly when they w ite Wh ile n eed in g the ar r :

help of o the s they seem ed to see them s un pp eci tive

r ,
a a r a ,

in d iff e e n t un ble to m eet the ir n eeds whi ch m de them

r ,
or a , a

a ng y r Th i s led them to an ti cip a te a n ge in et n n d r r ur a

s t en gthen ed the i b eli ef in the p o ten tial help gi ve s ill

.

r r -
r

will .
”24

Th e docto s a s s is ta nt ro les we e e n a cted by fo u cli e n ts

’
r r r .

These in d ivi du als eve n wh ile a dd ess in g o the cl i en ts we e

,
r r ,
r

m d w i th the the a p i st s o do ct o s e cti on to

’ ’

ov e rcon ce e r r r r a

22

w
I bid
m en t se ss io ns a n d
. Th e th era p eu ti c ro u p rol e s
, p . 2 98 .

e re corro b o ra te d b y da ta
ere b s erv e d in trea t
rom i n terv i e s a nd rom
g w O
fw w w f
g “g
th e Rors ch a ch a n d Th em atic Ap p erce p tion tes ts
p rio r to th e b e in n in of trea tm ent
hi ch e re a dmi nis te re d

are w a s t a e n t o co n rm o r de ny th e . C g k fi
hy p o th esi s th a t th e b eh a v i or p a ttern i n th e r ou p w as the re sp o n se g en

N C
eral ly m a de by th e [ cl i e n t ] to s im ilar s timu li in o u ts i de l i e
”

g f .

g k am e ro n Th e p s y ch o lo y of beha v ior dis orde rs ( B o sto n

23 Se e .
,

Ho u h ton M iffl in C o , ch a p s i v a n d x iv
. . .

2 4 Fran et a l , Tw o b eh a v i o r p a tt erns , p
. 300 . .
458 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R GR

o the p o ss i ble expla n t io n s f o

r the diffe en ce in beh avio it a r r r,

w a p o b a bly due t o the f ct th t th wo k s itu t ion w as

s r a a e r a

d iffe en t n d the e fo e elicited diff e en t oles

r a r r r r .

2 The t h e a p i t Th
. o le of the the p i st i to s om e ex
r s . e r ra s

te t s im ila to th t of a ny ce n t a l pe s n in in te in divi du a l
n r a r r o r

r el tion sh ips such as th group le de Any cen t a l pe s on

a , e a r . r r

i a f cus o f in te est t o the m e m be s

s o n d a n effect ive o n e
r o r r ,
a

c e a tes a com fo t ble a tm o sphe e f o de libe a tion o ction

r r a r r r r a .

C e a tin g an a tmo sphe e ho weve f o s o lvin g p oblem s s ay

r r ,
r, r r ,

i n o t qu i te the s m e
s c e a tin g th kin d of pe m issi ve g o up
a as r e r r

eff ect which en c ou ges in d ivi du ls t lay b a e befo e ra a o r r

o the s the i well c o n ce a led h t eds a n d a n x i et i es

r r While we
-
a r .

do n ot wi sh to m a gn i fy the im p o ta n ce f t in ed ski ll a r o ra ,

o up the a p i st m ust n o t o n ly u n de st n d th g up p cess

g r r o r a e ro r ,

like o the cen t a l pe s n s but he ls o n eeds a techn i ca l

r r r o a

e q u ip m e n t wh i ch i s usu a lly n o t
,

equi ed in le a ni n g an d r r r

p oblem s olvin g gro ups

r -
.

L est the ea de r infe f om the fo eg in g sta tem en t th t

r r r r o a

the the a p ist in te p o ses h i ow n inte llectu l nd techn ic al

r r s a a

schem e up on the the apeuti c g o up we h sten to p in t o t r r ,

a o u

th t this is no t t ue Af te structu in g the in i ti l the a peuti c

a r . r r a r

p a tte n whi ch is n ecess y f o stim ul tin g t le st m in im a l

r , ar r a a a a

p a tic ip tio n the the ap ist pe m its the g o up fo ces to

r a ,
r r r r

ge n te f eely A s in ll p o ductive g o up beh avior in

era r . a r r ,

the peutic ctivities the cen t l pe s on—in this c as e the

ra a ra r

the a p ist—en g ges in m in im um am o n t o f ct i ity while

r a a u a v

keepin g in cl se in te pe son l co n ta ct with eve y m em be

o r r a r r .

As in othe p o ductive g o ups whe e le a de s be com e m em

r r r ,
r r

be s an d le a de ship a cts are d iffused th o ugh o ut th g o up

r ,
r r e r ,

so in the a peut i c g o up sess i o n s the cli e n ts

r ls beco m e r a o

the a peuti c ch an ge ge n ts I t i n o ex a gge a t io n to s a y th a t

r a . s r

the o up the p ist s g e test skill li es in h i su e judgm en t ’

of wg
s

rn to ef a in f om inte jectin g h i ow n ide s n d a tti

ra r a r

e r r r r s a a

tudes I f f o exam ple a clien t e a ches a pl ce in the the a

.
,
r ,
r a r

e u ti c p o cess whe e f c i n g a n u n c n sc i o us t e n d m
r o a
p y r a r

stimul a te an emo tiona l c i s is should the the p ist p obe h im r ra r

furthe the con sequen ce m ay b em tionally d is a st us To

r, e o ro .

m ake clea o u m e n in g supp os e the e mo t ion al c i s is w a s

r r a ,
r
GR OU P PSYCHOTHERAPY 59

mo tiva ted by a n un conscious wi sh f o de ath S h ould the r .

the a p i st a t th i s p in t in te p et the wi sh t o the cli e n t a s a

r ,
o ,
r r

suici d al ten den cy he w ill h ve m a de an eg egious e o in ,

a r rr r

tim in g H in ckley n d He m an n st a te th e m tte w i th

. a d r a r a

m i ble fin li ty
ra On n eve im p o ses
a g e te bu den on
: e r a r a r r

th a t wh ich i dm ittedly f ail ; o n ccepts the th t f a

s a r e a ,
ra r, a r

i
g yli t p ese n t e li ty
as n d seeks t
r e in f o ce the e nf eebled
r a a o r r

on exp esses the s m e i de whe “

n he desc ibes
”2 6

g
e o Sl
.
a vs r a a r

th d i sc im in te use of
e r ule in h is ow n wo k Don t do
a a r r :
’

h don n ; w hen in dou bt

’

an
yt i n ;
g t sa
y an
yt h i g ,

Like a success ful g oup le de a goo d the ap ist plays dif r a r r

f e e n t o les in the the peut i c g o up depen d in g o n th e

r r ra r ,

n eeds f the cli e n ts a n d the equ i em en ts of th e the a peuti c

o r r r

s i tu t io n from m o m en t t m om en t We s a w the im p o t a n ce
a o . r

of le dyn am i cs in Ch apte 12 an d we le a n ed there s om e

ro r ,
r

thin g Of the va iety Of les whi ch m embe s en a ct in a g o up

r ro r r

G oup th e apists likewise called upon to en act a v ri ety

.

r r a re a

Of fun ction l oles ; an d gen e a lly the m o e skillfully they

a r ,
r ,
r

pe form them the g e te i th e likelih oo d th a t the cli en ts

r , r a r s

will be able to help on an othe to t e a t them selves e r r .

Th e fi st ole f the group the a p i st i s th a t Of a ca ta lys t

r r o r

o r cha n ge a gen t He fulfi lls oughly th e s am e fun ction a s

. r

the en e gize in o the g o ups The e i s n o g o up l c om o tion

r r r r . r r o

of na
y k in d un less s o m e on e in i t i a tes i t I n ty i c a l g o ups o f
p . r

the type we discussed in othe ch pte s thi s fun cti on m y r a r a

be fulfilled by a ny m em be altho ugh m o st c omm only it i r, s

a ce n t a l pe s n such
r the le de I n the apeuti c g oup
r o ,
as a r . a r r ,

m vem e n t is i nitia t d but seldom sust a in ed by the the

p i st M o e specific a lly the the p i st m ust c e a te s a tis fyin g
o e , ,
ra

. r , ra r a

r el tion ship between him self n d the cli en ts Thi s c n s ists

a a . o

o f est bl i sh in g a n
a tmo sphe e of secu i ty wi th m inim uma r r a

of est ai n t up on the exp ess ion n d beh vio of the clien ts

r r r a a r .

A s c t alyst o ch a n ge a gen t the the api st by inf us in g

a a r r ,

f eed om and secu ity in to the g o up en co u ges the eleas e

r r r ra r

ep essed feelin gs an d m em ori es in the clients thereby

,

of r r
,

26 Hi n c ley k an d Herm ann Grou p ,

treat me nt i n p s y ch oth era py , p 2 5 . .

g Sla v s o n , An introdu cti on to

27
g rou p th era p y , p 1 57 I ta li cs in th e
. .

o ri i n al .
460 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDUA L BE HAVIO R
GR

ensurin g the co n stan t flow of m te i l wh ich i n ecess a y a r a s r

f o th e c on tin u n ce n d the peuti c v lue of the g up

r a a ra a ro .

E xp e ien ced g o up the ap i sts kno w th a t the c ea tion of

r r r r

the in i tial a tmo sphe e is difli u lt a nd delic te The e is a r c a . r

st on g ten den cy to st uctu e the g oup a lon g ce tain lin es ;

r r r r r

and the cli e n ts by v i tue o f the i in i t i l depe n de n ce ten d

,
r r a ,

to a cco mm o d te the m selves to such st uctu in g bec use they

a r r a

pe ce ive thei secu ity to li wi thin it Th e skill ful the a pist

r r r e . r ,

howeve like the effective g oup le a de en co ura ges the

r, r r,

m e mbe s of the g o up to bec m e the i ow n ch n ge ge n ts

r r o r a a .

He a voi ds we s i d be fo e in te jectin g h is ow n f m e of
,
as a r ,
r ra

r e fe en ce up on the g o up
r r .

Th e est abli shm en t f p ope g o up settin g i d ifficult o a r r r s

fu th e m o e bec use of dive s ity in the clien tele S m e li

,

r r r ,
a r . o c

en ts f o ex mple a m uch less self elian t th n o the s ;

,
r a ,
re -
r a r

s om e n eed di ect guid n ce f o lon ge pe io ds th n o the s

r a r r r a r ,

a n d c an n o t bec m e a ct i ve a n d p o duct ive m e m be s e a s i ly

o r r

S om e pe s on s t lk e sily and f eely whe ea s othe s

.

r a a r ,
r r a re

f o zen into s ilen ce Th the p ist knows h w emb a ss in g

r . e ra o a rr

the s ilen ces e to the clie nts but he ls o “

ar kn ows th t in tim e ,
a a

they w ill gen e te “ ”

el ax tion a n d e se Th e o n ly e se al
ra r a a . a

lowed h oweve i th t f m in t ainin g s ilen ce

,
r, B ut
s a o a .
”2 8

s ile n ce i s p o ductive nly Hin ckley n d He m nn tell us

r o ,
a r a ,

when bo th the the p i st n d th clien ts c n e n du e it om ra a e a r c

f o ta b ly Th the p i st
r . cc din gly m ust quickly get t
e ra ,
a or , o

kn o w h is g up well to be able to judge h ow m uch di ecti on

ro r

he sho uld p a ctice an d h ow m uch an be h n dled by the

r c a

g oup itse lf
r .

Th e the ap i st i s n ext su
pp
r o te I n th i s he pl a ys a o le
, ,
a r r . r

ve y s im il to —o it m ay be the s m e as—the ncou ger

r ar r a e ra

whom we b iefly desc ibed in Ch pte 1 2 In th is ole the

r r a r . r

the ap ist e cts to the clien ts c on t ibution wi th wa m th n d

r r a
’

r r a

a pp ov l Th e clien ts thus see h im s s an ction e o f wh t

r a . a a r a

eve s o c ially un a ccept ble ten de n c ies they m i ght sh ow

r a ,

r a the th n a s a ep ess o o
r a c it ic like othe s in th o uts ide
r r r r r r e

w o ld w h o d i s app o ved of them Wh ile the the p i st s a

r r . ra a

supp orte is a lwa ys p o ten tially a ccess ible he pl ys th is ole

r , a r

28 Hin c ley k and Hermann Group , tre at ment i n p sy ch oth era p y , p . 18 .

462 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVI D U AL BE HAVIO R
GR

a i ds th e cl i e n t in h i s re a ch f o m a tu i ty just as h i p a e n ts r r ,
s r

helped h im t g o w f om a depen den t child to a self di ect

o r r -
r

i n g a dult I f o n the o the h an d the cli en t s expe i e n ce wi th

’

.
,
r ,
r

h i p a e n t w s un g a tifyin g bec use of e a l o f an c i ed f ul ts

s r a r a r r a

or we aknesses the e i a st on g te n de n cy f o the cli en t t

,
r s r r o

a sc ibe th e o le o f i de l p a e n t t o the the a p i st

r r Th e l tte a r r . a r,

seen n ow a s a n ide al p en t h as a ll the vi tues th a t the ar ,

r

clien t s own p a en t la cked His o w n p en t m ay h ve been

’

r ar a

ej ectin g a n d pun itive whe e a s th e the ap ist i de l p e n t is

.

r ,
r r -
a ar

a ccept n t and s nction in g Th l tte ccepts h im u n con

a a . e a r a

di tio n a lly w i tho ut e n m es hi n g st in gs a tt a ched to eve y f a vo

,
r r r .

E ve y success ful g o up the a p i st pl ys the ole of a cla i

r r r a r r

fier Th i s is l cus in the g o up the peuti c p“

. a o o cess whe e r ra r r

he fo s akes h is di spen s ab ili ty an d t kes a m o e cti ve p a t

r a r a
”
r .

While he do es n ot en ga ge in m nipul tion an d con t l he a a ro ,

helps th e the apeutic p o cess a lon g by i den tifyin g f o the

r r r

clie nts at the p ope m om en t the di stu b in g em o tion s a n d

r r r

thei pla ce in th e psychi econ om y o f the in divi du al n d

r c a

the g o up He inte p ets f o the g o up the m e a n in gs f the

r . r r r r o

te n s i n s whi ch d istu b a ll of them so th t they wi ll be a ble

o r ,
a

even tually to c ope with them them selves He supplies th e .

cli en ts with the em ti n a l l n gu ge of the ten s ion s by m e n s

o o a a a

o f wh ich he a n eflect b ck to the m the i ow n f eelin gs A s

c r a r .

they p o g ess in g up the py m o st clien ts c om e to o bserve

r r ro ra ,

the i o w n feelin gs ; but they c nn t ve b lize them o sta te

r a o r a r

them d i ectly Thus when on f them ttem pt to convey

r . e o a s

h i feelin gs in
s fe ful h ltin g n d c n fused m nn e the
a ar ,
a ,
a o a r,

the p ist est tes the clien t s wo ds in m ann e th a t will

ra r a
’

r a r

m ak e the feelin gs cle e to the l tte Th i s fun ct ion i s c all ed ar r a r

reflectio n in b o th i n d ivi du a l a n d g o up the

.

py Whe n f o r ra .
,
r

ex m ple“
a a cl i e n t e cts to the t k in g Of
,
pe s on l ity test by
r a a a r a

s yin g Wh o w n ts to bel ieve th t he is a psych

a ,

devia te ! an d the the p i st e a ssu in gly n swe s I t is h d

”
a
“ o p thi c

ra r r
a

a r ,
a

ar

to ccept s m eth in g unple s n t he i efle ting b ck to the ”

a o a a ,
s r c a

clien t the l tte s ow n un cl im ed o ejected feeli n g egard

a
’

r a r r r

in g suspected condi tion of h is pe s ona lity w itho ut p sin g

a r as

judgment on him .
31

31 See ib id , p 45 . . .
GR OU P PSYCHO THERAPY 463

up the pi st is a ls o n informa tion giv er al th ough

Th e gro ra a -
,

the fun cti on f thi s o le in the apy i s gen e ll y m o e r

o r r ra r e

s t i te d th a n th t o f the i n fo rm ti on g ive
r c whom we dea a -
r

sc ibed in C h pte 12 Th pu p o se Of info m ation givin g

r a r . e r r -

i s t o educe the t i a l an d e o by m e an s Of wh i ch cl i e n ts
r r - -
rr r

a cqui e un de stan din g of them selves an d the the apeuti c

r r r

p cess I f clien ts in g o up en ga ge in lon g di cussion s in

ro . a r s

o de to un de st a n d th e n tu e of
r r n x iety thr the ap ist can a r a e r

give p a ctic a l help I f cli en“

,

r ts desc ibe “ nxi ety as n o t be in

g r a

sleep a j ust n erves as my stom a ch clo se s

.

a ble t o e a t o
”
r s ,

up o as te n sion —but wh t s ten sion anywa y! the the

,
r a
’ ”
ra

p ist can give the m a uth o ita tive in fo m ation c“ once ni n g i ts r r r

n tu e
a Thus he m y tell them th a t ten s io n i
r . a le t n ess f a s r or

a ct io n ,
“
an d a n x i ety un like fe wh i ch i an a v o i d an ce o f
e listic s itua tion s is a sen se of dre a d th a t com es from
r a ,
,
ar, s

w i th in y ou
”3 2
.

We m ight say in summ y th a t the fun ctions of the the a ar r

p ist in g o up t e a tm en t a desc ibed by the oles he t kes

r r re r r a

o h as
r sc ibed to h im in h is el tion sh ips with the clien ts
a r r a .

Hi skill in pl a yin g h i oles dete m in es th deg ee Of success

s s r r e r

he will h ve in a tt inin g th objectives f or which the the py

a a e ra

g up w as est abli shed n am ely to en able e ch pe son

ro , ,
a r

t h o ugh g ou p p rticip a tio n t o bec om e em n cip ted f o m

r r a a a r

defe n sive m o des f a djustm en t an d to a ttain con st uctive o r ,

m tu e
a nd r pe s on lly g a tifyin g wa ys of beh vin g
, a r a r a .

Whethe o n t thi s pu p o se i a chi eved i dete m in ed much

r r o r s s r

less by the the ap i st th an by the cl ien ts them selves r .

33

3 The inte actio n p oces s Th i s i the th i d a n d fi n al in te

. r r . s r r

r el ted elem en t in o r the peuti c fr m ewo k I t i but

a u ra a r . s

a n o the w o f desc ib in g the g o up

r a I t supp o ts the p e m i s e r r
y r r .

th t s in ce pe son s becom e psycholo gi c ll y ill an d unh appy

a r a

in s o ci al g o ups they an e est bl i sh the i e m o tio n l qui lib

r c r -
a r a e

32 I bid .

“w
, p 47. .

g w
z
Th e p o er of th e l e a der in a th era p y rou p h o ev e r sh o ul d n ot
33
, ,

gg
rou p s , w
b e m inim i e d In co n tra s t to th e ro le o f th e l e a der i n n on th e ra p eu ti c
.

f
h ere ini t ia ti v e a cts are p er orm e d b y e v ery on e in a th erap y f ,

Dk
ro u p th e s e are p er o rm e d rela tiv e ly m o re b y th e th e ra p i s t

ur in

th er , 4
Se e H E
Gro u p dy n am i cs an d roup p sy ch oth era p y , I nt I g rou p Psy ch o
.
,

5 6- 64 .
g .
. . .
464 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

r i um in p o du ctive hum a n el a tio n s hi ps th o ugh s oci a l in te

r r r r

a ct i on

S o ci l psycholo gy and child psych lo gy h ave p etty well

.

a o r

est blished the fa ct th a t eve y norm a l child a n d a dult wan ts

a r

t o be a ccepted by o the s Th i s n eed of bel o n g in gn ess we r .

p o in ted ou t in C h pte 2 impels in divi du al s t o j o in g o upsa r r

a n d to w o k wi th o the s f o th e a tt a inm e n t o f c o mm on g oa ls
r r r .

Th i s n eed i s p o b a bly the st on gest s in gle in ce n t ive t o p er

r r

s o n lit
y ach a n ge n g o up the py T h des i e t o be a ccepted
'

i r ra . e r

by o the s Sla son s ys serves the s m e fun ction [ in g oup

r , v a ,
‘
a r

the py ] a s d oes t n sf e en ce in in dividu l t e a tm e nt Just

ra ra r a r .

a s the p a ti e n t in i n d i vi du l the a py im p o ves in o de to a r r r r

ple se the the p i st in G o up The py the child a lte s h i

a ra ,
r ra r s

beh vio an d a tti tudes o th t h e m y be ccepted by the

a r s a a a

o up
”34
g r .

Th e in te a ct ive c o gn i tive affect ive p o cess of the the

r -
r ra

peuti e s itu a tion i s thus the m aj o ph a se of g o up t e atm en t ; r r r

in deed i t is the the a peuti c p ro cess

,
r .

I n desc ib in g the in te a cti ve p o cess we sh ll an swe the

r r r ,
a r

question Wh a t go es on in the the apeuti c p o cess ! We sh ll

,
r r a

a n swe the question fi st in gen e a l w y by s yin g th at

r r a r a a ,

th o ugh the help of a the p i st n d f clients in the g o up

r ra a o r ,

psych olo gi lly d i stu bed pe s on s a e eli eved of the i n i

ca r r r r r a x e

ties by le a nin g to sh a e them with on an o the a n d thus

r r e r

o n ce ga in becom in g in depen den t an d self di ecti n g in di

a -
r

vi du a ls
f
.

Tra ns vita l fa cto in b oth in d ivi du al n d group

e rence is a r a

the py I n e ithe in stan ce h oweve it i a s o cial o in te

ra . r ,
r, s ,
r r

pe s on al n ot an in divi du l p o cess I t i
r ,
psych olo gical a r . s a

c n d ition betw een in d ivi duals A t the s m e t im e th e cd

o . a ,

p a cit
y t o el te o n e s sel f to n o the
r peas o n l i es in the ’

a r r

in d ivi du l Whe n th i s el a t io n sh ip i d i ected to w d the

the p i st it i c lled t a ns fe ence M o e i gidly defined t n s
a . r s r ar

ra , s a r r . r r ,
ra

fe e nce i the cl ien t s ct o f d i ect in g the em otion s n d tti

r s
’

a r a a

t u des wh ich he h a f o h i s p a e n ts to the the p i st These s r r ra .

psych lo gi c l d isp o s it ion s m ay be p o s itive o nega ti ve o

o a r r

b o th When the tr n s fe en ce is p o s itive the cl ie nt feel

. a r ,
s

34 Slav son , An in
trodu ction to g roup the ra p y , p . 15 .
4 66 OU P DYN AMIC S AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAV IO R
GR

r e l life el a tion s amon g a ll m embe s of the g o up n d is

a -
r r r ,
a

m o e in keep in g wi th the dult

r les th t the clien ts m ust a ro a

a
“
m in t a in H in ckl ey n d He m an n st te the m tte luc i dly
.

when they s y th a t t n s fe en ce in the g oup is limited t o

a
a

ra
r

r
a

r
a r

a deepe n i n g of t ust to the p o i n t whe e p a ti e n ts a r en abled r re

t o ccept supp t but n o t t o the deg ee whe e p o lon ged e

a or r r r r

s i o n i pe m i tted to st a ges o f e a li e
“ devel p e nt
”
g re s s r m i s r r o ,
as

t ue in in divi dua l psych

r
“ o the a py While be in g lw ys
p a en t l they expl in the g o up the p i st a llows only a
r a ,
”
a ,
r

r
.

ra
a a

m in imum f s tis f cti n to cc ue to p tien ts f om the

o a a o a r a r

p cess of bein g depe n de n t ”

ro
!7

I n g o up the a py wi th ch ild e n h o weve

r r the the p ist r ,
r, ra

is st on ge p en t l im ge ; n d the tr n sfe en ce i st ik
a r r ar a a a a r s r

in gly s im i l to p e n t ch ild ela tion ships Sl on w h o

ar ar -
r . av s ,

p ob ably un de stan ds the g o up th e apy p cess with ch il

r r r -
r ro

d e n bette th n m st psycholo gists h as foun d thi s t o be

r r a o ,

t ue He ep o ts th t ch ild en ten d to lo k up on the the a

r . r r a r o r

p ist as the a ccept n t o f o biddin g p en t This is vivi dl y a r r ar .

s hown in the w idesp e d te n de n cy am on“ g ch ild“ en in r a r

“
t he a py g o ups to
r d d ess the the a p i st a
r P op M om
a r r s , ,

“ i t in g the c se of a b y w h o dd essed the m le

”
a n d U nk C . a o a r a

the ap ist r M om Sl o n p o i n ts o t th t s in ce the ch i ld

as ,
”
av s u a ,

h d a n ext em ely do m in t in g m o the o ly

a r wom n c uld a r, n a a o

i n h i m in d be ins p o s ition of uth o ity a a r

38

Unlike t an sfe en ce in in divi du l the py in g oup

.

r r a ra , r

t he py el t i n s wi th the the p i st h ve to be sh a ed wi th
ra r a o ra a r

o the clie nts Th is m kes g o p the py to th a t exten t m o e

r . a r u ra r

e listi c cl ien ts h ve to e li ze th t they a m n g o the s

r a : a r a a re a o r

w h o h a ve equ l cl im s to the the p i st s t im e a n d a tte n ti on

’

a a ra .

Th el ti n ship f t n s fe en ce i s o ci l in the widest p os

e r a o o ra r s a

s ible w ay th a t the s i ze o f the g up will pe m it Th clie nt ro r . e

r el tes h im self no t on ly to the the p ist but to o the cli en ts

a ra r .

T n s fe e n ce i thus a g o up phe n om e n o n i n wh ich the

ra r s r

t he p i st pl ys the o le of a c a t a lyst o n the n e h an d n d an

ra a r o a

a gen t of c hes io n o n the o the o r .

I bid , p p 53—
g
37 . 54 . .

38 Sla v so n , An i ntrodu ctio n to ro u p th era p y , p . 13 8 .

GR OU P PSYC HOTHE RAPY 67

U s in g the analo gy of the p a enta l group or the family r

f o wh t it i wo th the t n s f e e n ce s i tu a tion ese m bles the

r a s r ,
ra r r

com pli c ted ela tion s of f m ily Thi s a g in is s om ewh a t

a r a a .
,
a ,

m e t ue of child e n s the py g o ups th n th o se f a dul ts

’

or r r ra r a o

Sl son ca ll s thi s el t io n l c om plex a f m ily s u bs t ituti e

.

av r a a a v

g ou
r
p He c
. o n s i de s th i s a s be i n g m o e th n r the o et i c al r a a r

c n cept f o it i b sed o n the ctu l d y by d y ela tion s

o r s a a a a - -
a r

“
,

o f m e m be s in h i s o w n ther py g ups I n th i s el a ti on sh ip ra ro . r

the the ap i st i a p aren t substitute the m embe s ar ib

r s -
,
r e s

lin g substitutes an d the to t l g oup p a tte n a substitute

,
a r r

f mily t“
a o wh i ch the ch i ld e n l o o k f o the i s ati f a tion L r r r s c s
”39

Th fam ili l qu li ty of g o up the py el a tion s h as been

e a
”
a r -
ra r

n o ted by m n y p a cti t i o n e s n d in vest i g a t o s of g o up r s

a r
p y r a r

ch o th
py w
erai th a dults well s w i th ch i ld e n H i n ckley
as a r .

a n d He rm nn p o in t to the diffe e n ce in the rel a t io n sh i ps b e

a r

tween cli en ts an d the p ists an d between cli en t them selves ra s .

r
“
Th e el ti on sh ip wi th th the p i st an d th clie n t they n o te
a e ra e , ,

i a lwa ys a loo sely p a e n t a l o n e

“ Th e in te ct i n s o f cli e n t s
”
s r . ra o

with on an o the con stitute s iblin g el tion sh ip a lth ugh

e r a r a ,
o

n o t in v i bly so Wh ile the the a p i st m in t a in s a pe m i s

ar a . r a r

s ive ttitude towa d the cli en ts clien ts s om etim es est i ct

a r ,
r r

on e an o th e seve ely ; an d while the the ap ist is alw ys

r r r a ao

e t n t a n d supp o t i ve
a cl i e n ts a lte n t ely supp o t a n d a t
c
p r ,
r a r

ta ck e a ch o the r .
40

I n a p ecedin g p r g ph we em a ked in p a ssin g th t

ara ra r r a

in the a bse n ce o f p s it ive t n s fe e n ce educa ti n of the

o ra r re - o

cli en t c nn o t p o ceed Thi s im plies th t g o up the py like

a r . a r ra ,

in d ivi du l t e a tm e n t i s n edu ca tiv e p o cess —a p o cess in

a r ,
a r r

whi ch an imp o tan t ch n ge in the cli en t t akes pl ce So

r a a .

con ce ived g o up the apy c n be ela ted to n imp o t n t p sy

,
r r a r a r a

ch o lo i cal p
g cess — n m ely ro the le n ing p o cess Thi s in a , ar r .

tu n suggests a el ti on ship to g o p le a n in g wh ich we dis

r r a r u r

cussed in detail in Ch apte 4 r .

P cticin g g o up the pi sts ar n ot a ccustom ed to in

ra r ra e

te p tin g the the peuti c p o cess in te m s of le arnin g the

r re ra r r

I bid
k
39 .
p 39
, . .

40 Se e Hin c ley an d Herm a nn Grou p ,

treatment i n p sy ch othera p y , p . 49 .
4 68 OU P DY N AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

or
y but,
i t i f u n d m e n t ll y a le a ni n g p o cess
s I t i n ot a a r r . s

e n o ugh t o s th t in the py we a im t o ai d the in d i vi du l

a ra a a
y
in e a cqu in ti n g h im wi th the s o c i a l w o ld of o the pe o ple
r a r r

a n d help in g h im to f eel m o e el xed w i th the m C h n gin g r r a . a

o ne s el tion s to o the pe ople in vo lves co gn itive a ffective

’

r a r

S in ce m l djustive beh vio i

, ,

a n d m o t iv ti on l le arn in g a a . a a a r s

l gely le n ed it an als o be unle m d

ar ar ,
c a e .

L e a nin g t ela te on e s self p o s itively to o the s in volves

r o r
’

r ,

a s L ew in p o in ted o u t a ch a n ge in the c gn i t i ve st uctu e o f ,

o r r

the in divi du l Thi s m e n s th a t he m ust cqui e kn owledge

a . a a r

th t i s e listi c a nd ve i d ic l to epl ce th d isto ted o gn i

a r a r a ,
r a e r c

t ive o g n iza tion wh ich i p artly a t the o t of h i t uble

r a s ro s ro .

He n cqu i e thi s in the py g o up th ough th o pp o

ca a r a ra r r e r

t n ity of c o m p a in g h i c n ceptio n f hi m self a n d o the s i n

u r s o o r

th e g ive n d t ke of g o up in te ct ion
a H oweve s in ce b
a r ra . r, e

h avio i n eve a pu ely c gn itive p o cess he a ls o cqui es

r s r r o r ,
a r

a n d m o d i fies h i s likes d di sli kes o f pe ple A cqu i in g n w an o . r e

a ttitudes tow d pe ople in o the wo ds i a ch n ge in m o ti

ar ,
r r ,
s a

va tion tow d him self n d o the s A clien t m ust w nt t

ar a r . a o

chan ge m ust w a nt to get well no m tte h ow m uch he may

, ,
a r

r es i st the the p ist s effo t to ch n ge h im ra

’

r a

Finally the py a le n in g p ocess involves a ch n ge

.

,
ra s a ar r a

i n g o up bel n g in gn ess
r s L ew i n ols o p in ted o t Th e ,
a a o u .

clie n t m ust ch n ge h i d isto ted in te p et tion of the l

a s r r r a cu

tu al v lues f the g up n d le n n w set of st n d ds

r a o ro a ar a e a ar .

He i ill in p op o tion to h i ejecti n of the group s v lues

s r r s r o
’

a ,

or th e deg ee o f h i sen se of n t bel n gin g whi ch a we

r s o -
o , ,
s

s aw in C h pte 5 is the oo t f b o th h i se lf h t ed an d h is
a r ,
r o s -
a r

h a t ed of o the s I f the cli e n t do es n ot ch an ge“

r r wh ich i s to
.
,

s
y
a ele arn e m o t i on l v le n ces he c nn o t be
r ,
cu ed B ut a a ,
a r .

he c ann o t ch n ge h is em o tion l a tta chm en ts unless he a ls o

a a

a ccepts bel o n gi n g n ess t o the n w g o up G owin g into the e r

42
r

wM
.

D s
p y ch
Th e v i e
41

o llard a n d

ot h era py (
iller
N e w
Se e
o r :
Dollard a n d
M cG ra w -
.

Hill B o o
E
Co YkJ
th a t n euroti c b e h av ior i s le arn e d i s a b a si c h yp o th es i s o f
il ler P ers ona l ity a nd
I nc ,
.

es p e
Nk M. .

.
,
,

4 2 Se e K Lw g
ci ally ch a p s ii a n d ii i

e
.

in , Re so lv in
. s o cia l confli cts
.

p p 5 6- 6 8 g
For a detail ed
K Lw
, . .

le arnin gC g
di scu s sion o f le a rnin in th e a b ov e s en s e , s ee e in Fi el d th eo ry a n d
4 1 s t y ea rbook of t h e Na t iona l So ciety for the Stud y of E duca
,

ti o n ( hi ca o : Th e Un iv ers ity o f h i ca o Pre s s C g

.
,

,
47 0 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

I n a desc ipt io n of the in te a ct io n p o cess o f g oup

r r r r

the py it i a lso n ecess ary to p y tten tion t o g oup s ize

ra s a a r ,

f o it i
r n im p o t n t c on d i t i o n of success f ul t e a tm e n t
s a r a We r .

a l e dy g ve s om e c o n s i de a t io n to th i s p
r a a blem when we r ro

di scussed th e ptim a l s ize of p oblem so lvi n g g o ups in

o r -
r

C ha pte r 7 .

“
I n h i wo k wi th ch ild e n Sl av so n f o ex am ple f un d th a t
s r

the i de l g oup numbe ed five o si m em be s He a dded

a
”
r
r

r r
,

x
r

r .
,
o

howeve th a t the n umbe an be in c e a sed to ei ght at l a te

r, r c r r

st ges of t e tm en t If the g oup exceeds th i s n um be th

a r a . r r, e

a t m o sphe e bec om es s u ch a ged wi th excess i ve ctivity an d

i se M o e o ve th e the a p i st
r r r a ,

t o m a n y c o n fl i ct in g cu e n ts
o rr ar . r r, r

c nno t pla y the p en ta l ole if the n um be bec om es t oo

a ar r r

l ge He c“
ar . o
“
a nn t a tte n d t o the in d iv i du al ch ild e n n d the ir r a

We foun d he s a ys th t a o ll of e i ght m em
”
a ct i vi ti es .
, ,
a r

be s b in gs to the m eetin gs a pp oxim tely the des i ble

r r r a ra

num be r H in ckley an d He m ann h ve foun d the s m e r a a

g up siz e to be m o st s tisf a ct y in the i wo k The i

.

ro a or r r . r

gro ups a compo sed of f om i to e ight cli ents They h ve

re r s x . a

expe im e nted with la ge nd sm all e g oups but did n t

r r r a r r ,
o

fin d the m s ti s fa ct o y
M ost g oup the pists w ho h ve ep ted on g oup size
a r .

r ra a r or r

a re ra the well g eed n the c on sequen ces of us in g g ups

r a r o ro

th a t e e i the too l ge o t o sm ll Th e a s n s e abo ut

ar r ar r o a . e r o ar

the s m e as tho se f o the effect of g oup si ze on p oblem

a r r r

s olvin g ; thus showin g th a t all sm all dyn am ic g oups i p c r ,

rre s e

tive o f the i fun cti n s pe a te o n the s m e b s ic p in ciples

r o ,
o r a a r .

When a g oup i too sm all it slows d o wn f om shee l ck

r s ,
r r a

o f suffici e n t i n te a ct i o n a n d st im ulus v a lue t

r the m embe s o r .

A kin d o f in do le n ce an d compla cen cy takes the pl ce Of the a

u gen cy an d sp on tan e ity which a ch a cte isti c of all

r re ar r

“
psych o l o g i c lly p duct ive g o ups The e m ay ls o be the
a ro

in e t i o f in h ib itio n as H in ckley a n d Herm a nn desc ibe i t

r a ,
r . r a

r ,

o o f h o stili ty
r

to develo p whe n l arge n um be s would f urn i sh the n eces

“
n d m utu a l d i s a g ee m e n t wh i ch do n o t te n d
a

r
r

r
,

s a y c a talyst
r

k
Slavs o n An introducti on to g rou p t h era p y , p 1 20
43
, . .

44 Hinc l ey a nd Hermann , Group treat ment in p s y cho thera py , p . 95 .

G RO UP PS YC HOTHE RAPY 71

If on the o the h n d the g o up exceeds the O ptim l

, r a ,
r a

n u m be in te ct ion n d p a t i c ip t ion a e dim ini shed ; f o

r, ra a r a r r

the e is in s ufficie n t tim e f e a ch cli en t to ta ke p t in the

r or ar

the ap eutic p ocess Th the p i st li kewise c an no t f ulfi ll h is

r r e ra

fun cti n f o h is tten tion almo st in evita bly b eco m es to o

.

o ,
r a

diffuse E qu lly dam gin g is the f ct th a t in a n o ve s i zed

. _ a a a r

g o up man y feelin gs a n d i de s even if they are exp essed

r a ,
r ,

do n ot get the a tte n t ion they dese rve Th ese f a cto s set up . r

“
a c on di ti on in whi ch th e m o vem e n t of the g o up i s e ffect ively

dim inished nd it is slowed up to th e po in t of sep a a ti on

,
a
r

r
”4 5
o a lo ss o f the se n se of belo n g in g
r .

Th e comp osition of th e the a py g oup a ls o e nte s in t o its r r r

success o f ilu e We saw the im p o tan ce of this f cto

r a r . r a r

when we desc ibed in te pe s on al a tt a ctiven ess an d the

r r r r

effect on the g oup of p arti cip to y an d supervi sory le de

r a r a r

sh ip in Ch apte 3 Th e com p o s ition of the group is h ow

r .
,

eve less imp o t an t of non the peutic th an the peutic

r, r ra ra

g ups Pe h ps this i on ly seem in gly so f o we d n ot

ro . r a s ,
r o

h ve sufficient d a ta to esta blish it a s a f ct I n the apy

a
"

a . r

g o ups cli en ts are delibe tely and syste ma tica lly selected
r , ra ,

whe e s fo the m o st p a t thi s is t ue of othe g o ups onl y

r a r r r r r

when they a set up f o expe im en tal pu p o ses

re r r r

“
.

Although g oups com po sed of cli en ts wi th dive

r ge n t com r

pl ints c e a te m o e g o up movem en t th an seg ega ted

a r r r r
”

types g oup the p ists ten d to exclude ce t a in typ es “

,
r ra of c ses r a .

I n a c o llege c omm n i ty a s a ule psych o ti cs psycho u ,

r , ,
”
p th ic pe s on a liti es n d hom o sexu als
a r ejected ,
a a re r .

Th c om po s i tio n of ch ild e n s the py g o ups i p ti c

’
e r ra r s ar u

l ly im p ort n t Sl a
ar n fo un d th a t the a
a
g
. sp n o i gin a lly
v so e a r

selected th t between fo u teen a nd seven teen ye a s w a

, a r r ,
s

un s ti s f cto y ; h n ce thi s w as l te ch an ged o tha t the

a a r e
'
a r s

m j i ty we e un de r f u tee n C h o n o l g i c l a g g o up in g
a or r o r . r o a e r ,

h oweve m ust f equen tly give w ay to con s ide a tion s o f p

r, r r er

so n li t
a
y m t u i ty Th ch ild sa
p e s o na lit
r
y i s a ls o a c uc i a l
. e
’
r r

f ct
a orSl av on o bse ves th a t g o ups c o n s i stin g of wi th
s r r

d awn and self effa cin g child en are p oor subj ects f or g oup
.

r - r r

45 I bid , p 96 . . .

46 See i bid , p 9 8 . . .
47 2 DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GRO UP

the apy They do n ot stimula te th a t min im l in te a ction

r . a r

which is n ecess a y f or g oup m ovem en t E a ch ch ild i t o o

r r . s

p e o ccupi e d with h is own in te est and he ten ds to i s ol a te

r r ,

him self f om othe s In such c a ses a ctive an d a gg ess ive

r r . r

children are a dded to the g oup to stimul a te in te pe s on al r r r

beh a vio r .

On the b a s i s o f h is wi de expe i e n ce w i th ch i ld e n s
’

r r

ro ups Sla s on h as m ore o ve r fo u n d it a dvi s a ble t o c o nfi n e

g v

m e m be sh ip to on e sex S till the sep a a ti on a s he p oin ts

, , ,

r .
,
r ,

ou t i ,
arb i t a y
s the th n p a gm ti c ll y b a sed H in ckley
r r ra r a r a a .

a n d He rm a n n too as we h a ve in di c a ted set up the ir l te

, , ,
a r

g o ups on the b a s i s of o ne sex but give us n o hint of the

r ,

ra ti o n le behi n d i t
a No d ubt the f ct th a t the sexu l co n
. o a a

ten t of the apeuti c session s i s often f a nk a n d un ab a shed

r r ,

even at tim es uninhib itedly vulga is a p a ctic l c on s ide a r,

”
r a r

tion C ustom and cultural im pera tives p ob bly play a p t

. r a ar

to o .

B o th expe ien ce an d theoretic al c on s ide tion s p in t t o

r ra o

the con clusion th a t the m o st the apeuti c a lly p o duct ive r r

g o ups are th o se in wh ich in te ra ction l b l n ce i a ch ieved

r a a a s

a n d m in t ai n ed Th e im i s to h a ve a g o up
a . n t in in g b th
a r co a o

in h ib i ted an d s p o n t n e o us depen den t a n d in depe n de n t

a
g , ,
a

es s iv n d sub m i ss i ve cl i e n ts I n a dyn a m i c g o up whe e

g r e a ,
. r ,
r

o pp o s i n g fo ces e a lw ys p ess in g f o equ ili b i um an d 10 0

r ar a r r r 0

m o t ion on e elem e n t i n the t o t a li ty i s o ften ble to ch an ge

,
a

the structu e of the wh ole Thus on e hyp e ctive clien t n

r .
,
ra ca

upset a g oup m o e th n tw o p a ss ive an d eti in g on es

r r a r r ,
es

p ci a ll
e
y if the fo me i ls a gg ess i ve a n d the l a tte a
r r s a sub
o r r re

m i ss ive To g in the m x im um the peut ic v al ue f

. a a eve y ra or r

cli en t in sh o t the g oup m ust ffo d e ch of them the

,
r ,
r a r a

g e a test “
r m oun t of in tellectu l n d em o ti on a l ex tr ve s i on
a a a a r

a n d the i ght m o un t o f cli n ic a l supp o t

”
r a r

CO NCL UDI NG RE MAR KS F om the fo ego in g desc iption

.

. r r r

of the g o up the py p o cess i t is cle ar th a t it i essen ti lly

r -
ra r s a

n o d iff e e n t f om the dyn m i c gro up

r r el a tion s wh ich we a r

di scussed in p ecedin g ch pte s I t con tr venes n on e of th e

r a r . a

p in ciples of g o up dyn amics On th e con trary it supp ts

r r . or
47 4 GR OU P DYN AMIC S AND IND IVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
of these a re a ct iv it
yg rou
p t h era p y, p y s ch odra ma , an d t h era

p eu t i e dis cus sion

Activ ity grou ps whi ch h a ve been used by Sla on sin ce
,
vs

1943, a re ch ld s club like a ss o cia tion s in which they

i ren
’
-
,

pl y en g ge in arti stic a nd h n di c af t wo k ho ld m eetin gs

a ,
a a r r , ,

give p a ties an d the like All the con dition s which i se in

r ,
. ar

the g oups th a t we h ve di scussed m y devel p but the

r a a o ,

the p i st does n ot
ra in the o the g o ups i de n t i fy an d r
,
as r r ,
e

flect the chi ld en s f eelin gs n o en g ge in in te p et tion s of

r
’
r a r r a

thei psych olo gi ca l t en ds Th e the peuti c ben efits e de

r r . ra ar

r i ved f om m embe h ip in pe m i ss ive g o ups in the p esen ce

r rs r r r

of gentle symp theti c but im p ti l the ap ist

used by L M o en o i s c i l s itu ti on
a ,
a ,
ar a ,
r .

Ps y cho d m ra a, . r ,
s a o a a ,

o r a st ged play but witho ut ehe s l in which the clients

a r ar a ,

sp on tan e usly t o t be fo e o the s the i inn e ten s ion

o ac u ,
r r ,
r r ,

fe s an d a gg ess ion C on t y to p pul bel ie f pe ple

ar ,
r s . ra r a o ar o

ca n be in duced th o ugh p tic ip ti n to exp ess f eely the i

r ar a o r r r

p iva te n d c nce aled em otion l n d i de tio l t en ds

J udgin g by M o en o s ep o ts th e c n be little d ubt th t
r a o a a a na r .

r r r ,
er a o a

in psych o d m ti c el tion sh ip hi ghly con st icted an d in

a ra a r a r

h ibit d pe s o n s e pe i e n ce
e libe tion of feelin gs n d de
r x r a ra a

v loe a he lth in duc in g sp n t n e i ty

a o a
p
-
.

The a p eu ti c g ou p di scu i o n h s n o ffici l p p on e n ts

r r ss a o a ro .

I t i s a p a t f g up dyn m i cs wh i ch i well kn o wn but

r o ro a s

who se the peuti c v lue h n ot been the object of m uch

ra a as

s tudy I t m ay t a ke pl ce i n n y dyn m i c g o up e pec i lly

. a a a r ,
s a

p oblem s olvin g g ups ; n d it will h ve the peutic v lue

r -
ro a a ra a

if it e n a bles th in d i vi du l to d i sc ve h i s p oble m s
e i hi a o r r ,
a r s

feeli n gs an d d evelop c n fiden ce in in te pe s on l ela tion s

,
o r r a r .

Th e o le f the the p i st as the a p i st i m in im i zed t o th

r o ra ,
r ,
s e

p oin t whe e he bec m es m embe m on g m embe s m e

r o a r a r or

th n in othe the peuti c s itua tion s When he cc s ion ll y

a r ra . o a a

i n te jects h im self
r a the p ist in to the g o up p cess it i
as ra r ro ,
s

o nl y to in te p et t the g oup the s ou ce of its te n s i n s 48

r r o r r o .

47 W g w
hi le w e are a ar e th a t th e s e orm s are u s u a lly re erred to a s tech f f g
n i q ue s o f ro u p th e ra p y w e b e li ev e th a t th ey are th e s o cial o r
, rou p s i tu a

w q g x
,

43 See

I ssues , 3
J
ti on s or th e co n tri v e d con diti on s in

294 34
.
,
hi ch th e techni u es are e ercis e d
K eln ar Tre a tm ent o f i n ter p erson al rela tion s i n ro u p s I s oc
.
,

-
, .
.

.
GR OU P PSYC HOTHE RAPY 47 5

We m ust a ls o fo go any di scuss ion of the appli c a ti on of r

gro up psych the py to o the than con vention al pe s on ality

o ra r r

an d a djust m en t p oblem s such a s o ve com in g ra cial an d r ,

r

cultu l ten s ion s I t is cle th t a ce p ejudice an d cul

ra .
49
ar a r r

t u a l c onfli cts are n o less fo m s o f le a nin g defic i ts th a n m n y

r r r a

o th e difli cul ti e in hum n el a t io ns

r R ce p e j udi ce an d dis
s a r . a r

c imina ti on as s o cia l psycho lo gi sts h ve shown are inj i

r ,
a ,
ur

ou sto the m e n t al he l th of b o th the di sc im in a to an d h is a r r

vi ctim I t i n ot the e fore im p a ctic al to p op o se n ex

. s ,
r ,
r r a

ten sive use f the apy g ups to co ect these dan gerous a n d
o r ro rr

h a mful d isto ti on in hum an rela tion s

r r s .

C O NCLU SION
Our a im in th i s ch a pte r h a bee n to p resen t a c om p e s r

h n s w e a the th n
e r det iled ep t on the n a tu e of g oup
r a a a r or r r

psychothe apy We h ave in n o sen se con cern ed o urselves

r .

wi th th e p a ctice of gro up psych o the a py an d n o e a de

r r ,
r r

should delude h im self in to thi nkin g th t lm ow ledge of the a a

c n ten t of thi s ch pte will fit h im f o the ole of a g oup

o a r r r r

psych othe p i st We h ve in clude d it in a bo ok on g o up

ra . a r

dyn am ics o t of the convicti on th a t it exempli fies gro up dy

u -

n mi
a prin ciples in cle
cs n d h i ghl y ch ged fo m s I t ar a ar r .

dem on st a tes the p owe of g oup infl uen ce especiall y i t

r r r ,
s

c p city f o in ducin g des i able psych olo gic l ch an ges in h u

a a r r a

m a n beh avi Just s the w ve in g in d ivi du al fin ds c n

or . a a r o

fid n e i n h i s beli e f s whe n they co esp on d wi th th o se of

ce rr

o the s so the an x io us an d f e a f ul cli e n t g in s e o st en gth

r ,
g r a r

th ough th e supp ortive a ttitudes of the the ap i st an d o the

r r r

clients The peuti c groups diffe f om othe s in the i intent

. ra r r r r ,

n o t in the i dyn a m i c p o cesses f o these

r e esse n t i al ly a l ike r ,
r ar

in ll g o up ; an d whe e they d iff e they do so in deg ee n o t

a r s r r, r

in k in d I n ill st ti n of the l a tte we c ite the f a ct th a t

. u ra o r ,

gen e lly spe kin g the id ntific tio n of clien ts wi th the

ra a ,
e a

the ap ist n d with on e n othe —o the li bi din al ti to use a

r a a r r e,

psych oan a lyti cal term—i usually mo e in ten se th an in n on s r

the apeuti c g o ups B ec ause they are f un d am en t lly e go

r r . a

49 See G o no p a . K k
Grou p th erap y in
tens i ons , Amer J Ort h op sy chia t , 1 7 . .
,

.
ov ercom in

69 3 9 9—
g .
ra ci al an d ltura
cu l
47 6 OU P DYN AMICS AND INDIVIDU AL BE HAVIO R
GR

supp o tive and n ot on ly ple a sure giv ing p oblem s o lvin g

r ,
-
,
r -
,

r deci s i o n m ak in g they are truly s cho the ra eu ti c

o
p y p
-
.
,

Wh ile in divi dua l psycho the py h a wo ked f o a lon g ra s r r

time o n th e p em i se th a t fun ctiona l beha vio di s o de s are

r r r r

essentia lly distu bances in hum an rela tion ships it h as n ot

r ,

p o ceeded on this a ssumption a s con si ste n tly an d in d f a t

r e

i ga bly as h as g o up the a py A s f a s t e a tm en t is con

r r . ar r

ce n ed no o the a pp o ch emplo ys the con cept o f d istu bed

r , r r a r

hum an ela tion s a s fully as g o up the a py an d n o o the tech

r r r ,
r

n i que ca n affo d the s a m e e a li sti c set tin g

r I n g o up the a py r . r r

the cli en t n ot o nly ve b al i zes h is di stu b an ce ; he a ctu all y r r

expe ie n ces it in h is el a tion s with the m embe s of the g oup

r r r r .

Alth ough in indivi du l the py th e p tie n t can give f ee a ra a r

exp ession o f h i h a t ed f o the p aren ta l fi gu e a n d spe ak

r s r r r

f eely of the e nvy f o h is s iblin gs in g oup t e a tm en t he

r r ,
r r

expe ie n ces these f eelin gs in con c ete in te a ction with o the s

r r r r

in the g o up I t i ve y d ifficult in in d i vi du l the py f o the

r . s r a ra r

p a ti en t to show except ve b lly th ttitudes th a t o ther

,
r a ,
e a

peo ple in hi lif e h a d towa d o ne a n othe —of p aren ts towar d

s r r

e a ch o the o f s i bl in gs am n g the m selves

r, I n g o up the py o . r ra

the a tti tudes of cli en ts to wa d n an o the an d tow d the r o e r ar

the a p ist e the e to see a nd expe ie n ce This e n l ged

r ar r r . ar

ro up expe i e n ce i m o stly de n i ed to the cl i en t in in d ivi du a l

g r s

t e a tm en t but it is an in disputa ble e al ity in gro up the apy

r ,
r r .

Th i s e n la ged g o up expe i e n ce a i ds th e cl ie n t i n fo m in g a
r r r r

m o e e listi c im ge o f h im se lf a n d of o the s n d to a ccept

r r a a r ,
a

p o s itively a the th a n ebellio usly the deman ds of the livin g

r r r

g ro u

f lly
I
Fi he peuti c g oup h s a m a tu in g effect up on
ia ,
th e t ra r a r

the clie n ts bec ause it affo ds o pp o t unity f o clo se s oci l e

l tion wi th o the s M n y pe ople a e psycho lo gi c lly de
r r r a r

a s r . a r a

ficien t as we a w bec use they c an n o t est a bl ish w arm

,
s ,
a

rela ti n ships with othe s One of the gre a test v lues —p er

o r . a

h ps the g e a test—o f the py g o ups i th a t they offe m n y

a r ra r s r a

in d iv i du ls the hum an i zin g in fluen ce wh ich o nl y i n ti m a te

a

rel tion s wi th othe s can fully gen e a te

a r r .
Pa rt V

CO N CLU S I O N : G RO U P
DYN AMI CS I N PE RS PE CT I VE
4 82 U DYN AMIC S IN PE RSPECTIVE G RO P

Th is h as in ev it a bly p o sed the p oble m o f select io n f o the r ,

r

l i te a tu e on m o st of the p o ble m s
r r en o m ous I n th e r is r .

o cess of select i o n m n y in vest i g t i o n s h a d o b v i o usly t o be

p r a a

o m itted O c ite ia h ve been cle an d s imple We

. ur r r a ar .

s elected th o se stud i es fi st wh i ch thus f h ve stoo d th e

,
r ,
ar a

test of tim e an d h a ve bec m e stan d d ef e e n ces in o r o ar r r u

fi eld B y th i s st n d a d a n um be o f e fe en ces a e eve n in

. a r r r r r ,

o u n ew d i sc i pli n e s o m ewh t o l d I I n the sec o n d pl a ce we

r ,
a ,

cho se th o se stud ies i espective of thei sta tus in the st e am ,

rr r r

o f develo p m en t wh i ch a m o st ge m n e t o the st uctu e re r a r r

a n d o g an i z a t i on o f the ch apte s a we h a ve p ese n ted them

,

r r s r .

In V i ew o f th f o egoin g c o n s i de t i n s th
e e a de should
r ra o e r r

h ve a f i ly cle ar an d comp ehen s ive kn owledge of the

a a r r

s ubject m tte f g o up dyn a m ics ; an d he sh o uld n o w be

a r o r

r ae dy to take n o ve a ll look a t the field o bservin g i ts p os

a r- ,

s ib il itie s li m i t t io n s a n d s om e o f it s de f ects
,
a ,
.

AN OVE RVIEW OF G ROU P DYN AMIC S

When o n c efully studies the p d i gi ous li te a ture on

e ar ro r

th e el a ti o n o f the i n d iv i du a l a n d the g o up b o th in
r r s
p y ,

c h o lo gy a n d s o c i o lo gy o n e is st uck by m a ked ch ara cte i s ,

r a r r

t ic No t o n ly i n the p a st but to a lesse exte n t even t o d a y

. r

dis cuss ion s “ “

e sh o t th o ugh wi th d i ch o to m i es
ar

tion s w ith n ds an d o s Thus th e in d ivi du l if he is

,
a
”
n d d i sj u nr

r .
”
a

a ,
e

a
“
n o t p i tted a g in st the g o up i sep a a ted f
he i alwa ys ec gni zed to be p t of it Th le a de is
s r o
m i t even th o ugh r s

a
r

ar
”
ro

.
,

e r

“
o fte n c o n ce ived a s t ” “
o we in g in d iv i du a l w h o by virtue of

h is g ifts st n ds a b o ve the c o wd a
a

n d exh o ts c o mpels
r

r
”
a r , ,

o r pe su des it to do h is b iddin g H oweve t tho se f or

r a . r, o

whom th is p ictu e f the le de is off en s ive the e is ano ther

r o a r ,
r

on e th le de i but o n a m o n g o the s p ude n t an d self

: e a r s e r ,
r

e fl a in g i n the web of de m c ti c in te a cti on s

c o ra r .

A g in we ll tten tion to the f ct th t we h ave exten ded

a ,
ca a a a ,

a n d we h o pe the eby e n i ched the m e n in g o f g o up d r r a r

y ,

m m i s by el a ti n g i t t the m e in clus ive s o c i et al o ni

Th is sh o ul d be s a lut ary I n n y eve n t we g

a

av e
e r o or r

z a tio n . . a ,

exp an ded th h izon of gro up dyn ami cs to include educa

e or

ti o n a l in dustri a l c o mm un i ty a n d p o l it i c a l o g n iz a t ion s We
, , ,
r a .
C RT I IQUE OF G ROU P DYN AMIC S 483

t ake g oup dyn m i cs beyon d the n a ow con fines of sm ll

r a rr a

g oup ese ch by el tin g the g o up to l ge fun ction l

r
”
r ar r a r ar r a

un its such ,
g an iz tion g oups an d th m o e in clus ive
as or a r ,
e r

s o ci l en vi onm e n t at the s m e tim e alwa ys keep in g o

a r , a ,
ur

a tte n t i o n o n the m a in p o blem o f ou b e ha v i or We h ve

g p r r . a

a l s o gi ve n a tte n t ion to g o up the a py n d h ave el ted it as r r a r a ,

such e a li e wo ke s s B ion n d R edl h ve don e to the in

r r r r a a a ,

ten sely em otion al spects of g up el tion s In so do in g a ro r a .

we ar in lin e wi th ecen t devel pm en ts in g up dyn am ic s

e r o ro .
’

We hope th t the p ecedin g ch pte s h ve di spell ed in

a r a r a

the e a de the n ow an d f ulty imp ess ion s f pe s n

r r ar r a r o r o

g o up ela tion ships wi den ed h is c on ception of th g o up

r r ,
e r ,

a n d helped h im t o u n de st n d bette it h o li sti c ch cte r a r s a ra r

Fin lly while the e i m uch di s g eement amon g gr up

.

a ,
r s a r o

dyn m ic ists eg din g n um e o us p oblem s whi le in on i

a r ar r r ,
c s s

ten i c es a b oun d n d wh il e the e i n o c om plete c on se n sus

,
a r s

r egardin g the subject m a tte Of g oup dynam i cs the e e r r ,

r ar

g o win g in dic tion s of wh a t o d i sciplin e i b out Th

r a ur s a . e

precedin g chapte s give the e de we beli eve n in t o r r a r, a r

du cto y glim pse o f its sub j ect m a tte t o d y

,

r r a .

TO help the e a de fo m a c he en t p i ct e f g o up dy
r r r o r ur o r

n am i cs let us p ese n t an o ve ll V i ew of the field

r r- a

FA CTOR S I N GR OU P M O VE ME NT Th fun d m ental aim of

.
,

. e a

g ro up dy n am i cs is t o un de st a n d the f ct o s th t u n de l i e r a r a r

group lo com o tion especially th o se th t in iti te n d sust in

,
a a a a

g o up p o ductivity This in volves a se ch f o the n um e

r r . ar r
'

o us a n d c om plex fo ces in g o ups th t fa ci l i t te o r i h ib i t r a a r n

g oup ction Amon g these fo ces a e the ch cte of the

r a . r r a ra r

in te a ct io n p o cess a m o n g in d i vi du ls such
r r the m un t a ,
as a o

Of p ticip a tion ; th deg ee of cohes iven ess Of the g oup ;

ar e r r

the value p emis s up on whi ch the g o up s cts a e p e

r e r
’

a r r

1See C
I B ar nard The fu n cti ons of t he execu tiv e ( a m b ri d e
Harv ard Un iv ersi ty Pres s
. .
,

W W as s C g M ,

( New o r : Harp er YY kk B ro s
M
F h y t e P a tterns fo r i n du s tri a l p ea ce
,

H A Sim on A dm inis tra ti v e beha v i or

.
,
. .

. .

C
,

g
Yk
( New or : Th e a cm illa n C c ,
( New or : Harco urt B ra ce
gCo In c
G
,
Hom a n s Th e hu m a n ro u p
.

See als o F Re dl , Re
5 7 3—
.
,
.
,
. .
,

W
.

x
s i s ta n ce in th era p y

g
ro u p s P s y ch i a try

E p erien ce i n ro u p s I V I , Hu m R ela t
1 3—22, 29 5—3 08 ; 8 3—
5
,
1
1 4 39 5—
-

402
,
9 6 A ls o
3 1 4—
F B i on
2 0 , 48 7 —. 9 6; 2
,

.
.
, . .
,

,
4 84 U DYN AMICS IN PE RSPECTIVE G RO P

form ed such as demo c atic o a uto c a tic st an da ds of b e

, r r r r

ha vio ; th kin d n d quality of lea de ship a cts initia ted by

r e a r

n Of i t s m e m be s ; the i n te n a l st ructu e of the g o up such

a
y r r r r ,

as deg ees o f pe m i ss i ve n ess f eed om c om m un i c t io n a n d

r r ,
r ,
a ,

competitiven ess ; a n d the li ke These f ces h a ve been de . or

sc ibed an d the i oles in g up lo como tion m de cle ar

r r r ro a .

P cti c lly ll se io us di scuss ion s Of ch an ges in g o up

ra a a r r

rela tion sh ips even th o se th a t con sciously question the im

,

p o t n ce Of the le a de as a n in itia tor eco gni ze the f un ction

r a r ,
r

of a ce n t l pe s on in g o up m oveme n t Fo th i s re as on 2
ra r r . r

rese a ch on lea de shi p h as been ve y exten s ive

r r r

F ew if any top ics in gro up dyn amics be a Out m o e

.

, ,
r r

cle arly the d ifficulty in c n ceptua lizin g imp o t nt f cto s o r a a r

th an le a de ship Ou o w n st uggle with the p oblem is e i

r . r r r v

den t At the p esen t w itin g it is imp o ssible t o dete m in e

. r r r

the exa ct ela tion between the pe s o n li ty of a cen t l p

r r a ra er

son an d the a ct iv i t i es of a g o up S om e ese ch h s sh wn r . r ar a o

th a t no t m uch n be infe ed con ce n in g g oup pe a tion

ca rr r r o r

f om kn wledge of the pe s on lities of i t m embe s the

r a o r a s r

le a de included Th study by C ttell and S ti ce howeve

,

r . e a ,
r,

shows th t pe s n lity i imp o t n t but n ot in the t dition l

a r o a s r a ra a

sen se of dom in n ce S anfo d foun d th t the n eeds Of m m

,

a . r a e

be s in fluen ed le de sh ip in g o ups E ven phys i c l p owess

r c a r r .
3
a r

seem s to pl y p t ltho ugh it in fluen ce v ies with cl a ss

a a ar ,
a s ar

m e m be shi p it be in g im p t n t in d i stu bed l we cl a ss

r or a r o r-

but unimp o tan t in n m l m iddle cla ss b ys F cto s like

, ,

r or a -
,
o . a r

c a utio usn ess an d to use ] enn in gs te m s a g in choi ce da in g

,
’

r a ,
-
r

a n d ch o i ce in i t i t ive on the p a t o f the le de

-
a h a ve been r a r,

foun d to aff ect c on sen sus 4

w
.

co ncep t of

f k
centra l

gg gk w
2
Th e hi ch w e u s e d on s ev eral occasi ons ,
a p erso n,

g
cen te rs O f
n a tu ra lly p res en ts i ts el t o a ny o ne con tem p la tin
p o ten ti a l th a t t a e p la ce i n a dy n a m ic
on

ro u p
th e ch an e s in
TO o ur no l
g .

e d e th e t erm w as i n tro du ce d i n to th e li terat u re o f ro u p dy n am i cs by

F Re dl in th e articl e i n Ps y ch iat ry ci te d i n oo tn ote 1 Th e cen tral p erson

.

is als o call e d th e foc al p ers on by Sch u t , i n h a t m a es rou p s

f
WC z W .

k g
—
. .

p ro du
3 F
c ti v e

.
! ,
H u m
f
R e la t ,
8 . 4 2 9 65 .

Sa n o rd Auth orita ri a nism a n d le ad ers hip ( Ph ila delp hi a : I n st itute

,
.

4 Se e Hor i tM
f or Res ea rch in Hu m a n Rela t io n s ,
. wz
Th e recall o f in terru p te d
,

men ta l s tu dy Of i n div i du al m o ti v a tion i n rela ti on to

ro u p ta s s : a n exp eri
ro u p o a ls Hu m
g g kg
3—
.
,

Rela t 7 38 .
486 OU P DYN AMICS IN PE RSPECTIVE GR

fest Objective Of affectin g the beha vio of an o the m emb er

”7
r r

of the g o up r .

I n te in d i vi du l i n flue n ces o p o we
r el tion s a s they are
a ,
r r r a ,

typ ic al ly desc ibed in p oli ti c al sc ien ce h old s i gn ific n t

r ,
a a

pl ce in p li ti cal beh avio as we s aw in Ch apte 1 1 I n th e

a o r, r .

p oli tica l sphe e p owe o uth o i ty i often vested in a le a der

r r r a r s ,

w h o m ay be de m o c a ti c o a ut o c a ti c ; o i t m ay es i de a r r r r r ,
s

in genuin e demo c cy n the collective delibe a tion s of a

a ra ,
l r

pe ple A s we h ave f equen tly n ted “

o . p owe in such a g o up r o ,
r
”
r

i s d iff used o sh a e d I t l ies in the w ills Of pe ople i n a

r r .
,
”
c mm unity of f ee m en n ot in the s ove eign p owe of a
o r r r

n t i on o in a n a bst a ct i o n c all ed the S t a te

,

a r r

S in ce complete diffusi n of p owe h weve is only an

.
,

o r, o r,

i de l and n ot an ctu a l i ty s om e pe o ple a e b o un d t o be

a a ,
r

f ustra ted a nd d iss ti sfied in thei des i e to sh e a utho i ty

r a r r ar r .

Th i s h as b ee n fo un d to be t ue eve n in s m all gro ups espe r ,

c a
“
i ll y a s they in c e se in s i ze Thus in
g o up eve yon e h s an equ al opp tun ity to d i ect o in
r r
s m a ll d i scuss ion
r a

a
.

”
or
a

r r

fl n e o the s whe e a s in bus in ess o g n i z tio n the Opp o

ue c r ,
r a r a a r

tu n i ty d im in i shes w i th i ts s i ze n d c om plex ity a .

B ec ause in fluen ce o p owe i lways subject t o curt ail r r s a

m e n t espec i a lly s the s i ze Of the g oup in c e a ses th e e i s

, a r r ,
r

a ten de n cy to devel op splin te g ups o subg o ups In r ro ,

r r .

Ch apte 5 we g ve s om e tten tion to the i fo m tion We

r a a r r a .

can a dd to wh t we s i d the e th a t ge n e ally spe a ki n g a

a a r r s

the s i ze of the g up m em be sh ip in c e ses the form a ti on Of

, ,

ro r r a

subgro ups als o in c e a ses This w s dem on st ted in a ecen t r . a ra r

in vest i g a ti on of c on sen sus n d d i s a g ee m en t by P a ul H a e a r r

8

S o ciom et i c choice we have discussed only supe fici lly

.

r r a .

B iefly the s o ciom et ic view holds th t the st ucture or o

r , r a r r

a n i a ti o n of a g o up m be dete m i ed by the v l e ce of
g z
y n r n a r a

i ts m e mbe s —by the p o s itive n d n eg ti ve ch o i ces pe s o n s

r a a r

m ake o f o the in d ivi du ls H om n s s t dy o f the B ank W i

’
r a . a u r

in g R o om d i scl sed th a t a tt a cti o n am n g in d i i du l w a s

o r o v a s

L
w H
7 R . i p p i tt , N
Pol a ns y F Redl, an d S Ro se n , Th e dy n ami cs
. k , . . Of
p o er
8 A
u m R e la t

.
,

Amer s ocia l Rev , 1 7

5 p 37
.

P a ul Hare , I n tera cti on an d consens u s i n di fl erent s i e d

2 6 1—
. 67 .
rou p s ,
. .

.
z g
C RI TIQUE OF G ROU P DYN AMI CS 487

a f un cti n of in te cti n Th e p in t th a t we e t yin g t o

o ra o . o ar r

m ke i th a t the st uctu e Of the gro up can be studi ed by

a s r r

invest i g a tin g the a tt a cti n s a n d epuls io n s Of pe ople t o ward

r o r

o n e a n o the r
9
.

Th e st uctu e of the g o up i a ffected fu the by the or

r r r s ,
r r,

a n i a tion o f the fun cti n l o les of i t m em be s T h ve y

g z o a r s r . e r

m e a ni n g f g o up o g n i z ti on im pl i es a d i st ibution of
o r r a a r

fun ction s o the ena ctm en t of fun cti n a l oles E ven in a

,
r o r .

dem c tic g oup st uctu e the le de s ole d o es n ot em in

o ra r r r a r
’

r r a

h is o w n th o ugh out the l ife sp n o f the g o up but i s di

r a r ,
s

tributed am on g the m em be shi p SO con ceived an y p e s on r .

,
r

i s a le a de a t a ny t im e whe n he en a cts n e pected f un c

r a x

ti on al role Thus lth ough a con s i de ble b o dy of ese ch

.
,
a ra r ar

o n g o up st uctu e h as ce n te ed a b o ut the le de sh ip
r r r le r a r ro ,

i t i im p o t an t to n o te the f a ct th t g o up st uctu e i s de
s r a r r r

t e m ined by the t o t a l ity o f the f un ct i on a l oles a ssum ed o

r r r

en a cted by a ll its m em be s an d n ot on ly by it le a de r ,
s r .
10

Pe ople in g oups a lso beh ve in w ys m otiv ted no t by

r a a a

thei o le po s ition but by the set of v alues o n o m s of the i

r r r r r

g oups Th is w a discussed t s om e len gth in Ch apte 1 2

r . s a r ,

with p a ticul emph a s is on the impo t an ce of e fe en ce

r ar r r r

g oups Th e n orm s Of on e s efe en ce g o ups h ave m uch t o

r .
’

r r r

do w ith the s tructu a l f m a t ion o f g o ups We a e e fe in g r or r . r r rr

to the p essu es to wa d c onf o m i ty wh i ch we ex m in ed in

r r r r a

C h pte 1 3 As h study Of g o up p essu e in m d if yin g

a r c
’

s r r r o

judgmen ts N ewc om b s study of the effect of n“

.

orm s in a
’

, ol c

lege comm unity Whyte s desc iption of the co n e b oys ,

’

r r r ,

a n d o the s test if y t o the p owe ful in flue n ce o f s o ci a l n

r ms r or

up on the structur e o o gani za tion Of g oups r r r .

9 See H
L on gma ns , Green
. H . J g
e nni n s L ea ders hip and is o la tion ( 2d ed .
; New Yk or

10
, CO Inc
f .

Thi s i s one o f th e con u s e d area s o f rou p dy namics Th e di cu lty

,

g g . ffi
i s in
of v i e w
wg L
p art s eman tic n o dou b t bu t i t i s a ls o du e to th e div er en ce i n p o in t
,

a n d th e in con s i st e n ci e s i n v es ti a ti o n al re s ul ts For a v ari e ty Of g . Of

ww C Wf
vie s , s ee R ip p itt, A n exp eri m ent al s tu dy of a u th orita ria n a nd demo
.

w C
crat ic roup a tm o s p h eres , U n iv I o a St u di e s in h il d e l are , Vo l 16,
. .

No 3 ( I o a i ty : Un iv ersi ty o f I o a Press , F Redl , Grou p e mo

C
.

«57 3—
.

ti on a n d le a ders h ip , P s y ch ia try , 5
con cep ts

4
f or m ea s urin
1 6 1—
84 .
g 9 6; R B
l e a ders hip in term s
a tt e ll New
g of ro u p s y nt a
. .

li ty Hu m R elat
, .
,

.
,
488 OU P DYN AMIC S IN PE RSPECTIVE GR

Fin ll y the st uctu e of the g oup i con ditioned by its

a ,
r r r s

a tt a cti ve n ess to i t s m e m be s
r Th i s fa ctor w s d i scussed in r . a

det il in C h pte 3 in the a n lys i s Of the n a ture Of g oup

a a r a r

c hes iven ess C ohes ive n ess exi sts in p op o tion to the n eed
o . r r

o f bel n g in g n ess by the g o up s m e m be s a n d to the o p o

’
r
o
p r r

t n iti
u whi ch the g o up affo ds in s a tis fyin g the n eed Thus
es r r .

he e On ce m o e we see the in sep a b ility of the in divi du l

r r ar a

a n d the g up In a sm uch as g o up a tt a ctive ness an d co

ro . r r

h s i on are d i scussed in det a il in C h pte 3 n o m o e n eed be

e a r ,
r

s id he e
a r

A CTI O N RE SEAR CH We h ve n ot discussed a ction e

.

. a r

se a ch s such a ltho ugh it m etho ds n d esults h ave ap

r
”
a ,
s a r

d
e ar e i n v i o us pl a ces in th i s b oo k
ar We di d i n eff ect de a l
p .

with it in our b ief efe en ce to cha n gin g pe ople s foo dr r r

’

h bits in o a cco un t of ese ch in ce ta in in dust i l s itu a

a ,
ur r ar r r a

tion s in the ep o t on the w k to elim in te a cial and cul

, r r or a r

tu a l disc im in a tion an d a g in in the b ie f desc iption of

r r ,
a r r

comm unity se lf surveys -

G oup dyn mics we have said i inte ested in knowin g

.

r a , ,
s r

h o w g o ups fo m n d h o w they m a y be ch a n ged Whe n we

r r a .

fo cus ou a tten tion on techn i ques o p o g m s f effectin g

r r r ra or

or de ly an d des i ble ch an ges in g o ups n d in stitution s we

r ra r a ,

ar e co n ce n ed wi th a cti o n
r ese a ch Thi s spect of g oup r r . a r

dyn m ics m y be defin ed a cco d in gly as th t ph se of ou

a a ,
r ,
a a r

in qui y wh i ch ( 1 ) stu di es the c n d it io n s un de wh i ch g o up

r o r r

ch n ges take pl ce an d ( 2 ) in di c tes h w best to utili ze o u

a a a o r

kn owledge o f h ow to con t l an d d i ect these ch an ges in ro r

the in te ests Of the g o p So con ce ived a ction ese a ch is

r r u .
,
r r

the in tegra tion of scien tific f cts about g o ups n d the p a a r a r o

t ic al m ean s o f ch n gin g them in the des i ed di ection Fo

a r r . r

t“h i s e a s o n i t i s om etim es c lled by the n o t to h ppy te m

r s a -
o- a r

hum n en gin ee in g This te m im plies th t sci en tific fa cts

a r .
”
r a

a n d m e th o ds a e pplied to ch n gin g e l life itu tion s I t

r a a r a -
S a .

i f o u n d e d o n o n of L ew in s well kn o wn Obse v t i on s wh ich

’

s e -
r a

we h ve st ted befo e n m ely th a t when people disc ve

a a r ,
a , o r

the s o u ce Of the i wn h t eds n d p ejudi ces tow d the s

r r o a r a r ar o r

they e m o e likely to ch n ge them bec se these are the i

ar r a ,
au r

o w n d i sc o ve i es i n ste d Of exte n l im p o s i t io n s
r People be
a r a .
490 U DYN AMIC S IN PE RSPECTIV E G RO P

Feedba ck i s a c om m un i c a t ion s techn i que by m eans Of

which the inform a tion give m ay Observe the effect o f h is -
r

in fo m tion up on o the s Th i s m ay be d on e d i ectly by the

r a r . r

fa ct finde o by m e a n s of a rec o din g m a ch in e whi ch pl ys

-
r r r a

b a ck to the nti e g o up the a ctivi ties du in g a pe io d o f

e r r r r

tim e In thi s w ay eve y n e en ga ged in the p oject is famil

. r o r

i i e d with eve y on e else s c n t ibuti n to i t We h a ve in

’

ar z r o r o .

dica te d s om e Of the e o s an d d i st o t ion s th t esult when rr r r a r

the comm un ic a tion ch ann els a e not fun ction in g a dequ a tely r ,

a n d we h a ve desc i bed the n eg t ive a n d dest ruct ive e ffects r a

o f p oo t a n s m i ss ion o f m ess a ges m n g the m e mbe s of a

r r a o r

g o up Th e pu p ose of the feedb a ck is to Sh e all the f cts

r . r ar a

a nd l
y the m O pe
a n to n lys i s a n d ev alu a t i on Th i s s o un ds a a .

e a sy enough but it equi es expe ien ce to i f o m g oup

,
r r r n r a r

o f ll the am ific a ti on s o f f cts an d i de s th t c om e t o gethe

a r a a a r

in the c o u se Of n in vest i g a ti on 13
r a .

I n t e preta tio n o ev lua tion Of f a cts o d a t a i s esse n ti l

r ,
r a r ,
a

in ll sc i e n tific ese ch C o n t
a y to a p opul n o tion fa cts
r ar . ra r ar ,

n d figu es do n ot spe a k f o them selves We em in ded

of the t e n ch an t o bse v t io n by A lf ed M a sh a ll the f am o us
a r r . a re r

o
“ o
r

ec n m ist Th e m o st eckless an d t e a che ous of ll theo i sts

:
r

r
a r

r r
r ,

a r

i he w h o p o f esses t o let f a cts a n d figu es spe k f o them

s r r a r

selves Fa cts in othe wo ds h ve to be in te p eted an d

.
”1 4
, r r ,
a r r

ev l a ted be fo e they n be pu p o sefull y used

a u r ca r .

I n a ct i n ese a ch in te p et t i n i n t c n fin ed t
o r n r r r a o s o o o a

ex m in a ti n of an d a cqu ai n tan ce with the f cts Pe h ps

a o a . r a

even m o e im p o tan t a f a even tu l ction i c n ce n ed

r r , s ar s a a s o r ,

i the ev a lu a tio n o f the deg ee of m em be p a t ic ip t ion the

s r r- r a ,

kin ds f ten s ion s conflicts an d iv l ies wh ich a gen e ted

o , ,
r a r re ra

in m o st a ct ive g o ups the qu al i ty Of the le de shi p the r , a r ,

exten t to wh ich e ch m em be app ises hi ow n h o tcom a r ra s s r

in gs an d the l ike I nte rp et a t i n in the fi n l an lys i s i s r o a a

the a ct of g oup s e lf ev lua tion Th ch ie f m e i t Of th“

.
, , ,

r is -
a . e r

self evalu tion by the g o up is th a t it le a ds the m em be s to

-
a r r

O
13 For a

D —J k
lu ci d descri p tion
H in s , Feedba c
of f k k g x f
ee d ba c
an d
an d m p l es ill ust ra ti n
e a

ro up sel ev al u a ti on
g i ts
p era ti on , s ee . . en -
I ,
. soc .

I s s u es 4

M
14 A

a cm i lla n
,

. C g . Pi
Co
ou
5 0 60 .

M emoria ls
108
of A lfred M a rs ha ll ( New Yk or : Th e
.
, p . .
C RITIQUE OF G ROU P DYN AMIC S 49 1

becom e m o e sen s itive to the d ifficulties in in te a ction and

r r

d iscuss ion thei c uses and s om e techniques f o a vo i din g r a ,

r

them ”1 5

Th i s b i ef o ve vi ew Of g o up dyn m i cs
r r eviewin g the r a ,
r

n um e o us but n o t well in teg

r te d con cepts p inciples and -
ra ,
r ,

r ese a ch p blem s Of its developm en t durin g the p a st h lf

r ro a

c en tu y shows th a t g oup beh a vio is lwa ys a f un ction of

r ,
r r a

t w o in sep ble a n d ext o d in ar ily complex fa cto s n am ely

a ra ra r r , ,

ers ons a nd the s et o l m n g them wh i ch we c a ll

p f a t io ns a o re

the group Although the a ttitudes an d the in d ivi dual

. o r

c h a a cte i stics of pe s on s a e m odified when they in te ct

r r r r ra

with o the pe s on s these a ttitudes an d ch a cte istics are

r r ,
ar r

n t d i ss o lved
o obl i te a ted To s om e exte n t the pe s o n
or r . r

r em ains a utonom ous even when he is deeply involved in

s btle and int ica te el tion s wi th o the s Pe s on lity i
u r r a r . r a s

m o d ified but n o t el im in a ted .

Th g up th a t em e ges o t Of —O bette th t i s com

e ro r u r r, a

p i sed Of —the dyn am ic ela tion s of pe s on s to on e no the

r r r a r,

i defi n ed by i ts psych o lo gi ca l structu e o o g a n i z a tio n i t s

s r r r ,

le de shi p structure its s o cial clim te its ttr ctin g or r

a r ,
a ,
a a e

p el li n g v a le n ces its syste m Of o les dyn a m i c lly c on ce i ved

, r a ,

a nd fo th Wh ile ese a ch h s fu ni shed us with a f ar

so r . r r a r

b ette un de st a n d in g Of g o up beh vi o th an m n p o ssessed

r r r a r e

fif ty ye ars go un til we h ve em p i i c a l desc i pt io n s n d

a , a r r a

e xpe im en t l dem n str ti on s of the c omplic ted re la tio ns

r a o a a

b etw e n p erso ns we sh ll be un a ble to p ed ict success ful ly

e , a r

t h e beh a vi o f e i the pe s o n s o
or g o ups r r r r .

Anyon e w ho h as emb arked on the t an gled oa d to a co r

h e e n t system a ti z a tion of gro up dyn am i cs

r h the p esen t ,
as as r

write mus t be e dy to f ce d is app oin tm en t In the p esen t

r, r a a . r

s ta ge of its developm e nt com plete system tiza tion c nno t a a a

b success fully a chi eved Any a ttem pt to do o woul d be

e . s

t an t m ou n t to supe im p s in g up n the s tudy Of

a o up d
r
g y o o r

n am i c a c o n ceptu a li z ti o n wh i ch i
s n o t just ified by th e a s

15
Jk en in s , Fee db a c k g N fw an d rou p l -ev a lua ti on p 60 For a n i llus tra
se , . .

f
M W C f
t i on of i ts co ncre te us e in th e o rth to n s urv ey , s ee th e re e ren ce by

H
C
a
. S ell ti z
p p ro a ch to
an d

g.
(
s o ci a l ch a n
.

e,
orm s er

I . so c .
i ssu e
I ss ues 5 , NO 2
,
o mm un i ty s el -surv ey s : an

.
49 2 OU P DYN AMIC S IN PE RSPECTIVE GR

p iecem e l expe im enta tion by which it h s com e in to be in g

a r a .

We h z d the Op inion th a t if such a c on ceptu al iz ation we

a ar re

in deed im p o sed up on it m n y—pe h ps m st—Of the in tel ,

a r a o

li g n t a n d d evo ted wo ke s in the field w o ul d h dly ec g

M e anwhile n o on e n eed it
e r r ar r o

n i ze the i o w n fo m ul t i o n
r r a .
,
S

ar ou n d w i ti n g f o t o decl are an in tellectu l m o a to i m

a ,
r a r r u

un til o con cepts n d p in ciples a m o e m eti culously

ur a r re r

system a ti zed n d defin ed wo uld be utte ly fa t l

a r a .

S OME C RI TIC A L CON S IDE RATION S

G up dyn mics i he dy win e whi h e sily becloud

ro a s a a c a s

eval a tion by s om e of it in vesti g to s S om e Of the l atte

u s a r . r

h ve m de p on o un cem en ts th t at tim es s o un d like the

a a r a

shibboleth Of n w d ct in e They h ve inf used gr oup

s a e o r a

dyn m ics with a n Obscu n ti sm th t it ill dese ves G up

.

a ra a r . ro

dynamics i n e ithe cult n o a d o ct in e but a se i us t

s r a r r ,
r o a

tempt by m y c p ble ese che s to tt in n un de stan d

an a a r ar r a a a r

i n g o f g o up beh vi o by m e a n s of c e ful n d c on trolle d

r a r ar a

r esea ch r

S om e wo ke s c ied away by thei unc iti cal excite

.

r r ,
arr r r

m en t h ve n de st n d bly a li e n ted se i o us psych o l gi sts

s ci l sci en ti sts M an y of the l tte are epelled
,
a u r a a a r o

a n d o the r o a . a r r

by the f d like ch a cte f s om e spect Of gro up dyn m ic s

a -
ra r o a a

a nd m y mo e an un eceptive to it un supp o ted cla im s

r a re
m r s r

THE NO NREL EVA N CE O F I TS CO N CEP TU L B A S S M an y

.

A I . re

cen t ide a s an d ppli c a ti n s Of g o up dyn m ics h ave theia o r a r

s u ce in the theo i es an d ese a ches of Ku t L ewin Thes e

o r r r r r .

we m ust ex m in e c i tically I t i a sc ien tific c omm on pl c

a r . s a e

th t th con cepts with wh ich on e in vesti g tes given phe

a e a a

n om n on m ust t ouch o c on ve ge s om ewhe e in the p o ess

e r r r r c .

I f the e i n o fun ction l c onn ect ion betwee n the m the n

r s a ,

the con cepts while in te estin g in them selves pe h ps h ve

,
r r a ,
a

n o l g i c l pl ce in the syste m wh i ch p u p o ts t o expl in the

o a a r r a

eve nts This i fl g an tly th c se when fun d m en t l con

. s a r e a a a

16 W ’
h ile Gun ders on s ev a lu a tion i s so m e h at o f a cari ca ture i ts s eri o us w ,

g x g
s tri cture s des erv e a tt en ti o n

o u hly e p o s e d to i ts e ce s se s S ee R G Gun ders on

3 42—
x
A s a te a ch er of sp ee ch h e h as b ee n th o r
.

a n ers in gr o u p . . .
,
D g
g
dy n ami cs R eli
ro u p - dy n a m i cs
,

f
E du c
uro r S ch
46 .

( 7 S oc 74
44 See als o hi s articl e Thi s
9 7—1 00
,
. .
,
.

.
49 4 U DYN AMICS IN PE RSPECTIVE G RO P

w a b o un d by the E ucl ide n ge om et y of phys i c a l sp a ce

s a r .

M o de n el a t ivi ty n t be in g S im il a ly b o un d but ble in

r r ,
o r a

s te d to d w f eely o n the con structs of n on E uclide an

a ra r -

ge om et y c n cco un t fo m tion with out p o s itin g hyp o

r ,
a a r o a

thetic a l fo ce to expla in it Th e devia tion of a f ee p ar

r . r

t i le f om i ts l in e
c r f m t io n i s a n tif a ct o f E uclidea n
o o ar

g e
c u ved l in es o
r
“
o m et y the ge m et y o f st ai ght l in es
r ,
I n a ge om et y Of
o

geo des ics the e i no such devi ation ; n d

,
r
r

,
r

r s
. r

s in ce the e i s n o devi a t ion the c o n cept of fo ce wh i ch w as

r ,
r ,

i n ve n ted to expl a in i t i supe fluo us ,

s r .

I f he l ooks b ck to C h pte 2 in wh i ch we b i efly de a a r r

s c ibed L ewin s the o eti c al c on st ucts f o g o up dyn am i cs

r
’

r r r r ,

th e de will see th at we om it the con cept of f ce Th is

e r a r or .

o m i ss i n n be u n de st oo d in the l i ght Of the fo ego in g

o ca r r

r em ks ar .

How di d L ewin defin e th i s c on st uct ! I t i s n ot e sy t o r a

s t ate L ewin s definitio n of force bec use L ewin h im“

’

self a

s t ated it in d iffe en t wa ys On of h is defini tion s i s the r . e

d i ect ion an d st en gth of the te n den cy to ch n ge

”1 9
r r a .

The e e seve a l types o f fo ces

r ar a cc o d i n g to L ewin
r r ,
r .

D iv in g fo ces impel a pe s on t ow ar d
r r p o si tive o a w y r a r a

f omr n eg a t ive v le n ce o
a tt a ction ce n te They a the a ,
r a r r . re

s o u ces of lo com o tion o goa l di ected beh vio When

r ,
r -
r a r .

l o c om t io n is h in de ed by phys i c l o s o c i l O bst cles these

o r a r a a ,

b a rr i e s a e c lled res tr ini ng fo ces They d n o t le d t o

r r a a r . o a

l o c om o tio n but they in fluen ce th , fl ct o f d ivin g f o ces e e e r r .

A d ivin g fo ce m y be the des i e t o t a ke

r r le de sh ip p o s i
a r a a r

t io n in the g up a n d th est inin g fo ce m y be the r

ro e r ra r a e

ist n e o f o the s o the l im it t io n s Of the in d ivi du l o b o th

,

s a c r r a a ,
r .

A n i nd u c d fo ce i n e th t g o es c o u n te t o a pe s on s d i
’
e r s o a r r r v

i n g fo ces but up o n wh i ch he cts n on etheless bec use of

r ,
a a

s o ci l an d o the a p essu es When th is fo ce o pe a tes o n

r r r . r r , e

a cts in cco d n ce wi th n o the s wishes the th an a cco d

a r a a r
’

,
ra r r

i n g to o n e s o w n n eeds o self fo ces When fo ces co e

’
20
,
r -
r . r rr

19 K Lw . e i n , Fie ld th eory i n s o ci al s cien ce ( New Yk or : Ha rp e r 8: Bros .

,

Lw w
p 25 6

“
. .

f g
’
Th i s
’
20 is not e in s b ut th e r iter s o wn term to des cribe th e
f orm er s o rce s corres p on din o w n n ee ds
’

to .
C RITIQUE OF G ROU P DYN AMIC S 5

s o n d n e i the t o self n eeds n o t o the de m a n ds o f o the s

r r r
p
-
,

they e c a lled im e rs ona l fo ces

ar
p T h e p ese n ce o a bse n ce r . r r

of the l tte determin s th e a ction Of the in divi dual an d

a r e e r

the a tm o sphe e Of the s itu ation o g oup r r r

tha t th phen om en a desc ibed by the con cept

.

I t i cle s ar e r

Of fo ce can be ep esen ted by o ther te m s such a t ens io n

r r r r ,
s ,

o exc i t a tion st a te a n d v lence o a tt a ct i on to a n d epuls i o n

r ,
a ,
r r r

by an Object indivi du al o s itua tion Th ese a psycho , ,

r . re

lo gic al v i bles which ar e known to ope a te in hum an b e

ar a r

h a vio both in di vi dua l and collective

r, .

Th c on cept Of fie ld a t o n ce s o use ful n d ill defin ed

e ,
a -
,

ca n be n e i the wholl y a ccepted n o ejected As o i gin lly r r r . r a

defin ed by L ewin i t p esen ts in the f a ce of m o de n el tivity r ,

r r a

field theo y p ad ox In field the o y eve ythin g i in

r ,
a ar . r r s

m t io n in el a t ion to s om e th in g else n d yet the c on cept of

o r ,
a

field in mo de n physi cs is essential ly a s ta tic on e s Th e r

!2

p st p ese nt n d futu e of any m o tio“

in
a

a
,

a
r ,
“
n ex i st im ult n e o usly

st ti c field M oti n is a curve world l ine o wo ld

a

. o
r

,
a
S a

r r

p th o a set of successive n ow s of an Obse ve st tion ed

a ,
r
’ ”
r r a

in sp ce tim e a L o“
n d on m akes th e tell i n g p o in t th a t a n
-
.
23

even t in el tivity is a p in t in a st ti c sp ce ti m e c n tin uum

r a o a a -
o

which is conn ected with p an d futu e even ts by m ean s of ri o r r

wo ld lin es I t do es not esult f om the dyn m ic in te cti n

r . r r a ra o

o f phys i c a l f a ct o s as L ewin w o uld a ve but f om the in te r , r, r r

section Of an Observe s wo ld c o ss section with the wo ld r

’

r r -
r

l in es embedded in the st ti c f u d im en s ion al sp ce t im e a o r- a -

c n tin uum
o .
”2 4

O u o w n defin i tion o f the c on cept o f field in C h a pte 2

r r

is n o t a m th em a ti c a l o n I t i desc ipti ve expl n a t o y

a e . s r ,
a r ,

a n d p a gm t i c rA s o ci l field we s ai d i any a ctin g o

a . a , ,
s r

ch an gin g gro up to wh ich the beh avio of in divi du als egi on s r ,

r ,

a n d subg o ups m be o de ed r Thus c o n ce i ved i t i d a

y y r r . s

n am ic ra the r th n st a ti c
, a .

Lw 2 56 —
Lb g Of x
21 Se e in , Fi eld theory i n s ocia l
e s cie n ce, pp . 60 .

22 don Psy ch olo i sts m i sus e

’
on a u ili ary con cep ts
, p 27 3 , . .

Lw
23 I i d 273
, p . . .

2 4 I bi d
p 2 74
g
in s p os ition o n th is p o in t i s s ta te d in hi s Prin~
Yk k
’
e .
, . .

cip le s of top o lo i cal p s y ch o lo g y ( N ew or : M cGraw -Hill B oo C o , I nc , . .

p . 33 .
496 OU P DYN AMI C S IN PE RSPECTIVE GR

C lo sely ela ted to the n o ti n Of field i the con cept of

r o a s

S p ce wh ich h as egion s sub egion s and b ie s In as

a ,
r ,
r ,
a rr r .

m uch we h ve no n eed f o L ewin s con cept of hodo logic l ’

as a r a

s ace we o m i tted it f o m o d i scuss io n in C h pte 2 L o n

r ur a r
p
.

don i qu ite i ght in a sse t in g th a t L ew in inve n ted the

s r r

con cept o f h dolo gic l sp ce in o de to get a oun d the

o a a r r r

i n c n s i sten cy betwee n vect o s a n d o the d i ected lo om o c

tion s in a top olo gi cal sp ce wh ich i di ectionle s s M o e ove

o r r r

a s r . r r,

the con cept is n ot adm itted in pu e t p ol gy I t h d r o o . a ,

ao

c o din l
r
gy t be in ve n ted
,
o H odo lo gi l sp ce e f e s t the . ca a r r o

d i ecti n th ough the

s
r o
“ p th
i the in d ivi du l s l if e sp ce in
Of
r l c o m t i n w i th in a field

p ti c l s i t u t i n t a
a
’
-
It
a

a
o

a
o

ar
o

u ar a o
.

p ti cula m m en t of tim e I t is cc din gly n ot in fin itely

ar r o .
,
a or ,

d ivi s ible b t i com p o sed Of ce t in un its

u s egi n s r a or r o .
25

No t on ly h a the c on cept of h o dol o gi a l p ce bee n thus

s c S a

f ar res istan t to st i ct m them ti c l fo m ul tion but i t h

r a a a r a as

been unp o ductive empi ically We n desc ibe in divi du l

,

r r . ca r a

a n d g o up beh v i o

or
r
“ by m e an s Of s o cial n d psych lo gi c l
a

vect s ; n o o the di ection a l c n cept i n ecess a y When

r
r

r
”
o s
a

r .
o a

pe ple d i ect thei ction s tow d a c mm on g l they

o r r a ar o oa ,
a re

beh avin g vect i lly ; th t i they a m ovi n g in ce t in

or a a s, re a r a

d i ection with ll the psych l gi c l en e gy th t i v il ble

r a o o a r a s a a a

t o the m by the ch cte Of the field si tu tion a t the mom en t

a ra r a .

Th i s i n nm the m t i c l
s a o n d pu ely desc i pt i ve use o f the
a a a a r r

c n cept Of vect
o I t d es n o t c mm i t us t o nyt h in g m o e
or . o o a r

th n the n tio th t ll beh vio h as di rectio n al p ope ti es in

th t it i im d t w d g l F om o p o in t of View the
a o n a a a r r r

“ a s a e

en e gy beh in d the im puls ion t w d g l is n ot m u

r
o ar a oa .

o
r

ar
ur

a oa
,

eas r

a ble in phys i c l qu n t i t i es but in te m s of

a n in te v l sc al e ;
a r a r a

f or the e i o a ssum pti n in o in te p et a tion th a t it h a

r s n o ur r r s

m ssa d vel i ty s in the c a se of phys i c l vecto s

an oc ,
a a r .

E n o gh h a been s id we thin k t desc ibe the m b iti us

u s a , ,
o r a o

a ttem pt by L ewin to ec st psych l gy in clud in g g oup r a o o ,

r

beh avio lon g i go o us m a the m tic l lin es He n t nly

r, a r r a a . o o

fa iled but h i eff ts show th t it m them tiza ti on i n t

,
s or a s a a s o

o n ly spu i us but p o b a bly i mp ss ible

r o l n g L w in i n lin es
r o a o e a .

25 Lw e i n , Fi e ld th eory a nd s ocia l science, p . 26 .

498 OU P DYN AMICS IN PE RSPECTIVE GR

SO do we B t these g o ups do n t utom t i c all y fo ster

. u r o a a

efficien cy p o ductiven ess n d goo d will Th ese esul ts as

,
r ,
a . r ,

L ewin kn ew h ave to be wo ked f o C on equen tly the

,
r r
. s ,

“
eg al
c nt “
o lled
ro
“
i t i a n g o ups in wh i ch he h ad b o un dless f a ith m ust be
ar r

manipul a ted —wo ds whi ch a di s a gree able

”
or r re

to the dem o c ti c pu i st L ewin w as ve y w ell a ware of”

ra r . r

thi s fa ct an d w n o w ay to esca pe f om it He reco gni zed

,
sa r .

th t m n gem“
a a en t f o ex m ple c n fulfill it fun ction onl y
a ,
r a ,
a s

by m e n s Of g o up m ani pul tion

a r a .
”2 6

Th p e fe e n ce f o dem c ti c g o ups i s b a sed on th e fa ct

e r r r o ra r

th t the i m an ipula tive cts e f m s Of in duce

a r

co e cion s The in duce m en t i pe fo m ed by dem o c ti c

r
“ m e n t n ot a ar

s
or

r r ra
”

D
.

“
le de
a rs
“
”
e m
. c a t i c g o ups thus depe n d s i gn ific n tly o n
o

goo d or i ght le de ship Thi s empha si s on the n eed f o

r
r
”
a r
r

.
a

g o d le a de sh ip i n ot howeve b sed on the i de ali ze d

o
”
r s r, a

con ception f dem o c a cy wh ich pe m e a tes the b ulk Of th e

,

o r r

the o eti c al an d ope a tion al ese ch in group dyn amics ;

r r r ar

but athe it eflects the stubb o n e l iti es of p olitic a l p ri

r r, r r r a ex e

en ce I n th is in fidel ity between i de a l and fa ct—if f a ct it is

.

—L ewin n d h i follo we s bet a y su p i s in g in co n s i sten cy

a s r r a r r .

Fo wh ile g o p dyn m i c i sts w ite e n thus i sti c a lly ab ut the

r r u a r a o

d i gn ity of m an they he e emb ce a view f h im th a t by ,

r ra o

im pli c t io n if n o t exp essly de n i es i t Twe n ty ye s a go

a ,
r ,
. ar

L ewin sh wed th i s w ve in g belief in the c p b ili ty of m n

o a r a a e

in g o ups to d i ect the i ow n dest in y by s y in g th a t m en

r r r a

n eed t o be gu i ded i n the w a f s o ci a l i ghte o us n ess by o r

y
le de s w h o un de st n d the f o n inte ests bette th an
“
’

a r r a rr e r s r r

they do them selves M an do es no t kn ow whe e h is t ue . r r

”

i n te ests li ; th e e f o e he h a to be gui ded by le a de rs w h o

r e r r s

will p o tect him f om h im self

r r .
27

A con dition Of in deci s i n n ot to s ay amb iva len ce run o , ,

s

th o ugh g e t de l f th w itin g on g oup dyn am i cs con

r a r a a o e r r

ce nin g the f egoin g p oblem We ar emin ded o n eve y

r or r . e r r

26 K Lw.

p .
e

83
in ,
.
R es o lv in
S i nce th is
g c
s oci al

h ap ter w a s
co n

wL w
fli cts ( New
ri tt en , th e
Yk fior :

s ci enti
Harp er
c
8:
a chi ev e
Bro s
m ents
.
,

of
27

ce p ts an d
K Lw
th e Ru s s i an s
. e
s u p p o rt o ur cri ti ci s

in , Fi e ld th e ory
m eth o ds Am er J Soci ol , 44
, . .
and
m
e

.
xof e

p erim en t i n
in .

s o ci al

8 68—
96 .
g
p s y ch ol o y : con
C RI TIQUE O F G ROU P DY N AMIC S 49 9

S i de th t pe ple in g ups will n o t a ut om t ic lly ge n e a te

a o ro a a r

g o up m ovem en t n d p ticip te in collective delibe a tion

r a ar a r .

A cen t l pe s n o ch n ge gen t usu lly le de is n c s

ra r o r a a ,
a a a r, e e

s y to ini ti te delibe tion o ction E ven in the m o st

ar a ra r a .

dem o c a ti c g o up especi lly in complex gan iz tion s di c

r r ,
a or a ,
re

ti v es m ust be i ssued n d c on t ol m in t in ed f om a b ove a r a a r .

H ie ch iza tion we s aw i n Ch apte 2 is p ob bly ch

f a ll Vi a ble g o up s wi th a h i st o y h oweve sh o t
ra r ,
r ,
r a a ar

a t i ti
c er s c o
“ r
'

r ,
r r

i t m ay be C on t o l by h i ghe ups f o ex m ple i s ssu edly ”

. r r- ,
r a ,
a r

a ch a cte i st i c o f m o de n i n dust y eve n o f th t wi th the

ar r r r ,
a

m o st dem o c a ti c wo ke m n a gem e n t el a t ion shi p s we s w

r r r- a r ,
a a

in C h pte 9 E ven the m o st a de n t exp on e n t o f dem o c a t i c

a r . r r

r ela ti n sh ips in c omplex o gan i za ti on s c nn o t den y th t

o r a a

people h ve to conf orm thei beh a vio wi th the st n d a ds

a r r a r

n d expect a t i o n s o f th o se in a uth o i ty
28
a r .

At the s am e tim e th t they eco gn ize the in c p ability Of a r es a

con t ol by othe s m n y g up dyn am icists epe tedly st ess

r r ,
a ro r a r

the necess ity of le a de ship h a in g the imp o t n ce of dif r -

S r ,
r a

fused le de ship —on o cc s ion even t lkin g s i“

a r f the le a de a a a r
”
h d n o pla ce in a de m o c a t i c g o up a t a ll
a L e de less r r . a r

r ,
“
g oups to which we h ve l e dy ef e ed in Ch pte 6
c om e pe ilously clo se to l i qui d tin g th le a de lto gethe
r
a a r a

a
”
r

e
rr

r a
a r

r .
,

29

The e is n o lo gi c a l n d ce t in ly n m o l Object i on to n
r ,
a r a o ra ,
e

co u ra i
g g n the devel o p m e n t o f le de less g o ups Th d if a r r . e

“
fic lty lies in dem o n st t in g the f ct th t they
u

le de less I n som e Of th g ups studied s om e in divi d

a r .
i n deed ra

e ro
a a are

n l a s,while in no sen se des ign ted a le de s in vested with a s a r or

le a de sh ip p pe ties n eve theless bec m e cen t l pe s on s

r ro r ,
r a ra r

a n d i n i ti ted in te a ct i o n
a Thi s s i tu ti on i n o do ubt due t o
r . a s

th f a ct th a t the ce n tr l pe s n s b o ught in t o the g o up w i th

e a r o r r

them we all do in esc p bly s om e f the i st tus qualities

,
as a a ,
o r a

Hu m a n nat ure a nd M
g
P Fre n ch , Jr i n G urp h y
g
28 See R . R . . . .
,

e n du rin

C
p eac e ( B o st on : Ho u h t on M iffli n C o ,

gg
p 3 25
29 Th e rea der sh oul d con s u lt th e re ere n ce s o n le a derl es s

h a p ter 6 W e s u es t i n a dditi o n th e oll o in :

ro u p s i n ff w g L C g L . . .

g M f M W
. F arter ea der ,
. .
,

s h ip a n d sm a ll

M
ro u p b eh a v i o r, in
G rou p rela ti ons a t the crossroads ( New
.
Sh e ri a n d

g x
or : Harp er
O
B ros ,
i lson
a nd

E Ro s eb oro u h E p eri m en t al s tu di es o f sm a ll rou p s , Ps y ch ol B ul l ,

.
Yk g . . .

.
,

50 27 5—3 03 .
5 00 U DYN AMIC S IN PE RSPECTIVE G RO P

a sin d ivi du ls the i a tt itudes the i a scen d n t pe s on al i ti es

a ,
r ,
r a r ,

n d the like
30
a .

Th e i n dec i s ion n d a mb i guity eg a di n g f eed om nd a r r r a

con t ol i eflected fin ally in the difli u lty of fully h a m on i

r s r , ,
c r z

i n g the a dvo c cy o f le de less g o ups n d the im p o t an ce of

a a r r a r

le a de sh ip t a in in g I t i s h dly lo gi cal f o g o up dyn am ics

r -
r . ar r r

t o st ess d iff use le a de sh i p n d le de less g o ups a n d t the

r r a a r r a

s m e tim e esp ouse an d set up p g am s f o t ain in g g oup

a ro r r r r

le de s If g o ups c n p fo m the i fun ction s with out

a r . r a er r r

le de s o if le a de s e b o un d to em e ge in ce t in in te
a r ,
r r ar r r a r

a ctive s itu ation s n yw y then t a in in g pe s on s to becom e a a ,

r r

le de s becom es dub io us en te p i se
a r a r r

A t the T in in g L b o to y in G oup D evel pm en t wo k

.

ra a ra r r o ,
r

wi th O ca lled le a de less g oups h a s been exp e im en ted on

S -
r r r

with gre a t in te est I ts le a de s —thi s i s a p dox—believe r . r

”
a ra

th t a the g o up develops the cen t l pe s on wh om we

a s r ra r

usu lly des i gn te a the le de will bec om e unn ecess y

a a s a r ar

B ut too o ften th i s d es n t h ppen S till the beli eve s in

.

o o a . r

le de less g oups a su e th a t the con fusi on esultin g f om

a r r re r r r

the a bsen ce f a n e st blished le de sh ip w uld even t u ll y

o a a r o a

le d to a g eem en t A vi tue
a
“ i even m de o f the c on fus ion
r

in o n c se by c al l in g i t feelin g d in in g
e a the kin d of im
. r s
-
ra
a

p ec ise n d dub ious but supe fici lly e ssu in g te m th t

r a r a r a r r a

i in ve n ted wi th g e a t f c ili ty by
s few p cti ti n e s Of g oup r a a ra o r r

dyn m ics B ut s Whyte in desc ibin g a c se whi ch he

a . a r a

Obse ved p o ints o t n o g eem en t c am e f o the g oup

r u , a r ,
r r

co uld n t a g ee on t p i“ o c to a g ee u p on r a o r .
”

Whyte c on tin ues Th in tellectu al hyp o c isy of the : e r

le de less g o ups h a b ought fo th a n w b eed ; in to the

a r r s r r e r

ve y v cuum tha t they bespe ak h ve m ved the p ofess ion al

r a a o r

expedite s Th en d they seek i s omp om ise n d h m on y

r . e c r a ar ,

but in the i c on t olled w y they n be just m ili t n t

r r a ca as a as

a n
y desk p o un de o f O ld n
-
d l o t m o e self i ghte o us r ,
a a r -
r .
”3 1

M C W m p a n y ran o n L C D ff Of k
fW fi fl Of
30 See B . . B a ss an d . R . u rster, E e cts co

p er o rm a n ce
o f Oil re n ery s u p erv i s ors 1 a p p l Ps y ch o l , 3 7 10 0 , . . .

1 04 ;
i s ti c s
31
OWf
Ha y th o rn Th e in u en ce
sm a ll

H
.

ro u p s , I

h y te Jr
.
gW
i n di v i du a l m emb ers o n th e ch aracte r

g
a b n orm s oc P sy cho l , 48
,

Th e o r a n iz a t i on ma n ( New
.
2 67—
or :
84 .

Sim on 8:
.
. . .

Yk .

, ,

Sch u s ter I n c , , p 55 . . .
5 02 OU P DYN AMICS IN PE RSPECTIVE GR

Pe h ps n owhe e else a e the excesses of g o up dyn am

r a r r r

i i ts m o e evi den t th a n in the field o f educ a t ion I n C h ap

c s r .

te 8 we m de a l a gely im pe s on a l exp o s i t ion of educ t ion

r a r r a

f om g oup dyn m i cs p oin t of view We wi sh to a dd n ow

r a r -
a .

th a t the un ti in g st ess wh ich g o up cen te ed educ a to s

r r r -
r r

pl a ce on demo c tic p o cedu es in a dm in i st tion cu r ra r r ra ,

r i cu lu m build in g -
n d cl ss oom te ch in g dese rves t o be ,
a a r -
a

pushed to the limit I t is o n th in g ho weve to eco gni ze . e ,

r, r

t h v a lue o f de m o c a ti c dec i s i on m ki n g a n d the c e ti on o f

e r -
a r a

a n ccept n t a tm sphe e in te chin g n d n o the t st ess

a a o r a ,
a a r o r

the belie f in dem o c cy in educ tion at any p ice Th ex ra a r . e

t em e dvo ca tes Of g up dyn am ics in educ ti n h e di

r a ro a o av s

pl ayed a do gm a ti sm th t d isp ges the ve y dem o c cy a ara r ra

which they p ofess to esp ouse R ese ch eviden ce i s to r . ar o

d ive gen t in c on s i ste n t n d c on t di cto y to pe m it the on

r , ,
a ra r r c

fi d n t c on clus io n th t f o ex m ple g o up di scuss i on i s

e a ,
r a ,
r

supe io to y the lectu e m eth od

r r sa r

S om e f the studies especi lly th t of Wi pe whi ch we

.
, ,

o ,
a a s ,

desc ibed in Ch apte 8 ch alle n ge the lleged supe io ity Of

r r ,
a r r

d iscuss ion t lectu in g cl ss oom tech ni ques I n a ecen t

o r as a r . r

study by B en n ett it supe io ity is even m o e h ply ques s r r r S ar

tio n d S ta t i n g o n “
e f h seve l fin d in gs eg d in g g oup e o er ra r ar r

deci s i n she w ites G oup d iscuss ion as n influen ce tech

.

o ,
r : r ,
a

n i que w n ot fo u n d to be m o e e ff ect ive i n duce m e n t t o

,
as r

a ction th n lectu e o n o influen ce ttempt t ll

a a It i r r a a a .
”32
s,

we th ink a f i quest ion to k h w it i th t m n y pe ople

,
a r as o s a a

h ve becom e well educ ted efin ed n d h m n isti c befo e

a a ,
r ,
a u a r

the dven t of g oup dyn m i cs in educ tion ! C omm on sen se

a r a a

a n d expe i e n ce h ve sh o wn th t pe o ple m a
r bec m e well a a o
y
educ ted n d a ss im il te the fin est dem o c a tic v lues in
a a a r a

lectu e m s l ab o to ies ecit tion pe io ds n d yes eve n

r ro o ,
ra r ,
r a r ,
a , ,

by te che s with ex ca thed a in cli n ti n s I n dem onst tin g

a r r a o . ra

th t the te ch in g—le n in g p o cess i best fu the ed in

a a ar r s r r a

demo c atic lly f ee n d pe m issive tm o sphe e whe e sup

r a r a r a r ,
r

p ess i n an d a uth o ita i an discipli n e e eschewed an d

r o r r ar ,

whe e co gn iz n ce o f the d i gn i ty o f the le ar n e is n o t a ble

r a r ,

g
32

rou p
E . B .

deci s io n
B en ne tt
,
”
, D
i scu ss io n , decis i on ,
Hu m Re la t , 8. .
co mmi tmen t
25 1—
73 .
, an

I ta li cs in
d co n s e ns us

ori g i n al .
in
C RITIQUE OF G ROU P DYN AMICS 03

g o up dynam i cs h s pe form ed a ve y imp o t an t fun ction in

r a r r r

educ a tion H oweve the e i n o o yal a d to educa tion t o

. r, r s r ro ,

b o ow a well known pl titude ; n d thi s ppli es to its gro up

rr -
a a a

dyn m i cs vari n t wi th equ al fo ce

a a r .

A f ta l we akn ess of m uch di scussion in g o up dyn ami cs

a r ,

f om b o th the ethic a l an d sci en tific v nt a ge p o in ts i s th a t

r a ,

i t e n c o u a ges a m an y ze l o us de f e n de s of the f ith a s it

r s a r a

do es c itic a l studen ts of a system of gen e ali z tion s Thi s

r r a .

is m os t evi de nt in the ti eless e ffo ts of m n y g o up dyn am r r a r

i ci s ts to ch i eve c on se n sus h m on y
a n d a g ee m e n t e ff o ts ,
ar ,
a r ,
r

wh ich ten d to blin d m en to the stubb o n f ct th t in e a lity r a a ,

r ,

such goals a e only a ely a chieved n d r Often chi eved

r r ,
a are a

a t the p i ce of c i ppl in g c o n f
r m i ty Th e c on cept f un ive
r or . o r

sa l h a m on y i a n o ble i de l but i t m ust be eco gn i zed f o

r s a ,
r r

wh a t it is a m yt h :

B e nni s and S hep a d in the ticle we h ave al e ady cited

.

r ,
ar r ,

wh ile c n ce n ed wi th the a tt inm en t of con sen su l valid a

o r a a

ti n how h ow d ifficult it is t o a ch ieve it Fo o p t we

o ,
S . r ur ar ,

beli eve th t the con dition of c on sen su al v li d ti n i n ever

a a a o s

fully e a ched f o this con d ition c o uld m e n only ste ili ty

r r a r

the g o up D esc ib in g the difli c lty in e a ch

,

a n d de a th f or r . r u r

i n g co n se n sua l v li d ti n the a uth o s c ll a tten ti n t o the

a a o ,
r a o

h stili ties and un es olved ten s i n s an d the a gg essive a tti

o r o ,
r

tudes whi ch th is effo t in duces B ut they p int t the r .

,
as o ou ,

a ppe a n ce of ha m on y m ust be m in t in ed t ll c sts In

ra r a a a a o .

Open g o up“ discussion s they sh ow this equi em en t i im

r , ,
r r s

p er a ti e i
ve :the the m e m be d es n t d r e t o e n d n ge r o o ar a r

h m on y wi th the g up o to d istu b the s t tu qu o by den y

ar ro r r a s

i n g th a t a ll p o blem s h ve bee n s lved The e

”33
r e of a o . r ar ,

co u se m n y devi ces by which the i ll sion f h m on y is

r ,
a u o ar

s om etim es m ain ta in ed n d wh ile utw dly c n sen su l ,

a o ar o a

g o ups a ppe h m on ious s om e on e s wi shes

r ar ar f st ted ,
’

a re ru ra ,

s m e on e s di s g eem en ts
o
’

held in beyan ce
a r a re a

S cientific thinkin g i itself n t immun e to th myth Of

.

s o e

m in t a in in g s li d i ty B o n f nb nn
a o n d D eve eux de
ar . r e re er a r

sc ibe n inte estin g ex am ple f thi s con di tion I n p e

r a r o . a r

33

Hu m Rela t , 9
.
W
B enn i s
. G .

.
an d H A Sh ep ard A
41 7
.

.
.
, th eory of g rou p dev elop m en t,
504 OU P DYN AMI C S IN PE RSPECTIVE GR

li n in y ep o t on a n in te di sc ipl in a y ese ch te m they

34
r ar r r r r r ar a

c ll a tten tion to the d ifficulty it expe ien ced in e a ch in g

a r r

a g ee m e n t a n d the c o n c om i t a n t c o m uls i o n t o a ppe a t o be r

r
p
in g ee m e n t Tw o ye s di d n ot p o ve l n g e n ugh f o the
a r . ar r o o r

g oup of esea che s to fun ction to gethe

r r ra te am L et us
r r as .

look a t s ome of the e s n s r a o

Fi st coope ation becam e n end in its elf I t i s Obvious

.

r ,
r a .

t o an yon e th a t pe s o n s w h o h ve g eed to wo k t gethe r a a r r o r

o n a co m m o n p o ble m sh o uld c o n sc i e n ti o usly t t o u n de r r

yr

stan d nd be ecepti ve to on an the s p oin t of view Wh a t

a r e o r
’

i n o t Obv i us
s

be e lf def ti ng
s
“
the
In o
-
uth o
“
o s p oin t o t i th a t t h is eflort ca n
as

c a se they write it esulted in a

ea .
a

ur
r

,
”
u ,
s

,
r

c mpulsi n to he o t app ove an d s om eh ow in co p o ate

o o ar u ,
r ,
r r

in to the t o t a l pl n eve y m j i de p op o sed by st ff a r a or a r a a

m em be Th e st ff w s f u the bu de n ed by the f eelin g

r . a a r r r

th a t n o m eetin g w as successful if eve yon e h d n o t p a r a r

t i cip a t e d .

A sec on d difficulty whi ch h ply h i ghli ghts the o ve

i de a l i zed a n d the e f e di st o ted Vi ew of the dem o c a t i c
,
S ar r

r or r r

p o cess is the m embe s de fe entia l ov dep end nce on

r ,
r
’
r er e

o th e s rThey di d n o t w a n t to p op o se a dec i s io n ffect in g

. r a

the whole g oup beca use it w as th ought to be p esum ptuous

r r

a nd A cco d in gly the th n f cin g th r ,

ra r a a e

p o ten ti lly on fli ctin g deci s ion m kin g the m embe s Of th

a c -
a ,
r e

te m convin ced them selves th t they Should invite uts ide

a a o

expe ts to help them in their d i scuss ion s I t i pp a en t th t

r . s a r a

the w on g kin d of dem o c a cy can p alyze con st uctive

r
”
r ar r

thinkin g and a ction .

An ov e e lia nce o n g ou p a ct i ity an nx i o us c o n ce n

rr r v ,
a r

wi th un ive s l sh in g of eve y ide a ls“ r a o im p i ed the te m sar r ,

a a r a
’

eff ectiven ess E ve ythin g h d to be checked with eve y

. r a
”
r

b o dy To m ake“
. m tte s w o se n
y a t pe f m ed by n a r r ,
a c r or a

in d ivi du a l a l on e l a cked st tus I ntera ctio n w a the ir w tch a . s a

wo d Thei quo ta tion f m a pe s on l commun ic tion f om

r . r ro r a a r

34
U Bronf e n bren n er a n d E
. . C D . x
I n te rdi scip lin ary p l an ni n
ev ere u ,
g
f or team res ear ch on co n s tru ctiv e

s oci o lo y
1 87—
g 203 Th e m emb ers
a nth ro p o lo y
.

g
co m m un ity b eh a v i o r, Hu m

of
wk
R ela t , 5
th e team rep res en ted p sy ch olo y ,
. .

g
, p sy chi a try , , an d s oci al or .
5 06 OU P DYN AMIC S IN PE RSPECTIVE GR

w h i ch e ep o ted in C h pte 7 f a vo the supe i o i ty of the

ar r r a r ,
r r r

g o p ; o the s the s pe io ity o f the indi vidual An e a ly

r u r ,
u r r . r

study by W ts on “we h ve shown dduces evid en ce tha t a ,

as a ,
a

sh ws th t g o ups think m o e fli cien tly than indi idu ” 38

A few ye s la te M a j o ie S h w cam e to a s imil c on clu

o a r r e v a .

ar r r r a ar

s ion lth ugh h esults we e s om ewh t m bi gu us 39

Th stud i es o f Th o n d ike n d Of M ccu dy n d L m be t

,
a o er r r a a o .

e r a r a a r ,

desc ibed in Ch pte 7 dd to the amb igui ty if n ot con

r a r ,
a ,

fus ion Th n dike the e de will ec ll f oun d the g up

. or ,
r a r r a ,
ro

gen e lly supe i o t the in d ivi dua l especi lly if the t a sk

ra r r o a

p esents wi de n ge “
r f lte n a ti ves Yet he also foun d
a ra o a r
,

.
40

in the s a m e st dy th t hi gh level of c mplexity lim its the

u a a o

effectiven ess Of g o up wo k Sh ll on con clude f om thi s r r .

”4 1
a e r

th t gen e lly spe akin g

a ,
the p blem becom es in c
ra ,
as ro re a s

i n gly m o e c om plex it s lut i n m ust be give n o ve t o s in gle

r s o o r

in d ivi du ls ! The e i n cle n swe

a r s o ar a r .

I n the study by M C dy a n d L m be t wh i ch we a ls o c ur a r ,

desc ibed in the ch a pte on collecti ve p blem s lvin g the

r r ro -
o ,

r ep o ted es lts a quite d iffe en t They fo un d th e a de

r r u re r .
,
e r r

will em embe th t in dividu als we e m a kedly supe io to

r r, a r r r r

th ee pe s on g oups
r -
r r .
42

A i g o us st dy by L o ge and hi s a ss o ci ates st n gly

r or u r ro

un de m in es the cl im f o g up supe io i ty in p blem

r a r ro r r ro

s olvin g The i expe im en t wi th Ai Fo ce pe s onn el e

. r r r r r r

ve aled th t in d ivi d ls m ake bette s luti n s f o comp le x

a ua r o o r

h u m n e la tio ns p o b lems th n do g o ups

a r r a r .
43

33 G . B . W m ore
a ts o n , DO g ro u p s th i n k e ffi ci e n t ly th a n i n di v i du a ls !

M w g
a bn orm s o c Ps y ch o l , 23 . 32 84 36
. . .

E Sh a A co m p a ri s o n o f in di vi du al
x
39 . .
, an d s m a ll roup s in th e ra
i on a l s o lu tio n o f co m p le p rob lem s , Am er J P s y ch o l 44
g04
. . .
,
49 1

L k w kw g w
.

40 R Th o rn di e O n h a t ty p e of ta s
. . i ll a ro u p do
, e ll ! I .

a bno rm s oc Ps y ch o l . 33 . 40 9 — 13 .
, .

W L ffi Of
4 1 I b id 413
, p . . .

42 H G M c

g C ur dy an d
.

ro u p s in th e s olu ti o n

47 8—
. E a m b e rt

p ro b lem s re q i u i n n g
Th e e ci e n cy ,

Of
sm a ll h um a n

e n ui n e co o p era ti o n P e rs ,
. .

g ’
,

,
.

20
43 I or e ,.
94
L g
Dav i tz , Fo x a n d J .
.

Herro l d E v a lua t io n of ins truo D .

, Kg Of .
,

D C M xw
t
ti on i n s t jj a ct ion a n d d ecis io n ma kin
a Rep ort th e A ir R e s ea rch an d -
,

e v e lo p m e n t omm an d Hum a n Re s o urce s Res e arch I ns ti tu te ,a e ll ,

AF B Ala b a ma , Te chn ica l Re s Re p ort, No 1 6 , 195 3

. . . .
C RITIQUE O F G ROU P DYN AMIC S 5 07

Foo d f o fu ther thought ega din g the p oblem is sup

r r r r r

pli ed by the ecen t fin din gs Of Fo w h o took th e imp o tan t

r x, r

f cto of tim e in to a ccoun t He foun d th a t gen e ally spe ak

a r r

in g the best deci s io n by Ai F o ce Office s w a wri tte n by

.
,

,
r r r s

a n in d i vi du a l He sta tes th a t a ltho ugh the a ve ge g o up

.
,
ra r

si gn ific n tly exceeded the ve a ge in divi du l in pe form

a a r a r

a n ce the e we e in d iv i du a l
,
fli c
r w h o w o k in g l on e di d
r O e rs ,
r a ,

as well as o bette th an n y g o up C onve sely he fo un d

r r a r . r , ,

th e wo st dec i s ion s we e w ri tten by in d ivi du ls

r Thus o r a . a

c o din g to Fo o gan ized g oups ssu e a level of dec s ion

r x, r r a r i

qu lity bette th an th o se w itten by m ost in di i d l j bu t

a r r v ua s

n o t supe i t o th o se wri tte n b y the best in d iv i du ls

r or When a .

g oup s we e given m o e tim e h oweve the i s olution s we e

r r r ,
r, r r

s g oo d as th o se o f in d ivi du ls
44
a a .

I t would be un e a l i sti c to quest i n the supe i o ity of r o r r

g o up p oblem s olvin g on the b s is of in con s i sten t esults

r r -
a r

a lon e B ut eli an ce on g oup p oblem s o lvin g lon e i equ lly

. r r r -
a s a

un e ali stic Th d an ge in o ve emph a s izin g the g oup lies

r . e r r r

in th f a ilu e t o e a li ze th a t i t g ives us on ly a p t ia l kn o wl
e r r ar

edge Of the le a ni n g n d th in kin g p o cesses Th e g oup r a r . r

supe io ity view eli es too much on v a lida tio n by cons nsus
r r r e .

The e a e h oweve o the tests o f th e v a l i di ty of th in kin g

r r r, r

Goo dn w and
,

a n d judg in g a m on g them th o se th t B u n e , a r r, o ,

Austin e fe to a ( 1 ) ec u se to n ul tim te c i te i n ( 2 )
r r s r o r a a r r o

th test of c on s i ste n cy
e n d ( 3 ) a ff ect i ve c o n g ue n ce ,
a r .

Th u ltima te cri te io n f o determinin g the ed i b ili ty of a

e r r

m ush o m i s whe the r it w ill e i the m ake

r o p s on ill kill r a er or

h im Th e tes t of cons i ten cy i s too O bvi us t n eed expl an a

. s o o

tion Th test by affectiv e congruence is a speci l c a se o f

. e a

the test by con si sten cy I t i a test b a sed o n subjective . s

ce ta in ty o even n ecess ity C on clus ion s b sed on it e

r r .
”
a ar

difficult to di sp ove an d they g in thei ce t ain ty con ider r ,

a r r s

44 fq Dg
Th e ef ect of i n cre as in
. Fox , th e a v ail a ble ti m e f or p robl em g w
g
so lv i n

D Lg C
ro u p s
o n th e rela ti v e

Ph D
u a li ty o f de ci s i o ns

i s s ert a ti on ,
, .
ri tte n b y i n di v i du a ls a n d by

o lumb i a U n iv ers i ty , 19 5 5
.
p 30 Th e la st
g j L g
, . .

C
p o in t w as m a de by o r e i n a S emi n ar ta u h t o intl y b y o r e th e p re s en t ,

(
J Y k J WJ J
N
45

e w o r
w
w ri ter an d o th ers , a t

: o
,

S B run et ,
h n
. .

i l e
o lum b i a in 1 9 5 5

y
Go o dn o , an d G A Aus ti n A s tu dy of thinkin
8: S on s , I n c
.

pp
.

1 7—21
.

. .

.
,

.
g
50 8 OU P DYN AMI CS IN PE RSPECTIVE GR

a bly f o m th i s f ct
r Reli gious conviction s a e goo d ex am ples
a . r .

Thus pe s o n m y be co n vin ced o f the exi sten ce Of Go d by

a r a

the o de of the co sm o s o by the g ea t be a uty of a m o un t in

r r ,
r r a

o of the e a

We sh ould like to um up o u View egardin g m uch th a t

r s .

s r r

h as bee n s a i d c on ce n in g the supe io i ty of the g o up to the r r r r

in di i d al by s y in g th t too m an y stud i es suff e f o m o ve

v u a a r r r

gen e liza ti n I t d o es n ot det a ct f om the effectiven ess of

ra o . r r

p oble m s olvin g by g ups to g ee wi th the well b l an ced

r -
ro a r -
a

con clusion of B ennett th t g up d iscuss ion n d public a ro a

c omm itm e n t n o t n ecess y c omp on en ts of success ful

are ar
‘
g oup deci s ion ope tion s
r
” ’
ra
6

EX CE SSI VE VE NER A TI O N O G O UP D YNA M CS G oup dy

.

F R I . r

n am i cs we h ve sh o wn i n t n w but s om e Of i ts bel i eve s

,
a ,
s o e ,
r

a n d p a ct i t io n e s seem to f
r get the f ct Wh ile deplo ble
r or a . ra ,

th i s f a ct i s un de st n d ble Wh t i n o t cceptable a e th
r a a . a s a r e

un suppo ted gen e li z tion s wh ich s om e of them m ke and

r ra a a

th e u n wa a n ted f i th wh i ch they h ve in s o m e of the p

rr a a a

plied a spects Of the subject Th e thin gs whi ch they pe fo m . r r

ar e n o t n ecess a ily sc i e n t ific f o they do n o t p ay suffic ient

r ,
r

a tten t i o n to the n eed f o sc i e n t ific i g o Th e wo ds they r r r . r u se

are desc ipt ive the th n f m l ly defined c n cepts Th

r ra r a or a o . e

con cepts they use a p cti ca l a the th n fun d am en t al I n re ra r r a

in o l o gy G un de s o n O bse ves hum o o usly

“
.

s amplin g thei te m“ r r
“ r r r

“
th a t such te m s as g a tekeepe blo cke pl y ”
r nd b oy r, r, a a ,

which a e ch sen in di sc imin tely f o m the sp o tin g a en

r o r a r r r a,

the the a te n d the f te n ity l un ge do n ot convey p eci se

r, a ra r o r

m e a n in g eve n whe n in te m in gl ed wi th the vo c a bul a y Of r r

top olo gica l and vecto psycholo gy r .

”47

Role playin g wh ich i a n imp o tant an d in s ightf ul spect

-
,
s r a

o f c o n te m p y s o ci l psych olo gy n d g oup the py i

o ra r a a r ra s

s om etim es c ied to ludic ous len gths S om e of the p c

,

a rr r . ra

ti ces in th is conn ection a n ot m e ely useless ; in ce they re r S a re

comm un ic ted in the n m e of scie nce they

a ls o f au d a are a r u~

in debted t o G u n de s n f
,

len t We c ll in g o tten
“ DD g
. a re r o or a ur a

tion to a n ot a typ ic l ex m ple publ ished in the E du ca tor s a a

’

i s cus si on , deci s i on , co mm itm ent , p 27 2

g
4 B en n ett, . .

47 Gu nderson , an ers in ro u p dy n am ics , p 344 . .

5 10 GR OU P DYN AMI C S IN PERSPECTIVE

t d
bAt ddw
f d
las th e an
g e o n th e ga v e , a n d so me t w o l
d p
h un d dMre rown
g
t
w t by b
m en urne a nd a ce e ach oth er f o r th e i s cus s ion eri o d . inu es

t
t
Af
en

t
pw
er t ld
Th ere w a s n o u z z
.

th e m e e in g h e o
Th e ch a irma n w a s n ot ch a s en e d
m e th a th e rou e w a s sim
ll
Fo ur a sn u p to th e i gni ion ev e
th a th e
Ne time
.

w t
t t bl t
ply
l l xt
t
"
’

ere to o s m a
g
y w ld w
ro u s . .

th e ou do it i th s ix to e i gh m en s 9 t
The e i a g e a t de a l of p a ctica l value to be gain ed from
r s r r

p a ticip tion in such wo kshops B ut f o som e of it en

r a r . r s

th u i t t cl im th a t wh a t they a e d o in g i a ls o
s as s o a scientific r s a

invest i g a ti o n of hum a n rel ti o n s i to pe ve t the m e n in g of a s r r a

scien ce We h ve l e a dy sho wn the v lue of g o up dyn m ics

. a a r a r -
a

p in c iples f o the elim in ti n o eduction of ethn i c an d

r r a o r r

a c i a l te n s i n s ; but we ch llen ge the cl im th a t th i s i an s

r o
y a a

m o e s cie ntifi th n bu ild in g Skysc a pe s a nd b idges R o le

r c a r r r .

pl yin g m ay se ve as an a id in cert ain types Of hu m n ela

a r a r

ti n h ip s but i t an h ardly be desc ibed as sc i e n ti fic

o s , c Sci r .

en ce and techn lo gy wh il e ela ted ar sc cely i den tic al o ,

r e ar .

Th p a ct it io n e s do n ot t a ke the tim e to pe rm i t the m selves

e r r

to r e alize th a t the ela tion between sci en ce a s a set of test r

a ble hyp o theses nd the wo k whi ch they are pe fo m in g is a r r r

g e tly o ve s implified
r a r .

Th e excess ive ve n e a tio n Of g o up p art ic ip t io n fi n a lly r r a , ,

h as led to the vi ew in s om qu a te s th t unless m n i p e e r r a a s r

t
e ua ll i n te ct i n g w i th h i s f ello ws he c an n o t be h ppy nd
p y ra a a

n o m alr Th .elen tless st ess on g up h m on y h t ken

e r r ro ar as a

on the ch a a cte of a m in o c us a de r Thus g o up belo n g in g

r r r . r -

n ess wh ich i
, o ld as m n k i n d i s as i sed to the st a tus of an a ,
s ra

a ll em b a c in g p in c iple A pe s on sh o uld n d m ust belon g

-
r r . r a

we a epe a tedly told—a if n o m lly he would n ot wish

re r s r a

to do so Thi s c om es pe ilo usly clo se to dem a n d in g t h a t a n r

i n d ivi du a l s crifice hims e lf f o the quest i on ble p i vilege o f

.

a r a r

a lways belon gin g I t com es clo se to s yin g th t un less he . a a

a lw a ys p ticip tes in a g oup he can do little c on st uctive

ar a r r

th inkin g A scie ntific th inke howeve would in vesti ga te r, r,

O
.

the v lue p em ises of p tic ip a tion “

a r a n d a g ee m e n t
“ ve ar r . r

ze a l us dvo c tes by c on t st are ce t in of th i ght

o a a ,
ra ,
r a
”
e r

49 W
Sch u s ter, I n c
. H .

.
,
W h y te , Th e
Ir .

p p 55 5 6
.
,

— .
g
or a ni z at ion ma n ( New Yk or : S im o n 8x
CRITIQUE OF G ROU P DYN AMICS
“
‘
I

n e ss of the p e m i ses f o these p em ises a e demo crati c

r ,
r r r .

A sci en tific th inke would als o in qu e in to the n eed f o p ar r ir r

ti cip a tio n o to sce tain its goa l Particip a tion would be

r a r .

seen as a m e n s t wa d s om eth in g else ; but to the devo tee i t

a o r

seem s to be its ow n excuse f be in g or

“
.

We m ust a g ee wi th Whyte a n d m an y o the rs th a t it i s

r ,

the p i ce of p o gress th t the e n eve can be co mplete con

r r a r r

sen sus All c e a tive a dv n ces e essen tially a dep artu e

. r a ar r

f om g eed upon w ys Of lookin g a t thin gs and t o o ve

r a r -
a ,
r

em ph a size the greed upon is to fu the legitimi ze the a - r r

ho stility to th a t c e ativity up on whi ch we a ll ultim a tely r

depen d .
”5 0

Th e ex t em e ve n e a t i n o f g o up dyn a m i cs tech n i ques

r r o r -

a n d the d o gm a t i s m to whi ch i t te n ds to le a d i s n o t inf re

quen tly a subtle con t ol f othe p a din g behin d the ban r o rs ra

n er Of the d em c a t i c p o cess The a dvo c a te of le a de less

o r r . r

g o ups in p a cti ce often ea lly decides an d di ects B y

r r r r .

m e n s of hi g oup skills an d fa cile u e Of the j gon of h i

a s r s ar s

p rofess ion the p a cti ca l wo ke un wittin gly in tim i d ates o the

,
r r r r

o up m em be s B ec a use fur the m e f the h i gh v a lue

gr r .
,
r or ,
o

pla ced on con sen sus an d bec a use of the dem an d to be ,

hype sen sitive to the gro up s pu po se m n y as cen d an t an d

r r ,
a

“
im a g in a t ive pe s o n s thro ttle t he i i n i t ia tive ou t Of f e
bein g l beled a utho i ta ian or un dem o cra tic
a
r

r
of

r
”
r

.
ar

THE TYRA NNY O THE G O UP A ND THE TW IL I GHT O F THE

I NDI VI DUAL N e ithe g o up dyn a m i cs n o a n y o the sc i e n ce
F R

. r r r r

develops in s o cial va cuum We n ow h a ve m uch d o cu

a .

m en t d evi den ce to p o ve th t sci e n ce i c on d iti on ed by the

e r a s

tim es in whi ch i t o i gin a tes a nd flou ishes Pe h ps n o o ther r . r a r

di sciplin e eflects the s o ci al i de olo gy of u r t im e in a m o e

r o r

p ono un ced w ay th an g oup dyn ami cs ; an d n o o the su ely

r r r, r ,

m o e s t on gly supp o ts it Th psych olo gy of hum an b

r r r . e e

h avio h s been supp o tin g th do ct in e of so cial djustm en t

r a r e r a

fo r lmo st h lf cen tu y but it h as em in ed f o g o up

a a a r ,
r a r r

dyn m i cs to i se it to it p esen t glo y Th la tte p

a ra s r r . e r5
’

re

o ccup a t i on wi th g o up be lon g in n ess an d o up h m on y

g g r r ar ,

50 I bid .
, p . 58 .
5 12 OU P DYN AMI C S IN PE RS PECTIV E GR

i t in s i ste n ce on th
s supe io ity Of the gro up ove the“ e i n di r r r

v i du a l an d i t e ff o t t o t n hum an el a tio n s th o ugh s o ci al

,
s r ur r ,
r

e n g in ee i n g in t o on h ppy b o the h oo d c on tem p o y

”
r ,
e a r r a re rar

t“
r en ds They desc ibe in essen ce wh a t Whyte h s c lled the
. r a a

o r g z t
n i a io n m n
a the m n w o h c o m pletely
a bel
,
”
o n gs — the a

w e ll a djusted g eg a io us
-
n d g o up ce n te ed m n im p ris
,
r r ,
a r -
r a

o ned i n broth ho o d The e i a ls o a st o n g te n de n cy to

er .
51
r s r

d y espec i a lly a m n g s om e g o up dyn m i c i sts to equ te

a ,
o r a ,
a

p e s
r o n a l in depe n de n ce w i th in d ivi du l ec lc i t an ce nd a r a r a

a n t a go n i s m I t is O bvi o us th a t s om e of them c o nf use g o up

. r

c en te edn ess with in divi du l c ap itul tion

r a a .

We h ave e fe ed to the p e ccup tion wi th g o up

r rr r o a r

m in dedn ess s a c n tem p o a y t e n d Th e n eed t o be liked

a o r r r .
,

a n d the wh o le ph il o s o phy o f g up in teg a tion i p a t o f our ro r ,

s r

co n te m p y he ita ge I t i foun d in the n ervo us c on ce n

o ra r r . s r

wi th ccept n ce by the pee g up the e fe en ce g oup n d

a a r ro ,
r r r ,
a

a h n o t eve y o the
s g up t wh ich we belon g o sp i e to
r r ro o r a r

b elon g G ou p in teg ti on wh i ch i
. r n o m l s o c i l p o cess
ra ,
s a r a a r ,

h s bee n in fl ted to the p o in t whe e i t h as bec m e n ll

a a r o a a

en com p a ssin g e th i c Th is i su e w ay Of n de m in in g the . s a r u r

w o th of the in d iv i du l
r n a lm st ce t a i n m e an s Of i n a ,
a o r

t im i d tin g h im n d c a us in g h im t o l o se c n fide n ce in h im self

a a o .

I f h i i de s s c on st n tly t the m e cy o f g oup ev lu ti on

a a re a a r r a a

h w ill g du lly le n to bec m e Sile n t N o th in g i s m o e

,

e ra a ar o . r

d n ge ous t o the f gili ty f c e tive i de s th n to h ave them

a r ra o r a a a

r eleg ted in t o ute d kn ess by n in t le n t g o p

a o r ar a o ra r u .

I t i a c om m o n pl ce th t Am e i c n s c i ety h
s been ch
a a r a o as ar

a cte i e d by hete o ge n e i ty
r z nd h e n u ged i eve en ce
r a as co ra rr r

tow d e n t en ched uth o ity Th p em ium wh i h s om e

ar r a r . e r c

g oup dyn m ic ists pl ce on confo m ity t g oup st n d ds

r a a r o r a ar

ca n help t dest y the in divi du al sp n t n e ity wh ich h s

o ro o a a

d esc ibed Am e i c n de m o c a cy f om its ve y in cept io n Th e

r r a r r r .

c onf o m ity of wh ich we pe k is Of co u se n o t deli be tely

r S a ,
r , ra

i m p o sed ; i t i e ffected by subtle p essu es f om pee gro ups

s r r r r

a n d e f e e n ce g o ups wh i ch i de n t i fy dev i a ti o n wi th w on g
r r r r

d o in g Th a nx i e ty n d se n se of gu ilt thus ge n e a ted h a ve

. e a r

S ee
51 Th e a rr estin
i bid , p 12 . . .
g p h rase , it alici z ed by th e p re s en t w ri te r, is W hy te
’
s .
5 14 U DYN AMIC S IN PE RSPECTIVE G RO P

la t dn ess an d a p a tn ess n eed n o t be an t i theti c l To gethe

e r a . r

they con stitute p iceless a t B ut in an a ge when s o ci l a r r . a

p articip a tio n i ised to the level o f an e th ic l p in ciple

s ra a r ,

i n d ivi du li s m a n be e n j oyed on ly by pe s on s of excepti on a l

a c r

in depe n de n ce n d m o l c o u a ge We c o m m e n ted a t le n gth

a ra r .

o n th i u l it S i n C h pte 1 0 c a llin g p a t i cul

a a tte n t io n t o a r r ar
q y
'

tho se c e tive pe ple w h o a dded to the wo ld s he it ge in

r a o r
’

r a

s oli tude .
54

Th g o up in teg t ion i de o lo gy i ls o eflected i n sc i en ce

e r -
ra s a r ,

wi th espect to bo th its ide a s an d its success in ec u itin g

r r r

p spective w ke s B eca use of the cultu al em ph s is On

ro or r . r a

g o up lif e coope tion n d te amwo k s oc ial scien tists tend

r ,
ra ,
a r ,

t see g o up phen o m e n a in expected w ys

o r Th i s i s a c a se o n a .

a c o llect i ve level f h a vin g on e s pe cept io n s dete rm in ed by

’
o r

the expect an cies Of the g o up We see the g oup supe“ io r . r as r r

t o th e in d i vi du a l f o ex am ple bec a use o m in ds a set ”

,
r ,
ur re

t o o pe ce ive i t
s r .

I n a ece n t a t i cle o n the e ff ect Of g o up i s m n the ex

ce ti o n a l in d i vi du l M i ch el m kes a t e n ch n t O bse v a t i o n
r r r o

a a a r a
p r

D
,

“
wh i ch we sh a ll qu o te in full
in n e d i ected studen ts he wri tes th t
r- r
epl o i n g the dec e se in
”
.

a
r r a

it is b e co m in g m orem ore i cu t i n th ese a s Of grou and d ffi l dy p

d ”
y
ju stm en t f or a ou n gs er to b e idi o s n cra tic in th e e e s o f h i s e ers t y y p
t ll Of
a ,

t
hi s pa re nt s a n d each ers a n d s i m ai n a in th e s en s e t
tw lp p d t
, i n n er se curit y
,

“t
a n d in n er dr iv e th a il erm it h im t o o a b ou h i s in de e n en w a y t
”
g
l ”
m ea b a l in h i gh sch o o a n d a n e gg h e a d i n a du socie tv l lt
d lf l ly
as a -
,

ev o i n t
g him se s in g e mi n de d to sci ence
55
.

M ch el g es
i eflect lon g lin es of gum e n t s im il
a o on to r a ar ar

to o own I t i s e n t i ely p o ss ible he co n tin ues th t the

ur . r , ,
a

c ontem p o y o the di ected view of lif e i in com p a tible

ra r r- r s

wi th genuin e sci en tific c e a tivity We d n ot know of r . o ,

So m e m on th s a g o , to a rd th e e n d of a p ro r am , th e
54 ww f g g w w k g
ri ter h a p p e n e d

to t urn o n hi s t el ev i s ion
s a m e to p i c
hi ch w a s e a tu ri n a
A t th e ri s o f b e in ch ar e d i th us in k g gq w g g fi g
o m a n s p e a in

i t to i m p ly
o n th e

ui lt by

“
.

a s s oci a tio n

k
w h ich is utterly fals e, w e
,

g
u ote o n e o f h er si n i can t s ta te

m e n ts : On ly th e comm u n i s ts an d o urs elv es a re b a ni s h in th e in di v i du a l

D N
”

M g w
into o u ter da r n es s .

k w k w
ich a el , Scie n ti s ts th ro u h a dol es cen t ey es : h a t w e n ee d to
55 . .

no ,
w h y w e n e e d to n o i t, Sci M onth ly , 8 4 1 37 . .
C RITIQUE OF G ROU P DYN AMICS 15

cou se A few studies h owever sho w th a t the s in gle

r .
, ,

m in dedn ess whi ch i s a sc ibed to the c e a tive sci en t i st a nd a r r

so c i a l e n vi onm en t sym p a theti c t o i t h ve been esse n t i a l to

r a

scie ntific p o ductiven ess I f th is should p ove to be gen e

r . r r

a lly O the n the m e a n s of m in t a in in g in n e

S ,
di ectedn ess in a r- r

a n O ute d i ected s o c i ety will

r- r equi e a ll the kn owledge an d r r

skill tha t we can b in g to be ar up on the t sk G o up dy r a . r

n am i ci ts m ust p on de
s thi s deeply an d un elen tin gly r r .

Th e fo ego in g c on s i de ra t ion s n a tu a lly b in g us b ck t o

r r r a

the p oblem of g oup c e tivity We must a g ee with Whyte

r r r a . r ,

r
“
in des c i bin g m an y cu re n t e ff o ts t o see the gro up a s a
c e a tive vehicle a“the m o st m i sgu“
r i ded a ttempt a t f a lse
s
r r

”
co llectiviza tion Pe ple he s ays . ely thin k in groups ;o , ,
ra r

they talk to ge the they exch an ge inf o m ation they dju di r, r ,

a

ca te they m ake comp om ises B ut they do n ot think ; they

,
”56
r .

do n o t c e te r a .

A dvo c ates of g oup th inkin g kn ow thi s i s o but

con s ide it lim it a tion to be o ve com e I t i
r a
r
“ bug o f
they
r .
s

s
,

hum n el tion s to be cu ed B ut why the in s isten ce on it !

a r a r .

Why im pel people to th in k an d c e a te in g o ups ! Why if r r ,

the g ss i g een sh o uld an yon e wi sh to m ake it pu ple !

ra s r r

Pe h aps the g o up a dvo c a te

r
“
wan ts to do the j b b ec a use it i the e !
l ike the m o un t a in clim be
r

o
,

s r
”
r,

TO epe t Th c i t i c i s m Of g o up o i en te d lif e i n o t
r a : e r r -
r s

di ected tow d its g o pn e s as such but t ow d the ty

r ar r u s ,
ar r

army wh i ch i t can e a s i ly i n fli ct up on ge n u i n e i n d i vi du a l i s m

M o eove the con ce n of s om e g oup dynam ics dvoc tes i

.

r r, r r -
a a s

n ot w i th the hum n c omm u n i ty a we h a ve desc ibed it in

a s r

“
,

C ha pte 10; it i n ot n e i ghb o esp on si ve I t i f equen tly

r s r-r .
”
s r

spu ious f o it esu lts in the a bdic tion of pe s n l f eedom

r ,
r r a r o a r

an d a p o ess i ve d w i n dl in g o f the self as n a u the n t i c

g r r en a c

t er of dec i s ion a n d a ct i on Th i n d ivi du l pe s n i in . e a r o s

dan ge of O blen din g in t the g o up th t his th ou ght nd

r S o r a a

a cti on beco me bu t a efle cti on or e cho o t h e — l l th s

f g o u
p a r i r

go in g on pe h ps in the n m e of comm un ity

, r a ,
a
‘
.
’ ”5 7

56
57
WW K k
hy te The
. H .
, org a ni z a ti o n
i r la n d, Fell o w ma n p 5 1
s hi p a n d/
or
, . .

f re e dom Th e Chris tia n C entury ,

,

74 49 0— 9 2 Our it a lics. .
5 16 OU P DYN AMIC S IN PE RS PECTIVE GR

Th d n ge of n in d i sc im in te lu in g of pe s n s t o ward
e a r a r a r r o

c on se n sus n d c o n fo m i ty li es p
a tly in its in s idi o usn ess
r ar .

H a vin g yi elded to the g o up s in iti l p essu e the e i s a r

’

a r r ,
r

d im in i shin g e a s on f o not yi eld in g still m o e un til at l t

r r r ,
as ,

the e em in s n eithe the will n o the l gi c n o t t su en der

r r a r r o o rr

c om pletely Th n eed f belon gin g and pp o v l while

. e or a r a ,

no m l r n d des i
a ble in its pl ce n be o m n ipul ted by
a ra a ,
ca s a a

g up p essu es t oblite a te in divid al ity n d effective

ro r r as o r u a

pe s n l f eedom This i the m o e t ue when es ist n ce t o

r o a r . s r r r a

c on f m i ty i eg ded a m l djust ive n d ev il We sub mi t

or s r ar s a a a .

th t it i
a d ifficult f o the o ve ze l us g o up dyn mi cist to
s as r r a o r a

b e c om e w e Of the p o te n t i a l h m t o the in d ivi du l o f

a ar ar a

p e petu
r l g o p im p ct
a i t i f o the n n p ti c ip n t t o e l
r u a as s r o ar a r a

iz e th t h i dist tion of the m otives of the s i p o duct

a s or o r s a r

O f h i i s l ted ex i ste n ce
s o a Pe s on l a n d s o cia l in dequ cy is . r a a a

t h c o n seque n ce o f e a ch
e .

C ON C LUSION
We h ve n ow eviewed f o the e de th subject m tte
a r r r a r e a r,

t h e m e th o do l gy the v l e p e f e en es o ,
n d s m e o f th a u r r c ,
a o e

li m i t a t io n s n d def ects o f g o up dyn m i s C on s i de ed

a a r a c . r as

w h le a n d desp i te the st i ct es pl a ced

o ,
g in st it in th is r ur a a

ch pte it i field f in vesti g tion wo thy Of the tten ti n

a r, s a o a r a o

o f the best psych o lo g i sts n d s c i o l g i sts An y n e w h i a o o . o o s

n ot e a s i ly d i sc u ged by o c temptuo us Of m y f i t
o ra r on an o s

f uzzy i de s wi ll fin d g up dyn m i cs
a ch lle gin g field Ofro a a a n

study an d investi g ti n Pe h ps he e in the

a e s Of
o . r a r ,
as o r ar a

l ife n d th o ught n test o f the t uly de m o c ti c in divi du al

a ,
o e r ra

i his tole n ce of mb i gui ty C e t inly if du in g the

s ra a . r a ,
r

f m t ive st a ges th o ugh wh i ch it i s st ill g oin g he

or a r n t o le ca r

a et i t s m et im es ex spe t in g i np
s o i i n he will fin d it
a ra r re c s o s,

s tim ul tin g We a pe kin g l gely f g up dyn m ics as

. a re S a ar o ro a

a sci en tific d isciplin e wi th hyp o theses t p se n d to test by o o a

m e n s Of syste m a ti c and c n t olled expe im e n ts We a e

a o r r . r

n t efe
o r in g to s om e of the we i d pp li c t i o n s t o wh i ch we
rr r a a

h ve e fe ed in th i s ch a pte n o eve n to g o p dyn m i cs

a r rr r, r r u a

as a n ppli ed sc ie n ce Thi s b ook do es n o t suggest g oup

a . a r

d yn am i cs p ct i cum An y on e w h o i in te ested in the l tte

ra . s r a r
5 18 OU P DYN AMIC S IN PE RSPECTIVE GR

b h hi ht wi ti lly l it lik lyd tmblti fd t dmi i thti Tt gw y tfl twhithy

e a v or, o ev er, are n o e o e ou n n s ca e or ,
or e

li ti l l d t th m tim t f p t th xp t
a re c a ra c er s ca e us v e an u -
e er na e . o res e

th t
f f ll w yg p
ese a a re a s c ev e an a e sa e e o a ce u o e e ec a

i ti i m i ti t t k m
lf i t g ti th m y bl m mm d It i f
ti on s d an cr c s s o t im e o sc e n s s a e ore e, e n er ,
a

h d m d by d i g
d
m i f
ti en c e , an se -
n e ra on an an a e en co an . s ar

th
’

i f i i g i
t xt A l t it i p h p p ib l t y—with
e a s er t o re a n ree o su c e an s o n on e s e or z n n a

ly m d t x gg ti —th t th t dy f h m b h i i
i t ifi
n o n - s c en c co n e . S a resu ,
s er a s os s e o sa

h w b im d l di t i b ti with di ipli d p l ti
on o era e e a era on a e s u o u an e a v or n
Am i
m d t ility t th th Vi w d i th
e r ca s o s a o a s r u on un sc ne s ecu a on

d ig
p p ti f thi di i hyp th h ld d m th
a t on e o e an r orou s s er a e o er e e n e

f I f w w i h t g ppl wi th
e rs ec ve o s s cu s s on , o eses s ou o o re an serv e

t ti ti i
th m l
a s ca nn o n

e
dd

dy
w ll
o ar as
f o th
th m l e l
er

p b l
or

asm f h m
t t with g g p i g whi h ly g d lly
e s a

e b h i
s

w
o e cu ar
c an

ro e s o
e

u
s o

an
ra

e
e

a v o r, e

bf ghi ypt thpp h th l ity d p ifi ity w h m t q i

m t b

o
us

e n
e

o a

o
trea

e s es
ro a c

.
59
o s ar

e c ar an
va ue

s ec
ro

c
n s

e
c

a v e co
on

e o re
ra ua

u re

Sh
uld the cyn ic desc i be th fo egoin g expl n tion as
o r e r a a

the a tion li z a tio n f a sho tc om in g we espectfully ask him

r a o r ,
r

t o t y t o do the ob h im self f he succeeds g up

r
j I o .
,
r

i ci t wi ll o w e h im a s i gn a l debt
s s .

59

k
Bronf en bren n er, To ar d
U .

V w
i nte ra ted th eo ry of p erso n ality , in g
R R B la e a n d G
. .

Yk
f enbre nn er a n d E
Ra m s ey , Percep tio n : a n a p p roach t o p ersona lity
( N ew or : Th e Ro na ld Pre s s C o ,
CD
. .

pp 2 08 —
x
9 , u o te d i n U B ron
ev e re u , I n te rdi s ci p linary p l ann in
. .
.

f or team res earch

. qg .

o n co n s tructi v e co mm u ni ty b e h av i or, Hu m R e la t 5 p 1 92 . . .
 Na me Index

A dam s , K 22 D
Adom o , T W , 6 1 , 1 47 , 1 48 , 1 8 1 ,
.

.
.
,

.
B io n
kk W
,

Bl ac D 3 5 1
F 483
,
.

.
,

1 83
Alberty H 249
A lle e , WC
34
,

.
.
,
kk
B l a e B , 1 46
B la e R 1 41 ,

B la e R R 5 1 8
,
.

.
,

.
.
, ,

All p ort F H 1 6 , 1 9 , 20 , 2 1 , 30 , 34 ,
, . B la u P M , 362
, . .

40 200 505 , ,
Blo n del C , 9 , .

All p ort G W , 60 1 40 , 1 43
, . .
,
B lum , F H 2 83 , 2 88 , 28 9 29 8 , 3 00
. .
, ,

An derso n H H , 254 , . . B o de B 23 6 , .
,

B onn e r H , 9 , 1 0 1 1 3 7 41 59 , 69 ,
Aren s b er
As ch , M
g C
An sb ach er H L , 5 3 , 1 94
M , 29 86 ,
,

.
. .

.
,
,

1 57 , 1 64 1 65 1 84, 21 0 , 28 1 ,
299 3 75 3 7 7
.

,
,

,
, , ,

J , 25 6 , 2 62 . .
, ,

A sch S E 228 430 , 487

, . .
, ,
B o rg a tt a , E F 13 1 .

A us tin , G A , 5 0 7 . . B o v a rd E W , Jr 8 3 , 1 25 1 96
, . . .
, ,

L
B o y n to n P L 1 4 1 , . .
,

k
B a ch , G R 477 .

B a c K 67 , 79 80 8 6 3 43 , 4 1 1
, .
, , , ,
B ra df o rd,

w
B re h m
P 29 4
4 12 414,
. .

,
,

k C
B a le s R F , 40 , 1 3 1 , 2 12
,

B a r er R 2 3 ,
.

.
,
. B re er J 2 54 ,

B ron f en bren n er, U , 503 ,

.
,

W
B arn a rd I , 26 3 27 2, 278 , 48 3
, . .
,

k5 17 5 18
B ru c H W 355 3 5 7
,

B a rton
,

B a v e la s A 2 94
A Ir 200
,

B as s B M 5 3 1 9 5 , 5 00
.

,
.

.
, ,
.
,

B ru n er
B ry T , 45 2
,
,

S 507
.
, J .

. .
,
.
, ,

B el l G B 406
,

B enn e ,
.

K
D , 242, 246 249 374, .
.
,

.
, ,
g
B iih l e r C 38 5
B ur es s E W 302
W
,

,
.
,

. .
,

388 3 8 9 390 392 3 93 , 5 13

B enn e tt E B , 5 02 5 08
B en ni s W
,

G , 426 5 0 3
,

.
,

.
,

,
,
B urnh a m
B urro , T 445w C
B u se n i u s ,
H , 1 4, 1 7

E , 1 22
,

.
,

.
.

.
.

, . .
,

B e n th am J 345
B en tley A F 1 3 334 336, 342
,
,

.
.
,

, ,
CCa m ero n N 45 6 , .
,

kwz
B e rels on B 3 49
B er o i t L 192 , 193 , 288
,

,
.
,

.
,
CC z
a n to r N

a n tril H
261
50 3 9 4
,

,
.

.
,

, ,

B e rn a rd, J , 3 02
B ert a la n ff y , L , 1 99
.

. C ardo o B N

arte r L
341
1 7 6 1 9 5 216 49 9
,
,

.
,
. .

,
,

, ,
5 20 N AME INDEX
CC w g D
art ht
ri , 56 ,
82 , 1 1 7 , 362 , . Fa us t, W
L , 2 14 . .

CC M
a ss irer, E 45 .
,
Fech n er G T , 20 , . .

a tl in G E G
, 348 36 1 . . .
, , Fe l ds tein , J 53 . .
,

a tt ell R B , 74 , 1 6 8 1 7 2 , 1 7 3
, . .
, , Fes tin g er, L , 6 7 , 7 9 , 8 0 8 6, .
,

CC
h ap p l e E D
1 7 5 1 9 1 484 487
29
,

, .
,

Fi ch t er JN
3 4 1 , 4 1 1 , 4 1 2 4 1 4 448
H , 1 50 1 5 1
, . .
,

,
,

CC J
h a s e S , 1 0 0 1 06
,

h e in I , 1 7 9
, .
.
, Fl a n ders
Fle e g e U H 249,
A 2 55

M
,

.
. .

CC M C
h ri st
h ris tn er
( )
es u s 169 1 90
A 1 72 , .
,

.
,
, Fo ll ett
Ford, H , 1 69
P 340
,

.
. .
,

CC k K
i cero ,
i tr on , A F
T 13 4
1 60 .
.

.
.

,
, Forla n o , G 1 1 1
Fo uri ez os
Fox D 5 0 6 , 5 07
T 219 ,
N
.
,

. .
,

CC k M
la r
l ar
,

,
B , 1 40
P 1 40
.

.
.
,

Fra n , kk J .
,

D 455 4 56 477. .
, , ,

CC M
lea ry , F 2 46 .
, Fra n
kfP , 49 3
, .

o ch L ,
24 1 1 4, 1 1 5

CC k L
o lli n s ,

om te , A , 6
.
,

E , 1 57 , 1 5 8
.
.
,

.
Fra n u rter F 3 4 1
Fren ch , J
R P Jr 5 2 4 88 ,
1 1 5 1 20 3 2 7 , 40 9 49 9
,
.
,

,
.
,

.
, .
, ,

,
,

C C
oo ,

o ol ey ,
A , 1 60 .

H , 12 13 1 7 .
.

.
, , , 26
Fren ch R L , Jr 406 ,

Frenke l-Brun sw ik E 6 1 1 43
. . .
,

,
.
, , ,

o l ey
CC w W
40 6
orsi n i R H 47 7 ,

H , 171
.

.
.
,

.
1 47 1 4 8 1 8 1 1 8 3 43 9

Fromm E 1 8 1
,

Freu d, S 1 4 4 1 8 , 4 1 9 445 .
,

.
,
, ,

,
,

, , ,

C
Cru tch fie l d R S 1 2 13
u sh m a n , F 29 2
,
. .
, ,

Galton F , 1 65 , .

D a shi ell ,

Dav i s , A , 2 46
J
F , 1 7 , 40 , 200 . .
G arce a u O 3 42
G ardn er B B 9 3 2 69
,

,
.

.
,

.
, ,

Da vi tz 5 06
,

De M a n , H , 2 8 1
J . G ardn er, G 1 7 1
Ga u de t H 349
Ge rth H H 7 0
,
.
.

,
,

m
de M ont oll in G , 1 22 , 227
.

C
,
. .
,

Jg
, . Gibb , A 1 7 0 1 8 8 3 24. .
, , ,

de Roca A S , 3 09
De Toc u ev ill e, A , 68q
, . . Gi bb ,R 2 16 . .
,

Denni s , W 1 4 1
K .
,
.

ff
Gi s t N
Gi ddin s F H 6 1
P 70
, .

D
. .
, ,

Deu ts ch , W 29 82 . .
, , Go m a n , E 43 5 , 436 , 43 7 , 43 8
e u ts ch , M , 1 1 7 , 1 1 8, 1 19 , 1 5 7 , G oldh a m m er H , 3 4 1
M
.

D x
.
,

1 58 40 5 440 Go o dm a n
wJ
E , 1 4 0, 143
, ,
. .
,

ev ere u , E C , 50 3 , 5 04 5 0 5 , 5 1 7 , . .
,
Goo dn o , 507

DD wk W
.

5 18
C orden , R L , 432 . .

e y , J , 13 , 2 37 , 2 39 2 5 1

N
e
G ordon K 2 00
.
,

5 1 , 7 9 , 8 0 , 265
.
, ,
i c so n ,
Gordon , S , 1 57
.

D W
Do llard J , 468
. .

Gordon , T , 49 196 2 1 9 , 22 1 ,
.
,

on a l d, 29 2
.
, ,
.

223 2 7 8 , 280 , 3 2 5

DD kk
Du g u it L , 34 1 ,

Go ul dn er A W 5 2 , 1 77
.
,

u r h e im E , 8 , 9 34
L
. .
, ,
.
, ,

ur i n , H E , 4 63 . .
Gro ss 25 4
,

Gu etz kow H , 1 93 210 2 1 9 , , .

, ,

E a ston , D , 335 3 41 , 3 43, 35 3 , 3 68

g
E bb in h a u s H , 1 2 1 , 1 2 2
.

, .
,

Gun derso n R G , 49 2 , 508 , . .

E dis on , T , 1 69
Ei senh o er w D
D , 1 66, 348
.

, . .
Gurne e, H 225 226
Gy r, 2 1 0 , 485
.
, ,
5 22 N AME INDEX
M cC lu sky H 32 1 , .
Y 400, 40 1 , 402 , 405 , 40 6, 407 ,

M W
M a ccob y N 2 87 , .
,
448 , 4 8 7
cc u rdy H G 2 1 7 506
McDo u g all W 20 34 347
M a cI v er R M 339 3 53 3 55 367
,

.
.

.
.
,

,
.
,

,
,

, ,
NN x g
New ste tter
i o n R , 3 48 ,

o tti n h am E K
I , 53

1 46
.
,

,
.

.
.

.
,
,

M N
M acK innon
ai er,
D
M a cK enz i e B 1 5 7
W
R F
,

,
.
,

. 1 78 .
,

205 , 207 , 248, 2 80 , k K K

P al u e v , 1 25 . .

. . .
, P ar R E 3 02
,
.

M
M allet
g J ,
211 . B .
,
P ars on s T , 3 41 , 3 78 , 406
Pau l C , 2 8 1
,
,

.
.

M
ar en a u , H , 49 3

k
P a ul , E , 28 1
.

qw D
.

M
M
ars h all , A , 49 0

a r ui s ,
arro , A
G , 2 1 9 , 28 7
1 54, 1 5 5, 303 , 304,
.

.
.

.
Pe a H , 72
,

P e p in sky , P 1 72
Pe p ito n e , A 405 440 448
.

.
.

,
N , ,

M
305

M w
artel , M , 3 83 .
k
Pe p i ton e , E A , 3 62
P er in s H V , .
.

.
,
.

25 6

M
as lo A H , 61 , 420 , 5 1 3 P erlm u tt er H V
MW
, . .

, . .
, 1 2 2 227 ,

M
ay er, A , 1 5 , 1 1 1 , 200

g
P erry , 32 1
.

M
. .
,
a y o , E , 2 65
Pi a et, J 1 32 , 3 7 8
.

ay o , G D , 14 1

M
.
,

g k
Pi g o rs P , 1 63 , 1 7 4 367
. .

e a d G H , 1 3 , 2 6 , 1 3 3 , 3 74 , 3 7 6,
.
, ,

Pi o u A G 490
. .
,

M
406
. .
, ,

Pla n c M 4 93
e i er, A , 246
.
, ,

k N
.

P la to A , 3 03 , 345
M z
M eir ow i tz , B , 216 .
, .

elt er, H , 1 43
Pol an s y , 48 6
M
.

P o t a s h i n , R 80
M
ere i , F 41 6 .
,

P o u n d, B 3 41
M
erri am , G , 33 4, 366 .
.
,

M
erton , R K . .
,
3 98 , 3 9 9 P o w derm a ke r, F B 477 . .
,

D
M m Pre s ton , G , 7 5 , 7 6, 1 94
M
eu a nn , E .
, 1 5 1 1 1 , 200 ,
. .

M
M N
i ch a el ,
i el , A .
,
2 49
. N .
, 5 14
k
Ra d e , M , 1 43 , 249 .

M ll C W
iller , 468 . E .
,
R a m se y G V 5 1 8 , . .
,

M
i s, , 70. . R a tz enh of er G , 1 3 , .

M
M
i ll s T
, 2 12
. .
,
Re dl , F 45 2 , 45 3 , 45 4 483 , 4 84, ,

M d W
M D
i sh le r E G , 216
oe e , ,
,

1 5 , 1 6, 1 1 1
.

.
.

B eh a e ,
Rey m ert ,
g KM
486 48 7
J , 25 6
,

. .

M J
o ore , G , 269 . . L 82 . .
,

o ren o L , 1 3 1 8 , 26 , 2 7 , 2 8
, . .
,
Ri ch ard 2 7 8 280 , ,

J
Ri ch ar ds on H M , 1 68
M g
1 7 1 , 3 75 445 , 474 , , . .

M N
or an A E , 307 , 3 1 0, 3 1 1 , 324
. .
,
Ri efl e rt , B , 194 . .

M z
Ri es e n A H 104
J
ors e , C 287 . .
, , . .
,

un o , R , 3 09 . R o e th li sb erg er, F 5 1 , 7 9 , 8 0, 9 4, .

M
M
un ty an , B , 242 , 249 .

g 2 65 2 7 4 ,

M J
urch i s o n G , 1 7 , . Ro ers , G , 29 6 .

H 80
M
urp h y , G , 499 . R o hr e r , . .
,

y rda l , G , 364 , 3 65 . Ro os ev elt, F D 366 . .

,

Nw
Ne
eum a n , F L , 342
comb , T M
. .
R o s e , A M 1 52
Ros eb orou h
.

g M
E , 54, 55 2 1 2, 499
.
,

, . .
,

g
20 , 53 , 7 2, 7 7, 9 2, . .
, Ro s en , S , 48 6 .

1 40, 1 5 7, 3 78 , 38 1 , 398, 3 9 9 , Ru er, H A , 1 22 . .

N AME INDEX 5 23

g
Sa e n e r, G , 1 57 .

w
Sumner, G 58 W .

f
S a m u el M , 1 48
,

San ord, R N , 1 43 , 484

.

. .
S ans on , G E 20 , 25, 1 57, 398,
400, 402
.

Sa p i n , B 35 5 , 357 .
,

Sarh in , T R , 1 88 , 3 77 , 40 4
. . Tay l or, W , 2 14 D . .

L
Sch a ch ter, S , 67 , 7 9 , 80 , 8 6, 219 , . Tea d, O , 289 .

3 42 , 4 1 1 Te rm a n , M , 1 67 . .

Sch ei dli n g er, S 4 1 9

Sch ilder, P 446
W Thi b a ut, J
Th el en , H A , 1 10 2 12 , 308 .

5 7 , 4 1 1 , 4 1 2, 485
.
,

Sch u tz ,
Sco tt , J G , 426, 427 , 484
P , 34
. .
. . Th i e , T M , 1 08, 1 09
.

Th om a s , G W , 446
.

. .

Sell tiz , G , 1 60 , 31 9 , 49 1

k
Se rra , B M , 309 .
.

.
Th o m p son , L , 1 8 489
Th omp so n
Th ore au , H , 31 1
346 , V .
,

Sh an , R L 9 3

ww CM
.

Sh artl e , G L , 1 75 , 1 86 .
.
,

. k
Th orn di e , R L , 2 16 , 229 , 50 6
Th ras h er, F M , 50 5 1 , 69
.

. .

Sh a ,
Sh a ,
R , 50 , 1 36
.

E 20 1 , 202 203 , 204, 5 0 6

.
.

Sh e a t s , P , 374, 3 88 , 389 , 390 , 392,

.
.
, , Timm on s
Toby , 54
M , 227 ,
W .

.
.

.
,

ffi D39 3
Sh e el d, F
Sh ep ard H A , 426 50 3
160 .
To em a n , Z 1 8
TOnni es F 1 3 , 303
,
.

g
Sh erifC ,
,

W , 50, 62 , 9 8, 39 4, 3 98 ,
.
.

.
.
,

g N
Trach tenb er ,
Tra er, H 1 43 , 249
1 48
.
,

f407
Sh e ri , M , 38 , 50 , 62 7 9 , 80 9 7 , 9 8,
.

19 5 , 38 4, 39 4, 3 9 5 3 9 8 , 3 99 ,
, ,
Trip p le t,

U lr ich E P 35 1
1 4, 1 5

, , . .
,

40 6, 40 7 , 4 1 9 , 420 , 435 , 499 U s e em 505 ,

Sh evi tz , R N , 1 72
Sh il s , E , 34 1
Sh riv er B , 1 7 6
.
. .

VV g
au h an E H 55 ,
.

, .

Sim mel G 9 , 10 , 1 1 , 42, 7 0, 1 63 ,

,

1 77 2 10 2 1 1
eb len T

Vi n a cke ,
,

W
28 1
E 69
.
,

. .
,

Sla ter, P E , 406

,

Sim o n , H , 34 6, 35 1 483 .
,

, WW
a lle r,

L
W W . .
,
1 88

WW
ard,

W F 7
. .
. .
,

Sla v son , S R , 34, 449 , 450 452 , . .

, ard, . E .
,
1 10
459 , 464 , 465 , 466 , 467 47 0,
47 1 , 474, 477
Sm a ll , A W , 70 , 1 77
WW
a tso n , G 2 0 0, 224 45 0, 50 6
e b er, E H , 29 .
.

e b er M , 7 0 , 1 86 , 1 8 9 , 1 9 0 , 34 1
,

.
,

WW
. .
.
,

Sm ith , H G , 257 , 2 58, 260 , 262

Smi th b ur , D , 346
.

g .
e st B , 27 1
, .

WW N
h ite R K 22, 23 7 5 , 253 , 2 60
.
. .
, ,

Sn y der, R G , 355 , 3 57 h it eh ea d, T
W 1 75 2 6 8
. .
.
,

Sol em A R , 205 , 248

, . .
hy te , F 5 3 69 , 7 9 , 8 0 , 284,
.
,

So lom on , R L , 20 285 , 483 48 7

W
. .
,

So u th , E B , 200 . .
Wh y te , H , Ir , 247 , 5 00 , 5 1 0 ,
. . .

z
Sp encer, H , 6 , 7
Sp in o a , B , 3 1 1
Step h an, F F 21 6
.
.

WW 5 1 1 , 5 12 , 5 1 5
i lliams , R M , 1 5 2 , 1 53 . .

W M
.
il s on , E K , 3 1 3 3 1 4, 3 1 5. .
,

Sti ce G F , 1 6 8 4 84
, . .
, ils on , O , 19 5 38 4, 39 5 , 4 1 9 ,
. .
,

Stog di ll , R M , 1 7 5 1 86
S touif er S A , 54, 39 9
,

S trodtbe ck, F L , 40, 2 12

.

. .

.
.

.
,

W 420 43 5 499
i lson W , 36 6
Wi nni cott,
,
,

347
.

DW .
,
5 24 N AME INDEX
Wis p e L G,

With all J 255

. .
, Wun dt
Wurster
, WC 29

Wf W 420
, .
, , . R , 500 .

ol

J
,

Wonderli c T
WW w M W
.
,

, . 29 5 Zan der, A F , 56, 1 17, 362, 405,

. .

ords

ormser,
orth ,

. H
.
,
3 74
160, 3 1 9 , Zener, K
Zei g a m ik, B , 2 1 8
. E , 22.
.
526 S UBJ ECT INDEX
C ommu ni ty lea de rsh ip 322—
co mm u n i ty lea der
31 ,
Deci sion
a dv i so ry
-
kg g
m a in
in,
ro u p s
, p oli tica l ,
3 53—
3 50 —
55
57

h is p l a ce in 3 23— —
g 26,

as ori i n a to r o f a cti on 324

f ww k ,
ch oi ce i n , 3 5 1 5 3

lim i ta ti on s in , 3 55- 5 7
a s p ro du cer of o llo

h i s c a p a city f o r tea m or 324

ers 3 24

,
,

x
com b in e d, 3 5 7

e te rna l , 3 5 6

g
h i s s e n s i t i v i t y t o c o mm u n i t y
n ee ds 323 ,

—
D eci s ion s , g
i n tern a l , 3 56

k g —g p os tp on i n of , in decis i on

g
p l a n n i n a n d 32
as a n a tt i tu de 3 25

tra ini n f o r 3 26—

5 26
,

, D m a in 2 22 23
em o crati c bi a s , in
—
,

ro up dy n ami cs ,

w k g g , 31
lea de r a s ch a n e a ent 32 6 , D 49 7 5 08
e m o cra ti c l ea der, 1 82— 84

C q Ogf z o r sh o p

o mm uni ty o r a ni
in , 3 27- 29
a ti o n , 3 1 1—22 w S g
l o v e - o ri e n t a fi o n o f 1 8 3
p o e r h a rin by , 182
-
,

Di s cu s si on v s lecture 25 5— 60 , 502—
DD g z g
tech n i 3
u es12 - 22
3
—
, .
,

a dult e du ca ti o n , 3 1 7 1 8 i s or ani a ti on , e n e ral 9 1

com m u n ity co un cil , 3 1 5 17 — omin at io n , l e a ders h ip an d, 1 63 —
,

f
di scu ss io n m e th o d, 3 12- 1 5
s el -s urv ey s , 3 1 8—
DD g fi
y n a m i c c o n s t ru cts 43 —44
64
,

C omm u n ity re la ti o n s ,
22
rou p dy n am g y n a mi c ro u p , de ni ti on o f , 45

C i cs i n , 30 1 4 33
g
E du ca tion , rou p dy n ami cs i n 232 ,

C
o m p rom is er,

b ui ldin
o n fli ct s
g 39 2 ;
-a n d m ai n
Gro u p
s ee

ten a n ce ro l es
-
a ls o
64
b a s i c p rem is e o f 235 ,

e th n i c 1 3 7 4 5

gg
i n terre li i o u s 1 45—
,
—
52
democra ti c a p p roa ch i n 23 64 38
demo cra ti c t ea ch in in 23 7—
dem ocra ti c v i e of m a n in 236
38 g
w f
,

—
,
,

p ee r rog
m in ori ty ro u p s an d 1 39 45
u p a n d a m i l y 13 3 —
34f
, ,

,
dem ocrati c w a y of li e in 235 36
h um a n e n ds in 2 38— 39 ,
,
4

C g
s ch o o l a n d ch il dren 13 5

o n ru en ce

50 7—8
a f e cti v e
, f i n thin in
,

, kg ,
ra ti o n al e o f 2 3 8 4 39

soci al i n te lli en ce in 239

,

g
v a lu e p re m i ses o f 2 3 5—
,

C o n se n s u s

kx ggg E duca ti o n a l ch a n e 2 4 1—
41
52 g ,

i n de ci sion -m a i n , 222 i n a dmi ni s tra tion 242— 48 ,

i n cu rri cul um 248—

C“
CC
va lida ti on by
o n si s te n cy , te s t
, e a

of , k— g era ti o n o

i n th in i n
f 50 7
50 7
,
, 50
p erce p tu a l m o di ca ti o n i n 243 —
,

46 fi—
“
,
”
a n a ly si s , 44 45
g
o ns tru cti v e in s u p erv i s i on , 24 2 4 8
”
m i ssi nv olv em ent
k
o nv ers ati on , t e a chi n
—
in , p ro ce ss i n , 25 14 52
39 1 ; s ee a ls o Grou p —
x 436 39
t ern al p reoccu p a ti o n in , 4364 37
E la b ora tor, ta s
ro l es

g g
e

i n tera cti on -con s cio u s n ess i n , 43 7 En co ura er, 39 2 ; s ee als o Gro u p

gz
38 bu ildi n an d m ai n ten an ce role s
k
- -

o th er -
co n s ci ou s n e ss in , 43 8 39 — E n er i er, 39 1 ; s ee a ls o Gro u p -tas

C f s elf - co n s ci o u s n es s

o o p era ti o n , 1 20
i n , 43 7
g
rol es

E n li sh cl ass es 1 0 8

g f
b ad ef f 1 20
ects o

oo d ef ects o f 1 20—
, E q gg
u a l - s t a tu s
,

in te ra cti on , 1 5 7 5 9 ; — see

C k oordi n a to r
21 ,

3 9 1 ; s ee a ls o Gro u p
a l so I n ter ro u p h o s ti li ty
g—
CC ta s ro les
,

kg E s ca p e f fi
co ndi ti o n s

ro m
o v erni n

e ld 90 9 1
,

g
, 1 59

urri cu lum ch an e , 248— 50 g

ri teri o n , ul ti m a te , in th in i n , 5 07 E sca p e i n to lo v e , in
45 3
ro u p th era p y ,
S UBJ ECT INDEX
E s ca p e in t o v i rtue , i n rou p th era p y ,
455—
g Group com p osition , in roup th era p y , g
56
E s p rit de corp s , 7 3 , 7 6, 99
E th n o ce ntri s m 5 8—
47 1
f
Gro u p co n o rm i ty , rela ti on to stan d
ardi z a ti o n 5 13—

k
5 9 , 60 ,

E v alfra to r-criti c, 3 9 1 ; s ee als o Grou p

t a s roles
15
Gro u p deci si o n m a in 2 1 9—
,

23 , 3 50
-

57 s ee als o Problem -s o lv in , col

kg ,

g
l ectiv e
m e th o ds 221—Of O f
23
ff Of
Fa ct-fin de r i n a cti o n re s earch 489
,

Fa mily s ub s ti tu tiv e ro u p , in ro up g ,

g p e rs i s ten ce
i n , 220
,

a tti t u des , e ect ,

k
th era p y , 4 67
Fe edba c , i n a ction res e ar ch , 489 — 90
Fi eld co n ce p t of , in ro u p dy n ami cs , g f
Gro u p dev elop m ent
un cti o n al hi erarch y in , 52— 57
m o ti v a tio n in 46—
,

43 , 49 5 49
n o rm s i n , 50—
,

52
Fi e ld th eo ry
a cti o n in a e ld 1 9 fi ,
Grou p di scus si o n , in th e rap y , 474
Gro u p dy n a m i cs , 64 30
w
s y m b oli c i n teraction in 19
Follo er, 393 ; s ee a ls o Grou p -b uild
,
co n cep tu al b a si s o f , n onrelev an ce

o f , 492 —

wg
in g -an d m ai n te n an ce ro les
Foll o ers de m o cra ti c 324
-

q 96
cri ti u e o f 49 2— 5 18
e arly de v elo p m e n t o f , 7—
,

Lw
,
1 7 , 284 30
,

a s n e l ecte d p ro bl em , 3 24
i n s ro le in , 1 8—
M
’
e 26
o p e n m in de d lo y a lty a s ch ara cter
o re no s ro le i n , 26 —
-
’
28
i st ic o f 3 2 4 ,

Fo rce con cep t of , in ro u p dy n am

i cs 49 3—
,

95
g v e n era ti o n of , 5 08—

g 11
Gro u p o al , i n th era p y , 45 1

g g
Gro u p in di v i du a li ty 19 4
,

Fu n cti o n , 45 ,

Gro u p i nt e ra ti on , infl a tion of , 5 12

Gro u p l earn i n , 1 00—12 6 ; s ee al s o
Ga li le a n con cep t 45
g gg L g
— g e a rni n
—
,

Ga n s , b elon in to 50 5 1
k
Ga te e ep er—e p e di ter 392 ; see als ox g ,

, in
ro u p vs i n div i du a l , 105 7
.

cla s sroom , 1 08 — 12
Gro u p b ui ldi n -a n d-m ainten an ce
-
n a ture o f , 1 0 1— 7
ro l es on j o b , 1 1 2- 1 7
Go a l , co ll ecti v e , 45 p erce p tu al , 104
—
ww —— fi Of
Gro u p , n a ture of , 20 22 ro le b e h av i or a n d 105 ,

All p ort s v i e , 20 2 1 1 07—

x
’

sci e nti c s tu di e s 25
in v olv e m en t i n 1 0 4—
,

s e lf —
e

Lw
p eri m e n ts

e
’
L e B on s Vi e
in
’
s v ie
w
w w
i th , 22 26
,20
20
5
u n s tru ct ure d m a teri a l s o f 1 2 1 —
25
Gro u p m e m b ers h ip s a t is a ct io n i n, ,
,

f ,

M cDo u g all S 48
’

vie 21
—
,

Gro u p m em ory , 39 1 ; s e e als o Re

g
33 4 5
s tru ctur e ,

—
Group a n d co n i ti v e be h av i or, 16 1 7
Gro u p b eh a v i or
co r der
Gro u p m o v em e nt act ors in 483—
O g
Grou p b s erv er 392 ; s e e a ls o Grou p
-
88 , f ,

f Of
dis rup ti on i n ,

buildi n -an d m a in ten a n ce roles -

a ctors in , 9 1 - 98
ty p e s
di sru p ti on
, 88—91
p la y in gf
Grou p re si s ta n ce in th erap y , a s ro le
45 2 — 53
,

g—
,
of , 87- 9 8
Gro u p bui ldin a nd m a inten ance g g g
Group s el -a n a ly s is im p ortance o f ,
in ro u p dy n ami cs 505
,

g
,
roles , 39 1 93
Grou p
Gro u p
cl e a v a

co h esi v en es s ,
e, 89 —91
67 -7 6
Gro up s e ttin i n ro u p th era p y , 460
,

Grou p si tu a ti on an d p er orm a nce ,

1 4— 16
f
5 28 S UBJ ECT INDEX
Sz g
Grou p i e , in ro up p sy ch oth era p y , m oti v ati on in 2 80- 9 2
2 1 1 —1 6 , 47 0 —
,

a n d p ro du cti on 282 —

g
7 1 ; see a ls o Prob
l e m-s o lv in , colle cti v e
Gro u p s u p e riori ty , 223—
tra ini n g 92
f or p erf orm an ce in
,

,
292

limi ta ti o n
a ti o n in , 22 7—
p rOf
o b l e m
30
—s o lv i n s i tu g 98
co nf ere n ce m eth o d in , 2 9 3 94

g
—
—
rece nt s tu di es o f
30
506— 8
g
,
ri sk qg
p ers onn e l coun selin i n , 29 6 9 8
t ech ni u e 2 9 7— 98
in , 2 94 —
,

s ta ti s t ica l p oo li n

22 5— 27
a s m e a sure o f ,

flf
rol e - p la y in

s y s tem a ti c i nt erv i e
95
in , 29 5—
96 w
-
k
Grou p sy nt a li ty , 7 4
Group ta s rol es 3 90 41
Gro u p th era p y , 2 7—
,
In
In orm a ti o n -
,

gk
u en ce des ire t o , 47

iv er, 39 1 s ee als o

28
f Gro u p ta s
kk ro es l
-

g
a s e du ca ti v e p ro ce s s , 467 In orm a ti on s e e er, 3 90 ; see a ls o
-

p roces s , 4 67—
a s le arni n 69
g j Gro u p t a s ro es l
-

a s m ean s of re du cin

4 75
p re u dice ,
k
I n iti a to r- co ntribu t or, 3 90 ;
Grou p - ta s rol e s
se e a ls o

“
Grou p ty ra nn y , 5 1 1—16
Grou p i sm , e ff ect on i n di v i dua l ,
I ntera cti o ni s m , 9 —1 1
I n tera cti v e p ro ces s , in g rou p th era p y ,
5 1 4— 16
x
Grou p s , e p eri m e nts w
i th 22—
g
Gui lt e s ca p e, in ro u p th era p y , 454
25 ,
448
I n terdep en den ce , 45
I n terg rou p h os ti lity 9 5— 98 ,

1 5 3—
Harm oni zg er, 392 ; s ee a ls o Gro up g
re du ct i o n o f ,59
le a l m eth o ds in 1 56—
re-e du ca ti o n i n 1 5 5 —
57 ,

bui l di n a n d-m ai n t en a nce role s

g
- 56 ,

Harmon y ,

dy n ami cs 503—
o v erem p h a si s o f , in ro u p
g q
ro l e of e du ca ti o n i n , 1 54

z 4 thr o u h e u al s t at u s in t era cti on,

-

Hiera rch i a tion 52— 1 5 7—

,

57 ,

a s rev e a le d in ro l e con i cts , 5 7 fl g 59

q
I nt er rou p rel a t io n s , 5 04 64 1 2 9 62
a do l e s ce n t cli u es i n , 1 3 5 37
,
-

Hodol ogi ca l sp ace con cep t of in

g
4

—
, ,

“
ro u p dy n am i c s 49 6

Hyp ercom p etiti v en ess 9 7—9 8

,

,
p e er

g g ro u p s in

s u b ro u p s a n d, 1 30—
132 35
37
I n terin di v i du al in u en ce 485 —
,

flg 88
k
”
Hy p erf a ctua li s ts in p ol i ti cal sci
,
,

e n ce , 368 b eh a vi ora l con ta i on a s a in d of , ,

I dea l p arent, th era p i s t a s , i n rou p g f

48 5
fl
direct in u en ce , as a in d of 485
un cti o n al rol es in , 487
k ,

g fi
th era p y , 4 6 1
I denti ca ti on , in r o u p th era p y , 475
I n r ou p rela ti on s 58—
-
60
g s o ci om e tr i c ch o i ce s i n 4 86—

gg
I nterp ers on al a r es si on s , 9 0
87 ,

In dep en dent s , 69 I n terp re ta ti on

g
I n di v i du a l

g g f
i n a cti on r es e a rch , 490
r o u p s e l ev a l u a ti on , 49 0

w g Of
rol e o f i n ro u p , 374 39 as -

—
,

t i li h t 5 1 1 12 i n rou p th era p y 4 69 ,

L zf
,

In du s try , h uma n rel ati ons i n, 2 65

a i ss e le a der 1 84—
ai r e 85
300
f wk
con ce p tu a l m e or f or, 2 6 6—
a u th ori ty in , 2 70
ra 80
L
re -ev al u a ti on of

e a der a s p ers on 439 —

1 84 8 5
42
,
,

—
—
,

co m m un ica ti on ch ann els i n , 2 7 3 dem o crati c n a tur e of 439 42 ,

L
75 in le a ders h ip b eh a v ior 4 39
— e a der ro les 403 —
,

p ers on a lity v aria bl es i n , 27 5 7 7 6

404—
,

s o ci a l s y s tem i n , 2 67- 7 0 ch ara cteri s ti cs o f 6 ,

5 30 S UBJ ECT INDEX
g
ch a n e 2 49— 50
j
Phi la delp h i a p ro ect , in educati on al Re f
eren ce

l
re a ti on
g rou p s ,

to
3 9 5—97
m em b ershi p gro u p s ,
399 —
,

Pl a y b oy 3 89

“
,

fg
Plur a li s ti c an tas y , 2 9 8
—
g
Re i on
4 03
, co n ce p t of , in g ro up dy
P lura li s tic i n oran ce

3 3 4—
69
g
92 9 3 298 ,

P o li tica l b eh a v i or, ro u p rela ti on s in ,

,

g
n am i cs ,

Rel i i o us
in
a n ta

e du ca ti o n ,
g
42 , 49 6
o ni s

1 49 —51
m s 1 45 —
52
,

1 5 1—
as

q —
p roce s s , 33 5
dy n a mi c e ui li brium in , 335
i n th e h om e ,
Rol e ,
n a ture a n d

3 77—
52
f un cti on of , 374—93

as a g g
Poli ti cal s y st em 33 6 50 ,

ro u p p roces s 342 4 5 ,
—
a t ti tu des an d,

defini ti ons
81
an d dis tin ction s , 3 75

p sy ch olo i ca l v ari a bl es in 345

50
g
l a w a s rou p im p era ti v e i n , 3 38
, 77
in sep arab le
s ta tu s a s

i ndi v i du al role , 3 83 —86

f
rom , 3 75

ro le b e h a v i or, 38 1—

as
42
g f—
ch a n e ro m s t a tus to con
k g an d ro u p
83
m em b ershi p , 3 88—
93

“
tra ct , 3 40 4 1 in ds of ,

m otiv a tion in 3 86—

in , 3 89 —98

wfi
as rel a ti on in
p oli ti cal a u th ori ty i n 336 3 8
3 41rel a ti on ,

—
,
— Rol e
g a ltera ti o n and
88
b eh av i ora ,
,

l
Po er p oli ti cal , 3 5 7 5 8
,

gg
de n ed b y acce s s to , 3 58
Prim ary ro u p 1 2—
g fch a n e

ro u p rames o f re ere n ce in 3 9 4 f ,

Probl em -s olv in
13
,

g
p s y ch o lo i cal stru cture ,
12, 1 77 Of —
95
sh are d
—
f ra m es of f
re eren ce in ,

g ro u i Sz
e i n
co llecti v e

21 1 —16
,

eff ect o f p rob l em o n 2 16 1 7

199 23 1
,
,

— Ro l e
394 9 5

4 54 5 5
f—
co n us i o n , in g ro u p th erap y ,
p
—
,

Ro l e dy n a m i cs 3 7 3—
l ea dersh ip in , 205 7
l e adersh ip tra in in , e ect of , in , g ff Rol e-p l a yin 48 g 4 07 ,

Rol e th eo ry , 2 6—
,

2 0 7- 1 1 27
m otiv a tion i n 2 1 7- 1 9
—
,

ff zz g
p ers is ten ce o f a t ti tu des i n , 220

kg
s tu di es i n 20 0 -2 19
,

—
Sci en ce cl as ses 1 10 1 1 ,

S el -a ctu a li a ti o n i n ro u p s 49 g
kg
,
th in in in 20 1 5 ; s ee a ls o Gro u p

f g g
Sel -actu ali i n p ers on , 5 1 3
,

decis i o n - ma i n S e l re u l a tion , a s p rop ert y of dy

-

k
Proce dur al te chni ci a n , 39 1 ; see a ls o
Gro u p -tas rol es
n a mi e ro u p s , 5 1

Sex , in g rou p th era p y 472

g g g
Protecti v e p rov ocati on , as rol e in
,

Sh are d n orm s 6 7— 70
r o u p th era p y , 4 5 3— 54
,

So ci al cl im a tes 2 3
Psy ch olo i ca l roup s , p rop erti es of , ,

2 1—
g
22
— Soci al eld 43fi
Soci al di sta n ce 59 , 60 ,

g
Psy ch o th erap y , r ou p 444 7 7 ,

Soci a l i ntera cti on 3 5—

j
,

ro u p p roce s s 447—
as 75 37 ,

—
,

f —w k
p i on e ers in , 444 4 6
th era p e u ti c ram e or i n , 448- 7 5 g
Soci al m al a d us tm e n t a s criteri on in
ro u p th e rap y

Soci al n orm s 5 9 6 0
449
—
,
,

cli e n tele 449 5 8 ,

intera cti on p roce s s , 463 — Soci al p roces s 1 2—

,

72 13
Soci om etry 26—
,

th era p i st, 45 8— 63 ,
28
So li tu de , a n d crea ti v en ess 3 1 0—
Re corder, 39 1 ; s ee als o Grou p -tas k 5 14 15 —
1 1, ,

Red D
ro les

evi l s , 63 buildin -a n d— g
Sta n dard-s etter, 3 9 2 ; s ee a ls o Grou p
m ain tenan ce roles
S UBJ ECT INDEX 531

Street com er boy s , 53 , 6 9 f g

Trans erence, in roup th era p y , 464
Su b stan ce , 45
g
Su p p orter, rou p th era p is t a s , 460
62
67
g
Typ olo i ca l criteria , in rou p th er
a p y , 45 0
g
g
Tea chin p roce s s , 25 1—
52 V
al e n ce , con cep t f o , ing roup dy

g
chi ld o ri en te d 25 1
-

rou p o ri e n te d 25 1—
-
,

52
,
VV g n a m i cs ,

ector,

o tin
43 44
44 49 5
,

in deci s io n-m a in kg 22 1—22

tea ch er-o ri ented, 2 5 1 , ,

Ten s ion , 43 Wh ole dy n ami c, 45

Th eoreti cal con structs 4 1 44 — ,

in terde p en den ce of p arts i n , 45

—
,

g
Th era p e u ti c co mmu ni ty , 450 5 1
Top olo ical con s tructs , 42 — 43 Zu m , 69