MODULE IN FORENSIC BALLISTICS

By: Rico T. Musong, R.C., MSCrim (CAR)

MODULE 1
FUNDAMENTALS OF BALLISTICS

A. INTRODUCTION

What is Ballistics?

Ballistics is the science of mechanics or motion that deals with the flight, behavior, and effects
of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity bombs, rockets, or the like; the science or art of designing and
accelerating projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance. ( Wikipedia, 2013)
It is important to police officers who investigate crimes involving shooting, to artillerymen and naval
gunnery officers, and to engineers who design firearms, missiles, bombsights, and fire-control systems.

The term “Ballista” itself was derived from the greek word “ballo” or “ballein” which literally means
“to throw”. Its root also was said to have been derived from the name of the early Roman war machine
called the “BALLISTA” - is a gigantic bow or catapult which was used to hurl large objects such as stones at
a particular distance to deter animals or enemy forces.

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 “Ballista”

Today, the word Ballistics is frequently used synonymously in the press and in the Police Parlance
to Firearms Identification.

Ballistics is a science in itself because it evolved from systematic knowledge, research and
development, training, experience and education of those who pioneered in this field.

Technically speaking, it refers to the "science of firearms identification which involves the scientific
examination of ballistics exhibits such as: fired bullets; fired shells; firearms; and allied matters, used in
crime.

Legally speaking, ballistics is the microscopic examination of fired cartridge cases and bullets
together with the recording and presentation by means of photography of what is revealed by the
microscope.

B. BALLISTICS THEORY

Ballistics is the scientific study of the propulsion and motion of projectiles such as bullets, artillery
shells, rockets and guided missiles. Also includes the study of the destructive action of such projectiles.

The drag of a projectile moving head on is now usually divided into three parts:

1. bow resistance - due to air pressure at the head of the projectile;

2. skin friction - caused by the friction of air moving along the middle portion of the body; and
3. base drag - due to the under-pressure and disturbance  of the air behind the base.

The following are pioneers in the study of force and projectiles:

1. GALILEO, NEWTON, and LEIBNIZ established the principles of dynamics and the methods of
calculus, studies which helped the rapid development of external ballistics.
2. GALILEO and NEWTON were both interested in the force called air resistance, now usually called
aerodynamic drag, which reduces the speed of a projectile.
3. In 1707, CASSINI, an astronomer suggested measuring firearm’s muzzle velocity.

Firearm ballistics information is used in forensic science. Separately from ballistics information,
firearm and tool mark examinations involve analyzing firearm, ammunition, and tool mark evidence in order
to establish whether a certain firearm or tool was used in the commission of a crime.

The science of ballistics or firearm identification is divided into the following:

1. Internal ballistics- a subfield of ballistics, is the study of a projectile's motion from the time
its propellant's igniter is initiated until it exits the gun barrel.
2. Transition ballistics- also known as “intermediate ballistics”, is the study of a projectile's behavior
from the time it leaves the muzzle until the pressure behind the projectile is equalized, so it lies
between internal ballistics and external ballistics.
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 3. External ballistics- is the part of the science of ballistics that deals with the behavior of a non-
powered projectile in flight. External ballistics is frequently associated with firearms, and deals with
the behavior of the bullet after it exits the barrel and before it hits the target.
4. Terminal ballistics- a sub-field of ballistics, it is the study of the behavior of a projectile when it hits
its target. It is often referred to as stopping power when dealing with human or other living targets.
5. Wound ballistic– largely comprises the study of the physiology and medical effects
of projectile weapons on humans or animals. It can be considered the intersection
of medicine and terminal ballistics.
6. Forensic ballistics- the science of firearm identification by using the ammunition fired through them.

MODULE ACTIVITY 1 GUIDED QUESTIONS

Simple Recall: Answer the following questions.

1. What do you mean by the term Ballistics?

2. It was derived from the greek word “ballo” or “ballein” which literally means “to throw”.
3. What is the legal definition of Ballistics?
4. It due to the under-pressure and disturbance of the air behind the base.
5. Established the principles of dynamics and the methods of calculus, studies which helped
the rapid development of external ballistics.
6. An astronomer suggested measuring firearm’s muzzle velocity.
7. What is transition ballistics?
8. Give the three major branches of ballistics.
9. This reduces the speed of a projectile.
10. It is due to air pressure at the head of the projectile.

B. BRANCHES OF BALLISTICS

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I. INTERIOR BALLISTICS

It is the study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. The time during which the projectile is
influenced by Interior Ballistics is very short. From the release of the firing pin to the moment the sound of
the shot can be heard as it leaves the muzzle occupies only about 0.01 seconds, in a modern rifle.

Interior ballistics involves:

1. The firing pin hitting the primer

2. Ignition of the priming mixture
3. Flames is produced
4. Combustion of the gunpowder
5. Energy that is generated
6. Force/Pressure developed
7. Velocity of the bullet (from the chamber to the muzzle)
8. Rotation of the bullet
9. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.

Interior ballistics deals with the temperature, volume, and pressure of the gases resulting from
combustion of the propellant charge in the gun; it also deals with the work performed by the expansion of
these gases on the gun, its carriage, and the projectile. Some of the critical elements involved in the study
of interior ballistics are the relationship of the weight of charge to the weight of projectile; the length of bore;
the optimum size, shape, and density of the propellant grains for different guns; and the related problems of
maximum and minimum muzzle pressures.

Note the following:

The British engineer Benjamin Robins conducted many experiments in interior ballistics. His
findings justly entitle him to be called the father of modern gunnery.

Late in the 18th century the Anglo-American physicist Benjamin Thompson made the first attempt
to measure the pressure generated by gunpowder. The account of his experiments was the most important
contribution to interior ballistics that had been made up to that time.

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 About 1760 French ballisticians determined the relationship of muzzle velocity to length of barrel by
measuring the velocity of a musket ball and cutting off a portion of the barrel before taking the velocity of
the next shot. By using the results of these experiments and advances in chemistry and thermodynamics,
ballisticians developed formulas showing the relationship between muzzle velocity and weight and shape of
projectile; weight, type, and grain size of powder charge; pressure and temperature in the barrel; and the
size of the powder chamber and the length of the barrel.

Related Terms in Interior Ballistics

1. Action – term referring to the mechanism of a firearm.

2. Burning Rate - An arbitrary index of the quickness that burning propellant changes into gas.
Burning rate is controlled by the chemical composition, the size and shape of the propellant grains,
and the pressure at which the burning takes place. IMR 5010 powder is very slow burning and
Bulls eye is fast burning.
3. Bulk Density - The ratio of the weight of a given volume of powder vs. the weight of the same
volume of water.
4. Chamber Pressure – the pressure generated within the chamber erroneously called breeched
pressure.

5. Charge Weight to Bullet Weight ratio - This is the ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the
weight of the projectile.
6. Detonation – Chemical rearrangement of molecules into gas instead of solids to cause the high
explosives to exert full power of shock. The speed of detonation varies in different explosive but in
some it is as high as 7000 yards in a second.
7. Energy - is measured in foot-pounds, and one foot-pound means that amount of energy, which
would be capable of lifting a weight of one pound through a distance of one foot
8. Drop-Block Action- That type of action in which the breechblock rises and forces vertically in cuts in
the receiver side walls. Lever actuated as a rule.

9. Expansion Ratio - The ratio of the capacity of the powder chamber plus bore (in grains of water) to
the capacity of the powder chamber (in grains of water).
10. Foot – Pound - the amount of work required to raise one pound one foot high against the force of
gravity.
11. Foot second - velocity expressed in foot per second.
12. Gas - a fluid resulting from the combustion of gun powder with a relatively great expansion and
spontaneous tendency.
13. Hangfire - Occurs when a cartridge fails to explode on time or delayed in firing.
14. Knocking Power - the power of the bullet which delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow that put the
victim down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal.

15. Loading Density - The ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the capacity of the powder
chamber (case).  It is usually expressed as the ratio of the charge weight to the capacity the
powder chamber in grains of water. (See below.) Generally, the more fully the powder charge fills
the case the more consistent and accurate the load will be.  On the other hand if the loading
density is too low, (too much free space in the case) it can cause erratic ignition, change in the

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 pressure curve (moving the peak towards the muzzle), or even overly rapid burning ("detonation")
of the powder charge. (One reason manuals list minimum or starting loads.)
16. Misfire – total failure of a cartridge to discharge. This is different from hang fire which merely a
delayed combustion, while misfire a complete failure eve to start combustion.

17. Powder Chamber Capacity - As with most interior ballistics capacity measurements it is usually
expressed in grains of water. It is determined by measuring the weight of water that a fired case
from the test firearm can contain with a bullet seated to its normal depth. Note that this varies with
different bullets or seating depth as well as the dimensions of the chamber, and the brand of case.
18. Pressure – Outward push of gases from powder combustion against cartridge case, chamber and
bore.

19. Sectional Density - The ratio of the bullet's weight (in pounds) to its diameter.
20. PSI - Pounds per square inch. It is often seen designated as PSIA. This designation is now used to
signify a measurement of chamber pressure taken with a piezo-electric device. Piezo-electric units
operate in a similar fashion to the copper crusher units but use a reusable crystal "crusher" that
changes its electrical properties in response to pressure. When connected to suitable recording
equipment the entire pressure pulse history can be recorded or displayed. The peak pressure
recorded by a piezo-electric peak device usually reads about 5,000 psi higher than the figure
determined by the copper crusher method.
21. Recoil – the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of the bullet
during the explosions.
22. Residual Pressure – the pressure remaining in the chamber after the bullet has left the barrel.

MODULE ACTIVITY 2 GUIDED QUESTIONS

Simple Recall: Answer the following questions.

1. What are involves in interior ballistics?

2. The ratio of the weight of a given volume of powder vs. the weight of the same volume of water.
3. Made the first attempt to measure the pressure generated by gunpowder.
4. The father of modern gunnery.
5. The time occupies during which the projectile is influenced by Interior Ballistics is very short from
the release of the firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as it leaves the
muzzle in a modern rifle.
6. Term referring to the mechanism of a firearm.
7. It is determined by measuring the weight of water that a fired case from the test firearm can
contain with a bullet seated to its normal depth.
8. Outward push of gases from powder combustion against cartridge case, chamber and bore.
9. The amount of work required to raise one pound one foot high against the force of gravity.
10. What is PSI?

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II. EXTERIOR BALLISTICS
Exterior Ballistics deals with the motion of projectiles from the time they leave the muzzle of the
firearm to the time they hit the target. The flight of most bullet or projectile does not exceed 30 seconds at
maximum range, which for almost any firearms is obtained at an elevation of about 33.

CONDITIONS - refers to the natural laws.

a. velocity - speed per unit of time ex. M16 - 3,300 ft/sec.
b. energy - fatal equivalent of a bullet.
c. yaw - the unstable rotating motion of a bullet.
d. gyroscopic action - refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attained its highest
momentum or stability in flight and penetrating power.

In exterior ballistics, elements such as shape, caliber, weight, initial velocities, rotation, air
resistance, and gravity help determine the path of a projectile from the time it leaves the gun until it reaches
the target.

Until the middle of the 16th century it was believed that bullets move in straight lines from the gun
to the target and that shells fired from mortars describe a path made up of two straight lines joined by an
arc of a circle. The Italian mathematician Niccolò Tartaglia, in a published work on gunnery, claimed that no
part of the path of a projectile could be a straight line and that the greater the velocity of the projectile the
flatter its path. Tartaglia invented the gunner's quadrant used to determine elevation of the muzzle of a gun.
He is and Italian scientist who a book in which he said that the trajectory of a bullet was really a continuous
curve. He directed some firing tests to determine this angle, and discovered that it was near 45 degrees
and he noted that the trajectory was continuously curve.

Galileo proved that in a vacuum a projectile describes a parabolic arc. The description of the law of
gravitation by the British scientist Sir Isaac Newton made plain the cause of the curvilinear motion of
projectiles. By the use of calculus he determined the momentum transferred from the projectile to the
particles of air at rest; this method of calculating air drag has been superseded by the use of tables
prepared from experimental firings.

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 Two methods have been used to determine the velocity of a projectile after it leaves the gun. One
method measures the momentum of the projectile; the other measures the time required for the projectile to
travel a given distance. The first method is the older, and in the past, when guns and projectiles were small,
velocities low, and ranges short, the results were sufficiently accurate for most practical purposes. The
ballistic pendulum and gun pendulum were used to measure projectile momentum, but these devices have
been supplanted by cheaper and more accurate machines working on the principles of the second method.

The ballistic pendulum was developed about 1743 by Robins, who was the first to undertake a
systematic series of experiments to determine the velocity of projectiles. The principle of the ballistic
pendulum, as well as of the gun pendulum, which was developed by Thompson, is the transfer of
momentum from a projectile with a small mass and a high velocity to a large mass with a resultant low
velocity.

The ballistic pendulum consisted of a massive plate of iron to which was bolted a block of wood to
receive the impact of the projectile; the pendulum was suspended freely from a horizontal axis. The block,
when struck by the projectile, recoiled through a certain arc that was easily measured. Knowing the arc of
recoil and the masses of the projectile and the pendulum, the velocity of the projectile could be determined
by calculation. The ballistic pendulum was able to withstand the impact of musket balls only; however, by
determining the relations that should exist between the caliber, length of barrel, and charge of power,
Robins substantially advanced the science of gunnery.

By the second method, the velocity of a projectile is determined by measuring the time required for
it to travel a known length of its path. Numerous machines have been devised for this purpose; in 1840 the
British physicist Sir Charles Wheatstone suggested the use of electricity for measuring small intervals of
time. This suggestion led to the development of the chronograph, a device for recording, by electrical
means, the time required for a projectile to pass between two screens of fine wire.

The formulas and tables for the exterior ballistics of each new type of gun or cannon are more or
less empirical and must be tested by actual experiment before the aiming devices can be accurately
calibrated.

Further, exterior (external) ballistics refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has
left the gun muzzle. It includes:

1. Muzzle blast - the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden escape of
the expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the surrounding atmos phere at the muzzle
point.
2. Muzzle energy - energy generated at the muzzle point.
3. Trajectory - the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the target.
The following are the kinds of trajectory: straight horizontal line - parabola-like flight - vertical drop
4. Range - the straight distance between the muzzle point and the target.
a. Accurate (effective) range - the distance within the shooter has control of his shots,
meaning he can place his shots at the desired spots.
b. Maximum range - the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.

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 * While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver are supposed to be effective in only
50-70 yards, all of them can send their bullets much further than that and are capable of inflicting fatal
wounds at distances up to one mile, depending on the caliber and gunpowder content.

5. Velocity - rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

 Long barrel rifle – up to 3,000 yards accurate range and its hinge muzzle velocity of 1000-4000
ft./sec.

 Bullets from rifled weapons spin at 2000-3000 revolutions per second, but over the first few
yards of trajectory – distance varies with the weapon – their flight is slightly unstable; the end
of the projectile wobbles before it picks up a smooth flight path. This phenomenon is called
“TAILWAG”, and is of considerable important in evaluating gunshot wounds. A bullet with
“tailwag” does not strike its target clearly.

6. Air resistance - resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.

7. Pull of gravity - downward reaction of the bullet while in flight.
8. Penetration - depth of entry on target.

Note on the following Contributors:

1. 1707 - Cassini. Suggested measuring of firearms muzzle velocity

2. 1857 – Monsieur Noiles. Published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu Courtes’. His thesis dealt with
the subject of wounds made by small firearms.
3. 1748 - Henry Shrapnel. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot with a small
bursting charge, increasing the effective range of case.
4. 1898 – Mr. Corin in Paris, France. Published an article titled “La Determination de La Distance
a’Laguelle un Coup de Feu a e’te’ Tire” (Determination of the distance at which a shot has been
discharged from a firearm).
5. 1900 – Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hal in Buffalo, New York (USA). A very significant article entitled “The
Missile and the Weapon” was published in the June issue of the Buffalo Medical Journal.
6. 1903 – Mr. E.J. Churchill in London, England (uncle of Robert Churchill of later fame as a firearms
examiner for the United Kingdom). He provided testimony as to some experimentation that he had
performed involving the distance of which a shot had been fired into a human skull.
7. 1900 - Dr. Albert Llewellyn. He wrote an article entitled “The Missile and the Weapon”, which dealt
with a variety of issues to include how measurement of land and groove markings are made on
bullets. He also discussed the examination of gunpowder residues in barrels of firearms and the
changes that take place over time after the weapon is fired.
8. 1921 - Mr. Jorge T. Filho. He published an article entitled “Estimation of Distance from which a
Bullet was Fired” (“Da Diagnose da Distance nos Tiros de Projecteis Multiplos Chumbo de Caca”).
9. Emile Monnin Chamot. He authored a 61-paged monograph entitled “The Microscopy of Small
Arms Primers”.

Note on the following Terms in Exterior Ballistics:

1. Accuracy Range – The maximum distance at which a particular gun and cartridges will consistently
place all shots in the standard target for that distance.
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2. Accurate Range – The distance within which the shooter has control of his shots.

3. Back Curve - This is that portion of the bullets trajectory that drops below the critical zone beyond
the point blank range. Past this point the trajectory begins to drop off very rapidly with range and
the point of impact becomes very difficult to estimate.
4. Ballistic Coefficient – The means that the bullet may lose its speed very rapidly during its flight the
air. This is a number that relates to the effect of air drag on the bullet's flight and which can be used
to later predict a bullet's trajectory under different circumstances through what are called "drag
tables."
5. Bullet Energy – the power possessed by a moving bullet, or in other words, its ability to keep going
when it meets an obstacle and to do work on the obstacle is immense importance, for obviously the
more power a bullet has an the harder it is to stop the more effective it can be as a weapon

6. Bullet Trajectory - This is the bullet's path as it travels down range. It is parabolic in shape and
because the line of the bore is below the line of sight at the muzzle and angled upward, the bullet's
path crosses the line of sight at two locations.
7. Critical Zone - This is the area of the bullet's path where it neither rises nor falls greater than the
dimension specified. Most shooters set this as ± 3" to 4" from the line of sight, although other
dimensions are sometimes used. The measurement is usually based on one-half of the vital zone
of the usual target. Typical vital zones diameters are often given as: 3" to 4" for small game, and 6"
to 8" for big game and anti-personnel use.
8. Drift - is the curve taken by the bullet while in flight. A right hand rifling curves to the right while that
of the left and rifling curves to the left.
9. Effective Range- The maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonably be expected to travel
accurately and kill a particular type of live targe
10. Extreme Range – The greatest distance the bullet will travel when the cartridge is fired.
11. Flat Trajectory - A comparative term used to indicate very little curvature in the flight in the bullet
from muzzle to point of impact. When the velocity is high, comparatively flat trajectory.
12. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America, gallery rules
required stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet
for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing may be conducted with center
fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of 25 yards and 50 yards. Such installation are generally referred
to as “indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually only to the short range .22 caliber
installation.
13. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America, gallery rules
required stance from firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet
for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly constructed indoor ranges, firing may be conducted with center
fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of 25 yards and 50 yards. Such installation are generally referred
to as “indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually only to the short range .22 caliber
installation.

14. Initial Point - The range at which the bullet's trajectory first crosses the line of sight. This is normally
occurs at a range of about 25 yards.
15. Instrument Velocity - the velocity of a projectile measured by the scientific instrument called
chronograph, at a specified point on its trajectory. Always lower than the muzzle velocity.
16. Key-hole Shot – the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as a result of
not spinning on its axis.
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 17. Maximum Point Blank Range - This is the farthest distance at which the bullet's path stays within
the critical zone. In other words the maximum range at which you don't have to adjust your point of
aim to hit the target's vital zone. Unless there is some over riding reason to the contrary shots
should not generally be attempted much past this distance. In the words of the Guru, "It is unethical
to attempt to take game beyond 300 meters." If you do, you should write yourself a letter explaining
why it was necessary to do so. An approximate rule of thumb says that the maximum point blank
range is approximately your zero range plus 40 yards.
18. Maximum Range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.

19. Maximum Ordinate - This is the maximum height of the projectile's path above the line of sight for a
given point of impact and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the zero range and it is
determined by your zeroing range.
20. Mid-range Trajectory - This is the height of the bullets path above the line of sight at half way to the
zero range. It does not occur at the same range as the maximum ordinate height which can be
greater.
21. Minute of Angle (MOA) - A "minute" of angle is 1/60 of a degree which for all practical purposes
equates to 1 inch per 100 yards of range. Thus 1 MOA at 100 yards is 1 inch and at 300 yards it is
3 inches. The term is commonly used to express the accuracy potential of a firearm.
22. Point Blank Range – Popularly used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel before it drops
enough to require sight adjustment. A short fired so closed to the target that no sighting is
necessary for effective aiming.
23. Ricochet – The bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory (normal path) after
striking a resistant surface.
24. Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death of the victim.
25. Stopping Power – the power of the bullet that put the victim out of action instantly. So it should be
understood that stopping power is not necessarily the same thing as killing power. However,
stopping power depends very largely on the location of the sot.
26. Target – an object at which the firearm is aimed and discharged.
27. True Drop – the actual distance the bullet falls during the time of flight to the target. This is not the
same as what we speak of when we discuss drop in the ordinary sense, which is more properly
termed effective or apparent drop
28. Zero Range - This is the farthest distance at which the line of sight and the bullet's path intersect.
____________________________________________________________________________________

MODULE ACTIVITY 3 GUIDED QUESTIONS

Multiple Choices: Answer the following questions.

1. The tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as a result of not spinning on
its axis.
a. Key-hole Shot c. Point Blank Range
b. True Drop d. Ricochet
2. The bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory (normal path) after striking a
resistant surface.
a. Key-hole Shot c. Point Blank Range
b. True Drop d. Ricochet

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 3. The farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.
a. Maximum Range c. Maximum Ordinate
b. Mid-range Trajectory d. Minute of Angle
4. The maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonably be expected to travel accurately and kill a
particular type of live target.
1. Effective Range c. Extreme Range
2. Critical Zone d. Mid-range Trajectory

5. This is the bullet's path as it travels down range. It is parabolic in shape and because the line of the
bore is below the line of sight at the muzzle and angled upward, the bullet's path crosses the line of
sight at two locations.
1. Ballistic Coefficient c. Bullet Energy
2. Bullet Trajectory d. Shocking Power

MODULE ACTIVITY 4 GUIDED QUESTIONS

Defined the following:

1. Exterior Ballistics
2. Muzzle blast
3. Bullet Energy
4. Ricochet
5. Trajectory
6. Range
7. Drift
8. Target
9. Velocity
10. Ballistic Coefficient

MODULE ACTIVITY 5 GUIDED QUESTIONS

Simple Recall: Identify the following.

1. He wrote an article entitled “The Missile and the Weapon”, which dealt with a variety of issues to
include how measurement of land and groove markings are made on bullets. He also discussed
the examination of gunpowder residues in barrels of firearms and the changes that take place over
time after the weapon is fired.
2. Published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu Courtes’. His thesis dealt with the subject of wounds made
by small firearms.
3. Resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.
4. He published an article entitled “Estimation of Distance from which a Bullet was Fired”.
5. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot with a small bursting charge,
increasing the effective range of case.

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III. TERMINAL BALLISTICS

It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target. Penetration of the
bullet is of prime interest. Penetration is important also in determining safety requirements for target
backstops. They are important to both sportsman and military.

TERMINAL BALLISTICS involves:

1. Terminal accuracy - size of the bullet grouping on the target.

2. Terminal energy - energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. Also known as striking energy.
3. Terminal penetration - depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
4. Terminal velocity - speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

Terminal ballistics also deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the end of the
projectile's flight as an integral and un-deformed body. The flight may end in one of two ways:

1. the projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or

2. its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge

SHOTS BALLISTICS - deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets.

CHOKE

 The bore of the gun is sometimes constricted near the muzzle end. That is, the diameter near the
muzzle end is slightly smaller than the diameter of the bore of the rest of the barrel. The barrel is
said to be choked.

Choke types to control spread and impact point of shot:

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When the diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout the bore, it is called true cylinder.

Full – if reduced by one mm; half if reduced by one-half mm; quarter if reduced by ¼ mm; and
improved cylinder if reduced by about 1/10 mm.

The amount of spread in the shot is controlled by the choke. If a barrel will put 70 percent of its
shot charge in a 30-inch (76-centimeter) circle at 40 yards (37 meters), it is called full choke. Modified
choke will deliver about 60 percent; improved cylinder about 50 percent. A full choke 12-gauge gun will kill
ducks that are about 60 to 65 yards (55 to 59 meters) away.

Chilled Shot – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the addition of a slight amt. of
antimony.

WOUND BALLISTICS – It is the study of the effects of projectile to human body.

Gunshot Wound (GSW). It is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug within the
tissues of the body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well as the flame from the heated
expanded gases in short range fire is the one that produces injury.

Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon

1. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.
2. Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
3. Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.

Range of Fire - an important aspect of forensic ballistics.

1. Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases. The whole
charge (projectile, wads, if any, smoke, unburnt or semi-burnt powder particles and hot gases)
enter into the target. No burning, blackening and tattooing are observed. Instead, they are
observed inside the hole through careful examination. The edges are found ragged (torn in star
shape) and the wound is like an exit wound.
2. Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly believed.
It is also known as burning or charring.

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 3. Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at close ranges.
Being light particles, they soon lose their velocity and get deposited on any material available in the
path.
4. Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) – caused by the embedding of unburnt and semi-burnt powder
particles into the surface of the target. These particles are slightly heavier than the smoke
particles. They retain motion to somewhat longer intervals and consequently cause tattooing to a
distance of about one and a-half times blackening range.

Other GSW Characteristics

1. Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh.
2. Dirt Ring – deposited by some projectile (which carry greases on them) around the wound.
Existence of this indicates the entrance side of a firearm injury & does not indicate range.
3. Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to bluish black - varies somewhat
with the age of the injury). It takes the form of a belt around the wound. It is of uniform in
thickness.
4. Foreign Materials – Their presence not only permits the identification of the firearms injury but they
also permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm.

Factors influencing entrance and exit gunshot wounds

1. Kind of weapon - The higher power the weapon is the more destructive to the tissues of the body.
2. Caliber of the weapon - The higher the caliber of the wounding bullet, the greater will be the size of
the wound of entrance, hence, greater destruction to the tissues.
3. Shape and composition of the missile - The conical shape free end of the bullet slug has more
penetrating power but less tissue destruction, while bullet slug with hemispherical free end had less
penetrating but more destruction to the tissues.

* Some  bullets  were  made to be deformed  upon  heating  the target  like  the hallow
point, dum-dum and  soft  point  bullet. Bullets made of hard metals like the magnum 44 and the
armor-piercing bullet are not usually deformed upon hitting the target. Other bullets and the
fragments may cause further injury to the body. The tracer bullet is in flame during its flight to the
air and may caused burn upon hitting the body and this bullet is also used in targeting the low flying
airplane.

4. Range of fire - the injury is not only due to the missile but also due to the pressure of  the heated
expanded gases, flame and articles of gunpowder.  However, in long range fire, the characteristic
effect of the bullet alone will produce the injury.
5. Direction of fire - A right angle approach of the bullet to the body will produce a round shape wound
of entrance in short distance fire, while in acute angle of approach the bullet will produce  an oval
shape wound of entrance with contusion collar widest on the side of the acute angle of approach
and a tendency for the bullet to deflect to another direction upon hitting the target.
6. Part of the body involved - When the bullet hit the soft tissues of the body; the bullet penetrates
and usually without any change in direction, however upon hitting the bones and other hard body
structures the bullet may fracture the bones causing further injury or may deflect to another
direction.

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Description of the wound of entrance is based on the distance of the body from the fired gun

1. Contact fire. This is burst due to the explosion of the powder which produces the heated and
expanded gases.  There is burning of the tissues because it is within the flame zone; singeing of
the hair; and particles of gunpowder in and around the wound of entrance; skin is separated from
the underlying tissues in the affected area and the blasted tissues are cherry red in color because
of the presence of carbon monoxide; pressure of the bullet will caused caving-in or excavation of
tissues and the contusion collar is seen around the wound of entrance. The size of the wound is
rather small.
2. Near contact up to six inches distance. There is bursting of tissues, burning and blackening of the
skin as in contact fire but the particles of gunpowder are present inside as well as around the
wound of entrance. The shape of the wound maybe lacerated or slit-like and the size is larger than
the diameter of the missile. The excavation of tissues due to the pressure of the penetrating bullet
slug but it can be severe as in contact fire.
3. Distance above six inches up to 24 inches. The size of the wound gradually approximates the size
of the missile.  The farther the target, the lesser the burning or blackening of tissues, gun powder
tattooing, singeing of the hair and excavation of tissues and lesser until they disappear beyond the
24 inches distance.

Differentiation between gunshot wound of Entrance and Wound of Exit

Differential points Wound of Entrance Wound of Exit

1. Size of the wound  smaller than the missile  bigger than the missile
2. Edge of the wound  Inverted  Everted
3. Shape of the wound  Round or oval  no definite shape
4. Contusion collar  present in contact and near  absent
5. Gunpowder tattooing contact fire  absent
6. Protrusion of tissue  Presence or absence  maybe absent if the slug is
7. Paraffin test  Absent lodged inside the body
 + in contact and near fire  negative

Determination whether the gunshot injury is Suicidal, Homicidal or Accidental

A. Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal

1.Accessibility of the involved part to the hand of the victim

2.Usually only one gunshot wound
3.Usually the distance is short range or class range
4.Presence of suicide note
5.History of frustration or despondency of the victim
6.Presence of cadaveric spasm on the hand of the victim
7.Exclusion of other evidences to prove that it is not suicide

B. Evidence that the gunshot wound is homicidal

1. Wound is located at any part of the body

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 2. Victim usually at a certain distance from the assailant
3. Signs of struggle (Defense wound) maybe present in the victim
4. Disturbances of the surroundings.
5. Wounding weapon usually not found at the scene of the crime
6. Testimony from the witnesses

C. Evidence that gunshot wound is accidental

1. Usually only one gunshot wound

2. Wound located at any part of the body
3. Absence of personal grudge between the victim and the one who fired the gun
4. Testimony from witnesses

Take note:

Shotgun Wound - It is an open wound produced by the penetration of pellets or shots within the
tissues of the body. In shotgun fire, the pellets penetrate and usually lodged inside the body and a
tendency for a wider dispersion of pellets at a certain distance except in contact and near contact fires.

Characteristics of the Shotgun Wound of Entrance

1. Contact fire - irregular with bursting of the affected tissues due to explosion of the heated and
expanded with accompanying flame causing burning of the skin and the tissues. There is singeing
of the hair; presence of wads and particles of gunpowder inside the wound of entrance.
2. Near shot up to six inches distance. There is marked laceration of the skin and destruction of
tissues due to the pressure of explosion. The burning on the surface of the skin and particles of
gunpowder are present inside and around the wound of entrance. There is singeing of the hair as
well as pieces of wads inside and outside the wound of entrance.
3. Distance about one yard. The pellets penetrate the tissues as one mass making the wound with
irregular edge of the wound of entrance. There will also be blackening of tissues with slight burn -
ing, singeing of the hair or gunpowder tattooing.
4. Distance about two to three yards. The wound of entrance has a big central hole with ragged
edges and a few stray wounds of entrance around the central hole. At this distance, there will be
no more blackening or burning of the skin, gunpowder tattooing, singeing of the hair and pieces of
wads or near the wound of entrance.
5. Distance of four yards. A small group of pellets may penetrate the tissues producing a central
core, although plenty of pellets in a wider dispersion may produced separate wound of entrance.
The pellets dispersed about one and a half the distance in yards in non-choked barrel while in full-
choked bore the dispersion is one half less but there is a wider dispersion in short barrel shotgun.

Points to consider in the reporting of gunshot and shotgun injuries

1. Detailed description of the gunshot and shotgun wound

2. Location of wound in the body
3. Measurement of the wound as to diameter and depth
4. Number of wound of entrance and exit
5. Direction and length of the bullet tract
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 6. Organs or tissues involved
7. Location of the slug if lodged in the body
8. Diagram, photograph, sketch or drawing of the gunshot or shotgun wound

Effects or complications of wound

1. Hemorrhage – Bleeding. It is the loss of blood from the ruptured vessel secondary to trauma or
existing pathology.
2. Direct mechanical injury - This is the direct damage to the tissues
3. Shock - It is disturbance of the balance of fluid in the body characterized by fall in blood pressure,
decreases blood flow or blood volume in the body.
4. Infection. It is the appearance, growth and multiplication of the micro-organism in the living tissues.
5. Embolism. It is the clogging of the blood vessel by foreign bodies such as air or bits of fats or
septic embolus causing blocking to the blood flow to the distal tissues supplied by the blood.

Points to consider in the reporting of wound:

1. Character of the wound
2. Location of wound in the body
3. Measurement of the wound - It is declared in inches, centimeters and millimeters.
a. Length
b. Width
c. Depth
4. Number of wound
5. Direction of wound
6. Organs involved
7. Severity of the wound
8. Period of healing or incapacity of the victim.

Other pieces of evidence in dealing with the wound

1. Evidence from the wounding weapon

a. Presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other body fluids on the wounding weapon.
2. Evidence from the victim as well as the assailant
a. Presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other body fluids on the victim or assailant
b. Presence of wound on the victim as well as the assailant
c. Effects or complications of wound such as found in the clinical manifestations on the victim
3. Evidence from the scene of the crime
a. Presence of blood stains or drops of blood on the streets or flouring, walls, furniture and other
materials at the scene of the crime
b. Presence of bits of tissues, torn clothing and other body fluids at the scene of the crime

Take Note:

SIR SYDNEY SMITH – founder of the Medico-Legal Faculty at Cairo University and later Regis
Professor of Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh, was one of the leading exponents in studying entrance and
exit wounds, powder burns and powder “tattooing” on human skin and other medical phenomena
associated with gun fire.
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Studies involving Terminal and Wound Ballistics

ii. 1857 – Monsieur Noiles. He published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu Courtes’. His thesis dealt with
the subject of wounds made by small firearms.
iii. 1889 – Mr. A. Lacassogne of Lyon, France. He published a paper tided “La Deformation Des
Balles de Revolver” (Deformation of Revolver Bullets) in Volume 5. Archives de l’Antropologie
Criminelle et Des Sciences Penales.
iv. 1748 - Henry Shrapnel. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot whit a small
bursting charge, increasing the effective range of case.
v. Anomynous author. Published a thesis an article entitled “Entrance Wounds and Powder
Markings”.
vi. Mr. Louis B. Wilson. He published an article entitle “Dispersion of Bullet Energy in Relation to
Wound Effects”.
vii. P. Chavigny and E. Gelma. They authored an article entitled “Fissures of the Skull by Revolver
Bullets at short-range”.
viii. J. Howard Mathews. Chairman of the Department of Chemistry at the University of Wisconsin. In
this first criminal case, he was involved on the metallographic analysis of bomb parts used to kill an
individual.

ACTIVITY 6 GUIDED QUESTIONS

Simple Recall: Answer the following questions.

1. Deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the end of the projectile's flight as an
integral and un-deformed body.
2. He published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu Courtes’. His thesis dealt with the subject of wounds made
by small firearms.
3. Founder of the Medico-Legal Faculty at Cairo University and later Regis Professor of Forensic
Medicine at Edinburgh, was one of the leading exponents in studying entrance and exit wounds,
powder burns and powder “tattooing” on human skin and other medical phenomena associated with
gun fire.
4. It is the clogging of the blood vessel by foreign bodies such as air or bits of fats or septic embolus
causing blocking to the blood flow to the distal tissues supplied by the blood.
5. It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target. Penetration of the bullet is
of prime interest.
6. What involve in terminal ballistics?
7. The amount of spread in the shot is controlled by the ________.
8. It is caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly believed. It is also
known as burning or charring.
9. Points to consider in the reporting of gunshot and shotgun injuries.
10. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot whit a small bursting charge, increasing
the effective range of case.

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IV. FORENSIC BALLISTICS

It is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of firearms by means of ammunition fired
through them. This is the real branch of the science which the police use as their guide
in field investigations.  This includes the following:

1. Field Investigations - conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when they investigate a
case or cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine job of the investigating officers,
and this involves recognition, collection, marking, preservation, and transmittal of ballistics exhibits
like fired bullets, fired shells, firearms and allied matters.
2. Technical examinations of the ballistics exhibits - This is the job performed by the firearms
examiners in the laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms, test firings of evidence
firearms to obtain test bullets and test shells for comparative purposes, photomicrography under
the bullet comparison microscope, preparation of comparative charts, and the making of reports on
the findings and observations of the firearms examiners.
3. Legal proceedings - Court Trials - wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner and
the ballistics exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.

Take Note:

FORENSIC - As applied to ballistics, or to any other subject, suggest a relationship to Courts of

Justice and legal proceedings.

FORUM – It is a Latin word from which forensic was derived, meaning a marketplace,
where people gather for "public disputation" or "public discussion". Thus, the title "Forensic Ballistics" aptly
describes the subject under consideration - the science of investigation and identification of firearms and
ammunitions used in crimes. The terms "Ballistics", Forensic Ballistics" and "Firearms Identification", have
come to mean one and the same thing in the minds of the public, and they can be used interchangeably.

Studies concerning Forensic Ballistics

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 1835 - Henry Goddard. In one of his case in England, where a homemaker was shot and killed, he
was able to identify the mold mark – the mold is used to manufacture lead balls from molten leads
– on the field projectile. He was the bullet, which could be traced back to the mold. He also
examined the paper patch – the paper patch provides the seal between the ball gunpowder
firearms – was able to identify it as having been torn from a newspaper that was found on the room
of the guilty servant.
 Paul Jesrich. He took photomicrographs of two bullets to compare, and subsequently individualize
them through the minute differences.
 1905 - Mr. Kockel. He published an article entitled “The Expert Examination of Fired Bullets”.
 1912 - Professor V. Baltazard. He devised a series of procedures to identify fired bullets to the
firearms from which they were fired. He studied the firearms by taking an elaborate series of
photographs of test fired bullet from the firearms as well as evidence bullet. He also applied these
same specilalized photographic techniques to the examination and identification of cartridge
casings using firing pin, breech face, ejection and extractor marks.
 1913 - Professor Baltazard. Published the first article individualizing bullet markings.
 1922 - Mr. C. Williams. He wrote an article entitle “Fingerprints on Bullets” which appeared in
Outdoor Life magazine.
 1920 - R.E. Herrick. He published an article entitled “Ballistics Jurisprudence”.
 November 1924 – Dr Sydney Smith. He wrote an article concerning the details of the investigating
that appeared in the British Medical Journal in January 1926. He relates that he believes that
scientific examination of firearms and projectiles in Great Britain had its beginning as a result of the
publication of his report on the case.
 1920  - COL CALVIN H. GODDARD  (M.D.,  U.S.  ARMY) pioneered the introduction of this
science in Criminology courses in the different universities.
 1947 - Col Goddard came to the Philippines when Gen.  Castaneda was ambushed together with
his aid, Col Salgado in Kamias, Quezon City, both died.
 1924 – Captain Edward C. ‘Ned’ Crossman. A well-known shooter and sports writer, examined
firearms evidence for the Los Angeles County Sheriff in April 1925, in New York City, New York
(USA), THE Bureau of Forensic Ballistics was established by C.E. Waite, Major (later Colonel)
Calvin H. Goddard, Philip O. Gravelle and John H. Fisher.
 1934 - Major Sir Gerald Burrard. He wrote a book entitled “The Identification of Firearms and
Forensic Ballistics”, which discussed many early cases that occurred throughout the British Empire.
 1935 Major Julian S. Hatcher. He wrote and published; “Textbook of Firearms Investigation,
Identification and Evidence” together with the “Textbook of Pistols and Revolvers.”
 1944 – John E. Davis. He joined the Police Department in Oakland, California establishing its first
criminology laboratory.
 Derechter and Mage. They wrote an article entitled “Communication on the Identification of Fired
Bullets and Shells”.
 Arthur Lucas. He published an article entitled “The Examination of Firearms and Projectiles in
Forensic Cases”.
 Jack D. Gunther & Professor Charles O. Gunther. They published the entitled “The Identification of
Firearms”, which provided additional information about the principles of firearms identification with
approximately one-half of the book discussing in great detail the Sacco-Vanzetti case to include
reprinting large portions of the actual court transcript. They also discussed the need for the
science of firearm identification to utilize the scientific methodology.
 1958 – John E. Davis. An eminent criminals and Director of the Oakland Police Department (CA)
Criminalistics Section (Crime Lab) wrote a book titled “An Introduction to Tool Marks, Firearms and
21
 the Striagraph”. In his book, Davis provided excellent information about the examination and
identification of firearms and tool mark evidence.
 1996 – Tom A. Warlow. He published a text on firearms identification titled “Firearms, the Law and
Forensic Ballistics”. Warlow has written a useful text that contains excellent information for firearm
and toolmark examiners.
 1997 – Brian J. Heard. He published a text on firearms identification titled “Handbook of Firearms
and Ballistics Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence”.

ACTIVITY 7 GUIDED QUESTIONS

Simple Recall: Answer the following questions.

1. He wrote a book entitled “The Identification of Firearms and Forensic Ballistics”, which discussed
many early cases that occurred throughout the British Empire.
2. It is a Latin word from which forensic was derived, meaning a marketplace, where people gather
for "public disputation" or "public discussion". Thus, the title "Forensic Ballistics" aptly describes
the subject under consideration - the science of investigation and identification of firearms and
ammunitions used in crimes.
3. What includes in the study of forensic ballistics?
4. What is forensic ballistics?
5. In one of his case in England, where a homemaker was shot and killed, he was able to identify the
mold mark; the mold is used to manufacture lead balls from molten leads on the field projectile.
6. A well-known shooter and sports writer, examined firearms evidence for the Los Angeles County
Sheriff in April 1925, in New York City, New York (USA).
7. He took photomicrographs of two bullets to compare, and subsequently individualize them through
the minute differences.
8. He published an article entitled “The Examination of Firearms and Projectiles in Forensic Cases”.
9. He published a text on firearms identification titled “Firearms, the Law and Forensic Ballistics”.
10. It is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of firearms by means of ammunition fired
through them.

22