ELT-200

Lateralization process begins in early childhood. It coincides with the period during which language
acquisition takes place. During childhood, there is a period when the human brain is most ready to receive input
and learn a particular language. This is known as the critical period.May 22, 2017

Theories of the process of lateralization

The apparent specialization of the left hemisphere for language is usually described in terms of lateral
dominance or lateralization. Lateralization process begins in early childhood. It coincides with the period during
which language acquisition takes place. During childhood, there is a period when the human brain is most ready
to receive input and learn a particular language. This is known as the critical period. The general view is that the
critical period for first language acquisition lasts from birth until puberty. This process of development is called
Maturation. The idea of a critical period for development of particular processes is not unique to humans.
Songbirds display hemispheric specialization in that only one hemisphere controls singing.

There are three accounts of how lateralization emerges (Bates Roe, 2001; Tomas, 2003). The equipotentiality
hypothesis states that the two hemispheres are similar at birth with respect to language, each able in principle to
acquire the processes responsible for language, with the left hemisphere maturing to become specialized for
language functions. The irreversible determinism hypothesis states that the left side is specialized for language
at birth and the right hemisphere only takes over language functions if the left is damaged over a wide area
(Rasmussen &Milner, 1975; Woods &Carey, 1979). Irreversible determinism says that language has an affinity
for the left hemisphere because of innate anatomical organization, and will not abandon it unless an entire
center is destroyed. The critical difference between the equipotentiality and irreversible determinism hypotheses
is that in the former, either hemisphere can become specialized for language, but in the latter, the left
hemisphere becomes specialized for language unless there is a very good reason otherwise. The emergentist
account brings together these two extremes, saying that the two hemispheres of the brain are characterized at
birth by innate biases in types of information processing that are not specific to language processing, such that
the left hemisphere is better suited to being dominant, although both hemispheres play a role acquiring language
(Lidzha & Krageloh-Mann, 2005).

The Critical Period Hypothesis is the best-known version of the equipotentiality hypothesis. Lenneberg (1967)
argued that a birth the left and right hemispheres of the brain are equipotential. There is no cerebral asymmetry
at birth; instead lateralization occurs as a result of maturation. The process of lateralization develops rapidly
between the ages of 2 and 5 years, and then slows down, being complete by puberty. The completion of
lateralization means the end of the critical period.

There are many theories about Critical Period Hypothesis, some of them confirm the existence of a critical
period in acquiring a language and others bring this existence into question or make a distiction between the
presence of a critical period in FLA and SLA.

The idea of a Critical Period Hypothesis comes from the nativists, lead by Lenneberg and Chomsky, whose
explanation is that there is a critical period because the brain is pre-programmed to acquire language early in
development. Bever (1981) argued that it is a normal property of growth, arising from a loss of plasticity as
brain cells and processes become more specialized and more independent.

The Critical Period Hypothesis of Lenneberg (1967) comprises two related ideas, The first idea is that certain
biological events related to language development can only happen in an early critical period. In particular,
hemispheric specialization takes place during the critical period, and during this time children possesses a
degree of flexibility that is lost when the critical period is finished. The second component of the Critical Period
Hypothesis is that certain linguistic events must happen to the child during this period for development to
proceed normally. Proponents of this theory argue that language is acquired most efficiently during the critical
period.
The most important idea of Critical Period Hypothesis is that unless children receive linguistic input during the
critical period, they will be unable to acquire language normally. One of the most famous of these cases was the
Wild Boy of Aveyron, a child found in isolated woods in south of France in 1800. Despite attempts by an
educationalist named Dr Itard to socialize the boy, given the name Victor, and to teach him language, he never
learned more than two words.

It is less easy to apply this argument to the unfortunate child known as “Genie”. Genie was a child who was
apparently normal at birth, but suffered severe linguistic deprivation. From the age of 20 months until she was
13 years and 9 months, when she was found, she had been isolated in a small room. Not surprisingly, Genie’s
linguistic abilities were virtually non-existent.

Critical period in SLA

Theories in favour of the existence of a critical period in SLA

According to the nativist theory, once the critical period is over, usually postulated to be sometime during
puberty, it is assumed that a person who begins to learn a L2 will be unable to achieve the native-like
competence and performance in it.

The basic assumption of a biologically determined critical period is that some essential capacities of younger
children are not available to adult learners. One such capacity is the learner’s access to Universal Grammar, that
is, the innate system of linguistic categories, mechanisms and constraints shared by all human languages
(Chomsky, 1995).

Mark Patkowski hypothesized that only those who had begun learning their second language before the age of
fifteen could ever achieve full, native-like mastery of that language. These results gave added support to the
Critical Period Hypothesis for second language acquisition.

Theories against the existence of a critical period in SLA

There are two reasons for rejecting a strong version of the Critical Period Hypothesis. Children can acquire
some language outside of the critical period, and lateralization does not occur wholly within it.

A critical period appears to be involved in early phonological development and the development of syntax. The
weakened version is often called a sensitive period hypothesis. There is a sensitive period for language
acquisition, but it seems confined to complex aspects of syntactic processing. (Bialystok&Hakuta, 1994). Locke
(1997), argues that a sensitive period arises because of the interplay of developing specialized neural systems,
early perceptual experience, and discontinuities in linguistic development. Lack of appropriate activation during
development acts like physical damage to some areas of the brain. The distinction between the Critical Period
Hypothesis and the sensitive period hypothesis is whether acquisition is “possible only within the definite span
of age” or “easier within the period”. Seliger’s proposal (1978), is that there may be multiple critical or sensitive
periods for different aspects of language.

The maturational explanation is that certain advantages are lost as the child’s cognitive and neurological system
matures. In particular, what might first appear to be a limitation of the immature cognitive system might turn
out to be an advantage for the child learning language.

The results of experimental studies have two important implications for adult second language learning. One is
that children’s acquisition of a foreign language is different from that of adults’. The other is that acquisition of
pronunciation and grammar is also different because it involves a problem of physiologic aging process. Adults
can learn the grammar of a new language more easily and rapidly than children but that they retain foreign
accents.

Theories that consider the existence of a critical period in FLA but not
in SLA
It is widely believed that the ability to acquire language declines with increasing age. Today it is generally
agreed that a critical period does exist for first language acquisition but the hypothesis is not as uniformly
accepted as applicable to SLA.

When considering separately the time required for L2 learning and the ultimate success achieved in the L2,
some researchers suggested a compromise conclusion that older is faster but younger is better. At initial stages
of L2 acquisition, older learners were at an advantage in rate of acquisition but only in limited aspects.

In a recent critical review of the Critical Period Hypothesis literature, Marinova observed that, despite general
perceptions that older learners are slower L2 learners, the research has long revealed that, in fact, older learners
are faster in process of L2 acquisition, especially at the initial stages.

Theoretically, if the critical period for L2 acquisition exists, and older learners are strictly at a disadvantage due
to age and some biological or maturation constraints, then all late L2 learners should be performing well below
the younger learners. However, many studies, whether supporting of challenging the Critical Period Hypothesis,
have shown that younger learners tend to perform fairly similarly to one another, while generally older learners
show greater variation in their L2 performances.

The effects of the L2 learning process and the type of L2 learning environment have been studied more formally
on a larger scale. It has been argued that if adults are able to learn an L2 implicitly in more natural settings,
similar to the way children learn language, then they may achieve similar levels of performance at a faster rate
(Neufeld).

The Critical Period Hypothesis has traditionally been used to explain why second language acquisition is
difficult for older children and adults. Johnson and Newport (1989) examined the way in which the critical
period hypothesis might account for second language acquisition. They distinguished two hypotheses, both of
which assume that humans have a superior capacity for learning language early in life. According to the
maturational state hypothesis, this capacity disappears or declines as maturation progresses, regardless of other
factors. The exercise hypothesis further states that unless this capacity is exercised early, it is lost. Both
hypotheses predict that children will be better than adults in acquiring the first language. The exercise
hypothesis predicts that as long as a child has acquired a first language during childhood, the ability to acquire
other languages will remain intact and can be used at any age. The maturational hypothesis predicts that
children will be superior at second language learning, because the capacity to acquire language dismisses with
age.

Are children in fact better than adults at learning language? The evidence is not clear-cut as is usually thought.
Snow (1983) concluded that contrary to popular opinion, adults are in fact no worse than young children at
learning a second language, and indeed might even be better. Children spend much more time than adults
learning the language.

Snow and Hoefnagel-Hohle (1978) compared English children with English adults in their first year of living in
the Netherlands learning to speak Dutch. The young children 3-4 years old, performed worst of all. In addition,
a great deal of the advantage for young children usually attributed to the critical period may be explicable in
terms of differences in the type and amount of information available to learners. There is also a great deal of
variation: some adults are capable of near-native performance on a second language, whereas some children are
less successful. They proposed that there is a change in maturational state, from plasticity to a steady state, at
about age 16. The younger a person is, the better they seem to acquire a second language.

There is evidence for a critical period for some aspects of syntactic development and, even more strongly, for
phonological development. However, rather than any dramatic discontinuity, decline seems to be gradual.
Second language acquisition is not a perfect test of the hypothesis, however, because the speakers have usually
acquired at least some of a first language.

Lenneberg supplied some evidence to support the CPH and he found that injuries to the right side caused more
language problems in children than in adults. He also provided evidence to show that whereas children rapidly
recovered total language control after such operations, and adults did not so, but instead continued to display
permanent linguistic impairment. However, this evidence doesn’t demonstrate that is easier to acquire a
language before puberty. In fact he assumed that LA was easy for children. The CPH is an inadequate account
of the role played in SLA, because this assumption was only partially correct. Only where pronunciation is
concerned is an early start an advantage, and even then only in terms of success, not rate of acquisition.
Developmental changes in the brain, it is argued, affect the nature of language acquisition, and language
learning that occurs after the end of the critical period may not be based on the innate biological structures
believed to contribute to first language acquisition or second language acquisition in early childhood. Rather,
older learners may depend on more general learning abilities.

In educational settings, learners who begin learning a second language at primary school level do not always
achieve greater proficiency in the long run than those who begin in adolescence.

The Critical Period Hypothesis is a particularly relevant case in point. This is the claim that there is, indeed, an
optimal period for language acquisition, ending at puberty. However, in its original formulation (Lenneberg
1967), evidence for its existence was based on the relearning of impaired L1 skills, rather than the learning of a
second language under normal circumstances.

Conclusion

As well as there is an agreement that corroborates the Critical Period Hypothesis set up by the nativists during
the L1 acquisition, there is not such agreement when considering L2 acquisition. Contrary to what was thought
about the impossibility to acquire an L2 after the end of the critical period, there is some evidence that show
learning an L2 after puberty is also achievable. The theories that support this idea say that an adult or an
adolescent learner will be able to acquire a native-like mastery in the L2 as a younger learner will do.

Since the study of human brain is still very limited, some theorists contradict the non-presence of a critical
period in SLA. For this reason, although it seems to be a prevalent theory about this aspect, it will be difficult to
arrive to a general consensus.

ntroduction
Courtney, S. (1989) “Adult Education is an intervention into the ordinary business of life–an intervention whose
immediate goal is change, in knowledge or in competence. An adult educator is one, essentially, who is skilled
at making such interventions.”

Who are adult learners? Adult learners are normally considered as the learners who are over the age of 25 years.
They are normally referred as non-traditional students. Adult learners group has different abilities, wide range
of educational backgrounds and cultural backgrounds. They have more responsibilities and experiences. In
traditional education system, as soon as students finish the high school, they enrol in tertiary education. It can
be a diploma or an undergraduate program. Adult learner typically doesn’t follow the traditional education
system. “The adult education is also called “workforce education” (Mary Jo Self, Ed.D.)

Learning is a life-long process. It starts from the very first day of life to the very last day of the life. Most of the
people think that, the learning or studying happens only in school or college life. This thinking may be more
from the adults.

Adult learners will have many responsibilities unlike a fresh high school student. Most of the adults are full
time workers and full time parents too. They always have many barriers to learn. These barriers can be divided
into various categories. It can be physical barrier, attitudinal barrier or a structural barrier. It is true that adults
always face some challenges that younger people don’t have to face. Some of the studies show that many adult
women also face lots of barriers like early pregnancy, low socio-economic status and child care and many more
as a barrier to learn. These barriers will be broadly discussed. A fundamental aspect to continuing higher
education is identifying and overcoming of barriers to adult learning.

The main purpose of this assignment is identifying why adults are less in learning process. In this way, I will
mainly focus on the barriers to adult learning. Later in the assignment, I will try to provide some ideas to
overcome or reduce the barriers in adult learning.

BARRIERS TO ADULT LEARNERS

A very basic aspect to continuing higher education is to identify and overcome the barriers to adult learning.
“Adult learners are an increasing population in higher education. Between 1969 and 1984, the number of adults
participating in education programs increased 79 percent” (Kristen M. De Vito, Eastern Illinois University).
This group of students take learning as a serious work.

This group of learners share are large quantity of number students learning in an educational institution. Even
though, the number adult learners are increasing day by day there are many barriers for them to learn and to
become successful in their life.

The barriers to adult learning can be described as follows.

 Situational barriers
 Institutional barriers
 Dispositional barriers
 Academic barriers
 Employment training barriers
 Cultural barriers

Situational barriers
The situation barriers mostly occur with respect to a certain situation. Due a unfavourable condition in life,
some adult do not want participate in learning. Sometime, these conditions make them frustration to go to an
educational instate. This barrier is mostly working related or family conditions. There may be a huge number of
responsibilities that one has to carry out at the same time. These responsibilities may be more important than
going to an educational institute. Due to these unfavourable situations the opportunity to learn and to educate
will be very much narrowed for those learners.

This barrier may include:

Busy work schedule: Most of the adults who are willing learn will be working to earn. Due the busy schedule
in their work place, they may not get enough time to go an educational institution. Sometime, due to high living
expenses, they may be working more than one place to earn. Their busy schedule may have no time to allocate
for studying. The working men and women might have to face this barrier.

Family and children: This barrier mainly may face to women. Most of the times, in many societies’ women
are responsible for family and children especially. They have to look after children, feeding them, taking them
to school or any other house works are mainly done by the women. This condition will even worm if a couple
live alone because there may be no one or a few to look after the children. Men also have to face such a
situation.

Financial problems: Many people stop studying after the high school due to financial problems. That is the one
of the main reasons why people join workforce, to earn. Most of the times, adult learners do not earn enough
money to spend for their tuition fee. This is very big concern for the most of the adults who want learn and most
of the people stop their learning process at point. This is one of the biggest issues that adult learners might face
in Maldives.

Lack of child care services: Child care centres will help people to move to jobs and as well as to study if time
allows for them. But, sadly, this service is rare in many developing and underdeveloped countries. For example,
in Maldives, hardly we have any childcare centre.

Transportation: This is also one of the conditions that people might face. If there is a good transportation
systems people can travel from home to the place of study. Unfortunately, the transportation system may not be
very systematic much rural area in the world or may be expensive to travel from one place to another.

In addition to above mentioned situational conditions, some other situations that put a barrier to learn are
sensory or learning disability, lack of support from others like from family or employer.

Institutional barriers
Institutional barriers are the inconveniences faced from the educational institutions. This difficulty may be
either the design of the course, method of delivering lectures or even sometimes administrative difficulties.
Institutional barriers happen intentionally or unintentionally.

Some of the institutional barriers include:

Difficulty in paying tuition fees: Some of the educational institutes are very strict in paying tuition fees for
them. Such institutions have very fixed dates to pay or a very short time line to pay the tuition fees. Due the lack
of money or lack of time adult learners may face lots of barriers to pay the tuition fees. Some of the learners
may quit the programmes because of this difficulty.

Inconveniences faced due to improper scheduling of the programs: There are cases that institutions often
offer full-time programmes for the learners. This wills a big issue for the adult learners, since they are working
to earn. Attending to a full time programmes will be impossible to an adult learner.

No courses are available to meets learners needs: This is again one of the obstacles that leaners might have to
face. There may a very limited number of courses available in an accessible institution. There are no wide
varieties of programmes available. This will cause adult learners to stop at a point.

Lack of necessary qualification to enter the programme: This is again another problem that adult learners or
even regular learners might have to face. Since the adult learners are mostly involving in the work skill
programmes, they have to stop at this point. Most of the adult learners may not want go back and study as a
traditional students so that they can gain enough qualification to enter the programme of their choice.

Location: The location of an educational institute also plays an important role to participate adults in learning
process. In many cases, the educational institutes are located in developed areas. This will benefit only to those
who lives in that area. If we look at the Maldives, most of the adults in atolls will face this problem because
almost all the tertiary educational institutions are located in Male’. Though they want study they will not have
enough access because of the location.

Dispositional barriers
Dispositional barriers are connected with the internal or personal factors that put a barrier to learn for adults.
This barrier mainly talks about the learners’ attitude to learn. Many adult learners may have negative attitude
towards learning. This may be due to age factor and/or may be fewer results are made in the past studies. Of
course, if a person did not make a good result in their traditional education system then then most of the people
will have a negative attitude to learn in future. This will affect their psychological aspects in learning. The age
factor is also an important dispositional factor that can be described as a dispositional factor. People might think
they are too old to go for an educational institute. They might ignore the fact that, “learning is a lifelong
process”. There are some situations where the learner might be too sick to carry out the task of leaning. “Health
issues emerged from our fieldwork as a major barrier for learners and potential learners” (Peter Bates and Jane
Aston, 2004) .The availability of time is also an important factor. Due to busy of an adult, they might not have
enough time to attend an educational institution. The adult are full time workers, full time parents and when
they join for education they become full time students too. Not everybody has potential to study with this very
schedule in their life. The personal affairs like job, child and family care are more important for them than
learning. There is another problem that some adults might think, “they don’t require any more education.” This
may because of peer pressure or how their peers are behaving. Moreover, just after the high school, some
people will get a good job which will give a decent amount of salary. This is sometime a barrier for them to
come back to learn. In addition to that, inadequate language skill or not having any interest for learning are the
factors that will affect the adult learning.

Academic barriers
This barrier includes the needed skills for future learning. This barrier may include the lack of language skills
which are very much important in learning process. This skill actually helps to access the information of any
form. If the learners cannot access the information, how they can learn. The ability to play with the numbers is
also an important factor. Of course, all will understand (if they are literate) basic mathematics. But numerical
skills are important for further studies. Today is the information age. Every work is done by using internet and
computers. So the basic skill in information technology will be very important. Inadequate skills in computer
and IT will put a barrier for some of the adult learners. If a person of academically not good in his/her childhood
and teenage, then that will still remain as a barrier for them even though they want goes for higher studies.

Employment training barrier

These are the barrier in the work place. This may include the factor like not supporting from the employer for
adult learners. Moreover, the employer will give much preference to well educated workers for giving / sending
for seminars, workshops and/or any other training programmes. The less educated workers will be left over
most of the times. Very often, work place, women are given less preference than male while selecting for a
training programme. This might create bad impression to learn by the women. The immigrants are also given
less preference than locals for training programmes. Most of the employers might think that training women and
less educated people will not bring much economic welfare of the employer.
Cultural and socio-economic barriers
Cultural barriers are basically the barriers due to culture. In some cultures, it believe that women don’t have to
go for work and as well as for higher study. The belief that girls should marry at an earlier age will almost stop
the girls to go for higher studies. The socio-economic status of the society will also play important role adult
learners. As discussed above, in some societies, people will get marry at the earlier and get pregnant soon. This
is a big barrier for adults specially women very often. In addition to that, large families, poor economic
conditions and unemployment are also barriers to adult learning.

OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO ADULT LEARNING

Helping adult learners to overcome the barriers is not an easy work or even not possible in some cases. The
barriers that adult learners’ face will not be able to fix in overnight. To overcome the barriers, learners need
long term support and working environment must need a change. Moreover educational institutes require
changes in their administrative and curriculum issues.

The adult learners and employers need to create close relationship. With this relationship, the employers can
help the learners to learn and create a positive environment for the learners. They may provide some more free
time, and also can provide study leave for the adult learners. This will encourage them to participate more in
learning process.

The institutions must be more flexible and understanding. Institutions have to recognise that adult learners are
working people and/or looking after a family, so they cannot be compared as regular traditional learners. The
rigid policies and regulations for traditional learners will not work for the adult learners. The rule and
regulations must be flexible enough to meet the requirements of the adult learners. They require more help than
the mainstream learners. Some flexibility with the adult learners may include, developing flexible policies on
punctuality, attendance and schedule that are best suit for the learners so that adult learners can cater for their
work and for their family.

As mentioned above, the demography is a great barrier for adult learners to participate in learning process. To
overcome this, introduction of distance learning with the technological advances can be best used. In this way,
the busy adult learners do not have to attend the institute campus. “Distance learning is an excellent method of
teaching adult learners because they need flexibility to contend with competing priorities” (Galusha, Jill M,
1998). They can stay at home and can study on their own. Moreover, they can contact with their lecturers via
technology using the appropriate portals established by the educational institute. This will reduce the barriers to
transport. This also will solve the problems of strict attendance face by the adult learners. “Adults studying
online have a higher GPA than traditional counterparts” (Schreyer Institute for Teaching Excellence, 2007).

Lack of information about the educational opportunities available for adult learner is a big threat for them. This
threat need to be avoided so that adult learner have chance to participate in a program of their choice. For this,
proper advertising of appropriate form should be selected. If all the information is available on internet, there
may be many who cannot reach. Moreover, the employers can play an important role in spreading information.
Just a notice for staffs will do more than we think.

The barrier within the working environment should be avoided even by using rules and regulation. The
employer can arrange in such a way that the leaners can be released from the work to a certain extent to attend
classes. Moreover, the training programmes should be arranged in such a way that all the required employees
are benefited.

Moreover, to overcome the barriers the following actions can be taken:

  Media campaign using different media to aware and encourage about adult learning. Give more focus on
breaking the barriers related with culture.
 The educational institutes can develop the programmes that are flexible to adult learners such evening
class or part – time study programmes of flexible attendance. Flexibility in course completing time is
very important.
 Improving child care services to look after the children so as to help the learner to spend time in working
environment as well as study environment.
 Provide financial supports to adult learners using low interest study loans, paid leaves, or study
allowances.
 Accept that adult learners are busy learners who have taken the decision to join to your program.
Celebrate their bravery and willingness to try.

CONCLUSION
Have you ever wondered why adults are still looking for the opportunities to learn? They seek out and learn
new knowledge and skills. But there are barriers for adult learns. Barriers are found to be situational; which are
mostly family and work related issues such as looking after children, busy work schedule and lack of support
from the employer and/or from the family. Barriers are also found to be institutional: in which it occurs from the
side of the educational institutes such as policies and practices related with adult learners. This can be
inconvenient scheduling, rigid attendance, lack of proper course or lack of financial supports due to high tuition
fees. Dispositional barriers are related with attitudes of the learners such as lack of confidence, health related
issues or not wanting study furthermore, and weak performance in academic areas in past. The barriers can be
academic; this happens because of not enough language and numerical skills. Some cultural and religious
beliefs also put a barrier for adult learners to learn which is known as socio-economic barriers. With these
barriers, the adult learners are increasing and scoring better than the traditional main stream students. So
together with employers, institution and learners themselves have try to reduce the barriers to adult learning.

References
Ellu Saar and Eve-Liis Roosmaa (2010, 7th February): Overcoming obstacles to adult learning. Paper presented
at Life Long Learning 2010 Final International Conference.

Houle, C. (1996).The Design of Education(2ndEd.)San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 41.

Simon Martin (2011), Barriers to adult learning and training in rural churches, The Arthur Rank Centre

Galusha, J. M. (1998). Barriers to Learning in Distance education. ERRIC

Bates, P & Aston, J (2004). Overcoming Barriers to Adult Basic Skills in Sussex. Falmer; Brighton: UK

Medscape.com (2009), An Overview of Adult Learning Processes, Retrieved

from http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/547417_4

Chao, R. (2009), Understanding the Adult Learner’s motivation and barriers to Adult Learning,. Retrieve from
http://www.academia.edu/

Kristen M. De Vito (2009), Implementing Adult Learning Principles to overcome barriers of learning in
continuing higher education programs. Online Journal of Workforce Education and Development.

Sreb.org. 2014. Who is the Adult Learner? [Online] Retrieve from,

http://www.sreb.org/page/1397/who_is_the_adult_learner.html
Andragogy: A set of assumptions about adult learners

Andragogy, the art and science of teaching adults, is based on a set of core assumptions about why and how
adults learn. The first assumption is that adults are self-directed (Knowles, 1984). As a result, adults learn best
when their learning process can be self-directed, rather than centered in a traditional, dependent educational
environment. Second, adults have both a greater number of experiences from which to learn and a wider variety
of experiences upon which they can draw (Knowles, 1984). Third, adult role development plays an important
part in spurring learning in adults (Knowles, 1984). For example, as a person ages and takes on new roles such
as that of a care provider to a child or an elderly parent, that individual has the need to learn new skills. A fourth
assumption is that, because adult learning is directly related to adult development, adult learning is focused on
solving problems or performing new tasks (Knowles, 1984). Finally, Knowles (1984) assumes that adults are
primarily driven by internal motivators and not external forces.

Criticisms of Andragogy

Both Lee (2003) and Sandlin (2005) describe multiple critiques of Knowles’ (1984) five assumptions. Lee
(2003) challenges andragogy on the basis that it incorrectly incorporates the importance of context. According
to Lee (2003), andragogy is an individualistic concept, focusing only on the context a learner brings from his or
her own experiences. Andragogy fails to consider that the individual does not exist in a vacuum and that
individuals have many identities that may “affect their views of learning and ways of engagement in the
learning process” (Lee, 2003, p. 12).

Sandlin (2005) undertook an integrative literature review that found that critical theorists found andragogy to be
lacking in five major and interrelated ways. First, andragogy treats education as a neutral, nonpolitical activity.
Second, the entire concept is based on a “generic” learner who tends to be white, male, and middle class. Third,
andragogy appears to value only one way of knowing and ignores voices that do not fit into the theory. Fourth,
the concept is almost entirely individualistic, ignoring the importance of context. Finally, andragogy does not
challenge the prevailing social structure, even if that social structure promotes inequality (Sandlin, 2005).

My Assumptions
In developing my own assumptions for andragogy, I have incorporated not only the critiques presented by Lee
(2003) and Sandlin (2005) but also those based on my own experiences as an adult learner and as a teacher of
adults. Most of them reflect the simple fact that humans are often complicated.

My first assumption is that adults may be self-directed in their learning journeys, but they may also elect to
undertake a learning process because they are directed to do so by an external force. This assumption addresses
Sandlin’s (2005) critique that andragogy is based on the idea that there is a generic learner. Men and women
may have very different reasons for wanting to learn certain things, for example. As an educator, it is important
to listen to the voices of your students.

Second, adults may have been around longer but that does not mean they are capable of learning from their
experiences. Most people go through life having experience after experience, but not all of those experiences
are capable of providing a moment of learning. In addition, not everyone is interested in or capable of thinking
about their experiences in such a way as to learn something from them. This assumption incorporates the
criticism that andragogy, as it was originally presented, only valued one way of learning – that of learning from
experience (Sandlin, 2005).

A third assumption is that adults may learn not only to develop the skills and knowledge needed for a new
developmental role but also to address a need within their community. This assumption addresses the concerns
of both Lee (2003) and Sandlin (2005) that andragogy is too focused on the individual and not focused enough
on the social context of the individual or on the need for individuals to address inequity in community. At times,
our communities may call us to undertake a new role for which we need new skills. In other cases, an adult
might see a problem within the community and set out to learn what is needed in order to work towards a
solution. Andragogy must acknowledge that learning is not just about the individual.

A fourth assumption is that adults might want to learn to solve problems but they might also learn just because
learning is fun. Again, this is a reaction to the criticism that andragogy posits a generic learner (Sandlin, 2005).
Adults learn for many reasons. An adult who is exploring a new hobby or learning a new sport may not actually
be attempting to solve a problem. Rather, they may be learning because it is fun to do.

Finally, adults might have multiple motivations for learning particular things at specific times. We may indeed
be driven to learn for a sense of inner achievement, but we may also be driven to learn so that we can battle our
child’s school district when they deny our child something he or she needs. Learning can be a highly political
activity and learning can lead to political activity (Sandlin, 2005). Andragogy should never assume that adult
motivation to learn is wholly driven by internal needs and desires.

Using evidence you select from your readings explain how race, gender and sexual orientation can affect adult
development or learning. Please provide CONCRETE examples of EACH positionality (e.g. one example for
race, one example for gender, and one example for sexual orientation). (Hint: Stories from Adult Learning and
Development: Multicultural Stories may be a good place to start when trying to answer this question.) (3 points)

Race, gender, and sexual orientation, in addition to other personal identifiers such as class, can positively and
negatively affect both adult development and learning. In this essay, I briefly examine several concrete
examples of the relationship between development or learning and a learner’s race or ethnic identity, gender,
and sexual orientation.

Race and Ethnic Identity

Race and ethnic identity can impact learning in a variety of ways. First, race and ethnic identity can influence
what is important or proper for an individual to learn. La Tortillera, a short story by Patricia Preciado Martin
(2000), provides a good example of how race and gender intersect in determining what it is proper for, in this
case, a Latina to learn. In this culture, it is important for a woman and a mother to learn how to make tortillas
for her family. Her mother shows Ms. Martin over and over again how to make tortillas, even though Ms.
Martin finds the tortilla making lessons to be frustrating not only because she can never get them just right but
also because they are a reminder of her inadequacies as a Latina woman and a mother.

How individuals of specific races and ethnic identities are treated can also play a critical role in how individuals
experience learning. Because of racism, minority students are less likely to complete postsecondary education
(Swail, 2003). Unfortunately, in a racist and classist system, minorities often attend poorly funded schools that
lack modern equipment and textbooks or that are unsafe. If they enroll in college or in an adult education
program, they may still have to deal with the long-term effects of racism. Over 50% of Black graduate students,
for example, reported being the targets of racist actions on campus and experienced “isolation, loneliness,
disconnection, and discrimination” as a result (Johnson-Bailey, Valentine, Cervero, & Bowles, 2009, p. 192).

The affect of racism on learning need not be entirely negative, however. Developing a strong sense of self in the
face of racism can lead learners to reengage with their cultures and communities. “Such resentment can be
directed by more deeply engaging with and reclaiming one’s culture, history, and heritage, and thereby
redefining what it means to be ‘me,’ rather than defined (be either oneself or the dominant culture) according to
what one is not … ” (Smith & Taylor, 2010, p. 53).

Gender
Gender can also present challenges to the development and learning experiences of women and men. In the
learning environment she was studying, Cain (2002) described a situation in which a very traditional power
dynamic based on gender developed. The women attempted to develop consensus among all participants, while
a small group of males took over the meetings and ignored the voices of everyone else in the room. The lessons
for all involved were tragic. “The importance of this for learning is that so many of the initial participants,
including all the women, learned that their contributions were not valued and they quit the group” (Cain, 2000,
p. 70). The men’s developmental process had taught them that their voices were the most important, and, as a
result, they ignored and alienated other voices that could have brought a great deal of knowledge to the work.

Another example that shows how gender can influence the learning experiences of men and women can be seen
in Michael Dorris’ (2000) short story Groom Service. In the story, Bernard and Marie both exhibit behaviors
they have learned as the appropriate behaviors for their gender. What Bernard learns, in particular, is described
in the story. Bernard’s skills include hunting. “Later he thought about hunting, how he could have succeeded the
times he had failed, how the animals behaved, how they smelled and sounded” (Dorris, 2000, p. 219). Bernard
also learns proper behavior around his future in-laws, with whom he will live in this matrilineal society.

Sexual Orientation
Like race and gender, sexual orientation can both positively and negatively affect development and learning.
For example, if they are not “out” to their family, friends, or teachers, lesbian, bisexual, gay, and transgender
(LGBT) students may suffer from anxiety about their sexual orientation (Messinger, 2004). They may decide to
stay in the closet because they fear that being open about their orientation might lead to violence against them
(Messinger, 2004). They may also fear that their parents will withdraw financial and emotional support from
them (Freedman, 2009).

As with individuals who grow stronger by facing racism, students who develop strong self-identities in the face
of homophobia can come through the experience stronger. They often show a more highly developed sense of
empathy and better critical thinking skills than those who have not had to face the same challenges (Messinger,
2004).

You have taken Howard Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Test online. You are in charge of training resident hall
assistants. Their highest multiple intelligence is one of your bottom three intelligences based on your test
results.

List your group’s learning style and provide a course title (.25 point)

Provide one course objective (see the CAHA 501 course syllabus or seek information on the internet to properly
word a course objective if you do not have experience writing objectives). (.75 point)

Describe how you would teach that objective to your students based on their learning style. Use concrete
examples (at least two) and make a clear and direct connection between the learning style and achieving the
teaching of your objective. (2 points)

Learning Styles and My Training Course

My bottom three intelligences were social (3.14), body movement (3.00), and spatial (3.00). For the purposes of
this essay, my resident hall assistants will be strongest in bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Learners that excel in
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence often use parts of their body or their entire body as they work through the
learning process (Smith 2002, 2008). As a result, they learn best through hands-on exercises, including building
things and role playing (Armstrong, 2009).
The course I will be offering them as part of their training is “Helping the International Student Transition to
American Higher Education.” The course objective is to develop empathy among resident hall assistants for the
challenges that international students face when starting college in the United States.

Training Exercises
Armstrong (2009) suggests that one method to engage students with strong kinesthetic learning intelligence is to
role play or act out what you want them to learn. To help resident hall assistants gain a better understanding of
what it is like to be an international student attending college in the United States for the first time, I will offer a
role playing exercise. In the exercise, the learners will pull a scenario out of a hat. They will have to role play
either an international student facing a barrier or challenge or a resident hall assistant tasked with helping the
student work through the situation. An example of one scenario that the trainees might act out would be that of
a South Korean female student who has been harassed by other students for walking arm in arm with her female
friends. While this is a common behavior for young women in South Korea, in the United States, it can set
students up for homophobic harassment. The role of the resident hall assistant in this scenario would be to help
the South Korean student understand why they are being harassed and to talk through strategies for dealing with
the negative emotions harassment can engender and for promoting personal safety. Another role play might
involve acting like an Ethiopian student who has enrolled in a northern college without knowing that winter
clothing, like a coat, is needed. This exercise advances the objective by helping the students role play a situation
in which they take on the persona of an international student facing a realistic problem.

As part of the training program, I would tell the resident assistants that lunch will be provided to them. The
purpose of the lunch, however, is to offer them another kinesthetic learning opportunity. Another way in which
to promote improved learning by kinesthetic learners is to engage them in hands-on activities or, in this case, a
mouth and stomach-centered activity (Armstrong, 2009). Our lunch would be set up like the cafeteria at an
American university. The food would not be labeled, and they would represent various foods that are eaten
around the world that might be strange to American students. For example, there might be foods such as curried
goat, tongue tacos, stewed okra, natto (fermented soybeans), blood pudding, kifte (highly spiced raw beef), kim
chi (spicy fermented vegetables), and bread fruit and drinks like horchata and ginger beer. Seeing such a buffet
might be disorientating to learners who are steeped in American culture and who are used to school menus of
pizza and hamburgers. This exercise provides students with a concrete, hands-on learning experience, that of
being forced to select and eat foods that are strange without any prior experience or guidance (McKenzie,
1999). It promotes the objective by allowing the resident hall assistant to experience what an international
student might experience the first day in the cafeteria.

You have taken the Emotional Intelligence Test online.

a) Argue for or against the use of emotional intelligence tests in hiring. You need to cite at least TWO (2)
sources outside course materials to support your answer. (2 points)

I find the idea of emotional intelligence to be highly attractive. “Emotional intelligence is a set of abilities that
includes the abilities to perceive emotions in the self and in others, use emotions to facilitate performance,
understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and regulate emotions in the self and in others” (Mayer &
Salovey, 1997). Even though the concept of emotional intelligence currently is supported as a “separate
construct of intelligence” by little empirical evidence (Merriam, Caffarella, & Baumgartner, 2007, p. 383), I
find that this model speaks to me because it argues for the importance of a very important part of life that is
often denigrated or denied. How we interact and perceive the world is not just cold and rational, but rather our
emotions play an important part in how we perceive the world and how we learn and make meaning.

Dirkx (2008) argues that “emotional issues never seem very far from the surface in adult learning contexts” (p.
9). Emotions can affect how the student reacts to a classroom setting. They can also impact, positively or
negatively, how well an individual learns, especially if a learner is scared or fearful (Rager, 2009). In addition,
conflicts between learners can create negative emotions that negatively impact the ability to learn (Dirkx, 2008).
Having emotional intelligence can better help learners understand not only their own learning process but also
can help them understand what their fellow learners are going through.

The use of emotional intelligence tests in hiring, however, is a different matter. Does emotional intelligence
play an important role in an individual’s ability to be a good employee? Is it possibly to accurately test an
individual’s emotional intelligence?

The use of emotional intelligence tests in hiring is growing, yet the validity of the tests is debatable (Grubb &
McDaniel, 2007). There is no doubt that emotional intelligence can be helpful in the workplace. Cote and
Miners (2006) found that workers who had low cognitive abilities could be highly successful workers if they
had strong emotional intelligence to compensate for their deficiencies in other areas. However, the ability to
accurately test for emotional intelligence and to find a test that could not be “faked out” continues to be
difficult. Grubb and McDaniel (2007) found that, at least with one particular emotional intelligence test, the
EQ-i:S, it was possible to teach test takers how to “fake” emotional intelligence. In their experiment, they found
that fakers could be identified in only 31% of the cases, but “most of the respondents were able to increase their
score by faking and not be identified” (Grubb & McDaniel, 2007, p. 56). Of what use is a test that can be so
easily deceived?

On the other hand, other researchers have found emotional intelligence tests to be very useful in hiring
practices. In one study, the researchers found that emotional intelligence tests were advantageous to minority
test takers, as they tended to score higher in emotional intelligence than Caucasians (Van Rooy, Alexander, &
Chockalingam, 2005). If hiring were based on emotional intelligence tests with the hiring individual unaware of
the race of the test taker, minority applicants might be more likely to be hired, whereas in traditional hiring
situations they are more likely to not be hired due to racism.

When I took the emotional intelligence test online, I was highly dismayed by the results, which indicated that I
had below average emotional intelligence. I found this distressing because I have spent most of my career
working in positions that require a high degree of emotional intelligence (ability to read people, empathy) and I
have been very successful in my work. Have I been faking emotional intelligence this entire time or did I just
not do well in the testing environment? Or was the test itself faulty?

In the end, I believe that the concept of emotional intelligence is important to consider in the workplace. In
many positions, having emotional intelligence is key to or supports success. However, emotional intelligence
tests remain problematic and should be used only with great caution. Ultimately, whether or not someone has
the emotional intelligence needed for any given position will only be determined by observing that individual’s
performance on the job. As the testing instruments are developed and refined, perhaps this fact will change, but
for now, to base a decision on whether or not to hire a given individual on the basis of an emotional intelligence
test is not in the best interests of employer or employee.

5. Situated cognition is a topic of interest in adult education and it has been used in many

settings. Following are questions concerning situated cognition.

Compare (tell the similarities between) and contrast (tell the differences between) situated cognition and
experiential learning. (1 point)

In the story “Talking to the Dead” by Watanabe, explain what type(s) of learning occur for protagonist (e.g.
experiential, situated cognition, reflective practice) and defend your answer by tying it to evidence in your
readings. (1 point)
Situated cognition and experiential learning are closely related. However, the primary place of social interaction
and social relationships as a requirement of learning in social cognition delineates the two theories from each
other. It is the importance of the social interactions in Watanabe’s (2000) story, Talking to the Dead, that
indicate that the type of learning the protagonist experienced falls under the category of situated cognition.

Situated Cognition and Experiential Learning

One of the most prominent theories of adult education, experiential learning addresses how adults make
meaning or learn from their experiences (Zepke & Leach, 2002). There are five major schools of thought that
fall under experiential learning theory. The first is the constructivist model, in which learners participate in a
reflective process in order to develop new understandings (Merriam et al., 2007). The situative model posits that
learning happens as the learner participates in activities, such as learning on the job (Merriam et al., 2007). The
psychoanalytic model believes that the emotions of the learner, particularly those that inhibit learning, must be
dealt with in order for learning to occur, and the critical model believes that learning happens when the learner
challenges the majority culture (Merriam et al., 2007). Finally, the complexity model posits that learning
happens when individuals compare and contrast what multiple experiences teach them (Merriam et al., 2007).

Like experiential learning, situated cognition involves a learner gaining new understanding from lived
experience. One example of situated cognition, the cognitive apprenticeship, makes this clear. In this process,
learning can never be separated “from the situation in which the learning is presented” (Merriam et al., 2007, p.
178). The learning happens in the experience. The experience of the place itself is important to the process of
learning. “The physical and social experiences and situations in which learners find themselves and the tools
they use in that experience are integral to the entire learning process” (Merriam et al., 2007, p. 178).
Experiential learning also focuses on “doing the task in order to learn it” (Hansman, 2001, p. 46).

Situated cognition, however, “is inherently social in nature. The nature of the interactions among learners, the
tools they use within these interactions, the activity itself, and the social context in which the activity takes
place shape learning” (Hansman, p. 45). Experiential learning theory might involve a social component but does
not necessarily require it.

Learning to Talk to the Dead

In trying to determine what type of learning the protagonist of Watanabe’s (2000) story Talking to the Dead
experienced, I felt it important to think about what it was that she was really learning. On the surface, it appears
that she was learning the process of preparing the bodies of the dead. However, at a deeper level, the protagonist
is actually learning about proper social relationships – between master and apprentice, between mothers and
children, between colleagues, and between the living and the dead (Watanabe, 2000). With this in mind, I
believe that the protagonist participated in situated cognition. Neither her learning process nor what she learned
can be separated for the social experience (Hansman, 2001). As in a cognitive apprenticeship, her learning only
came about because she learned in a specific situation (Merriam et al., 2007). Had she learned to embalm bodies
in another place, she never would have learned that the proper way to care for Aunty Talking to the Dead was to
cremate her corpse in the traditional fashion (Watanabe, 2000). Every experience she had in learning about the
proper relationships between the living and the dead – from the laying out of Mustard to the Blindman and the
Blindman’s Dog – every social context in which she found herself and ever interaction between herself, Aunty,
and others in the community contributed to her learning what she needed to learn in order to come to her
moment (Watanabe, 2000, p. 279).

Application of Gerald Grow’s SDL Scale to Instruction: Grow’s SDL scale is informative for all educators. This
question asks you to apply his scale. You are an instructor in whatever context you choose.

a) Create a course title and one (1) objective. (1 point)

b) Describe in detail how you would teach this objective (use 2 concrete examples) to a Level 1 and a Level 4
learner. (2 points)

I have for two years taught a course titled “Female Images of the Divine in the West.” My students
affectionately call it the goddess class. The primary objective of the course is to develop the ability to think
critically about how religious symbols and imagery impact people’s lives – both in the past and in the present. It
is a 200-level undergraduate class, and I often find that I have a large group of first-year students in my class. I
also tend to have a significant number of non-traditional-age students in my class, mostly because it is a night
class. It makes for a very interesting group of students, representing every stage of Grow’s (1991) SDL Scale to
Instruction.

Teaching Stage 1 Learners

Stage 1 learners are very dependent and view the instructor as the ultimate authority on the subject matter
(Grow, 1991). They feel most comfortable in environments in which they receive immediate feedback, and they
feel most comfortable in an environment in which the teacher-master dispenses wisdom to the learner (Grow,
1991). In working with this type of student, the educator needs to find a way to help the student gain confidence
and begin to gain mastery over material that might be entirely new to them (Grow, 1991(.

The first way I teach to my objective for my Stage 1 learners is to help them recognize that they know more
about images of goddesses than they might think they do – even if they do not identify with any particular faith.
We do this by talking about popular culture depictions of goddesses. I have discovered that my students all
seem to adore Xena: Warrior Princess. I have them go on YouTube and find clips from the show that depict the
various goddesses – Hera, Callisto, and Aphrodite to name just a few. We then read primary texts from the
ancient Greeks describing the goddesses. As a group, we identify similarities and differences between the
television depictions and the depictions of the ancient Greeks and discuss why the two are often different. This
discussion often leads to a further discussion about why the goddesses were important to ancient peoples and
starts a semester-long discussion about the place of goddess imagery in modern times.

A second way I help my Stage 1 students is that I give quizzes in class, especially during the first few weeks,
and we go over the answers right away. This helps them get immediate feedback on their understanding of the
material. This activity helps advance the course objective because religious symbolism both holds steady and
evolves over time. If they do not gain a solid mastery of the ancient understandings of goddesses, they have
great difficulty when we begin discussion on whether or not modern figures, such as Princess Diana or Angelina
Jolie, serve the same purposes in modern society as Artemis or Isis did in ancient cultures.

Teaching Stage 4 Learners

Stage 4 learners are considered to be fully self-directed (Grow, 1991). For a self-directed learner, the educator is
someone who serves as a consultant, enhancing the learning work that is delineated and directed by the learner.
Students functioning at the very highest levels are often self-directed learners; certainly, a student undertaking a
major project such as a dissertation ought to be able to function as a self-directed learner (Grow, 1991).

As an instructor of a stage 4 learner, I personally feel most comfortable with the delegator role (Grow, 1991). In
this role, I can work directly with the student to discover their interests and needs, help them develop a learning
plan, and then meet with them on a regular basis to discuss their progress and any roadblocks they have
encountered. As part of their learning plan, we also develop together an assessment plan: what will be assessed,
what products they are required to produce, and by which criteria we will assess their progress (Zepke & Leach,
2002). Most often, the stage 4 students I work with and I agree that they will pursue an independent project that
makes a connection between the ancient and the modern. One project involved a student who examined the
ancient Irish myths of the divine figure Deirdre. She then created an interpretive dance that incorporated
environmental, costume, and movement symbols to convey the myth to a modern audience. Another student
undertook a project that looked at the concept of ancient sovereignty goddesses and then used that material to
analyze the Robert Zemeckis’ film adaptation of Beowulf. When we first discussed the project, I suspected she
might find echoes of sovereignty goddesses in the figure of Grendel’s mother, but she also, convincingly, found
echoes of the concept in the figure of Wealtheow. I was blown away! My student had made an intellectual
discovery that had completely escape me.

7. Several authors have constructed models that show self-directed learning as a

process.

Construct your own model of self-directed learning based on your experiences. (1 point)

Compare (tell the similarities between) and contrast (tell the differences between your model and two of the
models found in Merriam, Caffarella and Baumgartner (2007) (pp. 110-119). ( 2 points)

Argue for or against the importance of context in the self-directed learning process using evidence from the
literature. (1 points)

Defining self-directed learning can be tricky. It is not a self-contained theory of adult learning but instead a
group of related concepts and practices. Among the definitions I most prefer, Caffarella (1993) defines self-
directed learning as:

a self-initiated process of learning that stresses the ability of individuals to plan and manage their own learning,
an attribute or characteristic of learners with personal autonomy as its hallmark, and a way of organizing
instruction in formal settings that allows for greater learner control. (p. 25).

Similar to Caffarella’s (1993) definition, Candy’s (1987) definition focuses on the importance of autonomy in
self-directed learning, although the learner can work in concert with an educator (as cited in Grow, 1991).

My Model of Self-Directed Learning

My own model of self-directed learning is one based on process theology. Process theology is grounded in
change, growth, and constant movement. “Human and other beings are not things (substances or essences)
situated in empty space … but are active processes ever in relation and transition” (Christ, 2003, p. 3).
Moreover, as a postmodern theology, it is structured around the belief that all knowledge is contextual and that
knowledge is shaped and controlled by

14–19 Age Range: Policies and Legislation for Student and Teachers

Task 1: Carry out a research and write a report on the following:

•      National policies and initiatives for the education of the 14–19 age range

•      Legal framework and key legislation relating to teachers working with the 14–19 age range

Include at least 2 of the following current national policies and initiatives:

 Widening Participation, Success for All, Skills for Life strategy, 14-19, Curriculum (Curriculum 2000),
Every Child/Learner Matters, Apprenticeships, meeting Ofsted schools standards, addressing needs for
 social and workforce developments, blended learning approaches, Wolf Report, PLTS (personal,
learning and thinking skills)

Report on national policies and initiatives for education of 14-19 learners with emphasis on Every child
matters and Apprentice

Every Child Matters: (ECM) is an initiative of the UK Government for England and Wales that was launched
in 2003. A government green paper was issued in 2003 called Every Child Matters as a formal response to the
report on death of Victoria Climbie, the girl who was horribly abused, tortured and killed by her great aunt and
her husband

This initiative could be considered the doyen of development program related to child and child services in the
last decade and has been described as a “maritime shift” children and families which was the title of three
government documents the Children Act of 2004. The Children Act 2004 provides services provided to children
and youth by local authorities and other agencies and requires that “they work together to improve the well-
being of children in the region. Each child involves children and young adults up to the age of 19 or 24 years for
persons with disabilities.

Its main objectives are to provide the support needed for every child, regardless of the context or
circumstances:  stay safe: to be protected from harm and neglect, To be in a good health, Enjoy and
achieving: to get most of life and develop skills for adulthood,  making a positive contribution: able to involve
in community and society and not engage in anti-social or offending behavior, Achieving economic well-
being: children should not to be prevented by economic disadvantage from achieving full potential in life. A
useful acronym to remember the 5 objectives is SHEEP – Every child should be: Safe, Healthy, Enjoy /
Achiever, Economic, and Positive Contribution. These goals are the benchmark for ambitions of reference for
all children and youth, regardless of context or circumstances.

These themes are embedded in a framework that is required for multi-agency partnerships to work together to
achieve same goals. This framework was proposed in the green paper and it’s referred to as a common
evaluation framework; The CAF is a shared assessment and planning framework for use in all childcare and all
local areas in England.  CAF is a standardized and non-bureaucratic approach to assessing a child’s additional
needs and determining how these needs should be met.   It is can be that professional’s inability or failures to
work in cohesion with each other’s roles or work together in an effective and non-bureaucratic manner that
precipitated changes. ECM seeks to change this by emphasizing that it is imperative for all practitioners that
work with children to have full understandings of the contribution that could be made through their own
services and services and to plan their work with children and young people accordingly.

The primary objective of ECM is to make sure that every learner has the opportunity to work to achieve their
chosen ambitions. To make sure that these objectives are realized, most of the initiative has been made to laws
and the directives within, apply to England and Wales, and all schools present have put in place the policy; it
has also been influential in the rest of the UK and in some independent schools.

However, since the creation of the Cameron Department in 2010, there have been some changes to the initial
emphasis and how Every Child Matters is funded, government now prefer sending health checks for the child to
health visitors in their more traditional setting (the child’s home) and subsidizes the independent choice of
parents for child care, through tax credits because it is no longer than funded a centrally.

 Apprenticeship:
Apprenticeship is a framework to learn a trade skill. The age range 14-19 years old forms the core of school
leavers. This is learners that chose not to remain in the mainstream school or seeking work by willing to join a
fulltime or work-based route to further their study.

Programs for this age group are usually vocational or academic based. The main providers are further education
sector or private training provider. An apprenticeship tends to be fulltime and is funded by skills funding
agency. The academic subject is usually delivered within sixth form colleges, academy or schools.

Priority areas are based on the national and local skill needed and funding is provided. The different college has
to plan their curriculum according to the trend. A provision that is not a priority is offered on self-financing
basis. These groups of learners need personal development towards adulthood. Most of them are adolescent and
hormones play a big part in influencing behaviors at this age, therefore learning and teaching method are
influenced and should be flexible or changeable to take this into consideration. It is my role as a teacher to
develop learner autonomically and independently to prepare for this age range towards self-development. These
age groups need to be seen as work in progress rather than ready to follow the path to the chosen subject. This is
a group in transition from childhood to adulthood. Most of them need structure guardian and direction, they will
benefit from Tester opportunity. Therefore, the teacher involved with this group is expected to be well grounded
and be ready to experiment. Unlike adults, 14-19 years are still transitioning; they don’t have career plans and
need to be guided and allowed some time to develop whilst reaching adulthood. Unlike adult that is mostly
learned cantered, 14-19 may have to use varied learning method; such as peer feedback and another model to
meet their specific needs and keep them motivated. I must consider, identify and reflecting on my choice of
teaching and learning strategy in promoting a shared responsibility for learner to create successful outcome

 Include at least 2 of the following current provision, e.g. National Curriculum in schools, focus on
academic performance(GCSE/AS/A Levels), national vocational qualifications (NVQ), work-based
learning post 16, Foundation Learning, Key Skills transition to Functional Skills, ‘taster sessions’, age
restriction on workplace and work-based learning, structured work experience, academics, city
academies.

Current provision for 14-19 learners with focuses onNational curriculum and work-based learning

 National curriculum: To understand the 14–19 education in its current provision one would have to
review the historical development from the end of compulsory schooling and the completion of study
based on the National Curriculum, to further education, lifelong learning and training, and progression
to sixth form studies, further and higher education and the workplace. It builds on the National
Curriculum at Key Stages 1-3 and provides the foundation for adult lifelong learning and training in all
its forms.  It is during the 14-19 stage that many young people gain the qualifications which form a
foundation for their future learning and careers. As important as forming the foundation for future
learning and entry to the workplace, 14-19 develops the Key Skills which prepare young people to be
able to engage and participate fully in adult life, family life, citizenship, an increasingly global society,
workplaces, and the wider community. 14-19 education has the potential to contribute positively
towards realizing social cohesion, social justice, and an inclusive society.

Adequate provision will need to be built-in throughout the education system in order to provide appropriate
support for all young people to the age of 19 and eliminate issues which have traditionally posed barriers to
learning and training.
The 14-19 curriculum –The 14-19 stage should be defined by a broad curriculum for all learners offering a
balance between a general education entitlement—which provides a solid foundation of ‘general’ knowledge
and skills which are transferable to a variety of settings, and high quality ‘vocational’ —and ‘applied’ options
which are more channeled towards the world of work.  The curriculum should be based on an entitlement for all
learners within a framework of structured choice, and would not stream individual students into narrow
pathways which were exclusively ‘academic’, ‘vocational’ or ‘occupational’. All young people need skills
which equip them for the world of work and for careers which meet their abilities, talents, and aspirations. But
all young people further need the wider skills which enable them to play a full part in society outside the world
of work. The NUT and UCU believe that a key historic weakness of the British system of education has been a
failure to recognize that this full range of skills is important to every learner and that too often the curriculum
and qualifications system fails to sufficiently connect some of these skills for some learners. The curriculum
should balance breadth with depth as learner’s progress through the various levels of attainment of the 14-19
stage. While learners will increasingly specialize as they progress through the levels of achievement, their
studies should retain a focus on broad, transferable Key Skills regardless of their specific learning programmed. 
The curriculum throughout 14-19 should enable clear progression routes to be identified. Progression routes
open to students should not be so narrow as to leave them at learning or career ‘dead ends’

Work-based learning post 16–  (WBL) is an educational policy that provides students with an experience from
learning to the work role with the objectives of gaining real-life work experiences where they can apply
academic and technical skills and develop their employability. Three strands have been identified: learning for
work, learning at work, and learning through work’ (Brennan and Little 1996, p.8) but it does involve providing
the opportunity for people to undertake higher level learning to develop knowledge as well as vocational,
professional and technical competencies so that they can apply these more effectively to work. So the learning
needs to be relevant to the requirements of the employer. Example of how to strategies:  WBL can be arranged
in a formal way for apprenticeship, work placement or an informal learning on the jobs. Apprenticeship is an
initiative to learn a trade skill. The age range 14-19 years old forms the core of school leavers. This is learners
that chose not to remain in the mainstream school or seeking work by willing to join a fulltime or work-based
route to further their study. Programs for this age group are usually vocational or academic based. Their main
providers are further education sector or private training provider. An apprenticeship tends to be fulltime and is
funded by skills funding agency. The academic subject is usually delivered within sixth form colleges, academy
or schools. Priority areas are based on the national and local skill needed and funding is provided. Work
placement as a programme of studies; where leaners are full-time employees, and most of the fieldwork and
researches are carried out in the student’s job placement. Platform for Professional course Preparationis a
situation where full-time students have access to learning on the job such as in industrial, commercial or service
work placement as a part of their higher learning studies or a major constituent of a program of study.  Access
to higher learning: where learners’ experience outside school is fully accredited by an institution of higher
learning, to gain access to that institution.

 Include at least 3 of the following legal framework and key legislation: equality and diversity, Equality
Act 2010, Every Child/Learner Matters, Equipping our Teachers for the Future, CRB requirements, duty
of care, KS4 requirements, Ofqual, inclusive practice, education acts, Kennedy, Wolf

Report on the legal framework and legislation, reference 14-19 learners with focuses on CRB requirements,
Equality and Diversity and The Equality Act 2010

 CRB Requirements:  The Criminal Records Bureau is an organization established by the home office
to conduct criminal checks on potential teachers or employees to ensure that unsuitable people don’t
gain access to working with learners, children or vulnerable people in the society.  Its primary objective
is to keep safe learners, children and vulnerable people from abuse; it was formed under Part V of the
Police Act 1997 and was launched in March 2002, due to public concern over children safety. Within its
 framework, the checks are conducted routinely to filter out the unsuitable.  Further,  to achieve an
inclusive, practice a teacher should take into consideration the requirement set by criminal record bureau
as a model in which to sure the organization safe guiding policy are effective and inclusive. By doing so,
I will keep my organization free of many administrative irregularities as well as incompetence and
harmful people. This would reduce the risk of harm so that my learner does not experience victimization
or discrimination due to violent behavior, abuse or bullying in the classroom. The procedure also
ensures that the learners are protected in the classroom from harmful people.

Equality and Diversity: Equality is the state of assurance that every individual or groups of individuals are
fairly treated and nobody should be discriminated against, thus, to promote equal society (University of
Edinburgh 2005).Within the framework of law, it states that every individual should have equal opportunities
and protect individuals from being discriminated against by way of bullying or victimization. It proffers
protection from being prejudiced against because of association with others.  stipulated in its framework are
nine characteristics of evaluations that prevent an individual from being discriminated against. These categories
are; age, disabilities, gender assignment, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion
and belief, sex, sexual orientation Age: The equality Act 2010 stipulates, that an individual should not be
discriminated against for being of age or with age range, an example of these, a job offer to the individual
should not be based on age consideration factor. Disability: The Act also states that a person should not be
discriminated against because of physical or mental disabilities, even if the impairment has a substantial and
long-term adverse effect on their ability to carry out  activities in a  normal  way on a daily basis, e.g. blindness
shouldn’t be a reason why  a person is not to offer opportunity to secure a job. Gender reassignment:A person
should not be discriminated against just because he or she is proposing to undergo or has undergone a process
for of reassigning their sex, i.e. transitioning from one gender to the other (male to female or vis versa). A
person should not be penalized or dismiss from their job because of sex change. Marriage and civil
partnership:Individuals are protected under the Equality Act 2010 from being prejudiced against because they
are married or are in civil partnership. Also, same-sex couples and the non-the same-sex couple should be
treated equally, an example of these, if same-sex couples living together and one of them were to die, the
partner should be considered for the beneficiary rights as with non-same sex couples.   Enshrined in the Act, is
the empowerment to seek redress from discrimination where it can be proven. Pregnancy and maternity:
Under this equality Act, 2010 women are protected from discriminated against, or not begin treated fairly
because she is pregnant, or because she has given birth or breastfeeding.  If she suffered prejudice because of
her condition, the law states that he or she has been treated unfairly or unfavorably (citizen’s advice 2015).
Race:The equality Act 2012 state that individuals shall not be discriminated against because of the race, color
or nationality. A person should not be refused a job because of skin color. Religion and belief:The Act 2010
protects the individual from suffering discrimination because his or her religion and belief, essentially, a person
should not be refused a job purely because of his or her religious belief i.e. Christian, Muslim, Hindu etc.
Sex:The Act of 2012 state that a person shall not be discriminated against because of his or her gender; a man
should not be paid a higher salary than a woman for the same job description especially if there is parallel in
qualification and experience. Sexual orientation: The equality Act 2010 protects a person from discrimination
because of his or her sexual orientation. Sex preferences should be respected and treated equally and fairly; sex
attractions to the same sex or non-same sex should be treated equally; a person should not be a sanction or
dismiss if he reveals that he’s Gay or homosexual, that would be against the equality act 2010. Discrimination
breed negativity in an organization and it also induce low productivity. Discrimination does not promote a safe
and productive environment for learning. Indeed, there is law in place to discourage the discrimination and
protect the vulnerable and promote total inclusion, Therefore, for total inclusion to thrive teachers should put
into practice the principle of equal right; treat all learners equally, make the environment of learning
comfortable.  

Diversity Aims at recognizing, respecting and valuing people differences to contribute and realize the full
potential, thus promoting inclusive culture (The University of Edinburgh 2015). In understanding the full depth
of diversity, one would need to consider the following point:  Celebrate Differences-We must celebrate
differences, it is only through accepting other people culture and differences that will produce a conducive
environment for learning. We are all different and we can learn from one each order.According to Yahiya,
(2015). We should celebrate the cultural diversity of the people around us. We should find out what we have in
common, often what we have in common far outstrip our differences, of course though, our differences make us
unique, example, one of the most popular cuisines in the UK is Curry. Curry is not traditional British cuisine,
however, because of diversity and mix culture we have come to embrace and appreciate the taste of other
culture.  Positively, in present-day Britain many people are multilingual. Leaning other languages has become
easier because our different culture is all intertwined.  Thus, have to increase us in knowledge and experience.
As a teacher, I will endeavor to create a learning environment where the learner can achieve regardless of their
background, to meet the need of my students. I will utilize the gifted students in helping the weak student at the
same time harness the strength of the gifted students by challenging them with extra work. I recognize that
every individual learner is different and learn at a different pace that said I will work towards meeting
individual learner range and learning needs. The range of student and learning needs:  To explore students
learning needs because every student learns at a different pace. To bridge the gap, students should be supported
to break down any barrier that inhibits there learning progress, example, providing more challenging work to
the talented students, also provide an access to learning for students with a disability. A learner with a disability
such as dyslexia should be supported by creating a learning environment that is adopted or modified to
encourage inclusive practice, resources, and curriculum that is relevant and appropriate for the disabled learner
(Wilson, 2014). Diversity in race, culture or religion resulting in a difference in perspective and
perception: Self-perception plays a major role in our ability to embrace diversity. Our race, culture, and
religion sometimes define who we are, thus resulting in differences in perspective and perception which are
visually shaped by the environment we grew up in, our family structure and our value system.

Equality of Act, 2010,   The Equality Act 2010 has three objectives;to make simple with clarity and
consolidate the law also to strengthen the lawand to harness progress in promotingequality and achieving
improved outcomes regularly. It defines learner’s right to equality and explained how learners are protected
from discrimination, harassment, bullying or victimization. The law made clear that every learner must have
equality of opportunity to learning. This is to ensure that the learning environment is fully inclusive to
meeting the need of all learners, particularly those that arise from their ethnic heritage, social and economic
background, and gender, level of ability or disability. It ensures that the practice of learning provided focuses on
anti-discriminatory practice, and to harness equality of opportunities and to value diversity for all learners. It
ensures that all learners have equal access to a curriculum which meets their needs and enables them to achieve
their potential by eliminating prejudice, discrimination, and harassment of any kind. I will also collaborate with
relevant staff in the organization thereby creating equal opportunity. I will focus on removing barriers to
learning and adopting a holistic approach to support each individual learner. As part of my teaching practice, I
will track and monitor al learners in my care and intervene to meet individual needs, and remove barriers which
inhibit learning. I plan to provide differentiated task activities and resources which support all learners to take
an active part in their own learning to achieve their full potential. I will ensure that the learning actives utilize a
range of learning and teaching approaches which meet the need of learner with different learning style. I will
ensure that all learning resources and activities, communication and assessment procedures are free from
discrimination and biases, but actively promote and celebrate diversity and inclusion.

Word count – 1500 -2000

Evidence: Report

Drawing on your research, write a reflective journal on your own role and responsibilities in relation to
working with the 14–19 age range and evaluate the impact on your own practice of the legislation relating to
working with the 14–19 age range
  Address at least 4 of the following role and responsibilities in your reflective writing: working within
organisation policies and procedures, meeting requirements of compulsory sector, acting in loco
parentis, promoting inclusive practice and student inclusion, challenging inappropriate behaviors,
celebrating successes, encouraging self- and peer assessment, encouraging reflective practice, enabling
opportunities for building study skills and functional skills

 Also, address how at least 3 of the followinglegal requirement impact on your practice: recognition of
qualified teaching status for teaching 14-19, establishing relevant guidelines and codes of practice,
sector-specific CRB checks, meeting Ofsted schools standards, up-dating personal and professional
skills when dealing with young people, retraining in required personal skills, developing appropriate
learning and teaching strategies.

Word count – 1500 -2000

Evidence: Reflective writing

(1.2)

Task 2: Analyse the relationship between schools and other providers of learning for the 14–19 age range

 Research and write a report on at least 3 of the following:  widening choices, developing links to
industry, alternative to academic for those wishing to continue formal vocational education, more
specialized teaching, opportunities for applying learning in employment context, increasing level of
challenge, higher-level qualifications, working towards providing skilled workforce, increasing
flexibility of provision.
 Report on the relationship between schools and other providers of learning for the 14–19 age range
with focuses on widening choices, working towards providing a skilled workforce, opportunities for
applying learning in employment context

 Widening choices:   Being efficient in delivering curriculum management planning, student support,
staff expectations and school leadership, Schools can significantly influence how young student decides
choice. It can be said that when students felt supported in decision-making by the school, they tend to be
more influenced by school factors -teachers and the careers education and guidance provisions available
and less reliant on external factors such as friends and family. That said, the influence of parents and
careers of young people’s choices at age 14 leaners is somewhat significant.  Contextualizing young
people decision-making mechanism; the young student tends to require more time to make career
decisions, and they do respond very well to having quality and impartial conversation with the teacher
about courses information and career pathway. The quality of teachers impute goes a long way to
helping to make an informed choice. Importantly, school children varied in the way they make a
decision and not many of them are skilled in decision making, therefore, their decision making depends
on curriculum planning and the level of support available to them the time of deliberation. Often Young
people mindset to make a sustain decision is marred making by constant fluctuation in their interest, this
including those who seemed to initially know what they want, the majority would still make decisions
differently.  These issues suggest that that approaches to support needs to vary and the type of support
be different at a different stage.  In chosen subject, a collaborative relationship between school and
other providers need to be forged closely. The student Age 14 would require supports and adequate
 information in choosing the appropriate subjects, understanding the content and the criterions. Hence,
the involvement of other providers to create sustainability. We have to remember this stage is a crucial
period in their educational development, it is important for the young student to get the support
necessary to help them in choosing the appropriate subjects for future sustainability. Facilitate support
for learners with opportunities to learn to develop and progress through meaningful engagement with the
world of work including the use of employers within curriculum delivery. Young people’s decision-
making is influenced by their own unique characteristics. Whilst some have clear career goals, others
have a less fixed pathway in mind: both of these mindsets need to be catered for when supporting their
choices. Some have decided planner mindset- and some have comfort seeker mindset.  Relation to the
subjects that young people choose to study, young people opt for particular subjects and types of course
and qualification for differing reasons, and in this respect, they are no different from their peers who
choose the GCSE and A-level pathway. In some cases, young people opt for certain subjects and courses
because they are directly related to a future career path they are interested in pursuing. For instance,
young people following the Young Apprenticeship program in the engineering or automotive skills
sectors tended to consider moving onto an Apprenticeship in the same vocational area, after the end of
compulsory education (O’Donnell and Golden, 2005). Some young people may choose particular
courses because they contribute towards a future career plan, without involving direct study in that area.
For instance, young people who choose to study chemistry at school may do so as a means towards
studying (and ultimately following a career in) veterinary science, rather than with the intention of
pursuing
a career in chemistry (Lord et al., 2006).  However, in other cases, young people choose particular
courses and subjects in order to keep their options as open as possible. This tended to be the case for
those young people who opted for post-14 courses in areas such as business administration, information
technology, or creative and media studies (O’Donnell and Golden, 2005). 
 Working towards providing skilled Workforce:  Workforce development is a policy strategy that
involves Government, employer, school and individual learner to collaborate in the development of
skills for employability and sustainable economic growth. To contextualize the needs for workforce
improvement and skills needed for employability amongst 14-19 learners and economic growth
nationally;  the following action should  be deployed – the workplace must be engaged  as a platform to
provide a learning environment to develop and also to improve the different type of skill and knowledge
needed by 15-19 learners to face the real world of employment. This involves strategies:  Active
learning in the workplace to develop skills and competitiveness to improve performance in the current
role or in a new role in the near future. Education and training pursued by current learner/employees
leading to qualifications related To job knowledge and skills,  learning which is promoted by the
company and is located or marketed within companies. Learning in the workplace is an important part of
workforce development, but there are other ways in which the workforce may be developed and a wide
range of methods may be used.  Learning Method used for effective outcome in Workforce
development involves; (1) job training conducted by and specific for the employers, and (2) also
through generic vocationally related skills. This may include knowledge, competence, and skills
needed to perform a set ask, basic skills, transferable skills, interpersonal skills, reasoning, and
judgment, coordinating skills, information skills, originating skills, core skills, key skills. Some of these
skills are associated with employability, adaptability; change management; social and team- working
skills; thinking skills Benefits:  to individuals -it enhances learner/employee competence, confidence,
and skills and improves the recruitment of quality workers.  It engages and motivates the employee.
Benefits to employers; it reduces recruitment cost, it also improved and increase productivity and
efficiency of employers, It increases the economic development.
 Opportunities for applying learning in employment context: This highlights the learning outcomes
for careers and the world of work. For learners aged 14–19 to develop the awareness of careers and the
world of work and how their studies contribute to their readiness for a working life. Developing
thinking skills, opportunities are presented by schools through the curriculum for the learners to
develop and apply their thinking processes of planning, developing and reflecting which is going to be
required in their careers and the world of work.  In the world of work learners would need to respond to
 others as well as to their own work, therefore it is an invaluable learning process for learners to be
presented with these opportunities to learn and develop thinking skills applicable to a different segment
of life. Developing communication skills through the curriculum opportunities are presented to learners
to practice, develop and apply skills of speaking, listening, reading, writing, and oration. This can be
achieved through reviews of their work and also of others. The objectives are to help the learner to
develop effective communication skills that can be applied in various section of life. These skills, if it’s
well developed through practice within the learning environments and beyond, could be a very useful
process l in their careers and the world of work.  Developing ICT skills – opportunities for learners to
develop and apply their ICT skills as designed in the school curriculum to find and resolve problems by
using a wide range of equipment and software. These skills are important in their careers and the world
of work, this is more so as learners would need to apply technology to do research and to have a good
understanding of work-related matters. They also use it to record and present their work appropriately,
ICT can be used selectively and efficiently to find, develop and synthesise information so that it can be
ideal for their work Developing number skills –opportunities for learners to develop and apply number
skills as design in curriculum in order to use mathematical information, calculating, and interpreting and
presenting findings.  This would enhance learners ability explore and analyze data relevant to their needs
in their careers and the world of work.   They should be given the opportunity to seek information.  In
developing the number skill learners should be given opportunities to select and interpret data about
learning and career opportunities. They should also be encouraged to examine employment and learning
opportunities and trends.  Personal and social education development:  opportunities for learning, for
learners to promote their health and emotional well-being and moral and spiritual development.   
Careers and the world of work contribute to learners’ personal and social education through contacts
with the world of work and by challenging stereotypes. It also provides opportunities to develop their
understanding of social interaction through working with others.

Word count: 500 – 750

Evidence: Report

(3.1)

Task 3: Analyse teaching, learning and assessment approaches for use with 14–19 learners

 Your analysis for Teaching and learningshould address experiential (Kolb), ILT (information and
learning technology) and at least one of the following: learner-centered to develop cognitive and
psychomotor skills (Bruner), multisensory approaches, workshops for practice of skills, project work to
develop research skills (GENERIC)

 The Analysis of Teaching, learning, and assessment for use with 14-19 learners with focus on Kolb
Theory, and  ILT (information and learning technology)

“Learning is the process, where knowledge is created through the expressions of experience” (Kolb, 1984, p.
38). Therefore, teachers must pay great attention to developing a learning environment that’s appropriate for
learners to succeed.  To achieve this, teachers must adopt a holistic approach to teaching, learning, and
assessment;  they must ensure  to provide an effective learning  opportunity for learners –  provide each learner
with a personalized experience which supports development, achievement, and progression; it is important to
Provide a customized and differentiated teaching, learning and assessment to match each learner`s needs and
interests. Also, to Support the development of personal, learning and thinking skills including independence in
learning. To Provide appropriate additional learning support to support individual development and progress
and to make sure that all learners, as required to gain access to and achieve high-quality skills that enable young
learners progression to the world of work or and higher education, to gain qualifications which are tailored to
their individual needs and interests. Facilitate support for learners with opportunities to learn to develop and
progress through meaningful engagement with the world of work including the use of employers within
curriculum delivery.  To improve the quality of student learning; the teacher must understand the relationship
between learning context, perception, and evaluation of context and student approaches to learning on learning
outcomes.

Kolb’s theory: In 1984 David Kolb publishes a version of learning styles:  he said for effective learning to be
seen,  that learner must progress through a cycle of two-level stages. In his theory, he developed the learning
style inventory which entails dealing with learners mental process mechanism.- Kolb states, that the
advancement t of new ideas is supported by new experiences. The two-level stages in his theory were referred
to as; (1) four stages of experimental learning cycle and (2) four separate learning style.Description of 
Experiential Learning Cycle; involve four elements (1) concrete learning: is explained  as situation learner
perceive new outlooks to existing experience, (2) reflective observation: expressing personal experiences to an
encounter, (3) abstract conceptualization: to develop new ideas on reflection of an existing idea,(4) active
experimentation:  situation where learner would interject renewed  ideas to his environment and hope that it
may generate a modified result in future encounter.  Kolb (1974) perceive learning to be a connected process
with each stage complementary to the next, there is no specific sequence in entering the cycle of learning.
However, effective learning only occurs when a learner is able to execute all four stages of the model.
Therefore, no one stage of the cycle is effective as a learning procedure on its own. Description of Learning
Styles: Essentially, to provide each learner with a personalized experience and to Provide a customized and
differentiated teaching, learning and assessment to match each learner`s preferred method. These are the four
learning styles to be considered:  Diverging styles – they like to adopt a practical approach to issues and keep
an open mind. They would rather watch and they are good brainstormers, they often perceive thing in a different
context, they are also very imaginative and could be considered a team player. Assimilating learners are said
to be direct and logical. They focus their minds pertinently on ideas and concepts but less focus on people.
Converging learneris a problem solver and will use their ability to resolve practical issues. They prefer
technical tasks and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects.  They thrive with practicals to
solving problems. social or interpersonal issues is not their forte.  Accommodating learners are spontaneous
and would act on instinct, they use interpersonal ideas to resolve issues. Logic is not their forte. Information
learning technology- (ILT) Another way for learning platform to be effective for 14-19 learners; is to
encourage the use ILT. To develop a highly effective e-learning platform that supports independent learning, to
make provision of high-quality electronic progression, assessment and tracking systems. More importantly, to
make sure that all teaching staff is working to reduce any achievement gaps between different groups of
learners on their programs.

 Your analysis for assessment should address initial or diagnostic to establish needs, formative to
encourage learning, use of peer-assessment, self- assessment to build confidence, summative assessment
to measure achievement, online testing and at least one of the following: project based to allow building
of understanding, observation of practice to allow skills development and holistic approach, norm or
criterion referenced to suit needs and context

Analysis of assessment

 Online testing can be an effective media for initial and diagnostic assessment e.g. reference my initial
assessment at LSME, was tested in literacy, numeracy and IT to determine my level. I also use
observation or interview when initially assessing. The observation or interview will indicate the
learner’s prior knowledge or skills. Initial anddiagnostic assessment establish creed of your learner,
 therefore it is vital when designing or planning a program for your learner. When assessing I also
use peer assessment and self-assessment to build confidence and give a relaxed environment for
learning. Peer assessment and self-assessment can lead to a reflective practice, this can improve your
practice. It gives you the ability to judge oneself and can be used for critical analyses of the individual
learner. Peer assessment and self-assessment is also useful when evaluating new teaching method of
approach. Learners do benefit from peer assessment, they are able to share information and
development, therefore, it is important to continually monitor or assess b Test or verbal questioning
inform of formative assessment to ascertain if the learner is achieving and happy. It also gives you a
good indication of learners progress and indicates if learner requires a change of approach. Firstly, I
conduct an initial assessment of my learner and then design a plan to meet their need. I  also use
formative assessment to measure my learner’s progress during lesson session and use summative
assessment at the end of the course by Test or exams. This done at the end of the course to know the
outcome of which a pass is given and the certificate is awarded. A judgment is made at the end of  the
summative assessment on knowledge or skills  leading to results and reward

Word count: 1000

Evidence: Report

(3.2, 4.1, 4.2, 5.1, 5.2)

Task 4. Plan, deliver and assess learning sessions for 14–19 learners, taking account of:

•own analysis of teaching, learning, and assessment approaches for use with 14–19 learners

•curriculum requirements

•individual learner needs

Evidence: Complete a Lesson Plan and submit an Assessor’s Observation of your teaching practice

Evaluate own practice in working with 14–19 learners and identify areas for improvement in own practice in
working with 14–19 learners

Evidence: Complete a Self Evaluation based on your teaching practice

5.1 Own practice, e.g. planning variety of appropriate learning and teaching activities, the timing of activities,
sequencing and pacing to specific learning group needs, actively engaging students, embedding functional and
wider skills.

5.2 Assessment methods, e.g. engaging students, encouraging self-assessment, check-and-correct, medal-and-

mission, standards of observation of practice, online testing, achievements, value added.

5.3 Improving own practice, e.g. liaising with others, working with 14-19 specialists, identifying opportunities
for CPD, researching issues affecting 14–19 age groups, observation or work shadowing, awarding organization
events, retraining.

 
 

TEACHING IN THE LIFELONG LEARNING SECTOR QUALIFICATIONS

CANDIDATE’S SELF-EVALUATION RECORD AND ACTION PLAN

Candidate’s name: Beaulah Anderson Date:

To be completed by the candidate at the end of the teaching session:

 Provide both positive and negative feedback and give examples from your session to illustrate your
points
 Suggest how you intend to improve future sessions and identify your future personal development aims

Planning: Did your plan meet the needs of every learner during the session? Evaluate how your plan met
individual needs.

The planning that I design after my evaluation met the needs of my learners during the lesson.  Firstly, I assess
my learner to determine prior knowledge or skill and subsequently design a … scheme of work to meet their
needs. This includes learning methods been defined.

Justify your selection of resources for the session. Where possible, analyze how effective the resources were in
supporting the session delivery.

After my Learners had been assessed and their specific need indicated. I chose to use appropriate resource to
meet their  need e.g. the use of slides with appropriate color on paper that is user-friendlyto dyslexia and
learners with vision and hearing impairment 
Teaching: Justify and evaluate your selection of teaching and learning approaches for the session.

The method I used was a collaborative and exposition method. Also, used learner-centered approach. I ensure
that learners get involved and learn from each other. I took shy learners into consideration by organizing a
group activity to encourage and motivate them to speak to other learners.

Evaluate the effectiveness of your teaching and suggest how you would modify the session to make it more
effective.

I observed that learners were keen to participate in group activities. They discuss and learn from each other in
the session. The learning environment was good, and learners especially the 14-19 were able to work together
to achieve their goals.
Evaluate your own communication skills and identify how you could improve. How could you overcome any
barriers to effective communication next time?

During the session, I communicated using language familiar to the14-19 learners. I made sure that they
understood the content in given time.  I spoke loud and clear enough to be understood. I got them engaged in
adopting the learner-centered approach and group activities.

Explain how you used feedback and questioning In your session to support the assessment of learning. Where
possible, analyze how the feedback and questioning contributed to learning.

Peer feedback was a helpful learner; they assessed each other and therefore express appreciation of their
peer’s opinions.  They also valued their peer feedback and that consequently spared them to improvement.

Use the points to be considered to evaluate the effectiveness of the assessment methods used in working
with 14–19 learners.

5.2 Assessment methods, e.g. engaging students, encouraging self-assessment, check-and-correct, medal-

and-mission, standards of observation of practice, online testing, achievements, value added.

Using feedback from others (including learners, peers and your tutor) evaluate how you could improve
your own practice in working with 14–19 learners. Reflect on how effective others thought you were and
suggest modifications to your teaching as a result.

Leaners within the age range of 14-19 years value the opinion of their peer; as such feedback from their peer
motivates them. Also, they tend to rely on their peer’s feedback to assist them in making decisions.

5.1  Own practice, e.g. planning variety of appropriate learning and teaching activities, the timing of
activities, sequencing and pacing to specific learning group needs, actively engaging students, embedding
functional and wider skills.
PLANS FOR PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT. From your evaluation above, what main points will you take
forward to help with being a more effective teacher next time?

Identify areas for improvement in own practice in working with 14–19 learners and use the points to be
considered to plan for this improvement. You need to set an achieve by date for each point to be considered
used.

5.3  Improving own practice, e.g. liaising with others, working with 14-19 specialists, identifying
opportunities for CPD, researching issues affecting 14–19 age groups, observation or work shadowing,
awarding organization events, retraining.

From October 15 to November 15, 2017, I will attend a specialist course for dealing with 14-19 years learners
with emotional and social problems. This will assist me in  understanding this group of learners and hope to 
improve my teaching method and  approach to dealing them, with the primary objective to meet my learner’s
needs.

Candidate’s signature:  Date:

Assessor’s signature:  Date:

IQA’s signature (if sampled):  Date:

Bibliography
http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120919132719/www.communities.gov.uk/documents/corporate/
doc/325335.doc

http://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2010/15/notes

http://www.studymode.com/essays/Every-Child-Matters-948757.html

https://reynaldojrflores.wordpress.com/2013/06/08/module-2-learning-styles-theories-part-2/

http://libraschool.co.uk/en/top/about-our-school/help-children-achieve-more/

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Every_Child_Matters

https://www.scribd.com/document/91538662/PGCE-Questions-1

https://www.scribd.com/document/306521904/Inlges-en-Contextos-Diversos-Adultos

http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001260.htm

http://dera.ioe.ac.uk/7654/3/101004geographyen.doc

Adult learning: second languages

The effect of age on adult’s rate of achievement in learning second language

Abstract

This study investigated the effects of age on adult’s rate of achievement in learning second language in the case
of grammar,and pronunciation. Age is one of the most important and affective factor which causes many
differences in both second and first language learning. When the brain is more developed so it is better for
learning second language and also adult´s capacity for learning and memory is higher than children. Results
show that adults are able to produce grammatically correct sentences compared with children but as they
become older they get into some problems in communication. Asher and Price figured out a fact that the
younger a child had been when entering the United States, the higher the probability of a native like
accent(Asher and Price, 1967, p. 83).

Introduction
It is very important that older people have the
ability to learn a second language, especially English
because the technology of our society is going to
change rapidly base on English. Learning a second
language will cause them a better opportunity such
as employment, studying in abroad, having a better
social contact and so on.What is the relationship
between age and rate of learning second language?
There are numerous findings about the relative
abilities or inabilities of language learners of
different age. Do children learn language faster? Is
it impossible for adults to achieve fluency? This
paper studied the effect of age on adult’s rate of
achievement of grammar,and pronunciation in
learning second language. The hypothesis is that
older learners are more successful than younger in
some cases, not all cases.Although different type of
classes(teachers-centered class and student-centered
class and other characteristic will effect it but there
are not our main concern in this study.
Review of literature
This article provides a selective overview of theoretical issues and empirical findings relating to the question of
age and the rate of aadult′s second language acquisition. Many empirical researches were done on the rate of
second language learning and overviews of this research can be found in Asher and Price(1967), Susan Oyama
(1982), Fathman (1989), Falasca (2001),Dekeyser (2002), Dunkel and Pillet (2008), Johnson and Newport
(2008),and Bista (2008).

Methodology
This paper studied the effect of age on adult’s rate of achievement of grammar,and pronunciationin learning
second language. This research was done by studying previous related research which is done by famous
researches. Information gathered from articles , books and internet sources. This paper has collected the best
papers related to the effect of age on adult’s rate of achievement of grammar, and pronunciationin learning
second language. the following pages review more than 10 studies that are theoretically and practically studied
the relationship between age and on adult’s rate of second language acquisition.

Adults as learners
There are many definitions of the adults as learners ,different authors focus on different perspectives.
Knowles (1980), forexample, identified the following characteristics of adult learners:

• adults are autonomous and self-directed; they need to be free to direct themselves

• adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge that may include work-related
activities, family responsibilities and previous education

• adults are relevancy-oriented; they must see a reason for learning something

• adults are more problem-centered than subject-centered inlearning

• adults are motivated to learn by internal factors rather thanexternal ones

( Merriam&Caffarella, 1999,p 65)

Grammar
Many of adult second language learners pay more attention on learning grammar ,they believe in the significant
relationship between grammatical accuracy and effective communication. They pay much attention to grammar
because of doing office work and studying in abroad. They think by having proficiency in grammar part they
will have a better social acceptance by native speakers. Adults are more aware of grammar points which they
are using, that′s why they can get these points and use them.

Huangdid a research and in his study 118 Mandarin-speaking immigrants in the United States and 24 English
native speakers as the baseline comparison group participated. The grammar knowledge estimated by a
grammaticality judgment task. The findings showed thatthat post-puberty learners acquire second language
better than pre-puberty learnersespecially in grammar part.His findings showed the method of teaching, amount
of instruction and also length of residence have significant effects on learning grammar.

Results revealed that adults had less difficulty in adapting to task. They are faster and made fewer mistakes, this
will cause them to learn faster. And children made more mistakes at the early stages of learning.

Asher and Price ( 1967) have carried out an experiment with96 students from the second, fourth and eighth
grades of a school and 37 undergraduate students from a college. The subjects did not have any previous
knowledge of Russian, the targeted language. After three short trainings conducted in Russian language, the
results showed that the eight graders performed significantly better than the second graders and the fourth
graders. They also noticed a consistently positive relationship with advancing age because of above average
mental ability of the adults (p.76).

A study which is done by Robert Dekeyser(2002)suggested:”adult learners are more successful in learning
grammar than the early-age learners”(p.14). Learning grammar is sometimes abstract, that′s why it is hard for
children to get the point. Most of the time, children memorize it.The findings show that grammar is somehow
boring for adults but they get to this conclusion that learning grammar is necessary and effective. Adults are
more reliance on writing and they know about the value of grammar in writing, so they get it more serious.

Pronunciation
Researchers of SLA interested in assessing phonological skills of learners suggest a common belief that
younger learners acquire a native like accent in the target language. Dunkel and Pillet compared the proficiency
in French between elementary school pupils and beginning students of French from the university. They found
that the younger learners’ pronunciation was better than that of the older ones. However, in both written and
aural tests, the university students had better performance than the younger ones.(Bista,2008, p.8)

Asher and price examined acquisition of pronunciation of 71 Cuban immigrants to California. The subjects
were of aged groups from seven to 19 years. The majority of them had been in the United States for about five
years. They concluded that “not one of the 71 Cuban subjects was judged to have American native
pronunciation” (Asher and price, 1967, p. 83). They also figured out a fact that the younger a child had been
when entering the United States, the higher the probability of a native like accent.

In the study which is done by Susan Oyama (1982) 60 maleItalian immigrants were studied .They were at the
age of 6 to 20 when they had come to the united states. Susan Oyama pointed out that the age is an important
factor in order to have a native like accent. She declared that the younger the better in having an acceptable
accent. She also pointed out her results about listening comprehension as follows:

…those subjects who began learning English before age 11 showed comprehension

score similar to those of native speakers, whereas later arrivals did less well; those

who arrived after the age of 16 showed markedly lower comprehension scores than

the native (Oyama, 1982, p. 23).

Susan Oyama suggested (1982):”The young learners are considered fluent in communication of the second
language and achieve native like accent .Learners after the age of puberty do not acquire native like accent of a
second language but have complex learning pattern.Research suggests that children and adults L2 learners pass
through different developmental states “( p 12).

Johnson and Newport ( 2008) found:” native-like language abilities and the performance levels are lower in
older children than younger in a study of forty-six Chinese and Koreans speakers”(p.13).

In another study, Fathman (1989) tested oral proficiency in English on 20 children and 20 adults in a formal
setting in Mexico. Their finding also brought a similar conclusion that the children scored better in English
pronunciation than the adults but the adults scored better than the children in syntax(p.32).

Learning and technology

As we know adults are more capable to use technology in order to improve and using technology can help
learners to study faster, especially adults. Integrating technology in instruction for adult Englishlanguage
learners may offer the flexibility to extend that available in a formal program and thus increase opportunities for
language and literacy learning(Cummins, 2007, p. 26).

Adult learners access to online learning more than others. Online learning is entirely Internet-based. This
opportunity ables English learners to learn anywhere,any time.

Electronic tools and internet which is used in teaching and learning motivate students to learn and become
actively independent learners, this will happen for adults more than children. As we know adults have more
problem in communication but internet can provides learners with opportunities to reinforce their learning
skills, self-assessment, and their communication with the world.

Some other effects of aging on learning:

1.as people become older they eyesight will become weak and this will affect the capacity for learning of the
adults

2.changes in nuclear family roles,changes in other family roles and changes in work roles will affect on adults
learning(Falasca, 2001, p.3)

3.Motivation to learn: Adults can be ordered into a classroom but nobody can force them to learn. Any adults
who see a need or have a desire to know a new thing seems more successful.

Conclusion
A group of researchers including Singleton and Oyama believed that the young learners have higher learning
potentiality than the adults whereas Johnson and Newport, Dekeyser, Asher and Price, opined the opposite.
Thus the results of this study in general support that younger adults are better learner especially in
pronunciation and there is a high level of opportunity to achieve to native like accent but we should consider
that the amount of repetitions and also the length of resistance have much effect on having native like accent, on
the other hand older adults are better in understanding grammar. When the brain is more developed so it is
better for learning grammar, this is because of the fact that adult´s capacity for learning and memory is higher
than children .

The findings showed that that post-puberty learners acquire second language better than pre-puberty learners
especially in grammar part. In learning grammar, there is a consistently positive relationship with advancing age
because of above average mental ability of the adults. Learning grammar is sometimes abstract, that′s why it is
hard for children to get the point. Also all of the tools which is available in the market, sources which is
available in the internet, and software can help a lot older adult than younger adult in learning second language.

We should consider that the main problem of adult is that in most cases they can not become lifelong
learners.Age is not everything in second language learning. However, factors related to the age, for example the
learning opportunities, the motivation to learn, individual differences, and learning styles, are also important
determining variables that affect the rate of second language learning in various developmental stages of the
learners.

References:

Asher, J. J., & Price, B. S. (1967). The learning strategy of a total physical response: Some age differences.
Child Development, 38, 1219-1227.

Bialystok,E.(1997).The structure of age: In search of barriers to second language acquisition. Second language
research,13(2),116_137.

Bista,K.(2008).Age as an effective factor in second language acquision. The journal of English for Specific
Purposes World.Issue 5 (21).Retrieved fromwww.esp-world.info/Articles_21/Docs/Age.pdf

Birdsong, D. (2006). Age and second language acquisition and processing: A selective overview. Language
Learning, 56 (1), 9-49.

Cummins, J.(2007). Cognitive/academic language proficiency, linguistic interdependence, the optimum age
question and some other matters.Working Papers on Bilingualism, 19,197-205.
DeKeyser, R.(2002).The robustness of Critical Period effects in second language acquisition. Studies in second
language Acquisition,22(4),499-533.

Fathman, A. (1989). The relationship between age and second language productive ability.

Issues in second language research. London:Newbury House, 15-23.

Falasca,M.(2001).Barriers to adult learning.Australian Journal of Adult

learning.Volume56,number3,November2011. Retrieved from http://www.ajal.net.au/barriers-to-adult-learning-
bridging-the-gap/

Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E.L.(2008).Critical Period effects in second language learning: The influence of
maturational state on acquisition of English as a Second Language. Cognitive Psychology. 21,60-99.

Klein, W. (1986).Second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oyama, S. (1982).The sensitive period and comprehension of speech. In Krashen, S., Scarcell, R. & Long, M.
(Eds.), Issues in second language research. London: Newbury House, 39-51

Singleton, D. (2002).The age factor in second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Critical Period for Language Acquisition Chomsky

Chomsky claimed that there was a critical period for language learning which was first proposed by Eric
Lenneberg. He claimed, as Cook Newson (1996:301) explain, that there is a critical period during which the
human mind is able to learn language; before or after this period language cannot be acquired in a natural
fashion. Although the rare cases of feral children who had been deprived of first language in early childhood
seems to support the idea of critical period but it is not known for definite if deprivation was the only reason for
their language learning difficulties as Sampson (1997:37) points out, “it is not certain if children in cases of
extreme deprivation have trouble learning language because they have missed their so-called “critical period” or
if it is because of the extreme trauma they have experienced.”Although Chomsky was a very influential and
successful nativist, Sampson (1997:159) claims ‘his theories were given a helping hand by external
circumstances.’

Behaviourist Theory and Chomsky’s Innatism

Further, reasoning the success of these new nativist writers Sampson says “When Chomsky originally spelled
out an argument, the reader would assess it and might detect its fallacies; but when recent writers refer to
something as having been established back in the 1960s-70s, most readers are likely to take this on trust, for
lack of time and energy to check the sources.”Finally, on the subject of ‘nature vs. nurture’ debate, which so
heavily involves Chomsky, it seems impossible to distinguish whether language is only acquired due to
environmental exposure or simply due to innate faculties. From the evidence it seems that humans possess
innate capabilities which enable linguistic development, but the correct environment, with exposure to adult
language throughout the critical period, also seems to be necessary in order for a child to develop and become a
proficient speaker.

Singleton evaluates the scenario in these words, “The one qualification that might be entered with regard to
such evidence is that deprivation of language input during the phase in a child’s life when cognitive
development is at its most intense may have quite general psychological/cognitive effects, and that it may be
these general effects that are reflected in later language development rather that effects relating specifically to a
critical period for language” (Singleton 1989, 54).
The behaviourist theory is also contradicted by the fact that young children very often make ‘intelligent
mistakes’ as they learn a language. As they progress beyond the two-word stage, they begin to understand and
try to express more complex concepts, such as plurality, past tense and negation. Mistakes such as ‘sheeps’,
‘goed’, and ‘I no want to’, are all formed from formulae in the English language. In the first case, the child has
grasped the general rule that /s/ at word endings implies more than one, but has not yet distinguished
irregularities. The same applies to the second; /ed/ is a regularised past tense ending. In the third instance, the
child definitely understands the concept of negation, but cannot yet distinguish between the different forms of
expressing it (such as ‘do not, don’t’; ‘will not, won’t’; ‘no’; ‘none’ etc) or completely comprehend the complex
syntax involved. (Foster-Cohen, 1999, 89) If children only learned through repetition and imitation, would they
be able to produce utterances with grammar applied that they would never have heard their parents use?

Chomsky and the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

Therefore there must be more to a child’s linguistic development than simply social factors. Theories suggesting
that the human brain has a unique capacity for language which is genetic and exists from before birth include
Chomsky and the Language Acquisition Device, Piaget and Cognitive theory and Lenneberg and the Critical
Period. The Language Acquisition Devise (LAD), according to Chomsky, is an inborn mechanism facilitating
the learning of language, consisting of neural wirings and brain structures unique to human beings. A child does
not need to be taught language formally, but simply needs to be exposed to adult speech. This effortless
discovery of the language system is due to LAD. Chomsky, 1986, 118) The four properties of LAD are:

 Ability to distinguish speech sounds from over environmental sounds

 Ability to organise linguistic events into various properties
 Knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible
 Ability to engage in constant evaluation of developing linguistic systems, such as generating new
sentences and selecting the correct tense.

Chomsky argues that language develops in a uniform way, which is genetically determined, and that learning
develops in an individual with the trigger of experience. The human brain is ready for language intake from
birth, and exposure to adult speech activates it. An ancient experiment where an emperor ordered for a group of
children to grow up in isolation with no exposure to language resulted in none of them developing language for
communication. This shows that exposure to adult language is essential for linguistic development, as language
will not appear without it. A child’s language develops through hypothesis testing: deciding an utterance and
trying it on parents. Through trial and error, their speech will eventually correspond to adult speech. Chomsky’s
LAD theory therefore does tie in with the behaviourist theory, but maintains that language acquisition is much
more complex then simply imitation because innate faculties are also involved.

If language development is dependent on the environment triggering the LAD, what is it that determined how
and when children learn what? Certainly, the same stages of linguistic acquisition occur for all children (i.e.
holophrastic, two-word, telegraphic), in the same order and at roughly similar ages.Piaget’s Cognitive Theory
identifies language as an element of knowledge acquisition. He believed that “the growth of knowledge is a
progressive construction of logically embedded structures replacing one another by a process of inclusion of
lower, less powerful logical means into higher and more powerful ones up to adulthood”. This means that
children’s logic and thinking methods are originally different to adults.

Piaget’s cognitive theory suggests language is one of many cognitive behaviours, and it emerges from cognitive
development or learning to think and problem solve. However, this theory is contradicted by the ‘cocktail party
chatterer’ children. Observations of these children have suggested that an ability to cope with language structure
is largely separate from general intelligence. They talk for the sake of talking and their sentences may not make
sense. However, as the behaviourist theory might have suggested, they are not simply repeating phrases they
have heard, because they make grammatical mistakes such as ‘three tickets were gave out by a police last year’
which they would not have heard said.
A theory which would explain why these ‘cocktail party chatterers’ could be able to speak fluently even with a
very low non-verbal I.Q. is Lenneberg’s Critical Period Theory. He considered language to be an example of
maturationally controlled behaviour, like walking and sexual behaviour, which is genetically programmed to
emerge at a particular stage in an individual’s life. Learning is required, but cannot be significantly hastened by
coaching. Aitchinson Reith tells us ‘no external event or conscious decision causes it, and a regular sequence of
milestones can be charted.’ When the brain is in this period, lateralisation occurs, when the two sides of the
brain develop specialised functions. Lenneberg recognised that in an adult brain, language is found only in the
left hemisphere, whereas in infancy it is more spread out, meaning the infant brain has equipotential.

Feral Children Phenomenon

So-called feral children, those that have had no exposure to language in their ‘critical period’ have helped to
credit Lenneberg’s theory. Genie is an example. She was kept in appallingly deprived conditions, with almost
no social contact or exposure to language until she was found at age thirteen. Attempts were made to teach her
language, but although she progressed to the two-word and three-word stages like most children, her lack of
morphology was never remedied. She only grasped simple grammatical concepts. ‘Had’ and ‘gave’ where her
only past tenses which were used rarely and her only auxiliary was ‘be’; never ‘have’ or ‘must’. She never used
the demonstratives ‘there’ or ‘it’ although there were attempts at the definite article ‘the’. Genie demonstrates
that after the critical period, pragmatic skills can still be developed but the structural knowledge of language is
lost. She suggests that a child must be exposed to language during the critical period, and that after puberty
language acquisition cannot reach its normal end point. (Snow, & Hoefnagel, 1978, 1116) This suggests that
universal grammar is no longer operative as an LAD.

About Genie’s case, De Villiers is of the opinion that “It is unnecessary to explain that such circumstances did
not leave Genie intact in body and mind. However, although she was malnourished, there was no evidence of
physical abnormalities sufficient to account for her behaviour, for she had adequate hearing, vision and eye-
hand coordination. She was severely disturbed emotionally, having frequent but silent tantrums, yet there were
no other symptoms of childhood autism. The most likely explanation was the chronic social deprivation she had
suffered for those twelve years” (De Villiers & De Villiers 1978, p.215)

Critical Period and Language Acquisition

What the critical period theory does fail to emphasise is the way in which children learn language, concentrating
more on the scientific explanation for why they are able to. The fact that children definitely need exposure to
adult speech in order to learn language has already been discussed. But the reasons that humans, as social
animals, need language have not been covered by any of the previously mentioned theories.

Through studying his own son, Halliday identified five main purposes children need language for. These
functional frameworks can be distinguished from children’s utterances even before recognisable words can be
articulated, i.e. in the child’s ‘proto-language’. Interpersonal functions are when the child is increasing and
extending his capacity for engaging linguistically with others, for opening and sustaining dialogue with them.
These include Instrumental, to satisfy material needs, for example /na/ when requesting an object. This is the “I
want” function of language. The regulatory function is used to control behaviour of others, such as /ee/ meaning
“do that again!” This is the “do what I say” function of language.

Ideological functions are the aspects of adult language systems concerned with giving shape to and expressing
events and the external world, and also the internal world of consciousness. (Jackson & Stockwell, 1996, 170)
The heuristic function is where a child uses language to explore its environment, such as requesting the name of
and object. (Harley, 1989, 166). This is the “tell me why” function of language. The personal function enables
the child to communicate his identity by expressing pleasure or interest, for example /a/ for “that’s nice”. This is
the “here I come” function of language.
Halliday’s language functions propose that both proto-language and later linguistic development can be
identified by frameworks. These frameworks are factors which are important for humans to establish
relationships with others, satisfy material wishes and to find out about the environment in which they live. All
of the theories discussed in this essay have their merits, because the reason humans learn language and the way
in which they do so are determined by many factors. Humans do uniquely possess innate faculties which enable
linguistic development, but the correct environment, with exposure to adult language throughout the critical
period, must be present in order for a child to develop and become a proficient adult speaker.

Lexical Development

Lexical development also continues after puberty, and, according to some suggestions, may continue throughout
our lives, as people are continually interested in learning new things (Singleton 1989, p.56). Diller (1971) points
out that “twelve year olds have a recognition of about 135,000 words, Harvard freshmen know about 200,000
words, the typical thirty year oold PhD student know about 2,500,000 words. Vocabulary development
continues in a natural, almost unnoticed fashion as long as one lives and is interested in new things”.

There have been several studies that strongly support Lenneberg’s hypothesis. Among the most prominent are
feral children. Feral children are persons that have been linguistically isolated. When they were found, most
were unable to pick up on language abilities. These cases propose that there may be a ‘critical age’ in which any
child who has somehow missed out on learning a language will never fully master one. (Macwhinney, 2004,
910) Genie never learned proper grammar or sentence structure. Other cases of feral children include: Victor,
the wild boy of Aveyron (who was found at age 11) and Kamala of Midnapore (who was found at age 8), both
never learned language correctly either. Therefore, although Lenneberg’s hypothesis is not proven, feral
children forcefully support it.

Critical Period Hypothesis and Empirical Evaluation

The Critical Period Hypothesis is further supported by experiments about second language acquisition.
Lenneberg believed that “the language acquisition device, like other biological functions, works successfully
only when it is stimulated at the right time” (p. 19).

Aitchison (1998, p.88) goes for a general outcome by saying that young children who start signing early
because of their deaf parents end up more proficient that those who have hearing parents. The Ildefonso case is
probably used against the hypothesis of upper limit critical period because he has shown nearly full competence
in sign language despite his late start which was far beyond puberty.

Psycholinguistic, a branch of linguistics theory covers the cognitive process that discusses the process as how to
generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structure, as well as the
process to make it possible to understand utterances, words, texts, etc. It concentrates in the internal process of
acquiring language and their effect on language learning. Whereas, adults can perform and develop many
aspects of new ways of language and vocabulary (Singleton:1989,p.55) One internal factor is the development
of Interlanguage, which is developed by learners of a second language who have not become fully proficient,
but are only approximating the target language. Learners use some features of their first language during
speaking and writing and they also create their own innovations; it is a system based upon the best attempt for
learners to provide order and structure to the linguistic stimuli surrounding them. Interlanguage is particularly
based on the learners’ experience on the target language.

The learner creates an interlanguage using different learning strategies such as language transfer,
overgeneralization and simplification. Language learning acquisition is a gradual process where errors will be
unavoidable, but learners will slowly and tediously succeed in establishing closer and closer approximations to
the system used by native speakers. Educators can give appropriate feedback after checking learners’
interlanguage, and assure learners that making mistakes is a procedure of development from the mother tongue
to the second language.

Universal Grammar Orientation

Universal Grammar is another theory that explains failure of second language competence. It is said that
Universal Grammar is a natural unconscious ability present at birth, that is a knowledge of grammar. This does
not imply that a person does not make mistakes, but that they do make mistakes but irregular types of errors,
and somehow a person has the ability to accept these errors and re-apply them. The set of grammatical rules are
learned through conditioning, meaning that if a person when learning their mother language never heard anyone
make mistakes, then he or she learns it that way. With Universal Grammar set in place at birth, the person is
able to take on whichever language he or she is exposed to, as all languages have common elements and are
inter-adaptable. This theory does not state that all human languages have the same grammar, or that all humans
are encoded with a structure that underlies all surface grammatical expressions of each and every specific
human language. But it implies that Universal Grammar suggests a set of rules that would explain how a person
acquires their language or how they construct valid sentences of their language. (Chomsky, 1972, 37) This
theory explains that grammar is the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are properties of all human
language.

Second Language Learning And Critical Period

Learners begin by transferring the sounds and meaning, words order into the learning of the second language.
By doing this an obstruction of the second language acquisition starts to raise, the learner starts to confuse the
grammatical rules of the first language with the second language creating an incorrect language learning
process. When learning a second language, a learner uses this language transfer concept as a strategy to have an
uncomplicated language learning process. The learner uses parts of the analysis of one language in order to
manage with the unclear grammatical rules of the target language. Learners when presenting or expressing their
ideas, opinions and statements in the target language, tend to consider and apply the same grammatical
structures of their first language; this transferring interferes with the proper application of the grammatical
structure of the target language. The Monitor Model is another likely explanation for this second language
incompetence. This theory is characterized of five hypotheses.

The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis involves that there are two independent systems of second language
performance; acquisition is the result of a subconscious process similar to children’s mother language
acquisition and requires life-like second language interaction, which concentrates on communication rather than
accuracy. On the other hand, learning occurs through formal instruction and includes a conscious process,
which results in knowledge of the target language. Learned knowledge permits learners to read and listen more
so that the acquisition is effectual. The Natural Order Hypothesis; suggests that just as first language learners,
second language learners seem to acquire the characteristics of the target language in an obvious order.
Contrary to intuition, the rules which are easier to state and to learn are not necessarily the first to acquire. It is
observed that the natural order is independent of the order in which rules have been learned in class.

Monitor Hypothesis

The Monitor Hypothesis; states that a learner’s learned system acts as a monitor to what they are producing. In
other words, while only the acquired system is able to produce spontaneous speech, the learned system is used
to check what is being spoken, this occurs before or after the interaction is made, but not at the same time. The
interlocutor therefore monitors their spontaneous speech using what they have learned. The Monitor Model then
predicts faster initial progress by adults than children, as adults use their monitor when producing statements in
the target language before having acquired the ability for natural performance, and adults will input more into
conversations earlier than children.
Input Hypothesis

The Input Hypothesis states that only understandable input will produce acquisition of the target language. It is
implied that learners must be exposed to input that is higher than their actual level of knowledge of the target
language in order to produce a result in the acquisition of the target language. Because some instances learners
do not posses that higher level of input, the development and improvement of the target language will not occur.
The Affective Filter Hypothesis affirms that the learner’s emotional state acts as flexible filters that freely
permit or obstruct input necessary to acquisition. It is said that adolescence and puberty are not effective periods
for second language acquisition due to the hormonal changes that occur during that development period.

The Sociolinguistic theory is concerned with the effect of all aspects of society in the learning process of the
target language such as cultural norms, expectations and context on the way language is applied. It also
concentrates on the different types of language variation, ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of language
knowledge and how all these factors have an impact on second language learning process. The Acculturation
Model which is a likely reason for the failure of second language competence refers to the process of
adjustment to a new culture, on how new language learners acclimatize not only to the target language but also
to the culture of that language. This model refers to immigrants that are in second language surroundings, but it
could also apply to new language learners and the way it affects them to also acquire a new culture. (Sagae,
MacWhinney, 2004, 119). For some learners the idea of modifying and adding another culture in their life could
cause difficulties in their language learning process.

One important distinguishing factor in the acquisition of second language is fossilization which refers to the
permanent cessation of progress towards the target language, despite all attempts and exposure to the target
language. (McLaughlin, 1985, 209). An aspect that has a relevance to fossilization is motivation; there exists
lack of empathy with the target language, the culture and the native speakers.

Accommodation Theory

The Accommodation theory implies the way learners may adapt their speech in multilingual settings. This
theory suggests the way learners adjust their way of interacting with people of different culture with different
languages in order to facilitate communication. It also states that: is the way the learner’s social group (ingroup)
identifies itself in the target language community (outgroup). If these two groups do not have a positive effect
on one another, or they do not connect and identify themselves with each other, there will be a consequence in
the acquisition of the second language. When learning a new language, learners need to feel that they belong in
this outgroup, they need to feel that they are part of this new culture and that they feel a cordial welcoming from
this outgroup; but if none of these intentions are met then learners will not have an effective and productive
learning acquisition process.

Social identity is another sociolinguistic issue that has a great impact in second language competence. Social
identity is the way in which learners understand themselves in relation to others, and how they view their past
and their future. Structural inequalities can limit leaner’s exposure to the target language as well as their
opportunities to practice it. (Asher & Garcia, 1969, 338). The input that learners acquire could be received from
different sources such as; the teacher, textbooks, individuals, radio, television, newspapers, magazines, etc. And
if these resources are not accurate in their language transmission then the input might not be logical to the
learners and the learners’ intake will be erroneous which will result in the failure of language competence.
(Collier, 1989, 523).

Conclusion

In conclusion, numerous linguists believe that there is a ‘Critical Period’ in which humans can acquire
language. The theory proposed by Lenneberg about a limited time in which language can be acquired is
supported by large amounts of research. Although many challenge this hypothesis with the theory of ‘Universal
Grammar’, both are unproven.

Studies have determined that invalid conversational interaction affects the acquisition of second language,
which in result could decrease the pace of language acquisition. Invalid interaction is the product of inaccurate
input, which could cause a decline in the learners’ participation and motivation to produce language properly.
The role of instruction has been examined as the role of focus on the grammatical forms of language in
instruction.

Many factors such as; internal or external factors can modify the way learners acquire and learn the target
language; the above stated factors can obstruct second language acquisition competence. However, learners can
manipulate and be capable of attaining the knowledge of the second language if their perspective of the target
language is adjusted. Learners with low motivation and low language confidence will have high filters which
will obstruct the achievement of second language acquisition. There are other variables in second language
acquisition process. Aptitude refers to the ability and capacity that a learner has towards the language. The
attitude the learner posses towards the target language, how the learner feels, the posture they have towards the
target language.

Age has also an influence in second language acquisition, as it is stated above adolescents might have an
increase difficulty level when it comes to acquisition of language due to the hormonal changes, but at the same
time they perceive language faster than adults due to their neurological development. As for adults, they
become more appropriate for the study of a second language because of their maturity, but at the same time,
their learning process struggles due to their developmental age.

The Importance Of Age In Sla

There are many theories if age affects second language acquisition. Some authors saying that, to learn a second
language when you are child is easier than to learn a second language when you are older. We can define
children ages from 3 to 18 that are in school and adults or older learners from the ages of 18 and above.
However the critical period hypothesis it can also play a role in the learning and also the implicit and the
explicit shift hypothesis. Below will examine what authors point out. What is the difference of learning a
second language in early stage or later, the benefits and the negatives. And when is easier to start learning a
second language.

To start with, in critical period hypothesis suggests that there is a period when language acquisition takes place
naturally and effortlessly. Penfield and Roberts (1959 in Ellis, 1985:107) argued that the optimum age for
language acquisition it starts the first ten years of life. Because in this time of period the brain retains plasticity
but with the onset of puberty this plasticity begins to disappear. They suggest that this is a result of the
lateralization of the language function in the left hemispheres of the brain, and slowly concentrated in the left
hemisphere for most people. Thus, increased difficulty which learners supposedly experience as a direct result
of a neurological change.

According to Lenneberg (1967 in Ellis, 1985:107) to support the critical period hypothesis found that injuries to
the right hemisphere caused more language problems in children than in adults. He also found that in cases of
children who underwent surgery of the left hemisphere, no speech disorders resulted, whereas with adults
almost total language occurred. Furthermore, Lenneberg provided evidence to show that whereas children
rapidly recovered total language control after such operations, adults did not do so, but instead continued to
display permanent linguistic impairment. This suggested that the neurological basis of language in children and
adults was different. However, Lenneberg’s evidence does not demonstrate that is easier to acquire language
before puberty but he assumed that language acquisition was easier to children. According to Lightbown and
Spada (1999:61) most studies of the relationship between age of acquisition and second language development
have focused on learners’ phonological (pronunciation) achievement. In general, these studies have concluded
that older learners almost inevitably have a noticeable ‘foreign accent’.

However, another interesting cognitive theory is the implicit and the explicit shift. This suggests that the age
affects the decreasing in language learning capacity in SLA and it happens because of the declining role of
implicit learning and memory in the language acquisition process, and at the same time increase the role of
explicit learning and memory. This statement is supported by a wide agreement that learners process their late-
learnt language differently than their native language, but the results of the performance are rarely the same.
Paradis (2004 in Dornyei 2009:256-257) point out that a particular strength of the implicit and the explicit shift
hypothesis is that they can account of the age effects in naturalistic SLA and in formal school learning: first, the
dominating learning mechanism is the implicit thus the younger we are, the better we can capitalize. Second the
limited amount of L2 exposure and cognitive structure input is typically favours explicit learning and learning
we can benefit from this language environment more in older age when the implicit and the explicit shift is on
the way and thus prepared us for utilizing explicit learning mechanisms. Although it is often assumed that the
loss of the implicit learning that is forces the second language learners to rely in the explicit learning, which
uses a cognitive system different from that the native language is support.

Dekeyser (2000 in Dornyei, 2009:241) point out that if the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH) is constrained,
however in the implicit learning mechanisms appears that there is more than just a sizable correlation. Also
early age confers an absolute that there may well be no exceptions to the age effect. Between the ages of 6-7
and 16-17 , everybody loses the mental equipment that requires for the implicit induction of the abstract patterns
that underlying the human language, thus “the critical period deserves its name” as DeKeyser mention.
DeKeyser and Larson – Hall (2005 in Dornyei 2009:241) point out, that this approach is also accepted by
Lenneberg (1967 in Dornyei 2009:241) who had the original observation of the CPH that “automatic acquisition
from mere exposure to a given language seems to disappear after this age”. Also many scholars agree with
DeKeyser (2000 in Dornyei, 2009:242) that the qualitative disparity between adult (post Critical period) and
child language acquisition shows that somewhere along the line there is bound to be break that it caused from
maturational constraints. Studies have repeatedly found that age causes a gradual decline in acquiring language
with an attainment curve with a sharp discontinuity at the terminus of the period.

Although there is a theory ‘the younger the better’ whereas Dornyei points out that language learning is easier
when one is young. For example a family of immigrates to a new country for a 5 year old child will be far easier
to learn a L2 proficiency than the 30 year old father, but he would be better than 60 year old grandma. I can
agree with Dornyei view, as for a child it can be easier to learn the second language because of the school
context, but for the father it depends from the working or the environment he will be surrounded, thus it can be
more difficult for older learners.

As Dorney (2009:249) explains, a young immigrant child who will start primary school in the new country at
the age of 5-6, will be able to learn as often optimal conditions are provided by the school experiences.
However, for an adult immigrant whose social network involve people from the same ethno linguistic group and
has few native speaking colleagues at work the learning conditions are far from the ideal. It is also the same for
a student that contact a L2 onetime per week in a school context.

Some other authors that agree with Dornyei, is Kuhl (2008 in Dornyei, 2009:249) who states, “There is no
doubt that children learn languages more naturally and efficiently than adults” and N.Ellis (2005 in Dornyei,
2009:249) also concludes, “It is an incontrovertible fact that ultimate second language attainment is less
successful in older than younger learners”

According to Gass and Selinker (2001:342) “children are more successful second language learners than adults”
and there various explanations: First, there social psychological reasons why adults learn languages less easy
than children. There many different versions of this hypothesis. Some suggest that adults don’t want to give up
the sense of identity that the accent provides them. And other suggests that adults don’t want to surrender their
ego in the extent that required adopting a new language, which combines with a new life-world. Second the
cognitive factors are also responsible for the weakness of the adults to succeed in learning. Adults have greater
cognitive abilities than children. Adopting the cognitive abilities in language learning task has less successful
learning in children, which according to the hypothesis where supposed to rely a greater extent in a specific
language acquisition device. Third, there are neurological changes that prevent adults to use their brain with the
same way that children learn language learning tasks. This usually presented as a loss of plasticity or the
flexibility in the brain. Fourth, the children are exposed to a better input for language learning thus children are
provided with better data about the language.

On the other hand, some other authors disagree with that point of view and point out that ‘the older the better’
by state that a 5 year old student probably will occur to less progress in learning language in school context than
an older learner age of 15 or 30, even 60 years old. According to Dornyei (2009:235) Anglophone children in
French immersion who entered the immersion programme relatively late, around 9 to 11 years old, very quickly
manage to caught up with the early immersion of students, who start he immersion programme in kindergarten
or when entering the primary school. Also Dornyei (2009:250) point out that in school settings older students
make better progress than their younger peers, particularly in acquiring morphosyntactic and lexical aspects of
the second language and sometimes also in acquiring phonological aspects.

Also Dornyei (2009:250) states that ‘younger the better’ principle suggests that younger children learn ‘better’
in educational settings in the sense of going further but not faster. Singleton and Ryan (2004 in Dornyei,
2009:250): “Extrapolating from the naturalistic studies, one way plausibly argue that early formal instruction in
an L2 is likely to yield advantages after rather longer periods of time than have so far been studied”.

Over the last few years two investigations took place in Spain, to examine ‘the older the better’ issue. They
examine three groups of Basque learners of English who attended the fifth year in primary school, the second
year in secondary school and the fifth year in secondary school who had 600 hours of instruction, Cenoz (2003
in Dornyei, 2009:251) reported that the oldest group had the highest proficiency in English, followed by the
intermediate group and the youngest group. The youngest learners where only better in attitudinal and
motivational disposition from their older peers. The second study investigated Catalan learners of English in the
Barcelona Age Factor (BAF) project and they found very similar findings. Several groups of learners (total N=
1928) with different AoA were examined three times, after 200 hours, 416 hours, and 726 hours of instruction.
In the results older learners where progress faster in learning a foreign language than younger learners. Munoz
(2006 in Dornyei, 2009:251) concluded that “after linger periods of time, younger starters did not outperform
later starters, and the extensive span and size of this investigation makes this finding particularly robust.”

However, many authors point out that in formal language contexts younger learners are not better but worse.
Thus, in recent initiatives they attempt to push forward the starting age of learning a foreign language as a
school productive. Lightbown and Spada (2006 in Dornyei, 2009:251), conclude that older learners are possible
to achieve a better use in L2 learning in limited time. When the goal is the basic communicative ability for all
students in an educational system, and when the child’s native language will remain the primary language, it
may be more efficient to start learning a second or a foreign language teaching later. When the learners receive
few hours of teaching per week, the learners who start later between 10 to 12 years old often are likely to caught
up with the learners who start earlier. Some second or foreign languages programmes that start with very young
learners and provide minimum of contact, usually they do not lead to much progress.

On the other hand Ellis gives some facts of younger and older learners. According to Ellis (1994:491-492)
“adult learners have an initial advantage of learning, where rate of learning in concerned, particularly in
grammar. Eventually adult learners can overtake the child learners that are exposed to L2. This is less likely to
happen in instructional than in naturalistic settings because the critical amount of exposure is usually not
available in the former.” First, only child learners are able to acquire informal learning contexts. Long (1990 in
Ellis, 1994:491-492) point out that the critical period is age 6, but Scovel point out that there is no evidence to
support it and argues for a pre-puberty start. Also Singletton (1989 in Ellis, 1994:491-492) point out that
children are able to acquire a native accent only if they are exposed to massive L2 learning. However, some
children still do not manage to acquire a native like accent possible because they try to maintain active use of
their L1. Adult learners may be able to acquire a native accent if they have an assistance of instruction, but more
researchers have to take place to substantiate this claim. Second, children are more likely to acquire a native
grammatical competence, as the critical period of grammar may be able to be later than for pronunciation,
around 15 years old. But some adult learners, might achieve to acquire native levels of grammatical accuracy in
speech and writing and ‘linguistic competence’. Third, children are more likely to reach higher levels of
attainment in pronunciation and grammar than adults. Fourth, the process of acquiring a L2 does not really
affected by the age, but the acquiring of pronunciation can be.

Beside if younger learners or older learners are better, age can affect the mastery of native like learning as we
saw above. Also Mark Patkowski (in Lightbown, 1999:61-62) studied the effect of age in acquisition of features
of a second language, despite the accent. He pointed that even if the accent was ignored only the learners who
start learning a second language before the age of 15 they could achieve full, native-like mastery of that
language. Patkowski also examined the spoken English of 67 highly educated immigrants to the United States.
The learners started to learn English in different ages, but all of them lived in the United States more than 5
years. Also 15 native-born Americans English speakers of spoken English from similarly high level of
education take place to the research to show the validity of the research. In the research, a lengthy interview
with each of the subjects in the study was tape recorded. Because Patkowski wanted to remove the possibility
that the results would be affected, he did not ask rates to judge the tape-recorded interviews themselves. Instead,
he transcribed five-minute samples from the interviews. These samples were rated by trained native-speakers
judges. The judges were asked to place each speaker on a rating scale from 0, representing no knowledge of the
language, to 5, representing a level of English expected form an educated native speaker.

The main question in Patkowski’s research was: “Will there be a difference between learners who began to
learn English before puberty and those who began learning later?” However, in the light of some of the issues
discussed above, he also compared learners on the basis of other characteristics and experiences which some
people have suggested might be as good as age in predicting or explaining a learner’s eventual success in
mastering a second language. For example, he looked at the relationship between eventual mastery and the total
amount of time a speaker had been in the United States as well as the amount of formal ESL instruction each
speaker had had.

The findings were remarkable, because thirty-two from the thirty-three learners who start learning English
before the age of 15 years old scored 4+ or the 5 level. The homogeneity of the post-puberty learners seemed
that the success of learning a second language was almost inevitable. On the other hand, was a variety in the
levels that the post-puberty achieved. The majority of the post-puberty learners achieved +3 level, but a wide if
distribution of levels achieved. The variety of the performance of this group were look more like the
performance range were expected if someone were measuring success in learning, almost in any kind of skill or
knowledge Patkowski’s (in Lightbown, 1999:62-63) first question, “Will there be a difference between learners
who began to learn English before puberty and those who began learning English later?”, was answered with a
very resounding ‘yes’. Thus Patkowski found that the age of acquisition is very important factor for the
development of native-like mastery of a second language and that does not only affect the accent. The
experience and the research showed that native-like mastery of spoken language is difficult to achieve by older
learners. Also, the ability to distinguish grammatical and ungrammatical sentences in a second language seems
that is also affected by the age factor.

However, according to Dornyei (2009:242) learners who are young enough in the critical period are still failing
to master the L2 to a native like level. And, on the other hand are adult learners whose AoA is late, for example
learners in their twenties, that has to be after the offset of the Critical Period and they succeed in acquiring
native like proficiency. Also, there are evidences against the Critical Period hypothesis, an example that
provided by Flege (2006 in Dornyei, 2009:242) are young learners of L2 whose L1 influence the pronunciation
and it could still be detected after a long period in the host environment. And in another investigation that took
place in 2007 by Jia and Fuse is that none of the ten immigrant children whose development followed by five
year period in the USA manage to master the regular past tense -ed suffix at a minimum of 80% accuracy level,
even thought the youngest children were 5 to 6 years old in the arrival and when the participated in mainstream
schooling with additional English teaching.

Birdsong (2006 in Dornyei, 2009:243) point out that few studies that have identified in early starter L2 learners
that they should achieved native like proficiency but they do not as the Critical period defeating, native like
adult L2 learners has received more attention in the literature. Common figures of post pubertal learners who
reach a native like level range between 5 to 10% of learners in naturalistic environments. However there are two
important points that ‘adults can also do it’. First, Birdsong (2007 in Dornyei, 2009:244) observed in his study
that the late learners can success in phonetic training and also are having highly motivated to improve L2
pronunciation. Second, it appears that if you dig deep enough you can find chinks in the L2 armour, or even the
most successful L2 adult learner. There various ways of accessing the native-like speaker judgment of L2
pronunciation, oral and written production tasks, even grammaticality judgements in more sophisticated probes
such as examining subtle phonetic differences in voice onset time or intonation contour. “It seems that even if
standard measures identify someone to belong within the native-speaking range obtained of performance-
usually within two standard deviations of the mean rating obtained for a native-speaking norm group- more
elaborate techniques can still detect subtle deviations from the native norm”.

To conclude, there are many beliefs if age affects second language acquisition, if younger learners or older
learners are better, if younger learners or older learners can achieve a native like language and if there is a
critical period. In my opinion, learning a second language in younger age is more effective because is easier to
save or remember new things, however if you are older learner there is a benefit to be able to practise the
second language. And for my personal experience practising your second language and use the second language
is how you learn it, instead of just learning a second language only in school context, through books, exercises,
etc. In the second part of the native like proficiency I do not believe that the age matters but it matters from the
person. Some people are more motivated to achieve a native like proficiency and they will try more, but other
they just want to speak a second language and be able to understand them, nothing else. And for the third part, if
there is a critical period, I will agree as they say the children are like sponge, I will also agree with the part that
says there is a time you stop learning as I believe in some point in your life you cannot handle new things, new
words or new grammar but it happen in different stages for every person.