Chapter Two

LIMITS AND CONTINUTY

The most basic use of limits is to describe how a function behavior as the
independent variable approaches a given value.
Example: Let us examine the behavior of the function f ( x)  x 2  x  2 for a
value of x closer and closer to 2.
x 1 1.5 1.9 1.95 1.99 1.995 1.999 2 2.001 2.005 2.01 2.05
f(x) 2 2.75 3.71 3.852 3.97 3.985 3.997 /// 4.003 4.015 4.03 4.152

Left side Right side

It is evident from the graph and the table that the
value of f(x) gets closer and closer to 4 as value of x is
selected closer and closer to 2 on either left or the right
side of 2. We describe this that the limit of (x2-x + 2) is 4
as x approaches2 from either side, and we write:
lim ( x  x  2)  4
2

x2

Observe that in our investigation of lim ( x 2  x  2)

x2

we are only concerned with the value of f(x) near x=2 and not the value of f(x)
at x=2.
DEFINITION:
If the value of f(x) can be made as close as we like to L by taking the value
of x sufficiently close to a (but not equal a), then we write:
lim f ( x)  L
xa

Which is read "the limit of f(x) as x approaches a is L".

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (33)

Chapter Two

Properties of limits:
1. If f(x) = k, then lim f ( x)  k where a and k are real numbers.
xa

2. If lim f1 ( x)  L1 and lim f 2 ( x)  L2 , then:

xa
xa

(a) Sum rule: lim [ f1 ( x)  f 2 ( x)]  L1  L2

xa

(b) Difference rule: lim [ f1 ( x)  f 2 ( x)]  L1  L2

xa

(c) Product rule: lim [ f1 ( x). f 2 ( x)]  L1.L2

xa

(d) Constant multiple rule: lim k. f1 ( x)  k.L1 (where k is constant)

xa

f ( x) L
(e) Quotient rule: lim 1
 1; L2  0
xa f 2 ( x) L2
r r
(f) Power rule: lim [ f1 ( x)] s  L1 s (if s is even number L1 > 0)
xa

lim (c0  c1 x c 2 x .....cn x )  c0  c1a c 2 a .....cn a

2 n 2 n
3. Polynomial
xa

sin x
4. lim 1
x0 x
5. Sandwich theorem:
If g ( x)  f ( x)  h( x) are three functions such that:

lim g ( x)  lim h( x)  L then lim f ( x)  L .

xa xa xa

Note:
1. For sake of convenience in dealing with indeterminate forms, we define
the following arithmetic operations with real numbers, +∞ and -∞. Let c
be a real number and c > 0. Then we define:

+∞ +∞= +∞, -∞ -∞ = -∞, c(+∞) = +∞, c(-∞) = -∞, (-c)( +∞)=-∞, (-c)( -∞) = +∞,
c c c c
 0,  0,  0,  0 , () c   , () c  0 , (+∞) (+∞) = +∞,
   
(+∞) (-∞) = -∞, (-∞)(-∞) = +∞

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (34)

Chapter Two

2. The following operations are indeterminate quantities:

0 
( , ,  , 0* )
0 
Examples: Find the limits of the following:
1. lim x 2  4 x  22  4 * 2  4  8  4
x 2

2. lim x3  2 x 2  3x  4  13  2 *12  3 *1  4  4
x 1

(3x  1) 2 (3 *1  1) 2 22 1
3. lim   3 
x1 ( x  1) (1  1)3
3
2 2

x2  4 22  4 0
4. lim 2  2  (Indeterminate quantities)
x2 x  5 x  6 2  5* 2  6 0
( x  2)( x  2) ( x  2) 22 4
So lim  lim    4
x2 ( x  2)( x  3) x2 ( x  3) 2  3 1

x2 22 0
5. lim   (Indeterminate quantities)
x 2 x2  4 22  4 0

x2 x2 x2 x2 x2 22 0

 lim  lim  lim   0
x2 ( x  2)( x  2) x2 x  2 x  2 x2 x2 22 4

x2 22 0
6. lim 2  2  (Indeterminate quantities)
x 2 x  4 2 4 0

x2 x2
 lim  lim
x2 ( x  2)( x  2) x2 x  2 x  2 ( x  2)
1 1 1 1
 lim     So the limit does not exist
x2 x  2 ( x  2) 2  2 (2  2) 0 * 4 0

x 1 11 0
7. lim   (Indeterminate quantities)
x1 x 32
2
1 32
2 0

x 1 x2  3  2
 lim * (Multiplying both the numerator and
x1 x2  3  2 x2  3  2

denominator by conjugate factor)

( x  1)( x 2  3  2) ( x  1)( x 2  3  2) ( x  1)( x 2  3  2)
 lim  lim  lim
x1 x2  3  4 x1 x2  1 x1 ( x  1)( x  1)
( x 2  3  2) 12  3  2 4
 lim   2
x1 ( x  1) x 1 2

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (35)

Chapter Two

sin 3x sin 3x 3 sin 3x

8.  lim  lim *  3 * lim  3 *1  3
x0 x x0 x 3 x0 3x
Remember that 3x→0 when x→0

tan x sin x cos x sin x 1 1

9.  lim  lim  lim * lim  1*  1
x0 x x0 x x0 x x0 cos x 1
cos x  
10.  lim let z  x so as x   z 0
  2 2
x
2 x
2

cos(  z)
2 sin z
 lim  lim 1
z 0 z z 0 z

1  cos x 1  cos x 1  cos x 1  cos 2 x

11.  lim  lim *  lim
x0 x x0 x 1  cos x x0 x(1  cos x)

sin 2 x sin x sin x 0

 lim  lim * lim  1* 0
x0 x(1  cos x) x0 x x0 (1  cos x ) 11

Homework: Find the limits of the following:

2 x 2  5x  3 x2 x  16
1. lim 2 2. lim 3. lim
x
1 6x  7x  2 x2 x3  8 x16 x 4
2

4x2  6x  3 x3 x2  x  2
4. lim 3 5. lim 6. lim
x  3 1 x  1 3 x2 ( x  2)
x 16 x  8 x  7
2
1
2

x3  8 x2 1 4  16  h
7. lim 4 8. lim  9. lim
x2 x  16 x1 x  1 x 1 h0 h
1 1 x x  sin x
10. lim ( )(  1) 11. lim 12. lim
h0 h 1 h x0 sin x x0 x

sin x 6 x  sin 2 x
13. lim 14. lim ( x  3) cscx 15. lim
x0 2x2  x x3 x0 2 x  3sin 4 x
3
8 x 2 x 2  100  10
16. lim (Hint: assume 3 8  x  z ) 17. lim
x 0 x x0 x2

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (36)

Chapter Two

Right-hand limits and left-hand limits

The notation for the right-hand limit is
lim f ( x) "The limit of f(x) as x approaches c from the right"
xc

The (+) is there to say that x

approaches c through values -∞ c x +∞
From right
greater than c on the line
numbers.
The notation for the left-hand limit is
lim f ( x) "The limit of f(x) as x approaches c from the left"
x c 

The (-) is there to say that x

approaches c through values -∞ x c +∞
From left
less than c on the line
numbers.
Examples: The greatest integer function f(x) = [x] has difference right-hand and
left-hand limits at each integer. As we see in figure:
1. lim [ x]  2 but lim [ x]  1
x2 x2

2. lim [ x]  1 but lim [ x]  2

x  1 x  1

While
3. lim [ x]  1 but lim [ x]  1
x1.5 x1.5

One sided vs. two sided limits:

DEFINITION:
A function f(x) has a limit as x approaches c if and only if the right-hand
and left-hand limits at c exist and are equal. In symbol:
lim f ( x)  L  lim f ( x)  L and lim f ( x)  L
xc xc  xc 

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (37)

Chapter Two

Example: Discuss the limit properties of the

function f(x) which shown in figure.
at x=0 lim f ( x)  1
x0

lim f ( x) does not exist (because the

x0

function is not defined to the left of x=0)

at x=1 lim f ( x)  0 even though f(1) = 1
x1

lim f ( x)  1
x1

lim f ( x) does not exist, because the right-hand and left-hand limits are
x1

not equal.
at x=2 lim f ( x)  1
x2

lim f ( x)  1
x2

lim f ( x)  1 even though f(2) = 2

x 2

at x=3 lim f ( x)  2
x3

lim f ( x)  2
x3

lim f ( x)  f (3)  2
x 3

at x=4 lim f ( x)  1 even though f(4) = 0.5

x4

lim f ( x) does not exist, because the function is not defined to the right
x 4 

of x=4.

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (38)

Chapter Two

Limit Involving Infinity:

It means that the limits include x   or x   and limf(x)=∞ or
limf(x)=-∞

1
Let y  then
x
1
1. lim   the limit does not exit.
x0 
x
1
2. lim   the limit does not exit.
x0 
x
1
3. lim  0
x x

1
4. lim  0
x x

Examples: Find the limits of the following:

1 1
1. lim (5  )  lim 5  lim 50 5
x x x x x
x x x 1 1 1
2. lim  lim  lim  
x 7 x  4 x 7 x x  4 x x 7  4 x 7  0 7

Note: In rational functions when x approaches infinity divide both the numerator
and denominator by the largest bower of x in the denominator.
2x2  x  3 2x2 x2  x x2  3 x2 2 1 x  3 x2 2  0  0 2
3. lim  lim 3x 2 x 2  5 x 2  lim 3  5 x 2  3  0  3
x 3x 2  5 x x

4. lim 4x2  3 4x2 x  3 x 4 x  3 x 4 * ( ) the limit does not exit.

 lim  lim  
x 3x x 3x x x 3 3

5x  3 5x x 2  3 x 2 5 x  3 x2 0  0 0
5. lim 2  lim 2 2  lim   0
x 2 x  1 x 2 x x  1 x 2 1 x 20 2
2
x

Summery for Rational Functions

f ( x)
a) lim 0 if deg(f) < deg(g)
x g ( x)

f ( x)
b) lim is finite if deg(f)=deg(g)
x g ( x )

f ( x)
c) lim is infinite if deg(f) > deg(g)
x g ( x )

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (39)

Chapter Two

sin x
6. lim
x x
Sol.: Remember  1  sin x  1 divide the inequality by x yield
 1 sin x 1
 
x x x
1 1
lim  0 and lim x  0
x x x

sin x
 lim 0 (sandwich theorem)
x x
1
7. lim x sin
x x
1 1
Sol.: Let x  z
z x
When x    z 0
1
 lim sin z  1
x0 z

8. lim x 2  6 x  1  x 2  x  (  )
x

x2  6x  1  x2  x
Sol.: lim x  6 x  1  x  x *
2 2

x x2  6x  1  x2  x
( x 2  6 x  1)  ( x 2  x) x2  6x  1  x2  x 5x  1
 lim  lim  lim
x  x  6x  1  x  x
2
x  6 x  1  x  x x  x  6 x  1  x 2  x
2 x  2 2 2

5x x  1 x 50 5 5
 lim     2.5
x  x x  6x x  1 x  x x  x x
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 0  0  1 0 11 2

Homework: Find the limits of the following:

2 x  x sin 3x (2 x  1)5
1. lim 2. lim x  x  x 3. lim 2
x 5x 2  2 x  1 x  x (3x  2 x  7)( x  9 x)
3

sin x cos(1 x )
4. lim (2  ) 5. lim 6. lim x
x x x (1 x ) x x

x
7. lim
x0 x

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (40)

Chapter Two

Continuous Functions:
DEFINITION:
- Continuity at interior points:
A function y=f(x) is continuous at an interior point c of its domain if:
lim f ( x)  f (c) +∞ +∞
xc
a c b
- Continuity at end-points:
A function y= f (x) is continuous at a left end-point a of its domain if:
lim f ( x)  f (a)
xa

A function y=f(x) is continuous at a right end-point b of its domain if:

lim f ( x)  f (b)
xb

Continuous Functions:
A function is continuous if it is continuous at each point of its domain.
Discontinuity at a point:
If a function f (x) is not continuous at a point c, we say that f (x) is
discontinuous at c and call c a point of discontinuity of f (x).
The Continuity Test
The function y=f(x) is continuous at x=c if and only if the following
statements are true:-
1. f (c) exists (c lies in the domain of f).
2. lim f ( x) exists (f has a limit as x→c).
xc

3. lim f ( x)  f (c) (the limit equals the function value).

xc

Example1: Discuss the continuity conditions of the function f(x) which shown in
figure at x=0, x=1, x=2, x=3, x=1.5 and x=4.
-at x=0 (left end-point)
f ( 0)  1

lim f ( x)  1
x0

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (41)

Chapter Two

 lim f ( x)  f (0)  1
x 0 

So it is continuous at the left end-point (x=0).

-at x=1 (interior point)
f(1) = 1
lim f ( x)  0
x1

lim f ( x)  1
x1

 lim f ( x) does not exist, because the right-hand and left-hand limits are not
x1

equal.
So it is discontinuous at x=1.
-at x=2 (interior point)
f(2) = 2
lim f ( x)  1
x2

lim f ( x)  1
x2

 lim f ( x)  1
x2

 lim f ( x)  f (2)
x2

So it is discontinuous at x=2.
-at x=3 (interior point)
f(3) = 2
lim f ( x)  2
x3

lim f ( x)  2
x3

 lim f ( x)  2
x3

 lim f ( x)  f (3)  2
x3

So it is continuous at x=3.
-at x=1.5 (interior point)
f(1.5) = 1

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (42)

Chapter Two

lim f ( x)  1
x1.5

lim f ( x)  1
x1.5

 lim f ( x)  1
x1.5

 lim f ( x)  f (1.5)  1
x1.5

So it is continuous at x=1.5.
-at x=4 (right end-point)
f(4) = 0.5
lim f ( x)  1
y

x4 5

 lim f ( x)  f (4) 4
(2,4)

x4
3

So it is discontinuous at right-end point (x=4).

2

Example2: Determine weather the following 1

functions are continuous at x=2? 0 x

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

x2  4
1. f ( x)  -1

x2
Sol.: f(2) is not found ( 2  D f )
y

So the function is discontinuous at x=2. 4

(2,4)

(2,3)
3

 x2  4 2

2. f ( x)   x  2 x2
1

 3 x2
0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

Sol.: f(2)=3 -1

x 4
2
( x  2)( x  2)
lim  lim  lim x  2  2  2  4
x2 x2 x 2 x2 x2 y

5
 f (2)  lim f ( x)
x2 (2,4)
4

So the function is discontinuous at x=2. 3

0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

-1

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (43)

Chapter Two

 x2  4
3. f ( x)   x  2 x2

 4 x2

Sol.: f(2)=4
x2  4
lim 4
x2 x2
 f (2)  lim f ( x)
x 2

So the function is continuous at x=2.

Example1: Test the continuity of the following function at x=1:
 x 2 x 1
f ( x)   x
 2 x 1

1
Sol.: f (1) 
2
x 1
lim f ( x)  lim x 2  (1) 2  1 , lim f ( x)  lim 
x1 x1 x1 x1 2 2
lim f ( x) is not found (the left-hand and right-hand limits do not equal).
x1

So the function is discontinuous at x=1.

Algebraic properties of continuous functions:

Theorem 1: If the functions f and g are continuous at c then:
a) f  g , f  g and f * g are continuous at x=c.
f
b) is continuous if g (c)  0 and is discontinuous x=c if g (c)  0 .
g

Theorem 2: If f is continuous at c and g is continuous at f(c) then the composite

go f is continuous at c.

Theorem 3: Polynomials are continuous at every point.

[ao x n  a1 x n1  a2 x n2  ]

Examples of continuous functions:

1
1. The function y  is continuous at every value of x except x=0.
x

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (44)

Chapter Two

2. The greatest integer function y=[x] is discontinuous at every integer.

3. The sine and cosine functions are continuous at every value of x.
4. Polynomials are continuous at every value of x.
For polynomials: lim f ( x)  f (c)
xc

5. Rational functions are continuous wherever they are defined.

6. The function y=|x| is continuous at every value of x.
Homework:
1. Test the continuity of the following functions at given points?

x2  1 -1 ≤ x < 0
2x 0≤x<1
(a) f(x)= 1 x=1
-2x+4 1<x<2
0 2≤x≤3

at x = -1, x = 0, x = 1, x = 2 and x = 3.
x2  4
(b) f ( x)  at x = 2 and x = -3.
( x  3)( x  2)

x 3  27
(c) x2  9

at x = 3 and x = -3
x2  x  2
(d) f ( x)  at x = 1
( x  1) 2

2. Which the following statements are true or false of the function graphed here.
(a) lim f ( x)  1 (b) lim f ( x) does not exist
x1 x2

(c) lim f ( x)  2 (d) lim f ( x)  2

x2 x1

(e) lim f ( x)  1 (f) lim f ( x) does not exist

x1 x1

(g) lim f ( x)  lim f ( x) (h) lim f ( x)  1

x0 x0 x1

Mathematics- Limits and Continuity (45)