UNIT – 1

1.1 PLANT LOCATION AND LAYOUT

1.1.1 PLANT
Plant is a place where resources of production are brought together to manufacture
products. Men, Material, Machines, Tools, Equipment, etc., are resource of production.
1.1.2 PLANT LOCATION
Plant location means selection of suitable site or area for construction of factories.
1.1.3 SELB OF SITE - FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED
1. Nearness to market
2. Nearness to raw materials
3. Transport and communication facilities
4. Availability of labour
5. Availability of power and fuel
6. Availability of water
7. Climate and Atmospheric conditions
8. Land
9. Labour laws and taxation
10. Financial and other aids
11. Social and recreational facilities
1.1.4 PLANT LAYOUT
Plant layout is the arrangement of buildings, machinery, equipments, Workplaces and
other facilities of production, to manufacture products in most efficient manner. For
efficiency of production,
a) Movement of men and materials shall be through easiest and shortest path.
b) Production cast shall be least.
c) Material handling shall be minimum.
It is not possible to find a site which will fullfill all the above requirement. Best
compromise to be made.
1.1.5 OBJECTIVES (ADVANTAGES) PLANT LAYOUT
The following are the main objectives of scientific layout.
1. Minimum material handling.
2. Effective use of floor space.
3. Easy and effective supervision.
4. Reduction in damage to materials and accidents.
5. Proper control of production.

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 6. Good house keeping.
7. Safe, healthy and comfortable working conditions.
8. Improved morale and satisfaction of workers.
9. Better quality products at lower unit cost.
1.1.6 PRINCIPLES OF GOOD LAYOUT
There are six basic principles of good layout.
1. Principle of over-all Integration
2. Principle of minimum distance
3. Principle of flow
4. Principle of cubic space
5. Principle of satisfaction and safety
6. Principle of flexibility
1.1.7 TYPES OF LAYOUT
The following are the three types of layout
1. Process or function layout•
2. Product or line layout
3. Fixed or static position layout
1.1.8 PROCESS LAYOUT
Process layout is one in which all machines or processes of the same type are grouped
together In the same area.
For example, all lathes will be in one place, all milling machines in another place. The
material is moved through different process departments. The Fig 1.1.1 shows a process
layout.

Fig 1.1.1 Process layout

Process layout is suitable• for

a) Job order or batch production

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 b) Forming and treating process such as machine shop works, textile and cloth.
making industries.
c) Assembly work such as sheet metal assembly work by spot welding, riveting,
soldering etc.
Advantages of process layout :
1. Better and efficient utilisation of machines
2. Flexibility to changes, in product variety.
3. Continuity of production in the event any one machine breakdown.
4. Less number of machines are required.
5. Minimum capital investment on machines
6. Variety of jobs may make-work more interesting and, challenging.
Disadvantages of process layout
1. More material handling than in product layout.
2. More skilled workers and supervisors are needed to handle variety of jobs.
Increase in manufacturing time and labour cost.
3. Production planning and control is difficult and costly.
4. More floor area is required.
5. Automatic material handling system cannot be adopted.
1.1.9 PRODUCT OR LINE LAYOUT
The product layout is one In which machines required to manufacture the product are
arranged as per sequence of operations.
Product layout is suitable for
a) Continuous production.
1. Forming and treating process such as machining of cylinder head, chemical
plants.
b) Assembling process such as automobile assembly. Product layout is shown in

Fig. 1.1.2 Product layout

Advantages of product layout:

1. Minimum material handling

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 2. Production planning and control easier.
3. No work delays and hence less manufacturing time.
4. Less skilled workers and supervisors are sufficient.
5. Less floor area is required.
6. Automatic material handling system can be used.
Disadvantages of product layout :
1. Capital investment on machines may be high.
2. Not flexible to changes in product variety.
3. A single machine break down may stop production.
4. All machines cannot be used for their maximum capacity.
5. The work may not be interesting and challenging since variety of jobs cannot be
handled.
1.1.10 FIXED POSITION LAYOUT
Fixed position layout is one in which the machines and men are brought to the
material to perform the required operation to make the product.
This type of layout is used in manufacturing aircrafts, ships, pressure vessels etc.,
where the product materials are too heavy to move from one place to another. For such type
of products, it is convenient and economical to bring machines, tools, men etc., to the work
place. Fig. 1.1.3 shows simple arrangement of this type of layout.

Fig. 1.1.3 Fixed position layout

Advantages of fixed position layout
1. Minimum material movement
2. Continuity of operations is ensured (since the work is usually carried out by a
group of workers)
3. Flexible to changes in product variety.
4. Minimum capital investment on machines.
5. Total production cost is less.
Disadvantages of fixed position layout
1. Movement of machines to work place is costly and timed consuming.
2. Highly skilled workers are required.

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 3. Loading the job on machines may be difficult.
4. Complicated jigs and fixtures may be required to fix jobs and tools.
1.1.11 TECHNIQUES OF PLANT LAYOUT WORK
A plant layout is made or improved with the help of following tools and techniques.
a) Flow process chart
b) Flow diagram
c) Machine data card
d) Scale models
(a) Flow process chart
b) Flow diagram
c) Machine data cards
d) Templates
e) Scale models

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 MATERIAL HANDLING
1.2.1 MATERIAL HANDLING
Material handling means “moving of materials from stores through process of
manufacture to the ultimate consumer with least expenditure of time, effort and costs"
It is defined as” art and science of moving, packing and storing of products in any
form”.
• Proper handling methods to eliminate or reduce handling.
• Use of proper material handling equipments.
1.2.2 OBJECTIVE OF MATERIAL HANDLING
The following are the main objectives of material handling.
1. To reduce wastage of machine time.
2. To reduce human effort in moving m
3. To bring safety to workers.
4. To improve productivity.
5. To reduce cost of production.
6. To bring customer satisfaction.
1.2.3 PRINCIPLES OP MATERIAL HANDLING
The following are the general principles of material handling.
1. Materials shall be moved over the shortest distance possible. (Short distance require
less time and hence less time and hence less money than long distance)
2. Paths and travels shall not be retraced. Materials shall be moved in straight lines as
much as possible.
3. Terminal time shall be as short as possible. (Terminal time is the tin of picking up the
materials)
4. Partial loads and manual handling shall be avoided. Material hat equipments shall be
used.
5. Loads shall be moved at higher speeds and in large quantities at a time.
6. Loads shall be carried on both ways on material handling trips.
7. Gravity shall be -utilised as moving force as much as possible.
8. Containers, pallets, boxes etc., shall be used to make transportation easier.
9. Mateials shall be marked to avoid mixing up and to save time in sorting.
10. Pathways shall be well illuminated and unobstructed

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1.2.4 MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENTS
There are various types of material handling equipments. The following are the four
major classifications:
a) Conveyors
b) Industrial trucks
c) Cranes and Hoists
d) Containers.
a) Conveyers
Conveyers are useful for moving material between two fixed locations. They are
mainly used for continuous or mass production operations. Conveyers at suitable level
eliminate lifting and lowering of materials.
The advantages and disadvantages of conveyers are -
1. It saves labour cost
2. Occupies more space
3. Relatively fixed and less flexible
4. Investment is high.
Conveyers are of various types such as
 Belt conveyers
 Roller conveyers
 Chain or cable conveyers
 Screw conveyers
Belt conveyers consist of moving endless belt and carries materials within, supporting
frames. This has power driven pulley at one end, which moves the belt. This conveyor is
mostly used for handling large quantities of materials such as cement, fertilizer, coal, ore etc.,
Roller conveyer is used to transport various shapes of products such as boxes or
materials. It consists of rollers supported in frames over which materials are allowed to move.
It can be driven by power or gravity.
Chain or cable conveyor is moved by. Chains or cables in horizontal direction and is
installed flush with floor or little above it. This is used for moving barrels and heavy boxes.
Pipeline conveyor is used for transporting dry, pulverised or granular materials, sand,
cement etc., It can be operated by gravity, air pressure or some mechanical means.
Screw conveyor is used for transporting materials in paste or powder form with the
application of rotating screw.

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 Fig. 1.2.1 shows different types of conveyors.
.

Fig. 1.2.1 Types of Conveyors

Fig. 1.2.2 Plat form Lift Truck

Fig. 1.2.3. Crane Truck

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b) Industrial Trucks
Industrial trucks can move between various points. They are most suitable for
handling various sizes and shapes of materials. The trucks may be petrol driven, electric
driven or hand powered.
There are various types of industrial trucks:
 Lift truck
 Crane truck
 Fork lift truck
Lift trucks provide clearance from the floor for the skids and permits horizontal
transportation.
Crane trucks are used to handle materials that are too heavy to handle in lift trucks. In
this, a crane is mounted on this truck. They can move over smooth, even and hard ground
The crane is of rotary type so that the load can be lifted from any position and carried
to any desired place.
Fork lift trucks can take the load from ground level with the help of forks provided in
front end of the truck and elevate it to the level of the truck. They are used to shift
materials from one shop to another.
C) Cranes and Hoists
Cranes and hoists are used to move materials through overhead space. There are
several types of cranes and hoists.

Fig. 1.2.4. Fork Lift

Fixed crane:
This type of crane is fixed in one position. From this fixed position, the crane will be
handling materials. This type of cranes can be seen in ship yards and railway yards to
handle heavy and bulky materials.
Pillar crane:
This may be a stationary type or mobile type. It is used for light duty and for handling
loads up to 20 tonnes. A jib or inclined boom is fixed to lift or lower down the load
Overhead crane:

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 This is used for heavy and bulky materials in industries. The crane travels along
overhead rails and materials can be moved both longitudinally and crosswise along the
bays. An operator sitting in the cabin over head operates the crane. The materials will be
loaded and unloaded by the person on the ground.
Traveling crane:
There are two types of traveling crane. One is mounted on the truck and in the other
type, it is mounted on rails.

(a) Over head Crane

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 (b) Fixed crane (c) Pillar crane

Fig.1.2.5

Hoist:
This is used for lifting materials vertically. The hoist is operated between fixed guide
rails. There are numerous types of hoists. The simplest type is chain hoist, operated by
hand. There are also hoists operated by electric power. The hoist is similar to overhead
crane except that a hoist does not carry the operator in it but is operated from. one or two
other points.

The different types of cranes are shown in Fig.1.2.5

d) Containers
These are either ‘dead’ containers or ‘live’ containers. They are used to hold materials
to be transported. Containers, which do not move by themselves, are called ‘dead’ containers.
Examples: - cartons, barrels, skids, pallets. ‘Live’ containers can move freely. Examples: -
Wagons, wheel barrows.

Skids are wooden or metal plate forms with four legs and used with lift trucks. Goods
are loaded into the skids and then picked up by lift trucks. Hand trucks, Wheel barrows and
Trolleys are used to carry materials inside the shop.

Various types of skids, pallets, hand trucks etc are shown in Fig. 1.2.6.

1.2.5 SELECTION OF MATERIAL HANDLING EQUIPMENTS

The following are the important factors to be considered in selecting a proper material
handling system.
1. Properties of materials to be handled
2. System of production
3. Layout and type of buildings
4. Cost

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Properties of Materials
The properties of materials such as solid, liquid or gas, size, weight, shape, perish
ability etc., are important considerations in selection of proper handling devices.

For example, pipe line conveyors are best suited for powders, liquids and gases.
Roller conveyors are best for handling boxes containing small components of various size
and shapes. Cranes and hoists are suitable for lifting heavy loads. Containers are preferable to
handle fragile material.

System of production
In intermittent production system, variety of jobs are made on different machines at
different places. The paths of movements are not fixed. Therefore variable path equipment
such as lilt trucks, skids, hand trucks and trolleys are more useful in intermittent production
systems.

In mass pro
Therefore,
conveyors, cranes, hoists and pipe lines are more suitable handling equipments.

Layout and type

of buildings
Low level ceiling
suitable for single
store by
buildings. If the building is multi stroreyed, use of gravity is economical. Chutes or ramps for
trucks may be used. The layout depends on type of production. Based on type of production,
suitable material handling system can be selected.
Cost
‘Cost’ is the
major factor in
taking final
decision on selection of handling equipments. The following cost
elements shall be considered.

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 (a) Skids

(b) Pallets

(c) Trolley (d) Hand truck

(e) Wheel (f) Wheel barrow

Fig 1.2.6. Containers

 Initial cost of equipments
 Interest payment if money is borrowed

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  Depreciation charges per year
 Operating costs such as cost of fuel, maintenance, labour
 Resale or scrap value
These costs must be determined for various handling equipments that are capable of
handling the same load. Then a comparison, of cost is made and a decision is taken on the
selection of suitable handling equipments.

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 1.3 PLANT MAINTENANCE

1.3.1 PLANT MAINTENANCE

Plant maintenance is system used to increase the life and performance of machines,
equipments, tools, buildings etc.,

1.3.2 IMPORTANCE OF MAINTENANCE

Plant maintenance is important to avoid the following losses
1. Damage or destruction to machinery
2. More breakdowns and hence loss due to (a) Fall of product quality (b) Spoiled
materials and (c) Idle time of men and machines.
3. Delivery promises cannot be kept and hence loss of customer goodwill and market
potential.
4. More accidents resulting in production loss, low morale of workers and idle time of
men and machines.
5. Increase in power consumption.
6. Reduction in life of machines, equipments etc.,
7. Loss of foreign exchange, if machines are imported ones.

1.3.3 ADVANTAGES OF WELL MAINTAINED PLANT

1. Higher output because of less idle time of men and machines.
2. Better quality of products
3. Reduced breakdown expenses and hence cost of a product decreases.
4. Less accidents and hence high morale of workers.
5. Steady supply of quality products and hence customer’s goodwill.

1.3.4 COST OF MAINTENANCE

The cost of maintenance consists of the following
1. Loss due to reduced production
2. Wages paid to workers dung idle time.
3. Cost due to machine idleness.
4. Cost of spares and other materials used for repair.
5. Layout Cost to maintenance persons.
6. Overhead expenses of maintenance department.

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 7. Overtime wages if any, to make up production loss.
]

1.3.5 TYPES OF MAINTENANCE.

The important types of maintenance are given below
1. Scheduled maintenance
2. Breakdown maintenance
3. Preventive maintenance

1.3.6 SCHEDULED.MAINTENANCE
This is also known as routine maintenance. The following maintenance works are
done in scheduled maintenance.
1. Lubrication
2. Periodic inspection
3. Adjustment parts
4. Cleaning
5. Periodic overhaul
6. Repairs and replacement

Routine maintenance should not interfere with production. This type of maintenance
may prevent breakdown of machines.

1.3.7 BREAKDOWN MAINTENACE

This is also known as emergency maintenance. In this maintenance, a machine is
allowed to run without any attention. Only when it breaks down, repairs and replacements are
made. No action is taken to prevent breakdown.

Breakdown maintenance is harmful. it causes production loss. Hence breakdown

maintenance has to be given top priority. Causes of breakdown shall also be found out to
avoid breakdowns in future.

Causes of breakdowns:
1. Failure to replace worn-out parts time
2. Improper lubrication and cooling system.
3. Voltage fluctuations, poor quality oils etc.,

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4. Not caring for unusual sounds vibrations, excessive heat etc.

1.3.8 PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE (PM)

Preventive maintenance is ‘the maintenance to prevent breakdown. The principle of
preventive maintenance is “prevention is better than, cure” This’ type of maintenance shall be
used when maintenance after failure will have serious losses. For example if a bearing in
aeroplane is not changed in time, the engine may fail. There will be loss of money and loss of
lives. This loss is very serious and cannot be tolerated. Preventive maintenance is costly but it
shall be used to very important and essential machines.

Regular inspection of equipments is necessary under preventive maintenance. Weak

parts under vibration, heat etc., are located by regular inspection. The equipment or parts of
equipments are changed before end of life time to avoid danger of breakdown.

Advantages or objectives of preventive maintenance:

1. Prevention of accidents
2. Prevention of damage to materials and equipments
3. Reduction in idle time of men and machines
4. Prevention of losses due to breakdown
5. Increase in efficiency of machine performance
6. Reduction in cost of products.

1.3.9 FUNCTIONS OF PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE

The following are the important functions

1. Inspection
Inspection is necessary to detect defects from abnormal Sound,. vibration, heat,
smoke etc., when the machine is in operation. During shutdowns, inspection of internal parts
such as gears, bushes, bearings etc. is made to detect defects. By experience and from
previous records, frequency of, inspection shall be decided carefully.

2. Lubrication :
Application of right type of lubricants at the right time, at the right place and in right
quantity is very important. A lubrication schedule shall be prepared and followed strictly.

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3. Planning and scheduling:
A maintenance schedule on the basis of previous records shall be prepared and
followed strictly. The schedule should specify in detail the nature of work that should be
carried out daily, weekly, monthly, half yearly or yearly.

4. Records and analysis. :

Good record keeping is essential for good preventive maintenance. Maintenance of
instruction manual, history, cards, spare part register, inspection register, log books etc., are
generally maintained. From these records, it is possible to decide (i) causes for repetitive
failure (ii) frequency of inspection (iii) life of machine (iv) preventive action to be taken etc.

5. Training of maintenance staff :

For effective maintenance, the maintenance staff shall be trained to carry out
inspection, repairs and maintenance in a systematic way.

6. Storage of spare parts :

Spare parts are stored to reduce loss of production time. Over stocking will result in
capital lockup. Therefore the quantity of spare parts to be stored shall be decided based on
experience, cost of buying and storing, availability and delivery period.

1.3.10 BREAKDOWN Vs PREVENTIVEMAINTENANCE

The differences between breakdown maintenance and preventive maintenance are
given below.

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 PLANT ENGINEERING AND PLANT SAFETY

1.4 PLANT SAFETY

1.4.1 PLANT SAFETY

Every year throughout the world, millions of industrial accidents occur. Some are
fatal, some result in permanent or partial disablement. Every accident causes sufferings to the
victims, and to their dependents. A nation has to avoid needless loss and sufferings of persons
if it has to prosper. So everyone should see that safety is ensured. The sense of safety shall be
an industrial culture.

The management is morally responsible for the life security of employees. No

employee shall be allowed to work under unsafe conditions. The management shall
implement safety programmed effectively. It must inculcate in the minds of employees, a
sense of safety in their every act. This attitude of management -
1) Increases the faith of workers in management
2) Brings co-operation for efficiently running the industry.

1.4.2 IMPORTANCE OF SAFETY (OR) NEED FOR SAFETY

Safety is important on the following two aspects.
a) Moral aspect
b) Economic aspect

a) Moral aspect

Every accident causes sufferings not only to victims but also to many persons.
Accidents, which cause death or permanent disability, will destroy family. Human life is most
valuable. It must be saved at any cost. Accident prevention is important because of these
humanitarian feelings.

b) Economic aspect

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 An accident is costly to the injured person and also to the employer. There are many
costs associated with accidents.

Therefore safety is important

i) To prevent needless pain and sufferings of the injured persons and others,
ii) To prevent premature death of talented workers who are an asset to the nation.
iii) To increase morale and maintain good human relations;
iv) To reduce production loss.
v) To prevent or’ reduce damage to materials; equipments etc.,
vi) To increase productivity.

1.4.3 ACCIDENTS
An accident is any unplanned and unexpected event that interferes with the work and
causes injury or property damage.

The following are the types of accidents.

1. Near accident
An accident with no damage or injury.

2. Trivial occident
An accident with negligible damage or injury. Example: An injury for which even
first aid is not necessary and there will be no loss of production time.

3. Minor accident
An accident with considerable damage or injury. Example: An injury for which first
aid is necessary. There may be loss of production time at least for the rest other. However, the
worker may be able to return to work next day.

4. Serious accident
An accident of grave consequences. Example an injured person has to be admitted in
hospital for intensive medical care. It may also result in temporary or permanent disablement
of injured persons.

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5. Fatal accident
An accident that causes death or disaster.

1.4.4 COST OF AN ACCIDENT

An accident is very costly to the injured persons and also to the employer. The
following, costs are associated with accidents.

i) Direct costs of an accident

This comprises of the following:
1) Insurance payments.
2) Payment of compensation to the insured persons.
3) Cost of medical care.
4) Incidental expenses such as taxi fare, telephone charges, welfare expenses, first aid
expenses etc.

ii) Indirect cost of an accident

This comprises of the following

1) Cost of wages paid but not earned by

i) Injured persons
ii) Others who stop work from sympathy and to help
2) Cost of damages to materials, machines, tools etc,
3) Cost of replacing the injured employee with a new one.
4) Cost of lower production by new employee
5) Cost of lower morale and hence lower productivity
6) Cost of safety engineers, foremen and supervisors in investigating and reporting of
accidents
7) Cost of initial lower productivity of injured persons on return to work.
8) Cost of delays in production (due to interruption in work schedule)
9) Legal expenses

1.4.5 CAUSES OF ACCIDENTS

88% of accidents are due to human causes, 10% of accidents are due to unsafe
conditions and 2% of accidents are by nature such as floods, cyclone, drought etc., therefore,
the causes of accidents can be classified as below.

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 ‘Unsafe conditions’ may be primary causes and unsafe acts of the people may be the
secondary causes of accidents.

I) HUMAN CAUSES
a) Unsafe acts
Unsafe acts by persons are due to ignorance, forgetfulness, wrong attitude,
carelessness, day dreaming etc.,

Examples
1. Making safety devices in-operative
2. Using unsafe speed, equipments, dress, etc,
3. Working on moving machinery
4. Distracting, etc,
5. Neglecting safety rules, safety devices

b) Personal factors
The personal factors or human factors that are responsible for accidents are -

(i) Individual factors such as age, marriage, schooling, health, experience, bad temper etc.,
(ii) Psychological factors such as attitude towards work, interest in job, fatigue and boredom,
accident
proneness etc.,
iii) Personality factors such as intellectual level, emotional maturity, adjustments, anxiety
level etc.,

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iv) Sociological factors such as size of family, number of dependents, financial position,
home
environment etc.,

II) UNSAFE CONDITIONS

a) Mechanical factors
These refer to condition of floor, ladder, machines, tools or anything of mechanical
character.

Examples:
1. Poor design of equipments
2. Unsafe mechanical construction
3. Improper machine guarding.
4. Unsafe dress
5. Untested pressure vessels.
6. Bad layout etc. ..

b) Environmental factors
These refer to inadequate physical and atmospheric conditions of work.

Examples :
1. Improper temperature and ventilation
2. Improper lighting causing eye strain, glares, shadows
3. More number of working hours
4. Inadequate rest pauses
5. Noise, bad odour etc.,

III) NATURAL CAUSES

Flood, Cyclone, Drought is the natural causes of accidents.

1.4.6 SOME IMPORTANT PERSONAL FACTORS

A few important personal factors which increase the risk of accidents are briefly
explained below:

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1. Attitude towards Safety
Why does a worker do a job in unsafe way when he could do it in a safe way? There
may be a number of reasons. The worker may consider the unsafe way easier,less
troublesome, faster or the best one. He may consider safety precautions unnecessary or
unaware of the safety method.

If a worker feels, that he can do the work perfectly without a “guard”, he may object
to the use of “guard”. When wages are paid on results, the worker may neglect safety to
increase output. Only by education, persuasion and appeal, the attitude of workers towards
safety can be controlled.

2. Fatigue
Fatigue is physic tiredness, which increases the risk of accidents. Fatigue makes the
worker less attentive, slower in action, and neglectful of precautions. A person interested in
job will not feel fatigue. He will give all his attention. A worker not interested in work will be
careless and less attentive in work. Proper placement, fixing responsibility for the work etc.,
are the methods to control risk of accidents in this case.

3. Boredom
Boredom is mental tiredness. It is the result of monotonous work. Some persons are
irriated by monotonous work. They become less attentive and careless in work. This may
cause accidents. Change of work, transfer to other departments, proper placement etc., may
be necessary to Control accidents in -these persons.

4. Accident proneness
There are some workers who have no accidents and others who meet with accidents
very often. This means that certain persons are more liable to accident than others. The
quality of a person who meets with accidents often is known as accident proneness.

Causes of Accident proneness:

1. Nervousness, inattentiveness, day dreaming.
2. Desire to show courage, skill, independence, etc.
3. Desire to feel important, to attract attention, to be admired.

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 4. Emotional stresses, such as angry, worry.
5. Physical disability such as poor eye sight, poor hearing etc.,
6. Lack of training and skill to do a job.
7. Unsafe behaviour towards work. (Example: intentionally not using safety devices,
using unsafe speed, etc.)

Proper selection and placement of persons, transfer of accident-prone persons to less

dangerous jobs, adequate training, proper encouragement etc., are the methods to reduce
accident proneness.

5. Emotional factors:
Emotional factors such as ambition jealousy, angry, worry, etc., are causes of
accidents. For safety emotional factors such as happiness, trust, confidence etc., are desirable.

Reasonable wages, good human relations, welfare measures such as pension scheme,
medical facilities, good working conditions etc., may reduce accidents due to this cause.

6. Sociological factors:
Bad living conditions, size of family, financial position etc., disturb peace of mind
and develop bad morale. These factors increase the risk of accidents. It is very difficult to
find remedy for these factors.

7. Physiological factors
Physiological conditions such as eye defects, deafness, illness etc., will cause
accidents. Medici fitness shall be a “must” for jobs like drivers. Proper placement is
necessary to avoid accidents due to these factors.

1.4.7 ENSURING SAFETY

Analysis of’ accidents and its causes will shown that-
 Industrial injuries result only from accidents
 Accidents are caused only by unsafe acts and unsafe mechanical
conditions.
 Unsafe-actions and unsafe conditions are caused only by faults of
persons.

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  Faults of persons are created by environment or acquired by
inheritance.

From the above, it can be seen that faults of the persons (Man performance) is the
major problem. However, safety can be ensured only by control of Man performance,
Machine performance and physical environment.

Example I
“In a work site, a worker used a ladder to attend a work at a height. The ladder had
one rung missing. While climbing up, the worker noticed the missing rung. But while getting
down, after completing the work, the worker forgot the missing rung in the ladder, fell down
and got himself injured’.

In the above case,

1) The causes due to ‘Man performance’ that led to accident are -

*The worker used a defective ladder (unsafe act)

He forgot the missing rung in the ladder (insufficient attention)

2) The cause due to ‘Machine performance’ that led to accident is -

*The ladder was defective (one rung missing)

3) The cause due to Physical environment’ that led to accident is -

*The presence of defective ladder in the work area.

Example II
"A worker carrying a load, stepped on oil spilled on floor, He slipped and fell down.
The load consisting of bolts and nuts scattered on all sides. One bolt that hit a unguarded
pulley of a machine, flied and struck another man and caused injure.
In the above case,
1) The presence of oil n the floor was the cause of the accident (Physical
environment)
2) The worker had not noticed the spilled oil on the floor and walked on it. This
performance of man was the cause of accident.

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 3) The unguarded machine pulley (Machine performance) was a cause for the
accident.

From the above two examples, the causes of accidents can be classified into -
a) Unsafe acts or behavior of man : Man performance
b) Unsafe conditions of machine : Machine performance
c) Unsafe physical conditions : Physical environment

By controlling the above, accidents could be avoided and safety could be ensured.

1.4.8 PLANNING FOR ACCIDENT PREVENTION

Accident prevention needs careful planning. The following safety measures and
safety programmers are essential to prevent accidents.
1. Safe layout of workplace
2. Safe machinery and machine guards
3. Safe physical working conditions
4. Safe material handling
5. Safe methods of storage
6. Personal protective devices
7. Safety activities

1.4.9 LAYOUT O WORKPLACE

The following safety measures shall be considered while designing work place layout.
1. There should be sufficient space around each machine, for the workers to move and
work.
2. Sufficient space should be provided for maintenance work.
3. Good house keeping is essential.
4. Passages should be provided to reach the work place easily.
5. Materials should not be stacked in passages .
6. No part of machinery or material shall be projecting into the passage.
7. The floor must be strong in construction and kept clean. There shall be no spilled oil.
pits, etc.,
8. There should be no congestion and confusion in flow of materials.
9. Space for turning of trucks shall be provided.
1.4.10 MACHINERY AND MACHINE GUARDS

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 The following safety measures shall be provided for machines.
1. All dangerous parts shall be covered.
2. Interlock guards shall be provided. (Interlock guards prevent starting of machine until
the operator's hand are out of danger zone.)
3. Automatic guards, to push hands away from dangerous zone shall be provided.
4. Trip guards shall be provided to stop the machine automatically when operator's
hands are endangered.
5. Danger zones shall be made inaccessible
6. Guards should be of good construction and not easily removable.

1.4.11 WORKING CONDITIONS

Healthy working conditions will reduce accidents. The following points shall be
considered to improve working conditions.
1. Adequate ventilation for fresh air and suitable temperature shall be provided.
2. Colour of work place shall contrast with the work
3. Every part of work place or passage shall have suitable and sufficient lighting.
4. Illumination shall not produce glares, shadows and any other adverse effect on work.
5. Noise level should not distract the workers.
6. Accumulation of dusts and fumes shall be avoided
7. Pits, sumps and opening in floors shall be covered or fenced.

1.4.12 MATERIAL HANDLING

The following are the important points to be noted in material handling.
1. Manual handling shall be avoided.
2. Full use of material handling equipments shall be made.
3. Workers should not be allowed to lift more than permissible loads.
4. Materials with sharp edges, poles etc., shall be covered during transport.
5. During transport, the materials should not obstruct vision.
6. All material handling equipments shall be promptly repaired and maintained.
1.4.13 METHODS OF STORAGE
The following rules shall be followed in storage of material to avoid accidents.
1. Storing of materials on the floor shall be avoided.
2. Goods stored should not collapse due to vibrations and other impacts.
3. Depending upon the nature of materials, proper storing devices shall be used.
4. Materials shall not protrude out of racks, bins, etc.,

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 5. Inflammable materials should be stored separately and away from general stores
6. Storage places shall have quick and easy approach.
7. Fire extinguisher should be kept in proper condition and at key places.
1.4.14 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Personal protective devices are equipments to protect the workers from hazards. There
are number of protective devices for head, eye, hand, legs, lungs, body, etc., By using
suitable personal protective equipment, serious injuries from accidents could be prevented.

A few personal protective devices are explained with sketches.

Hand gloves Helmet

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 Respirator Gumboot

Fig. 1.4.1 Personal Protective Devices

(i) Goggles
Goggles are meant for eye protection. There are various kinds of eye accidents and
different types of goggles are used according to work done.

For example, for workers engaged in chipping, riveting, grinding etc., in which flying
fragments could pierce the eye, goggle should have mechanically strong lenses. For welders
and other works exposed to glare, goggles should have suitable filter lenses.
Goggles meant for protection against dust and splashes of liquids should be properly
ventilated. For protection against fumes and gases, there should be no holes for ventilation.
Goggles should enclose the eye completely. Goggles meant for protection against chemicals
should resist chemicals. It should also make a tight fitting joint between lens and retaining
ring.

(ii) Respirators
These are meant for lung protection. Lung protection is required whenever there are
gases, fumes or dusts. When there is a deficiency of oxygen in the atmosphere of working,
lung protection is essential. There are four classes of respirator. Class A for dust, Class B for
fumes, Class C for mists and Class D for gases.

Usually the respirators are provided with mechanical filters to remove dust and fumes
from inhaled air. They will not provide protection against vapours. For this, gas masks or
chemical cartridge respirators are used.

(iii) Safety shoes

These are meant for protecting workers against accidents caused by heavy objects
dropping on the feet, protruding nails, molten metals, acids etc., Safety shoes are made with
built in steel toe caps and with steel soles. Workers in explosive factories should wear non-

30
sparking shoes (also without nails). Electricians should wear non-conducting shoes. (i.e shoes
without metal nails)

(iv) Safety clothing

Work clothing is selected based on the hazards involved in the work clothes shall be
reasonably snug. There should not be loose flaps, which may catch in moving machinery. For
protection against fire, there are asbestos garments, such as overalls, trousers, sleeves, gloves
and helmets. For protection against acids, there are rubberised clothing etc.,

(v) Gloves
Gloves are used for various purposes. For example, as an insulator for electric shocks.
The type of gloves required will vary according to the injury to be prevented. For example,
cuts, heat-burn, chemical burn, electric shock etc., The gloves should allow free movements
of fingers and hand. It is dangerous to wear gloves when working at drilling machines, power
presses and other machines in which a glove may be caught.
(vi) Helmets
Workers liable to be struck by falling or flying objects or exposed to head injuries
should wear hard hats or helmets. They shall be strong and at the same time not too heavy.
Plastic hard hats with cloth linings have proved to be very suitable.

1.1.15 MACHINE GUARDS

Machine guards are devices to cover the moving parts of machines to prevent
accidents. Guards should be designed not only to avoid accidents but it should not interfere
with production and cause nuisance to the workers. Sketches of few guards are shown in Fig
1.4.2.

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 GUARD FOR GEARS

GUARD FOR BELT AND PULLEY GUARD TO BAR

ACCESS
TO DANGER AONE

Fig. 1.4.2 Machine Guards

1. Fixed guard
A fixed guard should be used whenever possible. It should be of sufficient strength
and rigidity for this purpose. Its design should be such that a clear view of the work is
obtained.

2. Interlock guard
If it is not possible to fit a fixed guard, an interlock guard should be used. It
completely encloses the dangerous part when the machine in motion. The design of the guard
is such that the machine cannot be started until the guard is in closed position.

3. Automatic guard
This guard acts in such a manner that when the dangerous parts are in motion, the.
operator’s hands are removed from the dangerous zone.

4. Trip or Quick stop guard

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 This trip guard is constructed in such a manner that in the event of the operator’s
hands being endangered, a trip or quick stop device comes into action and stops the machine
almost instantaneously.

5. Distance guards or Fences

These are designed to keep the operator at a safe distance from the danger point.

1.4.16 SAFETY ACTIVITIES

The following safety activities could be organised to arouse safety consciousness.

(i) Propaganda:
Using of sticker and posters, organism film shows, talks, Competition with rewards,
safety week etc., are a few methods of Propaganda. Safety posters may be humorous,
gruesome, give general advise, demonstrate a particular hazard, etc., It may also illustrate the
consequences of carelessness and advantages of following safety rules.

Films can show the whole story of accidents. It can show the environment, how the
dangerous situation arose, how the accident happened, what are the consequences of accident
and how it could be prevented.

Talks, lectures and conferences will have only little effect. But it gives an opportunity
for direct contact between speaker and audience. Safety competition with attractive prizes
will be of great pleasure to many people.

Other methods of safety propaganda are pamphlets, leaflets, safety stamps,

magazines, slogans etc.,

(ii) Education :
Subject on industrial safety shall be included in schools and colleges. This will give
an idea of dangers awaiting them in industries and methods of avoiding them.
(iii) Training
This includes training in safety for workers, supervisors, foreman, engineers etc.,

(iv) Surety committees :

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 A safety committee with managers, supervisors and workers shall be established. This
will bring co-operation between employers and employees. It shall be responsible for
planning safety activities, safety rules and practices and implementing them. Safety
committees develop safety consciousness a discuss safety matters to suggest improvements.

(v) Other measures :

(a) Reasonable wages, good releation between employer and employees, correct decisions on
promotions etc., help to attain greater safety.
(b) Security of employment will maintain safety interest.
(c) Workers with peace of mind are less liable to have accidents.
(d) Electrical installations should be checked at regular intervals.

1.4.17 MEASUREMENT OF ACCIDE RATES

The most common indices’ used to measure the effectiveness of an industry in
prevention of accidents are
i) The accident frequency rate (F)
ii) The accident severity rate (S)

Frequency Rate (F)

The accident frequency rate (F) is the number of injuries for each million man-hours
of exposure This can be expressed as below:

Accident frequency rate

Example :
A factory with 500 workers, working 50 weeks of 48 hrs, each had 60 accidents
during one year. Owing to illness, accidents and other reasons, the workers were absent
during 5% of the aggregate working time. Thus the total number of man hours (500 x 50 x 48
= 12, 00,000) has to be reduced by 5% = (60,000). Hence the real number of man hours of
exposure is = (12, 00, 000-60,000) = 11, 40,000

The frequency rate indicates that in a year about 53 accidents occurred per million
man-hours worked.

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Accident Severity Rate (S)
The accident severity rate is the time loss in days per thousand man-hours of
exposure. This can be expressed as below.

Example
A firm with 80 workers, working 50 weeks of 40 hrs, each had lost 200 days as a
result of 30 accidents.

This means that in a year about one day is lost per 1000 man hours.

1.4.18 INDUSTRIAL (LABOUR) LEGISLATION

There are always struggles, disputes and clashes between the employees and employer
on issues such as
• Wages, allowance and other benefits
• Conditions of employment (hours of work, promotion leave etc.,
• Working conditions (Ventilation, illumination, temperature etc.,)
• Strict discipline and bad treatment.

With the increase in cost of living and human needs, the industrial disputes have also
increased. The evils of disputes are many. It may lead to strikes, lockouts, picketing and
gears. Workers loose their wages. Management loses profit. Public suffers due to shortage of
goods in the market. Country’s economy also suffers due to low production.

There are number of labour laws (Acts) to regulate wages, compensation, disputes,
welfare safety etc., The labour laws have been enacted both for organisation labour and
unorganised labour (contract and boded labour).

The fundamental principles of labour legislation are -

1. Social Justice
2. Social Welfare.
3. National Economy
4. National Solidarity

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1.4.19 FACTORIES ACT 1948
Object and Scope
The Factory act regulates the conditions of work in factories, safeguards the interests
of workers and it is for the welfare of factory workers. The Act came into force on the 1st
April 1949. The Act is applicable to any factory in the country.
Important definitions
(a) Factory:
Factory means any place where ten or more workers are working with the aid of
power or a place in which twenty or more people are working without the aid of power.

(b) Power:
Electrical, steam, oil energy or any other form of energy which is mechanically
transmitted and is not generated by human or animal agency.

(C) Adult:
A person who has complied his eighteenth year of age.

(d) Child:
A person who has not completed his fifteenth year of age.

(e) Adolescent:
A person who has completed 15th year of age but not completed his 18th year of age.

(f) Young person :

Either a child or adolescent.

License and Registration

(1) The Act specifies that before starting a factory
a) Permission for the site of the factory has to be obtained from the chief inspector.
b) Plans and specifications of the factory should be approved by the factory
inspector.
c) The factory has to be registered and license fees have to be paid.

(2) Inspectors: The Act permits the State Governments to appoint Chief Inspectors and other

36
 Inspectors who
a) May enter the factory and
b) May examine the factory premises, plant, machinery and documents related to the
factory.

(3) Certifying Surgeons: The Act permits the State Governments to appoint qualified medical
parishioners as certifying surgeons for
a) the examination of young workers
b) the examination of workers engaged in dangerous process.

1. Provisions Regarding Health

1. Cleanliness
a) Dirt and refuse from all places shall be removed
b) Floors shall be washed at least once in every week using disinfectants.
c) Collection of water etc., on the floor shall be avoided by effective drainage.
d) All walls, partitions, ceilings and rooms shall be kept
i) Repainted or ‘revarnished a once every five years.
ii) White or colour washed at least once in every fourteen months.
e) Waste and effluents due to the manufacturing process shall be effectively disposed off.

2. Ventilation and temperature

a) Adequate ventilation for fresh air circulation shall be provided.
b) Suitable temperature shall be provided for the health and comfort of workers.

3. Artificial Humidification
Artificial humidification shall be of prescribed standards.

4. Dust and Fumes

Accumulation of dust and fumes injurious to health shall be prevented.

5. Overcrowding
No room in a factory shall be overcrowded. The minimum space to be provided for a
worker is 550 cft.

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6. Lighting
a) In every part of work place or passages, sufficient lighting shall be provided.
b) Glares and shadows shall be prevented.

7. Drinking water
a) Good drinking water should be made available, 20 feet from any washing place,
urinals or latrines.
b) Where there are more than 250 workers, cool drinking water shall be provided.

8. Latrines and Urinals

a) Sufficient latrines and urinals of prescribed type shall be provided, separately for
male and female workers.
b) All latrines and urinals shall be adequately lighted and ventilated. They shall be
maintained clean at all times.

9. Spittoons
Sufficient number of spittoons shall be provided in convenient places and they shall
be maintained in clean and hygienic conditions. Person spitting within the premises of a
factory except in spittoons are punishable.

II Provisions Regarding safety

1. Fencing of machinery
All dangerous and moving parts of machinery shall be securely fenced.

2. Work on or near machinery in motion

a) Machinery in motion shall be examined only by a specially trained adult male
worker.
b) No woman or young worker shall be permitted to - clean, lubricate or adjust any
part of machinery in motion.

3. Employment of young persons on dangerous machines

No young person shall work on any machine declared as dangerous.

4. Hoists and other Lifting Machinery

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a) Hoists and other lifting machinery shall be of good mechanical
construction main and certified
by a competent authority once in a year.
b) Hoists and lifts meant for carrying persons shall have at least two ropes or
chains separately connected with the cage.
c) Devices shall be provided to support cage in the event of breakage of the
ropes or chains.

5. Excessive weights
a) No person shall be asked to lift, carry or move any load so heavy as to cause him
an injury.
b) No woman or young person shall, unaided by another person. Lift, carry or move
any material exceeding the weight of prescribed limit.

6. Eye Protection
Effective goggles shall be provided to protect eyes from flying particles or from
exposure to excessive light.

7. Floors, Stairs and means of access

They shall be of sound construction, provided with hand rail and properly maintained.

8. Pits, Sumps, Opening in Floors

They shall e securely co or suitably fenced.

9. Precautions against dangerous fumes

a) No person shall enter any confined space in which dangerous fumes are present
unless it is provided with effective means of exit.
b) No portable electric light of voltage exceeding 24 volts shall be permitted in
spaces in which dangerous fumes are present. When fumes are inflammable, only
flame proof construction lamp shall be permitted.

10. Precautions against fire

a) Effective fire warning signals shall be provided.
b) There shall be adequate means of escape in case of fire. Free passage ways, easily
operable windows shall be provided.

39
c) Every window, door or other exist should be constructed to open outwards.

III. Provisions Regarding Welfare

1. Washing facilities
Separate and suitable washing facilities shall be provided for the use of male and
female workers. Such facilities shall be kept clean.

2. Facilities for storing and drying cloth .

Suitable places for keeping clothing not worn during working hours and for the drying
of wet clothing shall be provided.

3. Facilities for sitting

Suitable sitting facilities shall be provided for worker to take rest without affecting the
work.

4. First aid appliances

a) First aid boxes equipped with prescribed contents shall be provided and readily
accessible.
b. A factory employing more than 500 workers shall have a. dispensary under the
charge of a qualified medical practitioner assisted by nurses and other staff.

5. Canteens
A factory employing more than 250 persons shall have a canteen.

6. Shelters, Rest rooms and Lunch rooms

Every factory in which more than 150 workers are employed, adequate, suitable,
clean sufficiently lighted and ventilated rest rooms and lunch rooms shall be provided.

7. Creches
If more than 50 women workers are employed in a factory, clean, adequately lighted
and ventilated rooms shall be provided for the use of their children under the age of six. The
rooms shall be provided with the prescribed facilities for the care of children. The creches
shall be under the charge of women trained in the care of children and infants.

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8. Welfare officers
Every factory employing 500 or more workers shall employ welfare officers.

IV. Provision Regarding hours of work, Leave with wages

1. Working hours
No adult worker shall be required to work in a factory for more than 48 hours a week.

2. Daily hours
i) No adult worker shall be required to work in & factory more than nine hours on any
day.
ii) No women shall be employed in any factory except between 6-00 am and 7-00 pm.

3. Intervals for rest

No worker shall be required to work for more than five hours continuously. i.e after
five hours, the worker shall have a rest for at least half an hour.

4. Weekly holidays
No worker shall be required to work on Sunday unless it is substituted by a holiday
immediately before or after sunday.

5. Extra wages for overtime

If a worker works for more than nine hours on any day or for more than 48 Hours in
any week he shall be paid overtime wages at the rate of twice his ordinary rate of wages.

6. Employment of. young persons

i) No children under 14 years of age shall be allowed to work in a factory.
ii) No child shall be permitted to work (a) for more than four and a half hours on any
day and (b) during night (ie. 10 pm to 6 am)

7. Annual leave with wages

Every worker who has worked for 240 days or more during a calendar year shall be
entitled to a leave with wages including dearness allowance.

The leave shall be calculated as below :

41
 Adult: One day for every 20 days of work
Children : One day for every 15 days of work

1.4.20 INDUSTRIAL DISPUTE

Industrial dispute means struggle or disagreement between employer and employees
on the issues such as
(i) Terms of employment
(ii) Wages and other benefits
(iii) Working hours
(iv) Working condition etc.,

There are certain needs for human beings. For example economic needs, social needs
and security needs. People work and earn to satisfy these needs. When these needs do not get
satisfied, dispute arises between employer and employees.

Losses due to industrial disputes

1. Workers ‘lose their wages
2. Management loses profit
3. Public suffers due to shortage of goods in the market
4. Nation suffers due to loss of production.

1.4.21 CAUSES OF INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES

Common causes of industrial disputes are given below

1. Economic reasons
a) Inadequate wages
b) Poor fringe benefits
c) No or less bonus or other incentives.

2. Personnel reasons
a) Bad or poor working conditions such as too hot, too cold noisy, dirty, trouble
giving machines etc.,
b) More hours of work, night shift
c) Bad treatment and strict discipline
d) Suspension and warnings

42
 e) Retrenchment and dismissal
f) Transfers and promotions
g) Leaves and intervals,

3. Organisational reasons
a) Non recognition of labour unions
b) Unfair practices such-as threatening workers not to become union members etc.,
c) Automation and Computerization
d) Layoff and Lock out
e) Violation of agreements

4. Political reasons
a) Labour laws
b) State intervention.

1.4.22 SETTLEMENT OF INDUSTRIAL

The methods adopted for settling industrial disputes are
i) Collective bargaining
ii) Joint consultation
iii) Mediation
iv) Conciliation
v) Arbitration

(i) Collective Bargaining

It is a process of discussion and negotiation between the representatives of labourers
and employer to solve labour disputes. It is basically a “give and take” process, involving
proposals and counter proposals. Meetings between management representatives and union
leaders are conducted. In such meetings, the two parties bargain with each other, on the
disputed issues to arrive at an agreement. Both parties will try to maximize their position.
Hence it is not an easy process to arrive at a solution. When a settlement is reached, an
agreement is signed, which is legally binding on both the parties. If settlement could not be
reached, the matter is generally taken to labour court or industrial tribunal.

Important points to be observed in collective bargaining :

43
1. Bargaining teams should have members with adequate knowledge of job, skill for
negotiation and should have full authority to speak on behalf of their sides.
2. A careful analysis of basic factors and specific issues (on which agreement has to be
reached) shall be made.
3. Negotiations shall start with a background of peaceful atmosphere and mutual trust.
4. Emotional outbursts shall be avoided during discussion. It is always advisable to leave
controversial points and take over next issue.

5. The following principles of negotiations may be followed

a) Be friendly and introduce everybody.
b Be willing to listen.
c) Give everyone an opportunity to express their opinions.
d) Always keep in mind the right and fair thing to do.
e) Define each issue clearly and discuss with available facts
f) At all times search only for correct and real solutions.
g) aspect interest of Public
6. Once a settlement is reached, an agreement must be signed by both the parties. The
agreement s contain
a) Purpose of agreement, definition of important terms.
b) Rights and responsibilities of the management and union.
c) Wages, hours, production norms, leave and other benefits.
d) Grievance procedure .
e) Method of settlement of possible future disputes
The success of collective bargaining depends on the following factors
1. Attitude of employer and employees.
2. Government policy and political climate
3. Economic and environmental factors.
4. Business condition (recession or boom)
5. Nature of labour market (shortage or surplus)
6. Strength of the management and trade union
7. Knowledge and skill of negotiation

Importance of collective bargaining

1. It is best suited to the concept of industrial democracy.

44
 2. It ensures an important status to workers
3. It ensures industrial peace
4. It develops sense of responsibility both in employer and employees.
ii) Joint consultation
Joint Consultation in a discussion between representatives of managements and
employees to solve labour disputes on wages, benefits and other conditions of employment.
The outcome of the discussion is made as recommendations The final decision is left to the
management. The joint consolation shall be made in good faith.

iii) Mediation
If dispute is not settled by collective bargaining, a third party gets in touch with them
and attempts to settle the dispute. This is known as mediation. The third party Cannot decide
the issue. He is strictly neutral who can only listen, suggest, Communicate, persuade and try
to settle the dispute.
iv) Conciliation
It is similar to mediation except that the procedure is established one. The parties need
not wait for outside intervention as in the case of mediation. The parties agree On the person
‘who has to act as conciliator.

v) Arbitration
Like Conciliation, its purpose to reach settlement. In arbitration, the parties submit
their claims to the arbitrator and support them with all facts and arguments they can. The
decision made by the arbitrator is usually binding upon the Union and management. Usually
disputes go to arbitration only if the parties have failed to reach agreement by direct
negotiation or conciliation proceedings. Arbitration provides a way out and a means of
“Saving face”.

The mediation, Conciliation and arbitration may be voluntary They may be

compulsory also. The Government imposes an obligation on the workers and management to
refer to refer their disputes to conciliation and mediation. The Government also prevents
work stoppage by both the parties till the conciliation or mediation is going on. If no
settlement is reached, the workers are free to go on strike and the employer is free to declare
lock-out.
***

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