Collisions How To Avoid Them

COLLISIONS: HOW TO AVOID THEM
North of England P&I Association

Authorised User (see Terms and Conditions): Member of North of England P&I Association
NORTH OF ENGLAND P&I ASSOCIATION

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Copyright © North of England P&I Association Limited 2013
The Author asserts moral copyright in the work.
ISBN 978-0-9558257-9-8
Author: North of England P&I Association
Printed and bound in the UK
Acknowledgements
Between 2001 and 2004 North issued a poster series on COLREGs which was followed up
by a loss prevention guide. The authors of this new guide acknowledge the work that has
gone before and especially that of Captain Roger Syms. What follows is largely based on the
foundations laid down by him.
North acknowledges the generosity of the UK Marine Accident Investigation Branch in permitting
many of the case studies that appear in this book to be based upon its Safety Digests.
Disclaimer
The purpose of this guide is to provide a source of information which is additional to that
available to the maritime industry from regulatory, advisory and consultative organisations. Whilst
care is taken to ensure the accuracy of the information, no warranty of accuracy is given and
users of that information are expected to satisfy themselves that the information is relevant
and suitable for the purposes to which it is applied. In no circumstances whatsoever shall the
contributors or North of England P&I Association be liable to any person whatsoever for any loss
or damage whensoever or howsoever arising out of or in connection with the supply (including
negligent supply) or use of this information.
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CONTENTS
Page Page
FOREWORD 2 CASE STUDIES

Introduction 28
INTRODUCTION 3 Case Study 1. Who started this? 29
Case Study 2. Is it good to talk? 30
THE RULES Case Study 3. What were they thinking? 31
Rule 2: Responsibility 4 Case Study 4. Watch out astern 32
Rule 5: Look-out 6 Case Study 5. To cross or not to cross? 33
Rule 6: Safe speed 8 Case Study 6. Fishing? 34
Rule 7: Risk of collision 10
Rule 8: Action to avoid collision 12 PLOTTING SHEETS
Rule 10: Traffic separation schemes 14 Plotting Sheet 1. Open sea 35
Rule 13: Overtaking 16 Plotting Sheet 2. Traffic separation scheme 37
Rule 14: Head-on situation 18 Plotting Sheet 3. Coastal waters 39
Rule 15: Crossing situation 20
Rule 16: Action by give-way vessel 22
Rule 17: Action by stand-on vessel 24
Rule 19: Conduct of vessels in restricted visibility 26
1
FOREWORD
When cases arising out of collisions between ships reach the Admiralty Court it is apparent that deck officers
are provided with considerable radar and other electronic assistance to enable them to avoid collisions with
other ships. See for example Samco Europe v MSC Prestige [2011] 2 Lloyd’s Law Reports 579, a collision
which occurred in good visibility in the Gulf of Aden between a very large crude carrier and a container ship
despite the fact that both vessels were equipped with automatic radar plotting aids, automatic identification
systems and electronic chart display and information systems, and observed each other by radar at a distance
of about 15 nautical miles.
The question which arises is why, despite all the impressive electronic assistance designed to enable deck
officers to avoid collisions, collisions still occur. The answer is, and always has been since radar was first
introduced, that the rules of navigation set out in the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at
Sea 1972 must still be applied by deck officers. Thus, in Samco Europe v MSC Prestige the officer of the
watch on board MSC Prestige failed to take early and substantial action to keep out of the way of Samco
Europe in breach of Rules 15 and 16 of the COLREGs and the officer of the watch on board Samco Europe
altered course to port in breach of Rule 17 of the COLREGs.
This short and compact guide to COLREGs therefore has a vital and necessary role. It reminds mariners
of the basics of the COLREGs and that they must be kept well in mind and obeyed notwithstanding the
profusion of equipment on the modern bridge. That equipment does not avoid collision. It is merely an aid to
collision avoidance. What avoids collisions is compliance with the COLREGs.
The Hon Mr Justice Nigel Teare

Admiralty Judge
The Royal Courts of Justice, London, UK
2
INTRODUCTION
Collisions are among the most high profile of all maritime accidents. The number of collisions and their
cost, in personal and financial terms, has increased in recent years and ‘human error’ seems to be the
only common factor.
THE COLREGS necessary steps to avoid or minimise that risk.

Collisions should not happen but they do; sometimes with disastrous The aim of this guide is to deliver that message by encouraging discussion
consequences. Proper application of the International Regulations for between all watchkeepers, from cadets to masters and inspecting officers. We
Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972 (COLREGs) by every watchkeeper on every learn best from our experience and from the experience of the people around
vessel is the only way to reduce the risk of collision. Indeed, if the regulations us, and there is no better way of understanding COLREGs than through
are followed to the letter, then a collision should never occur. discussion, whether in bridge team meetings, at onboard training sessions,
Today’s watchkeeper is required to gather, understand and appraise during a quiet watch or in the mess room.
information from a range of sources; from sophisticated radar, automatic
radar plotting aids (ARPA), electronic chart display and information systems KEY RULES
(ECDIS), automatic identification systems (AIS) and global positioning This is not a textbook on the COLREGs. Rather, it is a focus for discussion
systems (GPS) to compass bearings, visual sightings and sound signals. This of those regulations that we at North believe are the key to collision avoidance
information is the starting point of a decision making process and the watch and which we see breached time and again when collisions occur.
keeper must then apply the COLREGs to the factual situation in order to We think the rules that are discussed in this guide are the ones which
identify the correct steps leading to the correct outcome. are most often misinterpreted and misapplied. We hope that this guide will
demonstrate how these rules fit together and how the interpretation and
IDENTIFYING RISK application of each of them can be influenced, sometimes wrongly, by the vast
The concept of the ‘risk of collision’ is a key feature of the COLREGs. mass of information now available from electronic aids to navigation.
The risk of collision must be identified, assessed and avoided at all times and At the end of the guide are collision case studies and simple plotting
this is the responsibility of every watchkeeping officer on every vessel. sheets which you can use to illustrate developing situations. We hope that the
The best lesson you can learn from this guide is to acknowledge the case studies and the questions they ask will be the starting point for wide-
watchkeeper’s responsibility to identify a ‘risk of collision’ and to take all ranging discussions on all aspects of collision avoidance.
3
Rule 2
RESPONSIBILITY
4
Rule 2: Responsibility
(a) Nothing in these Rules shall exonerate any vessel, or the owner, master or crew thereof, from the consequences of any neglect to comply with these Rules or of the
neglect of any precaution which may be required by the ordinary practice of seamen, or by the special circumstances of the case.
(b) In construing and complying with these Rules due regard shall be had to all dangers of navigation and collision and to any special circumstances, including the
limitations of the vessels involved, which may make a departure from these Rules necessary to avoid immediate danger.
IT’S YOUR RESPONSIBILITY

Rule 2 is a vital rule that is often misunderstood. Rule 2 allows no excuses. It is written in old-fashioned language so
It is different from the majority of the COLREGs because it does not tell please read it carefully and often to make sure that you understand it.
you what to do or when to do it. Instead, Rule 2 highlights the fact that you Always ask yourself:
are responsible for your own actions. You are the one who has to make the
immediate decision on what to do in order to comply with the rules. • How does Rule 2 apply to this situation?
Your ship’s safety management system may tell you when to call the • What does Rule 2 require me to do?
master or what to do if visibility reduces, but it is Rule 2 that makes you
responsible to your fellow crew and to the ships around you. SUMMARY
Your responsibility is not only to follow the COLREGs – you are also It is always your responsibility to comply with COLREGs and avoid
responsible for doing everything necessary to avoid the risk of collision and collisions.
the dangers of navigation.
• Rule 2 (a) requires you to follow both the rules and ‘the ordinary practice
of seamen’. This means that you must always use common sense.
• Rule 2 (b) is often misunderstood so read it carefully. It only allows you to
depart from the rules if that is the only way to avoid an immediate danger.
But, in almost every situation, it is the proper application of the rules that
will keep you out of that danger. Rule 2(b) is never a justification for not
following the rules properly.
5
Rule 5
LOOK-OUT
6
Rule 5: Look-out
Every vessel shall at all times maintain a proper look-out by sight and hearing as well as by all available means appropriate in the prevailing circumstances and conditions
so as to make a full appraisal of the situation and of the risk of collision.
KEEP A LOOK-OUT
Between them, Rule 2 on responsibility and Rule 5 are the most important of • Using a radio – you must listen to what is going on around you but you
all the COLREGs. must always think carefully before calling other ships on VHF. It always
Rule 5 is short but it has two vital elements: takes more time than you think and it may cause delay and confusion.
• Monitoring sound signals – ensure you can hear what is going on outside
• You must pay attention to everything – not just looking ahead out of the wheelhouse. Be aware of the effect of keeping a closed wheelhouse
the bridge windows but looking all around the vessel, using all your senses and of distracting noises inside it.
and all personnel and equipment available to you. There must always • Using a depth indicator – frequently and systematically monitor the
be someone looking-out. If weather or the situation around you causes depth of water beneath your keel. The seabed is often the nearest point
concern, then more look-outs may be needed and you must call them of danger.
without hesitation. • Avoid distractions such as wheelhouse and deck lights, other people,
• You must use all of that information continuously to assess the situation navigational records and routine paperwork, including chart corrections.
your vessel is in and the risk of collision. • Always remember that you are on bridge watch to keep the ship safe, as
set out in Rule 2 on responsibility.
The requirement to ‘maintain a proper look-out’ includes:
To assess the risk of collision you must continuously ask yourself:
• Looking and listening – maintain a continuous watch by sight and by
hearing, both inside and outside the wheelhouse. • Is a collision possible, because of the action (or inaction) of any vessel in
• Looking means looking out of the windows, all the time. the vicinity – including your own vessel?
• Using ECDIS – the prime function of ECDIS is to help you be sure that • Is a collision probable? If so, the risk of collision is already here and you
your ship is not moving into danger. Its other functions are useful but you need to act urgently. See also Rule 7 on risk of collision.
must not get distracted by them.
• Using ARPA – you must be aware of the effects of clutter, of small targets SUMMARY
and the range and limitations of the set. Always keep a proper look-out by sight and hearing.
7
Rule 6
SAFE SPEED
8
Rule 6: Safe speed

Every vessel shall at all times proceed at a safe speed so that she can take proper and effective action to avoid collision and be stopped within a distance appropriate to
the prevailing circumstances and conditions.
In determining a safe speed the following factors shall be among those taken into account:
(a) By all vessels: (b) Additionally, by vessels with operational radar:

(i) the state of visibility; (i) the characteristics, efficiency and limitations of the radar equipment;
(ii) the traffic density including concentrations of fishing vessels or any (ii) any constraints imposed by the radar range scale in use;
other vessels; (iii) the effect on radar detection of the sea state, weather and other
(iii) the manoeuvrability of the vessel with special reference to stopping sources of interference;
distance and turning ability in the prevailing conditions; (iv) the possibility that small vessels, ice and other floating objects may not
(iv) at night the presence of background light such as from shore lights or be detected by radar at an adequate range;
from back scatter of her own lights; (v) the number, location and movement of vessels detected by radar;
(v) the state of wind, sea and current, and the proximity of navigational (vi) the more exact assessment of the visibility that may be possible when
hazards; radar is used to determine the range of vessels or other objects in the
(vi) the draught in relation to the available depth of water. vicinity.
Check YOUR SPEED Remember:

Rule 6 requires you to make your own judgement on the appropriate speed
for your vessel, taking into account the situation you are in and the situation • You are responsible for proceeding at a safe speed. If an alteration of speed
you are moving towards. Excessive speed contributes to many collisions. is necessary, then you do not have to ask permission.
Rule 5 on look-out and Rule 6 are closely linked. If you do not obey Rule 5, • Radar and ARPA are not infallible. They may miss some targets altogether
then you cannot obey Rule 6. or they may show large targets as weak echoes.
Without exception a ‘safe speed’ is a reduced speed, because: • Navigational aids such as ECDIS and GPS can be equally suspect. Never
rely on one instrument or on one technique – always double-check.
• In most cases, if either ship reduces speed, their closest point of approach • Constantly monitor your speed – the situation at sea is always changing
(CPA) will increase. The risk of collision will then reduce. and a safe speed in one situation can be too fast in another. Situations can
• It gives you more time to think and to act. Time to think and to act is all change suddenly.
important – too much speed and too little time can fatally impair your risk • Maintaining a high speed for commercial reasons is no excuse and no
assessment processes. defence for proceeding at an unsafe speed.
• It allows you to stop more effectively.
• If a collision does occur, the resulting damage will be a lot less. SUMMARY
Always travel at a safe speed.
9
Rule 7
RISK OF COLLISION
10
Rule 7: Risk of collision

(a) Every vessel shall use all available means appropriate to the prevailing circumstances and conditions to determine if risk of collision exists. If there is any doubt such
risk shall be deemed to exist.
(b) Proper use shall be made of radar equipment if fitted and operational, including long-range scanning to obtain early warning of risk of collision and radar plotting or
equivalent systematic observation of detected objects.
(c) Assumptions shall not be made on the basis of scanty information, especially scanty radar information.
(d) In determining if risk of collision exists the following considerations shall be among those taken into account:
(i) such risk shall be deemed to exist if the compass bearing of an approaching vessel does not appreciably change;
(ii) such risk may sometimes exist even when an appreciable bearing change is evident, particularly when approaching a very large vessel or a tow or when
approaching a vessel at close range.
IS THERE A RISK OF COLLISION?

Rule 5 on look-out and Rule 7 are also closely linked. Under Rule 5 you must • Use radar:
use all available means to collect information on the situation around you • With ARPA, use relative vectors to determine the risk of collision.
(look-out) and under Rule 7 you must use that information continuously to • Is the target passing ahead or astern or are you going to collide?
assess the risk of collision. Remember the primary information you need to answer these
To assess the risk of collision you must continuously ask yourself: questions is relative information.
• Do not trust ARPA to give you an accurate CPA. Take 0.5 nautical mile
• Is a collision possible, because of the action (or inaction) of any vessel in off each indication to be safe and, if the CPA is already 0.5 nautical
the vicinity – including your own vessel? mile, then assume a risk of collision exists.
• Is a collision probable? If so, the risk of collision is already here and you • Do not just rely on a change of bearing as an indicator of clearance.
need to act urgently. As a target ship approaches, its change of bearing should accelerate
significantly. If the change of bearing does not accelerate then there is a
This risk-assessment process is essential if you are to take appropriate risk of collision.
action – see Rule 8 action to avoid collision.
Risk-assessment techniques include: Do not relax – keep monitoring the situation until the target ship is
passed and clear.
• Look and listen – as with keeping a look-out, you must use all the
information and equipment available to determine the risk of collision. SUMMARY
• Use the compass to check the bearing of approaching vessels, and do Always assess the risk of collision.
this regularly. A steady bearing indicates the risk of collision but a risk of
collision may exist even with a bearing change, particularly at close range
and with large vessels.
11
Rule 8
ACTION TO AVOID COLLISION
12
Rule 8: Action to avoid collision

(a) Any action taken to avoid collision shall be taken in accordance with the (e) If necessary to avoid collision or allow more time to assess the situation, a
Rules of this Part and shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, be vessel shall slacken her speed or take all way off by stopping or reversing
positive, made in ample time and with due regard to the observance of her means of propulsion.
good seamanship. (f) (i) A vessel which, by any of these Rules, is required not to impede the
(b) Any alteration of course and/or speed to avoid collision shall, if the passage or safe passage of another vessel shall, when required by the
circumstances of the case admit, be large enough to be readily apparent circumstances of the case, take early action to allow sufficient sea-
to another vessel observing visually or by radar; a succession of small room for the safe passage of the other vessel.
alterations of course and/or speed should be avoided. (ii)
A vessel required not to impede the passage or safe passage of
(c) If there is sufficient sea-room, alteration of course alone may be the most another vessel is not relieved of this obligation if approaching the other
effective action to avoid a close-quarters situation provided that it is made vessel so as to involve risk of collision and shall, when taking action,
in good time, is substantial and does not result in another close-quarters have full regard to the action which may be required by the Rules of
situation. this Part.
(d) Action taken to avoid collision with another vessel shall be such as to (iii) A
vessel the passage of which is not to be impeded remains fully
result in passing at a safe distance. The effectiveness of the action shall be obliged to comply with the Rules of this Part when the two vessels are
carefully checked until the other vessel is finally past and clear. approaching one another so as to involve risk of collision.
DO SOMETHING AND DO IT EARLY what you are doing.

As soon as you identify a risk of collision, you must identify the correct action Remember to make appropriate sound and light signals.
to avoid collision to ensure the vessels will pass at a ‘safe distance’. You should You should confirm your action to avoid collision by monitoring the change
then take that action to avoid collision as soon as it is appropriate to do so. in CPA. Keep taking compass bearings and checking the situation until the
Action to avoid collision should always be: risk of collision is over. And remember your engine – if your ability to alter
course is constrained then slow down or stop.
• positive – make a big alteration of course and/or speed
• made in good time – which means early Giving way and not impeding
• seamanlike – do not make the situation worse for any other ship in the • If the COLREGs require you ‘not to impede’ or ‘give-way’ to another vessel, then
vicinity, assess what they may have to do you must take very early action to make sure risk of collision does not develop.
• easily seen by the other ship(s) – avoid a series of small alterations of • If you are the ‘not to be impeded’ or stand-on vessel, then you must always be
course and/or speed. prepared for the give-way vessel not to take the correct action. If a risk of collision
develops, you will have to act – remember the caution in Rule 2 on responsibilities
Remember, a substantial alteration made early is better than a very large
and your continuing responsibilities in Rule 17 on action by the stand-on vessel.
alteration made late. The closer you are to the other vessel the greater the
risk of collision and the more you will have to do to pass at a safe distance.
Small alterations of course and speed are also dangerous; they do not often SUMMARY
solve the problem and they do not give the other vessel a clear indication of Always do something positive and timely to avoid a collision.
13
Rule 10
TRAFFIC SEPARATION SCHEMES
14
Rule 10: Traffic separation schemes

(a) This Rule applies to traffic separation schemes adopted by the Organization and not normally enter a separation zone or cross a separation line except:
does not relieve any vessel of her obligation under any other Rule. (i) in cases of emergency to avoid immediate danger;
(b) A vessel using a traffic separation scheme shall: (ii) to engage in fishing within a separation zone.
(i) proceed in the appropriate traffic lane in the general direction of traffic flow (f) A vessel navigating in areas near the terminations of traffic separation schemes
for that lane; shall do so with particular caution.
(ii) so far as practicable keep clear of a traffic separation line or separation zone; (g) A vessel shall so far as practicable avoid anchoring in a traffic separation scheme
(iii) normally join or leave a traffic lane at the termination of the lane, but when or in areas near its terminations.
joining or leaving from either side shall do so at as small an angle to the (h) A vessel not using a traffic separation scheme shall avoid it by as wide a margin
general direction of traffic flow as practicable. as is practicable.
(c) A vessel shall, so far as practicable, avoid crossing traffic lanes but if obliged to (i) A vessel engaged in fishing shall not impede the passage of any vessel following
do so shall cross on a heading as nearly as practicable at right angles to the a traffic lane.
general direction of traffic flow. (j) A vessel of less than 20 metres in length or a sailing vessel shall not impede the
(d) (i) A vessel shall not use an inshore traffic zone when she can safely use safe passage of a power-driven vessel following a traffic lane.
the appropriate traffic lane within the adjacent traffic separation scheme. (k) A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre when engaged in an operation
However, vessels of less than 20 metres in length, sailing vessels and for the maintenance of safety of navigation in a traffic separation scheme is
vessels engaged in fishing may use the inshore traffic zone. exempted from complying with this Rule to the extent necessary to carry out
(ii) Notwithstanding sub-paragraph (d) (i), a vessel may use an inshore traffic the operation.
zone when en route to or from a port, offshore installation or structure, pilot (l) A vessel restricted in her ability to manoeuvre when engaged in an operation for
station or any other place situated within the inshore traffic zone, or to avoid the laying, servicing or picking up of a submarine cable, within a traffic separation
immediate danger. scheme, is exempted from complying with this Rule to the extent necessary to
(e) A vessel other than a crossing vessel or a vessel joining or leaving a lane shall carry out the operation.
NO RIGHTS IN TRAFFIC SEPARATION SCHEMES Tips for navigating in traffic separation schemes are:
Rule 10 is one of the longest rules and one of the hardest to understand.
Always remember the following. • Always follow all the other rules.
• Keep in your lane.
• There is no right of way – a traffic separation lane does not give you right • Try to avoid overtaking – especially towards the end of the scheme.
of way over any other vessels (except a vessel that is fishing inside a • Avoid VHF calls to other ships – it will only distract them.
traffic separation lane). • Beware of fishing vessels – they are allowed to fish in traffic separation lanes.
• All of the other rules continue to apply within a traffic separation scheme. • Look out for crossing vessels – they should cross the scheme at right
• The actions of vessels navigating in and near a traffic separation scheme angles but they may navigate parallel to the scheme for a while to find an
can be unpredictable. opportunity to cross.
• Look out for high-speed craft – especially wide on your beam.
Traffic separation schemes are established in busy areas of difficult • If you are not happy, slow down or stop.
navigation. You can expect above-average density of traffic, crossing vessels, • Be wary at all times.
fishing vessels and high-speed craft. Study the passage plan before your watch,
be prepared and, if you need assistance, ask for it well in advance. SUMMARY
You have no additional rights of way in a traffic separation scheme.
15
Rule 13
OVERTAKING
16
Rule 13: Overtaking

(a) Notwithstanding anything contained in the Rules of Part B, Sections I and II, any vessel overtaking any other shall keep out of the way of the vessel being overtaken.
(b) A vessel shall be deemed to be overtaking when coming up with another vessel from a direction more than 22.5 degrees abaft her beam, that is, in such a position
with reference to the vessel she is overtaking, that at night she would be able to see only the stern light of that vessel but neither of her sidelights.
(c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether she is overtaking another, she shall assume that this is the case and act accordingly.
(d) Any subsequent alteration of the bearing between the two vessels shall not make the overtaking vessel a crossing vessel within the meaning of these Rules or relieve
her of the duty of keeping clear of the overtaken vessel until she is finally past and clear.
KEEP CLEAR WHEN OVERTAKING SUMMARY

Rule 13 has no exceptions; the overtaking vessel always keeps out of the way. Always keep clear of a ship you are overtaking.
If you are not sure whether you are overtaking another vessel, then
Rule 13 says that you are.
Remember:
• Always presume the other ship does not know you are there.
• Avoid crossing ahead – it is always safer to cross astern.
• Do not pass close – overtaking always takes time, so make sure both ships
have plenty of room to manoeuvre. Never assume that the other ship will
maintain its course and speed.
• Beware of interaction – if you are forced to pass close, be very careful of
interaction between the two vessels.
Remain vigilant – remember; you remain an overtaking vessel until you

are finally passed and clear.
Once you are an overtaking vessel, you are always an overtaking
vessel.
17
Rule 14
HEAD-ON SITUATION
18
Rule 14: Head-on situation

(a) When two power-driven vessels are meeting on reciprocal or nearly reciprocal courses so as to involve risk of collision each shall alter her course to starboard so that
each shall pass on the port side of the other.
(b) Such a situation shall be deemed to exist when a vessel sees the other ahead or nearly ahead and by night she would see the mast head lights of the other in a line
or nearly in a line and or both sidelights and by day she observes the corresponding aspect of the other vessel.
(c) When a vessel is in any doubt as to whether such a situation exists she shall assume that it does exist and act accordingly.
SHIP AHEAD? ALTER TO STARBOARD SUMMARY

If there is a ship ahead you should alter course to starboard. Always alter course to starboard when you see a ship approaching you
The ship does not need to be exactly right ahead – Rule 14 applies from ahead.
to any vessel coming towards you on a roughly opposite course and roughly
within half a point (6 or 7 degrees) on either side of your bow.
At night, if you can see the other ship’s masthead lights in line, or nearly
in line, and/or both its sidelights, then Rule 14 applies. If you are not sure,
then Rule 14 still applies.
To understand Rule 14, you must also understand Rule 8 on action to
avoid a collision and Rule 16 on action by the give-way vessel:

• Rule 8 (a) says, ‘Any action to avoid collision shall be taken in accordance
with the Rules of this Part’ (‘this Part’ being the steering and sailing
rules). This means that if you have a vessel fine to starboard, even some
distance away, altering to port to increase the ‘green to green’ clearance
may not be in accordance with the COLREGs.
• If there is any risk of collision then you should always go to starboard, as
Rule 14 says.
• Rule 16 says that if you are to keep out of the way, you must take early
and substantial action. This means you should alter your course (or speed)
good and early.
• Do not wait for the other vessel to act. The closer you get, the bigger the
alteration you will have to make.
19
Rule 15
CROSSING SITUATION
20
Rule 15: Crossing situation

When two power-driven vessels are crossing so as to involve risk of collision, the vessel which has the other on her own starboard side shall keep out of the way and
shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, avoid crossing ahead of the other vessel.
WATCH VESSELS TO STARBOARD SUMMARY

A vessel crossing from your starboard side has right of way. Always give way to a ship you see crossing from your starboard side.
The other vessel will be watching you carefully and it will be anxious until
it knows you are taking the correct action.
Make life easy for both ships:
• Give way early – if you are the give-way vessel, then take early action so
the other vessel knows your intentions.
• Avoid crossing ahead – if possible, always go to starboard and go astern
of the other vessel.
• Be considerate – if the other vessel is hampered in any way, then your early
action will reassure it.
• Be positive – especially if you are in any doubt.
• Do not forget your engine – you always have the option of using your
engine as well as your helm. Slowing down will give both ships more
time and more space.
21
Rule 16
ACTION BY GIVE-WAY VESSEL
22
Rule 16: Action by give-way vessel

Every vessel which is directed to keep out of the way of another vessel shall, so far as possible, take early and substantial action to keep well clear.
KEEP EVERYONE HAPPY SUMMARY

Rule 16 is one of the shortest rules but it makes life easier for everyone. Always give way to a stand-on ship early, clearly and courteously.
The basic points are:
• Do not hesitate – alter course or speed early.

• Do not make small alterations – only a big alteration of course or speed
will show the other vessel exactly what you are doing.
• Do not assume anything – keep checking the CPA and keep taking
compass bearings to make sure your action has the desired effect.
• Keep everybody happy.
Following Rule 16 makes life easier for all vessels. If the other vessel
is happy with your alteration there is less chance of it doing something
unexpected. Treat other vessels as you would like to be treated yourself. Good
seamanship includes courtesy and common sense.
23
Rule 17
ACTION BY STAND-ON VESSEL
24
Rule 17: Action by stand-on vessel

(a) (i) W
here one of two vessels is to keep out of the way the other shall keep her course and speed.
(ii) The latter vessel may however take action to avoid collision by her manoeuvre alone, as soon as it becomes apparent to her that the vessel required to keep out
of the way is not taking appropriate action in compliance with these Rules.
(b) When, from any cause, the vessel required to keep her course and speed finds herself so close that collision cannot be avoided by the action of the give-way vessel
alone, she shall take such action as will best aid to avoid collision.
IS IT GIVING WAY? SUMMARY

Rule 17 is one of the harder rules to understand and to follow. If you are the When approaching a give-way ship, maintain course and speed but
‘stand-on vessel’ then you cannot relax. always be prepared to take action to avoid a collision.
Rule 17 has three stages and you must identify and assess each of them:
• Rule 17 (a) (i): when you are the ‘stand-on vessel’, you must keep your
course and speed. You must not do anything unexpected.
• Rule 17 (a) (ii): ‘as soon as it becomes apparent’ that the give-way vessel is
not taking appropriate action, then you may take your own action to avoid
a collision.
• Rule 17 (b): when a collision cannot be avoided by the give-way vessel
alone, then you must take the best action you can to avoid colliding. Your
action under Rule 17(b) must still be in time to avoid a collision so you
must not leave it too late
But do not go to port in a crossing situation – if the other ship goes to

starboard, as it should, then both ships will turn towards each other.
Do not forget the ‘wake up’ signal under Rule 34(d) on manoeuvring and
warning signals. Blow your horn and flash your lights at the other vessel but
think twice before calling it on VHF, because that always takes valuable time
during which the risk of collision will increase.
25
Rule 19
CONDUCT OF VESSELS IN RESTRICTED VISIBILITY
26
Rule 19: Conduct of vessels in restricted visibility

(a) This Rule applies to vessels not in sight of one another when navigating in or near an area of restricted visibility.
(b) Every vessel shall proceed at a safe speed adapted to the prevailing circumstances and conditions of restricted visibility. A power-driven vessel shall have her engines
ready for immediate manoeuvre.
(c) Every vessel shall have due regard to the prevailing circumstances and conditions of restricted visibility when complying with the Rules of Section I of this Part.
(d) A vessel which detects by radar alone the presence of another vessel shall determine if a close quarters situation is developing and/or risk of collision exists. If so, she
shall take avoiding action in ample time, provided that when such action consists of an alteration of course, so far as possible the following shall be avoided:
(i) a n alteration of course to port for a vessel forward of the beam, other than for a vessel being overtaken;
(ii) a n alteration of course towards a vessel abeam or abaft the beam.
(e) Except where it has been determined that a risk of collision does not exist, every vessel which hears apparently forward of her beam the fog signal of another vessel,
or which cannot avoid a close-quarters situation with another vessel forward of her beam, shall reduce her speed to the minimum at which she can be kept on her
course. She shall if necessary take all her way off and in any event navigate with extreme caution until danger of collision is over.
RESTRICTED VISIBILITY CHANGES EVERYTHING SUMMARY

Different rules apply in restricted visibility. Restricted visibility includes fog, Always be prepared to give way to ships you cannot see.
mist, snow, heavy rain and sandstorms – any situation where you cannot see
the other ship or its navigation lights.
There are no ‘stand-on’ or ‘give-way’ vessels in restricted visibility. Every
vessel must take action and every vessel must proceed at a safe speed with
its engines ready for immediate manoeuvre.
You must assess if your ship is getting close to another ship and/or if there
is a risk of collision. In both cases you should:
• avoid altering to port for a vessel forward of the beam, except for a vessel
you are overtaking (Rule 19 (d) (i))
• avoid altering towards any ship abeam or abaft the beam (Rule 19 (d)
(ii)).
You should also remember Rule 7 on risk of collision – there is a risk of

collision if you are in any doubt.
And remember Rule 5 on look-out – you must always maintain a proper
look-out by sight and hearing.
27
Case Studies
INTRODUCTION
The following six case studies are based on real collisions that have occurred in recent years. Fortunately
nobody died as a result of any of these collisions but damage to the ships and cargoes involved cost owners
and insurers well over US$100 million.
Each case study is set out as simply as possible, with the minimum information necessary to describe the
developing situation. In five of the case studies you are the watchkeeper on one of the vessels.
Each case study also asks a number of questions – but the answers are not provided. The intention is to
discuss the questions with members of the bridge team so that you will be able to agree on the answers to
each question. In coming to your answers we suggest you identify the relevant rules and discuss exactly how
they apply to the case study.
At the end of the guide are simple plotting sheets which you can use to plot and help understand situations.
Additional case studies will be published from time to time in North’s loss prevention publication Signals.
The case studies and the questions they ask are intended to be the starting point for wide-ranging
discussions on all aspects of collision avoidance.
28
Case Study 1
WHO STARTED THIS?
SCENARIO Cargo
Your vessel is rounding a headland and approaching
1 ship
a waypoint for an alteration to port. A cargo ship
is approaching the headland from the other
direction. The ships are now in position 1.
The cargo ship sees your port aspect and
alters course to starboard as the ‘give-way’ vessel. 2
You are unaware of its alteration and so you alter
course to port to follow your passage plan. You
want to keep to your passage plan. The ships are
now in position 2.
2
QUESTIONS
1. What action should you have taken at
position 1?
2. What action should you take now, at
position 2? WP
Your
1 ship
Not to scale
29
Case Study 2
IS IT GOOD TO TALK?
SCENARIO
You are the watchkeeper on a bulk carrier heading 10:10
north-east at 8 knots. On your port bow at 5 10:15
nautical miles is a container ship making a speed 10:20
of 18.5 knots on a course to pass 0.3 nautical Container
miles ahead. You believe this closest point of ship
approach (CPA) is too close
At 3 nautical miles apart you call the
container ship on VHF to ask its intentions. The
watchkeeper says he will pass ahead but you ask 10:24
him to alter course to starboard to pass astern.
Two minutes later you call again and insist
the container ship alters course to starboard. The
watchkeeper on the container ship changes his
mind and begins to alter course to starboard. Two
10:20
minutes later the ships collide.
QUESTIONS
1. What caused the collision?
2. What was a safe CPA? 10:15
3. Did the VHF conversations improve the
situation?
10:10
Your
ship
Not to scale
30
Case Study 3
WHAT WERE THEY THINKING?
SCENARIO
In open waters a bulk carrier and a container
ship were closing at full sea speed. The bulk 1
carrier was steering north-west at 16 knots and
the container ship was steering south-east at Container
ship 2
24 knots. The closest point of approach (CPA)
was 0.45 nautical miles, green to green. This is
position 1. 3
At 4.5 nautical miles apart the container ship
altered 6° to starboard. Shortly afterwards the
bulk carrier altered 5° to port. This is position 2.
At 2.3 nautical miles the container ship 4
altered 5° to starboard and the bulk carrier
altered 10° to port. This is position 3.
Just before collision the container ship altered
18° to starboard and the bulk carrier altered 55° 4
to port. This is position 4. 3
QUESTIONS
1. What were the faults of each ship? 2
2. What should each ship have done?
3. By what percentage was each ship responsible
for the collision? Bulk
carrier 1
Not to scale
31
Case Study 4
WATCH OUT ASTERN
SCENARIO
You are the watchkeeper on a general cargo ship,
steering west at 12 knots. Your radar display
is offset to show 9 nautical miles ahead and
3 nautical miles astern and you are keeping a
close watch on a group of fishing vessels on your Fishing vessels
starboard side.
You never see a reefer vessel overtaking from
your port quarter with a closest point of approach
(CPA) of 0.5 nautical miles on your port side. Reefer ship
You alter course to port to increase your CPA
from the fishing vessels. The reefer ship does
not notice your alteration until too late and the
vessels collide.
Your ship
QUESTIONS
1. Which is the stand-on vessel?
2. What should the stand-on vessel have done?
3. What should the other vessel have done?
4. Would your answers be different if the
incident occurred within a traffic separation
scheme?
Not to scale
32
Case Study 5
TO CROSS OR NOT TO CROSS?
SCENARIO
You are the watchkeeper on a coastal tanker
navigating the north-east lane of a traffic
separation scheme. You need to alter course to
port to cross the traffic separation scheme.
A ‘trial manoeuvre’ on ARPA indicates you
will pass 1 nautical mile ahead of a container ship
navigating in the south-west lane at 23 knots.
Because of the adverse tide you make the
alteration a bit later than expected. You do not
re-check the approaching container ship and a
few moments later you are surprised to see it
close on your starboard side.
Container ship
QUESTIONS
1. Did anyone do anything wrong?
2. What do you do now?
3. What should the container ship do now?
Your ship
Not to scale
33
Case Study 6
FISHING?
SCENARIO
You are the watchkeeper on a cargo ship following
the busy south-west lane of a traffic separation
scheme.
On your port bow, some miles ahead, a fishing
vessel is crossing the traffic separation scheme
on a 90° track. It is proceeding very slowly and
showing the shapes and the lights of a trawler.
QUESTIONS
1 Is the fishing vessel complying with
COLREGs?
Your ship
2 Who has right of way?
3 What should you do? Fishing vessel
4 What should the fishing vessel do?
Not to scale
34
Plotting Sheet 1
OPEN SEA
35
Plotting Sheet 2
TRAFFIC SEPARATION SCHEME
37
Plotting Sheet 3
COASTAL WATERS
39

North of England P&I Association
The International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1972 (COLREGs) are the foundations North is a leading marine mutual
upon which safe navigation and conduct of vessels are built. liability insurer based in Newcastle
upon Tyne, UK, with regional
North’s loss prevention guide on the COLREGs is intended to provide practical advice to all offices in Greece, Hong Kong,
watchkeepers, from cadets to masters and inspecting officers, on the key collision avoidance rules. Japan and Singapore. The Club has
It is also intended to serve as a focus for discussion in bridge team meetings, at on-board training developed a worldwide reputation
sessions, during a quiet watch or in the mess room. for the quality and diversity of its
loss prevention initiatives.
The 12 rules discussed in the guide are those that are most often misinterpreted and appear to have
been breached time and again when collisions occur. This guide demonstrates how these rules fit
together and how the interpretation and application of each of them can be influenced, sometimes
wrongly, by the vast mass of information now available from electronic aids to navigation.
At the end of this guide is a series of collision case studies and simple plotting sheets, which readers
can use to illustrate developing situations while on watch.
The case studies and the questions they ask are designed to be the starting point for wide-ranging £30
discussions on all aspects of collision avoidance. ISBN: 978-0-9558257-9-8

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What are the 12 rules discussed in the guide?

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What is the purpose of including case studies and plotting sheets at the end of the guide?

COLLISIONS: HOW TO AVOID THEM

North of England P&I Association

COLLISIONS: HOW TO AVOID THEM

NORTH OF ENGLAND P&I ASSOCIATION

Published by North of England P&I Association Limited

Telephone +44 191 232 5221

Copyright © North of England P&I Association Limited 2013

The Author asserts moral copyright in the work.

Author: North of England P&I Association

Printed and bound in the UK

GUIDE TO USING ELECTRONIC VERSION

FOREWORD 2 CASE STUDIES

The Hon Mr Justice Nigel Teare

THE COLREGS necessary steps to avoid or minimise that risk.

IT’S YOUR RESPONSIBILITY

Rule 6: Safe speed

(a) By all vessels: (b) Additionally, by vessels with operational radar:

Check YOUR SPEED Remember:

Rule 7: Risk of collision

IS THERE A RISK OF COLLISION?

Rule 8: Action to avoid collision

DO SOMETHING AND DO IT EARLY what you are doing.

Rule 10: Traffic separation schemes

Rule 13: Overtaking

KEEP CLEAR WHEN OVERTAKING SUMMARY

Remain vigilant – remember; you remain an overtaking vessel until you

Rule 14: Head-on situation

SHIP AHEAD? ALTER TO STARBOARD SUMMARY

Rule 15: Crossing situation

WATCH VESSELS TO STARBOARD SUMMARY

Rule 16: Action by give-way vessel

KEEP EVERYONE HAPPY SUMMARY

• Do not hesitate – alter course or speed early.

Rule 17: Action by stand-on vessel

IS IT GIVING WAY? SUMMARY

But do not go to port in a crossing situation – if the other ship goes to

Rule 19: Conduct of vessels in restricted visibility

RESTRICTED VISIBILITY CHANGES EVERYTHING SUMMARY

You should also remember Rule 7 on risk of collision – there is a risk of

COLLISIONS: HOW TO AVOID THEM

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