METEOROLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Meteorology is the science related to atmosphere. Its knowledge is required for
estimation of probable maximum precipitation and optimum snowmelt conditions. This is
required for design of various hydraulic structures. A hydrologist needs to have some
knowledge of regional climate and meteorological process. Definitions of a few terms
used in this chapter are given below.

Atmosphere

Atmosphere is the gaseous envelope around the earth. It consists of dry air, water vapor
and various kinds of salts and dusts. The total amount of dry air and water vapors would
be over 5,600 billion tons and about 146 billion tons, respectively. If all the water vapors
present in the atmosphere are imagined to condense and fall uniformly over the earth, it
will accumulate to a depth of 25 mm.

Troposphere

It is the zone of atmosphere adjacent to earth. It extends approximately up to seven miles

above sea level. Almost 100 % of the total moisture contents of the atmosphere are
present in this zone and there is comparatively high temperature gradient in this part of
atmosphere.

Vapor Pressure

It is the pressure exerted by the amount of water vapors present in the atmosphere. It is
usually denoted by “e” and expressed in millibars. A Millibar is defined as the pressure
exerted by a force of one thousand dynes on one square cm surface.

1.33 millibar = 1 mm of Hg.

Since the temperature of water vapor is the same as that of the air in the atmosphere, the
maximum amount of water vapor may be said to depend on the air temperature. The
higher the temperature, the more vapor can the atmospheric air hold.
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Saturation Vapor Pressure

When a sample of air holds the maximum quantity of water vapors at a particular
temperature it is said to be saturated. The pressure exerted by water vapors, when the air
is fully saturated with water vapors, is known as the saturation vapor pressure. It is
denoted by „es‟. The variation of „es‟ with temperature is given in Table A-1 of Appendix-
A at end of this book.

Isobars

These are the lines joining points of same atmospheric pressure at a given elevation. The
horizontal distribution of pressure is generally shown on weather charts by isobars. The
spacing between isobars is a measure of the pressure gradient.

RELATIVE HUMIDITY AND DEW POINT

The relation between temperature and saturation vapor pressure is shown in Figure 2.1.
Suppose that a parcel of air has a temperature „T‟ and vapor pressure „e‟ indicated by
point „D‟ in the Fig. If more vapor were added at constant temperature „T‟ point „D‟
would move vertically upward towards „B‟ and the air would be saturated when „B‟ is
reached and the corresponding saturation vapor pressure would be „es‟.

The difference, es - e = Saturation deficit and the relation

(e / es) x 100 = Relative humidity - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Eq. 2.1

When the air is cooled at a constant atmospheric pressure, the temperature at which air
becomes saturated is called Dew Point i.e. the point „D‟ will come to point „C‟ in figure
2.1.
Saturation Vapor Pressure (mm Hg)

35
30
25 B
20
15
10 C . D(t, e)
5
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40
Temperature °C

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Fig 2.1 Saturation Vapor Pressure of Water in Air

The relative humidity is the ratio of actual vapor pressure at certain temperature and the
saturation vapor pressure. Thus the relative humidity is 100 percent when the air is
saturated. If the parcel of air is cooled at constant pressure „e‟ and without addition of
vapor, the point „D‟ would move horizontally towards „C‟. The air would be saturated
when „C‟ is reached and the corresponding temperature „Ta‟ is the Dew point. The dew
point is thus the temperature at which water vapor present in the atmosphere will
condense if the air is cooled.

Measurement of Relative Humidity

The instruments used for measurements of relative humidity are:

(i) Psychrometer (ii) Hair hygrometer

(iii) Hygrograph (iv) Thermo-hygrograph

Psychrometer

Psychrometer consists of two thermometers - Dry bulb thermometer and Wet bulb
thermometer. The mercury bulb of wet bulb thermometer is covered by a jacket of clean
muslin cloth saturated with water. This is done by putting a beaker with distilled water
underneath so that the bulb is not submerged in water but only the cloth. Then water rises
due to capillary action. The thermometers are ventilated by whirling or by use of a fan.
As a result of evaporation cooling takes place. Readings are taken on both the
thermometers simultaneously. The dry bulb reading is denoted as Td and wet bulb
reading as Tw. The difference of these two temperatures is called the wet bulb
depression.

i.e. Td - Tw = Wet bulb depression - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Eq. 2.2

Using these readings, the relative humidity can be found from the psychrometer tables.

The value of „e‟ for air temperature„t‟ may be obtained by the relation:

( es – e ) = γ ( T - Tw ) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -Eq. 2.3
or
e = es – γ ( T - Tw ) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Eq. 2.4

Where γ = psychrometer constant and its value is 0.660 when „e‟ is measured in millibar
units and 0.485 when it is measured in units of „mm of Hg‟.

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Example 2.1

Given the air temperature as Ta = 24o C and the wet bulb temperature Tw = 21o C. Find
relative humidity and dew point.

Solution

From Equation 2.2

Wet bulb depression = 24o - 21o = 3o C.
From table A-1, Appendix-A, we get,
For Ta = 24 oC, es = 22.27 mm of Hg
For Tw = 21 oC ew = 18.65 mm of Hg
Therefore Equation 2.4 yields,
e = 18.65-0.485(3) = 17.20 mm of Hg
Relative humidity = [ 17.20 / 22.27 ] x 100 = 77 %
And the dew point is the temperature read from Table A-1 of Appendix-A corresponding
to „e‟ which is 19.7 oC.

The hair hygrometer consists of a frame in which a strand of hair is kept at

approximately constant tension. Changes in length of the hair corresponding to changes
in relative humidity are transmitted to a pointer. This instrument is seldom used for
meteorological purposes, but it is an inexpensive humidity indicator and is often found in
homes and offices.

The hair hygrograph is essentially a hair hygrometer, but is automatic recording

instrument. The movement of hair activates a pen, which records on a rotating drum. The
hygrothermograph combines the registration of both relative humidity and temperature
on one record sheet.

SOLAR RADIATION
The only source of heat energy for earth system is the sun. Whatever heat is received by
earth or reflected is the solar energy. Depending upon the shape, rotation, angle of
inclination of earth, it is visualized that solar energy received by earth is changing from
time to time and point to point.

The solar radiation comes to the earth in the form of a high temperature radiation. A part
of this radiation may be intercepted by the clouds but most of it is reflected back into
space. The fraction of the total incoming radiation which is reflected back by the earth is

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called albedo. Under average conditions, the albedo of the earth as a whole is about 40%,
of the remaining 60% a small part is absorbed in the atmosphere but the bulk is absorbed
in the earth surface.

Solar energy received by sun is the maximum at the equator and decreases pole-wards.
The variations in solar energy are the following:

a. Diurnal Variation
b. Seasonal Variation
c. Regional Variation.

The units for radiation flux per unit area are either joules per square centimeters or
milliwatt hours per square centimeter. In some countries calories per square centimeters is
designated as Langley and the corresponding unit of radiation flux is Langley per minute.
The intensity of direct solar radiation at normal incidence is measured with an instrument
called a Pyrheliometer.

The principal exposure requirements of this instrument are that it should be free from
obstructions to the solar beam at all times of day and seasons of the year. The site should
be chosen so that the incidence of fog, smoke and air-borne pollution is as less as possible
in that area.

The Bi-metallic Actinograph is used for measurement of global radiation from sun and
sky on a horizontal surface. In this instrument a mechanical linkage is used to record the
temperature difference between a black coated Bi-metallic strip exposed to solar radiation
and two similar bimetallic strips painted white. Because of the large mass of the
bimetallic strips, the response time of the instrument is large and the instrument is only
suitable for the purpose of obtaining estimates of daily totals.

TEMPERATURE
The degree of hotness or coldness is called the temperature. Its units of measurement are
Degree Centigrade ( °C ) or Degree Fahrenheit ( °F ).

Temperature Variation

There are three types of temperature variations.

i. Daily Variation of Temperature

The daily variation of temperature is dependent on the elevation of the sun, the cloud
cover and the wind speed. The variation of temperature is large in low latitudes and small
in high latitudes, with the result that the daily variation decreases from equator towards
poles.

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The clouds reduce the radiations coming down during the day and outgoing radiations
during the night. On a cloudy day, the maximum temperature is lower and the minimum
temperature higher than on normal bright days. On windy days the temperature on ground
surface is lower than on calm days, because the greater mobility of air along the vertical
axis results in greater heat exchange with the upper atmospheric layers.

ii. Seasonal Variation

The seasonal variation in rainfall and wind also affect the temperature. During the rainy
season, the cloud cover is large with the result that less radiation is received by the earth.
Annual migration of vast masses of air also brings about horizontal heat exchange and
thus affects the annual range of temperature variation.

iii. Regional Variation of Temperature

Since the amount of net radiation decreases with increasing latitude, the temperature
tends to be highest at the equator and decreases towards the poles.

Measurement Of Temperature

The temperature is measured with the help of thermometers. There are two types of
thermometers - Maximum thermometer (Mercury Type thermometer) and Minimum
Thermometer (Alcoholic type thermometer).

In order to measure the air temperature properly, thermometers must be placed where air
circulation is relatively unobstructed and yet they must be protected from the direct
sunrays and from precipitation. Therefore thermometers are placed in white, louvered,
wooden boxes, called instrument shelters. These shelters are set about 4.5 feet above the
ground. The readings are taken at 8.00 a.m. and 5.00 p.m.

The thermograph, with either a bi-metallic strip or a metallic tube filled with alcohol or
mercury for its thermometric element, makes an autograph record for the past 24 hours,
week or one month on a ruled chart wrapped around a clock driven cylinder.

Four commonly used terms of temperature are:

i. Mean Daily Temperature

It is the average of maximum and minimum temperatures during the past 24 hours. Daily
minimum and maximum temperatures are recorded at 9 am.

ii. Normal Daily Temperature

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It is the average daily mean temperature for a given day over the past 30-years period i. e.
it is the mean temperature for a specific day

iii. Mean Monthly Temperature

It is the average of the mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures or it is the
mean temperature of the mean daily temperatures during the month.

iv. Mean Annual Temperature

It is the mean temperature of 12 months.

LAPSE RATE
The lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient is defined as the change in temperature per
unit distance in the vertical direction from the Earth surface. The average value of the
lapse rate is 3.6o F per 1,000 ft ( 304.8 m ). The greatest variation in lapse rate is found in
the layer of air just above the land surface. The lapse rates are of three types depending
upon the type of water vapors.

i. Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

It is the rate of change of temperature when air is not fully saturated with water vapors.
The average value of this is 17.71oF per 1,000 m.

ii. Wet (Saturated) Adiabatic Lapse Rate

When air is fully saturated, then rate of change of temperature is called wet adiabatic,
lapse rate. Its average value is 9.84o F per 1,000 m.

iii. Pseudo-Adiabatic Lapse Rate

After condensed particles have fallen down fully, as after a rainfall, then the rate of
change of temperature is called pseudo-adiabatic lapse rate. Its average value is also
9.84o F per 1,000 m.

Example 2.2

A parcel of air has a temperature of 50o F on surface of the earth. At a height of 2,000 m
the air becomes saturated. Rainfall occurs and air again becomes dry on the leeward side
of a mountain. Find out temperature of this parcel of air, at an altitude of 2,500 m on
leeward side of the hill. Height of hill is 3,000 m.

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Solution

Temperature at 2,000 m = 50 - ( 17.72x2000/1000)

= 50 – 35.44
= 14.56 oF
Temperature at 3,000 m = 14.56 - ( 9.84x1000/1000 )
= 4.72 oF
Temperature on the
leeward side at 2,500 m = 4.72+ (9.84 x500/1000)
= 9.64 oF

Monsoon System in Pakistan

In summer, when the land warms much faster than the oceans an area of low pressures
develops over land and high pressure at sea. The reverse is the case during winter season.
Therefore, winds move from sea to land during summer and from land to sea during
winter. Winds which undergo seasonal changes of direction in this way are called
monsoon winds. These winds, and for that matter any other wind system are modified
considerably when there exist extensive mountain ranges.

In winter over Indo-Pak Sub-continent and central part of Asia (slightly towards eastern
shores of Asia) a „High‟ is established. North easterly winds blow over most of the
eastern shores of Asia and India. These are called the North - East Monsoons. These
winds are cold and dry and thus give fair weather to the area over which these blow.

In summer a „Low‟ is established over North-West part of Indo-Pak Sub continent due to
heating of the arid land-tracts while the air in the southern hemisphere cools. Over India
and Pakistan, the wind blows from southwest and is known as South - West Monsoon.
This is a very damp air as it originates from Indian Ocean. It actually starts from the
southern hemisphere and after crossing the equator reaches the Sub-continent as a
southwesterly wind.

In Pakistan the summer monsoon sets in by June, but its effect over the central areas and
the sub-mountain districts becomes well pronounced by the third week of July. The
monsoon remains effective over the area till the end of September, sometime extending to
the second week of October.

Prior to the onset of monsoon, Pakistan is very dry and the maximum temperature crosses
110 o F over the plains and the dew point temperature starts rising as soon as the monsoon
invades Pakistan. By the beginning of June, a “low” establishes over Hyderabad,

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Khairpur, Multan and Sibi Divisions, which to some extent, is responsible for the onset of
South-West monsoon over the sub-continent. The south-westerlies are predominant over
the southern areas of Pakistan.

The monsoon air requires lifting of 3 to 4 thousands feet to cause thunder showers. There
being no barrier of such a height for these south-westerlies, the southern area of Pakistan
goes dry, though the monsoon current remains active during June to September.

WESTERN DISTURBANCES
The western disturbances are important air masses, for most of the winter season in
Pakistan and Northern India. Since these disturbances approach from the west, it is for
this reason that these are locally called western disturbances. These originate from the
Mediterranean Sea and move in an easterly or north - easterly direction. They have warm
and cold fronts but by the time these reach Pakistan, these are so diffused together that it
is difficult to distinguish them on surface synoptic charts. However they can be identified
on the upper-air charts.

During the winter these move at lower latitudes and reach northern part of Pakistan, but
in summer these move in higher latitudes through Russian Turkistan. Some times these
accentuate the monsoon depressions in the summer and cause heavy rainfall in the
sub- mountain districts, such as Sialkot, Jhelum and Rawalpindi. The effect of these
disturbances is well pronounced from December to March. Normally light rain or drizzle
is associated with them, but in case of active disturbances, thundershower over northern
and central divisions of Pakistan may occur.

The western disturbances also produce secondary disturbance moving over the Persian
Gulf and over the Arabian Sea. The secondary wave also moves to Pakistan and causes
lot of weather over the entire Pakistan. During Western Disturbances over Pakistan, the
winds are normally Westerlies or North-Westerlies. Sometimes the secondary wave
continues moving in an easterly direction along the coast while the primary is affecting
Peshawar and D.I. Khan Divisions.

The following conclusions have been drawn by the Pakistan Meteorology Department on
the basis of detailed study of synoptic situations responsible for winter rainfall over
Pakistan.

a. A western disturbances appearing over Turkey takes about 7-8 days to reach Pakistan.

b. A weak western disturbance does not cause any rainfall over Pakistan. A weak western
disturbance has been defined as the one which has no closed „Low‟ appearing over
Turkey. For a well-marked „Low‟ there are generally two closed isobars and the lowest
pressure reported is generally less than 1,010 Mb during December to February.

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c. The well-marked western disturbance causes fairly widespread rain and also
thunderstorms along the frontline over Turkey and Iraq. This can be seen about 5 to 7
days ahead. This type of circulation of air mass is a forewarning for an approaching wet
spell over the northern divisions of Pakistan

d. The winds over the Gulf of Oman become southerly while over north Persian Gulf area
northerlies will be blowing. This is a strong indication of secondary development over the
Gulf of Oman. Due to the peculiar orography of northwest Pakistan, the cyclonic
circulation further increases. This results in moderately heavy to heavy showers over the
central and northern divisions of Pakistan.

MONSOON AND WESTERN DISTURBANCES AS CAUSE OF RAINFALL

By the beginning of July, South Easterlies begin to penetrate the central areas and
sub-mountain districts of Pakistan. The South-Easterlies are nothing, but the deflected
South-Westerlies, which take a turn westwards parallel to the Himalayas from the Bay of
Bengal.

A depression is intensified when a warm pool exists above it. It is also intensified by the
interaction between the disturbances of low latitudes and high latitudes and also between
disturbances of the two hemispheres. Bay of Bengal tropical depressions (monsoon
depressions) form as a result of the confluence of Southern air mass from the equatorial
region and South-Westerlies crossing the sub-continent from the Arabian Sea. The South
West monsoon air mass behaves as two different types with the consequence that their
interrelation results in frontogenesis. There also exists a trough of low pressure, generally
called monsoon trough, which extends roughly from Punjab in Pakistan, through Agra,
Allahbad in India to the Bay of Bengal. When the axis of the monsoon trough moves
towards the Himalayas and lies there, the rain on the plains decreases while that on the
hills increases. When the axis of the monsoon trough shifts to the South, the entire of
Pakistan comes under the influences of homogeneous monsoon resulting in a continuous
type of rain drizzle. But occasionally heavy thundershowers do occur over the sub-
mountain districts and adjoining areas of Kashmir due to orographic effect (mountain
barriers).

The monsoon depressions travel Westwards/North Westwards. Most of these depressions

dissipate within a few hundred miles of their journey over the sub-continent. Those which
are strong, reach as far as Rajisthan and then start moving northwards. This change in the
direction of movement of the depression is called “recurvature”. When the storm of
depression recurves itself, it receives good moisture supply from Arabian sea resulting in
heavy rainfall in Pakistan. Some depressions which do not recurve, emerge into the
Arabian Sea and do not cause any rainfall. It must be noted that depressions cause lifting
of air mass and therefore are the main causative factors for precipitation to occur. Higher
and continuous lifting and hence continuous precipitation occur when a depression is

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strengthened by another depression. The three types of depressions in the Indo-Pak
Subcontinent are:

a. Seasonal as a result of high summer temperature corresponding to low

temperature,
b. Monsoon depression traveling from the Bay of Bengal, and
c. Depression due to Western disturbance. When all the depressions combine and
there is a continuous supply of moisture from the Arabian Sea there results very
heavy rainfall in the northern part of Pakistan.

WIND MEASUREMENT
Wind speed is measured with an instrument called Anemometer. This instrument gives
continuous record over some graph called Anemograph. A very well known
Anemometer is Dynes Apparatus. It gives reading in miles of total wind movement in
24 hours.

Wind has both speed and direction. Wind direction is the direction from which wind is
blowing. Wind speed is usually given in miles per hour, meters per second or knots.

1m/sec = 2.2 mph, and,

1 knot = 1-1/7 mph

The graph between wind speed and elevation is shown in figure 2.1.

The equation of the curve is,

V/Vo = (  / Zo )1/7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.5

Where „V‟ is wind speed at height „Z‟ from ground and „Vo‟ is wind speed measured by
the anemometer at height „Z0‟.

Velocity Ratio Against Elevation Ratio

8
7
6
(Z/Z0)

5
4
3
2
1
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

(V/V0)

Figure 2.1 Variation of Wind Velocity with Depth

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Example 2.3

The speed of air at a height of 15 meter above ground was measured as 10 m/s. Find the
speed at 2 m level.

Solution

From Equation 2.5

V2 / V15 = ( Z2 / Z15 )1/7 or
V2 = ( Z2 / Z15 )1/7 x V15
V2 = ( 2 / 15)1/7 x 10 = 7.5 m/s

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QUESTIONS
1. Define Meteorology. Why is it studied with subject of Hydrology?
2. How Relative Humidity and Dew Point are related. Describe instrument used for
measurement of relative humidity.
3. What is saturation vapor pressure? Can air saturate itself up to 100%.
4. Define temperature. Explain variation in temperature with respect to time.
5. What is Lapse Rate? How does temperature changes with altitude?
6. What are monsoons, explain the mechanism of monsoon rainfalls in Pakistan?
7. Explain, what are the Western Disturbances?
8. Why psychrometer constant is different when „e‟ is measured in different units.
9. Why wind speed is measured. What is effect of wind on climate changes in an
area? Explain variation of wind velocity with respect to altitude.

EXCERCISE
1. A mass of air is having temperature of 26.9 oC. The Relative humidity of this mass of
air is 71 %. Determine Saturation Vapor pressure, Saturation deficit, Actual Vapor
Pressure, Dew Point and Wet-bulb temperature.

2. The dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature are respectively 25 oC and 15 oC at
a certain location. Determine Dew-point Temperature, Relative Humidity, Saturation
Vapor Pressure and Actual Vapor pressure.

3. A mass of air is at temperature of 30 oC and is having relative humidity of 75 %.

Determine the dew-point temperature.

4. The wind has a speed of 9 m/s at elevation of 10 m above ground and 10 m/s at
elevation of 15 m above ground. Determine the speed at height of 2 m.

5. A parcel of moist air at 45°F, initially at 152 m mean sea level is forced to pass over a
mountain ridge of 2,134 m mean sea level and then descends to its original level.
Assuming that a lift of 762 m produces saturation and precipitation, what is the final
temperature of the parcel?

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