Republic of the Philippines

Surigao del Sur State University

Tagbina Campus
Tagbina, Surigao del Sur 8308
Email address: sdssutc2010@yahoo.com
Website: www.sdssu.edu.ph

Module 2
The Self from Various Perspectives

Understanding the Self

(GE – US)
Lesson 1 The Self from the Anthropological Perspectives

In most dictionaries, the term “Filipino” is defined as belonging or relating to the Philippines, or
to its people and culture. In the context of citizenship, “Filipino” simply means membership in a nation-
state. In the constitution, a citizen is someone who legally resides in a country. Anthropologically,
however, it is different. To belong to a people is not necessarily implying a legal association to a country
but it entails a responsibility to live and protect the country's cherished values. To belong and relate to
a culture means to adopt, accept, and treasure its entire way of life. Therefore, in order to be called
Filipino, you have to belong to the Filipino people and adopt their culture. In this perspective, the self
must be embedded in the culture.

. Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. explain how culture affects or shapes one's identity;
2. recognize what the field of anthropology can contribute to the understanding of the self;
3. understand how culture and self are complementary concepts;
4. discuss the cultural construction of the self and social identity; and
5. develop insights on how to achieve a sense of self, situated in multicultural and dynamic
situations.

Let us check what you already know

Instructions: If you think the statement is correct, write agree, otherwise, write disagree.

_________ 1. Anthropology considers human experience as interplay of nature and nurture.

_________ 2. We are born with an identity.
_________ 3. Without a name, an individual's social identity is not established.
_________ 4. The Japanese view of self can be best described as egocentric.
_________ 5. In the sociocentric view, the self is viewed as contingent on a situation or social setting.

It’s time to read and learn!

Anthropology is concerned with how cultural and biological processes interact to shape human
experience. Contemporary anthropologists believe that culture and self are complementary concepts
that are to be understood in relation to one another. Compared with other disciplines, anthropology
possesses a holistic and integrated approach in examining human nature. According to a distinguished
anthropology professor, James L. Peacock (1986, p.10), “anthropology encroaches on the territory of
the sciences as well as the humanities, and transcends the conventional boundaries of both while
addressing questions from the distant past and the pressing present-perhaps with implications for the
future. This definition of anthropology emphasizes that it is an academic field for understanding the
interconnection and interdependence of biological and cultural aspects of the human experience at all
times and in all places. Employing an anthropological perspective, that is, perceiving holistically, what
could be the answer to the question. “Who am I?” Anthropology considers human experience as an
interplay of “nature," referring to genetic inheritance which sets the individual's potentials, and "nurture,"
referring to the sociocultural environment (Haviland, Prins, Walrath, & McBride, 2013). Therefore, it
could be understood that both biological and cultural factors have significant influence on the
development of self-awareness among individuals within society. In addition, the field of anthropology
has contributed indirectly to the understanding of the nature of self through ethnographic investigations
(e.g., sampling method, sentence completion, interviews) which discuss that cultural variations may
affect one's mental state, language, and behavior (Triandis, 1989). Perhaps, the most important
contribution of anthropology is providing insights into the nature of self based on continuous
understanding of the basic elements of culture (Peacock, 1986).

Cultural Identity and National Identity

Culture is derived from the Latin word cultura or cultus meaning care or cultivation. Culture is
analogous to caring for an infant. Because an infant has prolonged dependency, he or she has to be
taken care of by the people around him or her. The infant has to learn from them so he or she can better
adjust while growing up in his or her immediate cultural environment (Leano & Corpuz, 2008).

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Throughout one's life, he or she functions according to the cultural context where he or she is situated.
As one grows old, he or she learns many things about his or her environment and realizes what makes
him or her different from other people. As an individual interacts with people and makes sense of how
he or she functions in the context of his or her social and cultural background, he or she learns that he
or she has both personal identity (the way he or she sees himself or herself as an individual) and
collective identity (the way he or she sees himself or herself as member of a certain group). n o
Identity refers to “who the person is,” or the qualities and traits of an individual that make him or her
different from others. There are many ways to distinguish people. An example is identifying them in a
geographical context or based on where they come from. People from the West are different from the
people from the East because they are located in opposite sides of the world. Identity also refers to how
a person sees and expresses oneself.
Cultural identity refers to the identity or feeling of belongingness to a certain culture group. It
is an individual's perception about himself or herself anchored on race, gender, nationality, religion,
ethnicity, and language. One might identify himself or herself as Filipino because he or she embodies
Filipino cultural ways and traditions to which he or she has been exposed while growing up. While being
a Filipino, one may also identify as a Catholic because it is his or her religious background. The cultural
categories that shape one's overall cultural identity prove how one's cultural identity is meant to be
multidimensional.
The cultural identity theory explains why a person acts and behaves the way he or she does.
It makes sense of how an individual is influenced by the cultural contexts he or she is situated in. A
single person can possess multiple identities, simultaneously making him or her part of many cultural
groups. These identities overlap and form the identity of an individual.
A nation is a group of people built on the premise of shared customs, traditions, religion,
language, art, history, and more. National identity refers to the identity or feeling of belongingness to
one state or nation. Rupert Emerson, a political scientist, defines it as "a body of people who feel that
they are a nation.” National identity is socially constructed. It is influenced and shaped by material and
non-material cultures. Material culture such as the national flag, emblem, or seal is representative of
all the people who are part of a nation. Non-material culture, on the other hand, embodies the shared
understanding of a group of people which includes norms, beliefs, and traditions. National identity
requires the process of self-categorization. In self-categorization, one must identify himself or herself
with an in-group (identifying with one's nation) and differentiate himself or herself from the out-groups
(other nations). It brings out positive emotions like pride, nationalism, patriotism, and the sense of
responsibility one has to the nation he or she is part of. For instance, when the national anthem is
played, people are expected to sing and honor the flag since they are part of the nation that honors that
anthem.

The Cultural Construction of Self and Identity

British anthropologist Edward Tylor defines culture as “...that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as
a member of society.” Anthropologists have emphasized that culture is not behavior itself but the shared
understandings that guide behavior and are expressed in behavior (Peacock, 1986). Therefore, it is
how people make sense of their experiences and behave according to socially shared ideas, values,
and perceptions. As such, culture has acquired a range of different meanings that require reflection and
analysis because the significance of cultures has enormous implications for everyone's conception of
self (van Meijl, 2008). Thus, one may say that culture provides patterns of "ways of life.” Culture, being
diverse, self and identity may have different meanings in different cultures.
Yet, only a small number of anthropologists tackle the concept of self (van Meijl, 2008). In effect,
self is one of the most taken-for-granted products of culture (Robbins, 2012). German anthropologist
Martin Sökefeld (1999) believes that the concept of self is a necessary supplement to the concept of
culture in anthropology and should be regarded as a human universal. Culture and self thus become
complementary concepts that have to be understood in relation to one another.
In social anthropology, the concept of identity was used mostly in the context of “ethnic identity,"
pointing out the sameness of the self with others, that is, to a consciousness of sharing certain
characteristic (e.g., language, culture, etc.) within a group. Identity is understood as a disposition of
basic personality features acquired mostly during childhood and once integrated, more or less fixed
(Sokefeld, 1999 This identity therefore makes a human being a person and an acting individual.
Peacock (1986) believes that the individual is neither a robot nor an entirely independent self-willed little
god but a cultural individual-existing in freedom but also embodying that cultural mold in which he is
cast in his particular society and historical epoch.
There are two ways in which the concept of self is viewed in different societies: egocentric and
sociocentric. In the egocentric view, the self is seen as an autonomous and distinct individual. Each
person is defined as a replica of all humanity but capable of acting independently from others. While in
the sociocentric view, the self is contingent on a situation or social setting. This is a view of the self that
is context-dependent which emphasizes that there is no intrinsic self that can possess enduring qualities
(Robbins, 2012).

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 For anthropologist Christie Kiefer (Robbins, 2012), the Japanese possess a sociocentric view
of the self in which the membership of a person in a particular social group defines the boundaries of
the self. Interdependence between the person and the group is more valued than independence. For
the Japanese, social interaction should be characterized by restraint. Likewise, Chinese American
anthropologist Francis Hsu attributes a sociocentric view of the self to the Chinese. He explains that the
Chinese prioritize kin ties and cooperation. For them, the very essence of interpersonal relations is
mutual dependence. Hence, they do not value self-reliance but put importance to compliance and
subordination of one's will to the authority figures in the family. In contrast with the Japanese and the
Chinese, the Americans are egocentric. They believe that they should be assertive and independent
(Robbins, 2012).
From the similarities and differences in characteristics among individuals, people construct their
social identities. The identity toolbox refers to the features of a person's identity that he or she chooses
to emphasize in constructing a social self. Some characteristics such as kinship, gender, and age are
almost universally used to differentiate people. Other characteristics, such as ethnicity, personal
appearance, and socioeconomic status are not always used in every society. Family membership could
be the most significant feature to determine a person's social identity. Another important identity
determinant that is often viewed as essential for the maintenance of a group identity is language. In
other societies, religious affiliation is an important marker of group identity (Robbins, 2012). In
Mindanao, being a Christian or a Muslim is possibly the most important defining feature of one's social
identity.
Personal naming, a universal practice with numerous crosscultural variations, establishes a
child's birthright and social identity. A name is an important device to individualize a person and
legitimize him or her as a member of a social group such as a family (Haviland, Prins, Walrath, &
McBride, 2013). Personal names in all societies are intimate markers of a person which differentiates
him or her from others. A person's name may symbolically represent his or her cultural self. Hence,
many cultures mark the naming of a child with a special ceremony. For example, Aymara Indians do
not consider an infant as a true human until a name is given to him or her. When the child is around two
years old and ready to speak the Aymara language, a special ritual is performed to give it a name. This
marks the Aymara child's social transition from a state of nature to culture which also consequently
makes him or her fully accepted into the Aymara community. Different from the Aymara Indians,
Icelanders name their infants soon after birth. The baby receives the paternal given name as its last
name. The boy's name is added with a suffix sen the girl's name with dottir. Whereas patronyms
(surnames based father's name) are common in Iceland, matronymic traditions prevail in an Indonesian
island of Sumatra where an ethnic group known Minangkabau lives. In Minangkabau culture, children
inherit the mother's family name. Another unique naming is practiced in Arcti Canada where children
are named after their deceased relatives and other people with admirable qualities which they believe
will be helpful for their character formation. Similarly, in the Philippines it is a common practice of
Catholic parents to name their children after saints. Perhaps, they think that by bearing a sacred name,
their child will be blessed and protected throughout life.
One's identity is not inborn. It is something people continuously develop in life. For instance,
rites of passage usually involve ritual activities to prepare individuals for new roles from one stage of
life to another such as birth, puberty, marriage, having children, and death. Arnold van Gennep believes
that changes in one's status and identity are marked by a three-phased rite of passage: separation,
liminality, and incorporation. In the separation phase, people detach from their former identity to
another. For example, in a wedding, the bride walking down the aisle to be "given away” by the parents
to the groom implies the separation from one's family to become part of a new one. In the liminality
phase, a person transitions from one identity to another. For example, the wedding ceremony itself is
the process of transition of the bride and groom from singlehood to married life. Finally, in the
incorporation phase, the change in one's status is officially incorporated. For example, the wedding
reception and parties that celebrate the wedding serve as the markers that officially recognize the bride
and groom's change towards being husband and wife.
Rites of passage help a person adjust from one social dimension of his or her life to the others.
However, sometimes individuals disagree on their respective identities. Anthony Wallace and Raymond
Fogelson coined the term “identity struggles” to characterize interaction in which there is a discrepancy
between the identity a person claims to possess and the identity attributed to that person by others.
Moreover, individuals may also be confused in defining their personal identity when there is a clash
between self-identification and inherited collective identification emerging from the cultural changes and
conflicting norms and values in the postmodern society.
When universal values and moral principles of an individual or group become relatively
determined by politics and ideology, among other external factors, an identity crisis may occur.
Golubovic (2011) suggests that in order to attain self-identification, individuals have to overcome many
obstacles such as traditionally established habits and externally imposed self-images. On the other
hand, the works of cognitive anthropologists suggest that in order to maintain a relatively stable and
coherent self, members of the multicultural society have no choice but to internalize divergent cultural
models and should reject or suppress identifications that may conflict with other self-presentations (van
Meijl, 2008). Katherine Ewing's “Illusion of Wholeness” exhibits how individual selves throughout the

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world continuously reconstitute themselves into new selves in response to internal and external stimuli.
Therefore, the cohesiveness and continuity of self are only illusory. For the reason that the postmodern
man has lost his right and stopped striving to become an autonomous and active part of the process of
self-determination and a particular identification with one's own community, the most important
philosophical task of the postmodern man today is to "work on yourself” just like in the Socratic message
“know thyself” (Golubovic, 2011).

Individual Self, Relational Self, and Collective Self

There are three fundamental selves, namely the individual self, the relational self, and the
collective self. The individual self reflects the cognitions related to traits, states, and behaviors that are
stored in memory (e.g., “I am religious,” “I feel cold, or "I am ambidextrous”). The relational self reflects
cognitions that are related to one's relationships ("I am the father,” “I am the godfather," or "I am the
son-in-law”). The collective self reflects cognitions that are related to one's group ("I am an Ilocano” or
"I am a Filipino) (Zhum, Wu, Yang, & Gu, 2016).
Each self is inherently social. Each self involves assimilations and contrasts, which respectively
occur between and within persons, dyads, and groups for the individual, relational, and collective self.
Furthermore, each self is important and meaningful to human experience (Gaertner et al., 2012).

Identity Struggles

Did you experience being described as stubborn, lazy, unsympathetic, undisciplined, bossy,
thick-skinned, insecure, perfectionist, impatient, uncooperative, hostile, careless, insensitive,
undisciplined, and many other negative descriptions? Hearing one or many of these enumerated
negative descriptions may probably hurt your emotions. In this kind of situation, you could either accept
or deny and defend yourself against these negative impressions. Regardless of the truthfulness of how
people perceive you, it provides opportunity for self-reflection. Your response to how people describes
you will depend on your own perception of yourself. Some people can be confrontational or non-
confrontational towards how others identify them. In a world of many observant eyes, no action is almost
unguarded. People are quick to judge who others are. People's actions in every situation vary
depending on physiological and psychological states. An individual can be unsympathetic because of
particular individual issues but people, sometimes, fail to consider any justification for why one can be
unsympathetic. This is called identity struggle.
Identity struggle is a term introduced by Anthony Wallace and Raymond Fogelson. It
characterizes the discrepancy between the identity a person claims to possess, and the identity
attributed to that person by others. When an individual perceives that he or she is assigned a wrong
impression, he or she will probably always defend his or her identity. The best possible solution to this
situation is to talk to the person and establish a mutual understanding regarding one's way of perceiving
himself or herself as opposed to how he or she thinks he or she is perceived by others. It has to be
done as soon as possible in order to prevent future conflicts. The confrontation, however, must be done
in a calm and respectful manner.

Remember this!

• The concept of self can be viewed in two ways: egocentric and sociocentric. In the egocentric view, the
self is seen as an autonomous and distinct individual. In the sociocentric view, the self is considered as
contingent on a situation or social setting

• Personal names in all societies represent the self.

• Rites of passage usually involve ritual activities to prepare individuals for new roles from one stage of
life to another. van Gennep believes that changes in one's identity are marked by a three-phased rite of
passage: separation, liminality, and incorporation.

• Individuals tend to experience identity struggles when there is a discrepancy between a person's
assumed identity and the identity imposed by others and the society.

• Self-identification may be attained by overcoming traditional practices or through internalizing divergent

cultural models and suppressing any conflicting self-representations.

• The concept of the “illusion of wholeness” implies that the cohesiveness and continuity of self are only
illusory.

College of Teacher Education Understanding the Self (GE – US) Page 4 of 15

 Let us check what you learned

Name: _____________________________________ Date: ________________

Year & Section: ______________________________ Score: _______________

Directions: Answer the following questions briefly.

1. Ethnicity, religion, political affiliations, or even socioeconomic status may be associated with
one's name. Analyze the names of your grandparents, parents, siblings, and yours. What
naming practices do you have in your family? How do you think your personal name established
your social identity?
2. Anthropological Perspective of Self: Biocultural Connection
The self is continually influenced by cultural variation that depends on our inherited
biological characteristics and cultural environments. Every human being is born with a specific
set of genetic potentials and limitations which influence his or her own construction of self, but
the self is also a result of the complex interplay of biological and cultural environments. Using
the biocultural framework, list down your inherited potentials as well as your cultural environment
such as your personal experiences, beliefs, norms, and values. Analyze your lists, then describe
your "biocultural self” Use the graphic organizer below.

My Genetic Inheritance My Cultural Environment

My Biocultural Self

Let us pause and reflect

Name: ___________________________________________ Date: ________________

Year & Section:____________________________________ Score: _______________

Directions: Write an essay on the different anthropological perspective of how the self is constructed
in societies. Consider the following questions in writing your essay.

1. Which of the anthropological views of the self relates to your own belief? Explain how each view
impact your self understanding..
2. How is your identity constructed and influenced by your culture? Include three things you
discovered about your cultural identity.

My Reflection
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________

College of Teacher Education Understanding the Self (GE – US) Page 5 of 15

Lesson 2 The Self from the Psychological Perspectives

The self can be defined in many ways, in different contexts. In the context of psychology, the
self can be defined as a reflexive psychological process that starts when one identifies himself or herself
as an object, followed by describing oneself as a self-concept or self-feeling, and ends with saying that
the self is manifested in how one acts and presents himself or herself to others (Zhao, 2014). In this
process, the self is perceived through how one sees and understands himself or herself.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. compare and contrast real self and ideal self and true self and false self; and
2. apply concepts of self in one's life to develop self-awareness and self-understanding.

Let us check what you already know

Instructions: Fill in the blanks.

1. The term ___________refers to the image of oneself.

2. Central to the theory of ______________ is the concept of archetype.
3. William James suggests that the self is divided into two categories: _______and the _________.
4. _____________ archetype is often considered as the dark side of the psyche.
5. _____________ refers to the conscience” and “moral judge” of conduct.

It’s time to read and learn!

William James’ Concept of Self: the Me-Self and the I-Self

William James suggests that the self is divided into two categories: the I-Self and the Me-Self.
The I-self refers to the self that knows who he or she is which is also called the thinking self. The I-self
reflects the soul of a person or the mind which is also called the pure ego. The me-self, on the other
hand, is the empirical self which refers to the person's personal experiences and is further divided into
subcategories: the material self, social self, and spiritual self. The material self is attributed to an
individual's physical attributes and material possessions that contribute to one's self-image. The social
self refers to who a person is and how he or she acts in social situations. James believes that people
have different social selves depending on the context of a social situation. For example, a student may
act differently in school and at home with his or her family. The spiritual self refers to the most intimate
and important part of the self that includes the person's purpose, core values, conscience, and moral
behavior. James believes that the path to understanding the spiritual self requires introspection.

Carl Rogers' Self Theory: Real and Ideal Self

Another aspect of self-understanding that is important in

adolescent years focuses on self-concept. This refers to the image
of oneself. Psychologist Carl Rogers defines the self as a flexible
and changing perception of personal identity. The self is the center
of experience (Rathus, 2017). He suggests that the self develops
from interactions with significant people and awareness of one's
own characteristics and level of functioning. According to Rogers,
human beings are always striving for self-fulfillment or self-
actualization. When the needs of the self are denied, severe anxiety
may arise. Central to achieving self-actualization is the
development of self-concept.
Rogers suggests two components of self-concept: the real self and the ideal self. The real self
consists of all the ideas, including awareness of what one is and what one can do. On the other hand,
the ideal self is the person's conception of what one should be or what one aspires to be which includes
one's goals and ambitions in life. In Roger's view, the closer the ideal self to the real self, the more
fulfilled and happy the individual becomes. When the ideal self is far from the real self, the person
becomes unhappy and dissatisfied (Atkinson, Atkinson, Smith, Bem, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2009).

College of Teacher Education Understanding the Self (GE – US) Page 6 of 15

Donald W. Winnicott’s Multiple Versus Unified Self, True Versus False Self

Self-understanding in adolescents also includes conceptualizing the self as multiple or unified

and true or false. The construction of multiple selves varies across different interpersonal and
intrapersonal roles and relationships. Coping with different selves constitutes a formidable task among
adolescents. These challenges contribute heavily to the young person's struggle for a unified self. The
task of integrating one's multiple selves naturally causes concern. Given the enormous challenges of
self-integration, it is important that adolescents are supported in their effort to create a consistent,
coherent, or unified theory of the self (Santrock, 2002).

Winnicott has found that the self is composed of the true self and the false self. The function
of the false self is to hide and protect the true self. Researchers have found that adolescents'
perceptions of themselves can change depending on the situation. For instance, adolescents are more
likely so show their false self during dating situations and are likely to show their true self when they are
with their family and close friends. In other words, adolescents display a false self to impress others.
Adolescents develop different selves in various relational contexts.

The Self as Proactive and Agentic

Albert Bandura (2001) posits that humans, through their agency are perceived as proactive
agents of experiences. Agency embodies the endowments, belief systems, self-regulatory capabilities,
and distributed structures and functions through which personal influence is exercised, rather than
reside as a discrete entity. The core features of agency enable people to play a part in their self-
development, adaptation, and self-renewal. The main features of human agency are intentionality,
forethought, self-reactiveness, and self-reflectiveness. Intentionality refers to acts done intentionally.
Intentions center on plans of action with the anticipation of possible outcomes. Forethought enables
the person to anticipate the likely consequences of prospective actions. Through the exercise of
forethought, people are guided in their actions in the anticipation of future events. Self-reactiveness
involves making choices and choosing appropriate courses of action as well as motivating and
regulating them. Self-reflectiveness gives the person the ability to reflect upon and the adequacy of
his or her thoughts and actions. People are not only agents of action but also self-examiners of their
own functioning. Efficacy beliefs are the foundation of human agency. Self-efficacy refers to the
individual's belief that he or she is capable to perform a task which influences whether he or she will
think pessimistically or optimistically and in ways that are self-enhancing or self-hindering. Efficacy
beliefs also play a central role in self-regulation which is the ability of an individual to control his or her
behavior without having to rely on others for help.

The Self as the Central Archetype

Central to Carl Jung's theory of the self is the concept of archetypes. Basically, archetypes are
the universal models after which roles are patterned. The archetype represents the hidden potentialities
of the psyche, or total personality. Jung suggests that the psyche continues to develop throughout life,
but the psyche starts to show a definite form and content during adolescence. Accord to Jung,
archetypes reside in the personal unconscious (forgotten experiences) that is common to all human
beings, known as collective unconscious. For Jung, there are four major archetypes: persona,
shadow, animus/anima, and self. The persona refers social roles that individuals present to others. The
shadow refers to the repressed thoughts that are socially unacceptable. This archetype is often
considered as the dark side of the psyche. The anima is the side of the female psyche. The self is the
central archetype that unites all parts of the psyche. The ego is the individual's conscious perception of
the self.

Sigmund Freud's Construction of Self

According to Sigmund Freud, the dynamic forces within the self are many and in inevitable
conflict. He argues that the mind is composed of three structures through which personality is formed:
the id, ego, and superego. The id refers to the component of the personality characterized by its need
to satisfy basic urges and desires. Freud believes that the id is the pleasure-seeking side, impulsive,
child-like, and demands instant gratification. The ego refers to the I and operates on the reality principle
and controls the id. The ego can conform with existing societal consideration. The superego refers to
the “conscience” and “moral judge” of one's conduct. Violation of rules leads to feelings of guilt. It strives
for perfection rather than pleasure. It appears that the id is the devil within the self, the superego is the
angel, and ego is the person in the middle. The id, ego, and superego are often in conflict with each

College of Teacher Education Understanding the Self (GE – US) Page 7 of 15

other. Freud uses the term “ego strength” to refer to the ego's ability to resolve the conflict between the
three structures. If this constant state of conflict is unresolved, personality problems may arise.
In Freud's view, the id, ego, and superego develop in a series of stages. Freud calls these the
psychosexual stages of development that progress through five stages. Each stage is associated
with conflicts that the individual must resolve so that he or she can successfully move on to the next
stage. Freud also believes that each stage has needs and that the dissatisfaction of needs may result
in fixation which could have lasting negative effects on one's personality. The first stage is the oral
stage, which lasts from birth up to the first year of life. During this stage, babies derive pleasure from
oral activities like sucking and biting. Overindulgence of oral needs may lead to oral incorporative
personality disorder such as overeating, smoking, and alcoholism while dissatisfaction may lead to oral
aggressive personality disorder such as sarcasm and tactlessness. The next stage is the anal stage,
which occurs around the second year of life. During this stage, the child derives pleasure from the
elimination of body wastes. Through toilet training, the child learns the basic rules of society. Anal
fixations can lead to anal retentive personality disorder such as having obsession with cleanliness or
anal expulsion personality disorder such as clumsiness.
Freud calls the third stage the phallic stage which usually occurs around ages 3 and 6. Children
during this stage de pleasure from examining, touching, fondling, or displaying the genitals. These
behaviors are likely motivated by curiosity about the differences between the anatomy of man and
woman. Sex curiosity will remain high during the elementary years and children will ten to ask questions
regarding anatomical structures, sex, and how babies are made. During this stage, parents and
teachers need to properly educate children about sexuality. Fixations at this stage may lead to abnormal
sex behaviors in later life. The fourth stage is the latency stage, which lasts from 7 to 12 years of age.
At this stage, sexual energy is repressed because children become occupied with school. The last stage
is the genital stage, which starts from adolescence to adulthood. During this stage, pleasure is again
derived from the genital area and individuals seek to satisfy their sexual drives from sexual relationships.
Sexual problems may result as a consequence of inappropriate sex behaviors.

The Role of Erik Erikson's Theory in Understanding the Self

Another important aspect of self-understanding involves views on the identity development of

the self. In Erik Erikson's theory, adolescence is a period of identity development. Identity formation
is usually viewed as a process that requires adolescents to distance themselves from the strong
expectations and definitions imposed by parents and other family members. To achieve an individual
identity, one must create a vision of the self that is authentic which is anchored on the meaning of his
or her goals for the future sense of having hold of one's destiny in an effort to reach goals that are
personally meaningful (Newman & Newman, 2009). Some of the ways adolescents try to establish their
identity is through status symbols such as having “state-of-the-art” mobile phones, designer bags and
clothes, and other material possessions.

Erikson's theory proposes that individuals go through eight psychosocial stages of development.
While Erikson believed that each stage is important, he gives particular emphasis on the development
of the ego. The ego is the positive force that contributes to identity formation and lays the foundation
for certain strengths and virtues in life such as hope, will, purpose, competence, fidelity, love, care, and
wisdom. Each stage consists of developmental tasks that one needs to accomplish to develop
successfully. During each stage, an individual also experiences life crises which could have negative
consequences if not properly resolved.

Trust versus mistrust is the first psychosocial stage of development, occurring in the first year
of life. According to Erikson, the child will develop trust if he or she is properly cared for. If the child is
not well-cared for, mistrust is likely to develop. Autonomy versus shame and doubt is the second
stage of development, occurring during the first three years of life. Autonomy means independence of
thought and confidence to think and act for oneself. Children begin to assert their independence during
this stage. Erikson states that if parents allow their children to explore, they will become more confident
and secure in their own abilities. If children are overly protected, they may become overly dependent
on their parents and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities. Erikson believes that this
stage has important implications in the development of independence and identity during adolescence.
Initiative versus guilt is Erikson's third stage of development, occurring around 3 to 5 years of age.
During this period, developing initiative. A child who is made to feel irresponsible might develop feelings
of guilt. Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of development, occurring around elementary
school years. During usually taught in schools. When children are encouraged in their efforts, they will
develop a sense of industry. However, children who receive little or no encouragement from parents
and teachers will doubt their own abilities and are likely to develop inferiority.

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 The Psychosocial Stages of Development

The fifth psychosocial stage, identity formation versus identity confusion, takes place during
adolescence. At this stage, adolescents face the task of finding out who they are, what they are, and
what they want in life. They are confronted with many roles and responsibilities. If parents provide proper
support, adolescents will develop positive identity. If they are not adequately supported, they will feel
insecure and identity confusion will likely develop. Intimacy versus isolation occurs during early
adulthood when people explore personal relationships. During this sixth stage of development, Erikson
believes it is vital that people develop intimate relationships with others. Those who are successful in
this stage will likely form relationships that are stable and successful. Inability to develop intimate
relationships during this stage will lead to mistrust and isolation. Generativity versus stagnation is the
seventh stage of development which occurs during middle adulthood. Generativity involves a person's
desire to contribute to the world by teaching, leading, and guiding the next generation and doing
activities that will benefit the community. Developing a sense of generativity is important during this
stage. Those who fail to attain this generativity will feel worthless. Integrity versus despair is the final
psychosocial stage which occurs during old age and is focused on self-reflection in one's life. At this
stage, individuals reflect on the important events of their lives. If they are satisfied and proud of their
accomplishments, they will feel a sense of integrity. Those who are unsuccessful in this stage will feel
that their life has been wasted and will experience regrets and despair.

Remember this!

• The I-Self refers to the self that knows who he or she is. The Me-Self refers to the person's
personal experiences and is further divided into sub-categories: material self, social self, and
spiritual self.
• According to Rogers, the real self consists of all the ideas, including the awareness of what one
is and what one can do. The ideal self is the person's conception of what one should be or what
one aspires to be which includes one's goals and ambitions in life.
• The function of the false self is to hide and protect the true self.
• People are viewed as proactive agents of experiences. Efficacy beliefs are the foundation of
human agency.
• The self is the central archetype that unites all parts of the psyche. The ego is the individual's
conscious perception of the self.
• Freud makes a distinction among the three components of the personality: id, ego, and
superego.
• In Erik Erikson's theory, to achieve an individual identity, one must create a vision of the self that
is authentic.

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 Let us check what you learned

Name: _____________________________________ Date: ________________

Year & Section: ______________________________ Score: _______________

1. The Story of My Life

You can deepen your self-understanding by writing your life story. Essentially, the stories we tell
are windows into our inner self. Write your life story. Begin your story by writing the basic information
about yourself such as your name, nickname, age, birthplace, favorite subjects, course, year level,
interests, hobbies, strengths and weaknesses, your motto, beliefs, ambitions, and goals in life; and
the aspirations and lessons you learned in your life. Then in the subsequent paragraphs, tell
something about your most memorable and happiest experiences during your childhood and
teenage years, tell something about your parents, the lessons that your parents taught you, the
things that you are grateful for about them, and the things that you are happy with and grateful for
in your life.

2. My Ideal Self

Describe what you will be or what you want to be in the next ten years, including your goals and
ambitions, the places you want to go to, and the things you want to have, among others. Include
views and ideas about who and what you aspire in the future. Start your statements with prompts
such as ten years from now, I envision myself as …

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Lesson 3 The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts

Do we exist for ourselves or for others? Do we live for self-realization and self-actualization or
do we live for the common good? This is how the western and eastern perspectives about the self differ.
The West is self-oriented while the East is others-oriented. The former values freedom and choice and
wants to free itself from the bondage of society. The latter values relationships and social obligation and
looks at the welfare of society. The former seeks to create its own identity but the latter identifies with
the group.
The attempt to determine the differences between the perspectives of the West and the East
toward the self was carried out by social psychologists. They found out that in modernized countries
people grow more analytical and individualistic, while in developing nations, people remain collectivistic.

Intended Learning Outcomes

At the end of the lesson, you should be able to:

1. compare and contrast individualism and collectivism; and
2. examine your own conceptualization of self.

Let us check what you already know

Instructions: True or False. Write T if the statement is true and write F if it is false.

1. Eastern thought is pluralistic.

2. There is separation between philosophy and religion in Eastern thought.
3. The Eastern way of thinking is analytic-deductive.
4. The Western concept of individual freedom is seen as a double-edged sword.
5. The primary source of knowledge in Western philosophy is faith.

It’s time to read and learn!

Individualism versus Collectivism

Individualism is an orientation concerned with independence and self-reliance of the individual,

whereas collectivism is an orientation characterized by belongingness to larger groups or collectives.
Individualistic cultures put emphasis on promoting the individual and the immediate family welfare.
Collectivistic cultures, on the other hand, give more importance to loyalty to the in-group, which in turn
takes care of the individual's welfare (Hui & Triandis, 1986).

The western conception of the self is individualistic; it gives more emphasis on freedom and
choice-an independent self that is free from the influence of culture and environment and from the
expectations and welfare of society. It emphasizes the uniqueness of every individual and is predicated
on egoism or self-orientedness. It describes the self as existing and distinct from others. Individualism
foregrounds that a human being has a self, is an individual, and is a person. It gives more emphasis on
individual goals and his or her journey towards self-realization or self-actualization. The self is free to
express itself.

The eastern conception of the self is collectivistic; it gives more importance on relationships,
roles, duties, obligations, and the preservation of culture and tradition. It prioritizes the needs and goals
of society over the needs and desires of every individual. It is founded on the belief that people are
socially group and emphasizes social obligations. Individual behavior is guided by adjustments to social
demands and situations. It is others-oriented because it encourages people to be kind, benevolent,
charitable, dependable, and sensitive to the needs of others. It promotes selflessness, sacrifice for the
welfare of society, and the performance of assigned roles. Collectivism stresses that an individual has
“many selves" instead of having a one knowable self. Self is viewed as part of a "We" instead of only a
“Me."

People engendered in an individualistic culture might describe themselves in terms of

personality traits any characteristics, e.g., "I am brave, generous, loyal, and honest.”

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 Those from a collectivistic culture would more likely describe themselves in terms of social
relationships and roles, e.g., "I am a law-abiding citizen" or "I am a loyal husband."

Individualism does not promote isolation. It is grounded on the idea that an individual makes
judgments, acts based on his or her own thoughts, and disagrees with others. An individual has the
capacity to consider his or her own best interest. Each can act based on his or her own volition and
norms and can judge other people as good to form relationship or as bad to elude interaction. Everyone
is free to decide whether to take part or not in solving societal problems.

Collectivism is an idea that man should think, live, and act toward certain goals that benefit the
group. A group may be a family, clan, community, nation, or the entire human race. A group is composed
of individuals forming the so-called superorganism that is separated from other individuals. An individual
decides according to the interest of the group.

Countries with generally individualistic cultures include New Zealand, Germany, Austria,
Greece, Poland, Italy, Belgium, Ireland, Spain, and Finland. On the other hand, countries with generally
collectivistic cultures include Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Iceland, Indonesia, Philippines, Argentina,
Brazil, Mexico, and Portugal.

WESTERN CONCEPT OF SELF

Geertz (van Meijl, 2008) defines the Western concept of self as “a bounded, unique, more or
less integrated motivational and cognitive universe, a dynamic center of awareness, emotion, judgment,
and action organized into a distinctive whole and set contrastively both against other such wholes and
against its social and natural background…” This construction of an autonomous, unitary, and stable
self in the West is grounded in a contrasting assumption that non-western (such as eastern) people do
not possess an individuated self that is differentiated from the “other.” For that reason, the delusion of
the separate self is likely to be stronger in individuals raised in individualistic Western societies. It is in
this sense that the Western concept of self is holistically defined in terms of the following aspects:

1. Western Self as Analytic

The Western way of thinking is analytic-deductive with emphasis on the causal links (part-to-
whole relationships): The whole is understood when differentiated into parts. One must
categorize and make distinctions to pursue cause.

2. Western Self as Monotheistic

The belief in one Supreme Being coexisting with the universe condenses the supernatural and
human capabilities into kind/cruel, sacred/profane, strong/weak; etc.) and categories of identity
or experience (eg, God/Satan; body/soul; love) lust; sinner/saint; etc.)

3. Western Self as Individualistic

Western individualism exhibits the coexistence of favorable and unfavorable conditions inherent
in personal freedom. Although the right to individual freedom provides opportunities for self-
fulfillment, it also increases the likelihood of experiencing alienation and frustration.

4. Western Self as Materialistic and Rationalistic

The Western way of thinking is focused on material "things” and favors a rational-empirical
approach over magical and superstitious explanations of immaterial "things”.

David Ho (1995) describes the Western self as an individualistic self that is deeply aware of
itself, its uniqueness, sense of direction, purpose, and volition. The self is located at the center within
the individual through which the world is perceived. The self is also seen as “an entity distinct from other
selves and all other entities.” This implies that the self belongs to the individual and to no other. As a
consequence of this complete ownership of self, it becomes a sovereign subject possessing a sense of
personal control. If all things are well, the self achieves coherence and stability over time. In an
individualist perspective, the Western self is the measure of all things (Ho, 1995; Garcia, 2013), that is,
the source of all reflections.

Frank Johnson (1985) traces the earliest historical roots of the Western concept of the self to
works on philosophy, almost half a million years ago. By the middle and nineteenth centuries,

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psychology has provided answers to philosophical questions about the concepts of soul and mind.
Experimental psychology came into prominence during the mid-nineteenth century and put forth the
concept within the social-interactionist framework. The growth of sociology, anthropology, and
psychology in the late nineteenth century saw the emergence of various concepts of self, among them
the Western concept.

The Historical Development of the Western Concept of Self

Stage Period Historical Development

1 Pre-christian There were philosophical and theological attempts to characterize the self
times until through the concepts of soul and mind with emphasis on conscious
1850 experience of the individual, distinction between physical and mental nature
of man (mind-body dualism), and the causality of human behavior.
2 1850 – 1940 • The establishment of experimental psychology in mid-nineteenth
century led to a change in emphasis from abstract concepts of soul and
mind to observable and measurable aspects of human faculties.
• The concept of self re-emerged within the social-interactionist
framework in the early 1900s.
3 1940 - • There is multidirectional and continuous development of concept of
present self:
a. Sociological and psychological theories of self encompass all three levels
of self, namely inner self, interpersonal self, and social self.
b. Existentialists and phenomenologists, both in philosophy and
psychology, engaged in holistic approach integrating the inner,
interpersonal, and social aspects of self.
c. At present, there is convergence in some conceptualizations of the self
among psychologists, anthropologists, sociologists, philosophers, and
linguists whose studies focus on the actual, multivariate, and situational
contexts of the self employing new frameworks and methodologies.

EASTERN CONCEPT OF SELF

In the East, philosophy and religion are twisted together. Thus, the major Eastern religions such
as Hinduism, Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism are also the common representatives of Eastern
thought. These Eastern intellectual traditions differ greatly in features and approaches to various issues
about selfhood. For this reason, the Eastern thought is described as pluralistic (Garcia, 2013). Although
these four systems of Eastern thought differ in their approaches about the concept of self, they share
the same goal—to teach how to become a perfect person (Villaba, 1995).
The Self in Four Great Systems of Eastern Thought
Hinduism
The Hindu concept of self is expounded in Vedanta, a major school of Indian thought based on
Upanishads, the classical Indian philosophical treatises. It has been stated that Brahman is an absolute
reality, and Atman (soul or spirit), the true knowledge of self, is identical to Brahman. Vedanta
characterizes human suffering as the Shiva result of failure to realize the distinction between the true
self (permanent and unchanging) and the non-true self (impermanent and changes continually). The
goal of the person is to have a knowledge of the true reality-Brahman. Self-realization is being united
to all-embracing Brahman. But the realization of true selfhood will result in a complete dissolution of
individual identity (Ho, 1995).
The law of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism. All actions are subject to karma.
Individual actions will lead to either good or bad outcomes in one's life. People get exactly what they
deserve. If you do good things, you will be rewarded, if you do bad, you will be punished. Therefore,
the individual the only one responsible for the consequences of his or her actions (Garcia, 2008).
Hindus believe that Atman, being an immortal soul, continues to be reincarnated from lifetime
to lifetime until it is freed from the cycle of rebirth and reaches a state of nirvana or non-birth (Garcia
2008). Karma does not end with a body's death, so its influence may extend through incarnation of the
soul. Individuals cannot change the fact that they are exactly what they are supposed to be in life. In
the present lifetime, they can change what they will become in future lives.

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Buddhism
Siddharta Gautama, known as the Buddha, is the founder of Buddhism. The root word of
Buddhism is budh meaning awake. To be awake may imply that opening the eyes would lead to
understanding more about the self and the world. According to the teachings of Buddhism, Siddharta
Gautama every person has the seed of enlightenment, hence, the potential to be a Buddha. But the
seed should be nurtured (Mansukhani, 2013).
The Four Noble Truths are the basic principles of Buddhism: (1) life is suffering; (2) suffering
is caused by attachment to desires; (3) suffering can be eliminated; and (4) elimination of suffering is
through the practice of the Eightfold Path (right view, right aspiration, right speech, right action, right
livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration).
In Buddhist philosophy, man is just a title for the summation of the five parts (matter, sensation,
perception, mental constructs and consciousness) that compose the individual, however each of the
parts distinctly is not man (Villaba, 1995). Man has no self or no-soul). There is only nothing and all else
is an illusion. There is nothing permanent but change. The ignorance of the impermanence of everything
may lead to an illusion of selfhood. This primal ignorance is the cause of life's misery, births and rebirths.
The perfect moral-intellectual knowledge becomes powerful in the sense that it eliminates the cause of
one's misery and awakens one from the illusion of selfhood. The ideal is to experience Nirvana (literally
meaning, "blowing out," as of a lamp), a state of transcendence devoid of self-reference. This state of
transcendence can be achieved through meditation (Ho, 1995).
Confucianism
The Confucian doctrines are found in the Analects (Conversations of Confucius). The core of
Confucian thought is the Golden Rule or the principle of reciprocity: “Do not do to others what you
would not want others to do to you." Thus, the basic virtue or Confucius proper conduct is knowing how
to act in relation to others. The most important of relationships are the Five Cardinal Relationships:
between ruler and minister, between father and son, between husband and wife, between brothers, and
between friends. Hence, the self is known as a relational self. Another important feature in Confucian
thought is the individual's greatest mission of attaining self-realization wherein self-cultivation is
instrumental. Self-cultivation could be accomplished by knowing one's role in society and acting
accordingly. Moral character is perfected by continuously taking every opportunity to improve oneself
in thought and action. There will be harmonious relationships when individuals follow the rules of proper
social behavior. The individual is set to respond to what is socially required rather than to one's personal
needs and goals. Here, the self is a subdued self (Ho, 1995.)
Taoism
Taoism is a Chinese counterculture. Taoists reject the Confucian idea of a relational self. To
them, the self is an extension of the cosmos, not of social relationships. The self is described as one of
the limitless forms of the Tao (Ho, 1995). The Tao is commonly regarded as Nature that is the foundation
of all that exists (Garcia, 2008). It is not bounded by time and space. The ideal is to identify with the
Tao. The perfect man has no self. Selflessness is attained when the distinction between “I” and “other”
dissolves. Consequently, the individual may behave spontaneously, just going with the flow of the Tao.
The selfless person leads to a balanced life, in harmony with both nature and society (Ho, 1995). Taoists
believe that simplicity, spontaneity. and harmony with nature should govern one's life. Individuals must
seek to understand and act in accordance with the natural order. There should be unity and harmony
among opposing elements: the Yin and Yang (Abella, 2016). Hence, there is oneness of the Tao.

Dichotomy of Western and Eastern Conceptions of Self

An extensive literature on Eastern thoughts about the self exist. Many movements of Eastern
thoughts raise questions about the ultimate meaning of life and have developed theories of self insofar
as they have investigated what it means to be a human being. In Eastern thought, the emphasis is
relational rather than individualistic. The self is considered not in isolation but in relation to others,
society, and the universe. Eastern thoughts aim at transformations in consciousness, feelings,
emotions, and one's relation to other people and the world. The theories of Eastern philosophers
demonstrate a sociocentric view presupposing that the self exists as an entity within the concrete
situation or role occupied by the person (Robbins, 2012).
In contrast, Western thoughts tend to view the self as autonomous, unitary, and stable (van
Meijl, 2008). Nevertheless, Western thoughts about the self have been examined by renowned theorists

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like Freud, Erikson, Bandura, Rogers, Jung, James, Mead, Cooley, and others. They have conducted
scientific investigations in an effort to understand the self and have developed theories and concepts to
account for the similarities and differences among them. They emphasize the importance of scientific
methods to provide satisfactory answers to understanding the self. Eastern theories offer a variety of
techniques for cultivating a deeper understanding of the self. However, they do not utilize the scientific
techniques of investigation.
It is vitally important that both East and West appreciate each other's attempts to understand
the self. To do so can only enrich both (Engler, 2012). Thus, Quito (Garcia, 2013) seeks to place
Western and Eastern theories of the self into perspective by making some comparisons and contrasts
among them. For instance, Asian thought looks at life in the three-mode cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
On the other hand, the Western concept of life is linear as it is concerned with absolute beginnings or
endings in time and space. Asian thought does not dichotomize between one's way of thinking and
one's way of living. This implies that one's thought, action, and speech should be in harmony. Asian
thought considers intuition as a valid means to gain wisdom, it does not rely mainly on reason and logic
which are the more popular sources of knowledge in the West.
Another distinction between Eastern and Western thoughts is about nature and self. According
to Sarza (2013), one unique feature of Eastern philosophy is its great reverence for nature. It is believed
that nature promotes introspection into one's inner life and that wisdom and enlightenment can be
attained by observing nature. On the other hand, Peacock (1986) mentions that modern Western culture
tends to set the individual against nature, that is, to struggle against nature which is a dangerous enemy.
This viewpoint can be traced from Christian theologies that consider nature as fallen and evil. However,
recently there are objections to this view of nature opposing the human being. It has been argued that
the individual and nature are part of a single whole.
The application of the different perspectives and approaches contributed to improvements in the
conceptualization of self. The Western and Eastern perspectives of the self grew from a combination of
sociology, anthropology, psychology, theology, and religion. The Western and Eastern thoughts attempt
to combine the good elements of the different disciplines to totally understand the self.

Remember this!

• Western thought favors a rational-empirical approach over magical and superstitious

explanation of things, including the self.
• Ho characterizes the Western self as an individualistic self that is deeply conscious of itself
including its uniqueness, motivation, and free will.
• The law of karma is the most important doctrine of Hinduism which implies that individual
actions will lead to either good or bad outcomes in one's life.
• According to the teachings of Buddhism, every person has the seed of enlightenment, hence
potential to be a Buddha
• In Confucian thought, moral character is perfected.
• continuously taking every opportunity to improve oneself in thought and action.
• To Taoists, the self is an extension of the cosmos, not of social relationships. The self is
described as one of the limitless forms of the Tao (nature).

Let us check what you learned

Name: _____________________________________ Date: ________________

Year & Section: ______________________________ Score: _______________

Directions: The strengths and weaknesses of the Filipino character have their roots in Western and
Eastern traditions. Write an introspective essay about your character as a Filipino, using
the following guide questions:

1. What are your Western, Eastern, and Filipino characteristics that can help you succeed in life?
2. Are you happy for having this combination of traits?
3. How do you appreciate your uniqueness as a Filipino? How do you feel as a Filipino?

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