AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

TOPIC No. 1

Fuselage, Wings and Stabilizing Surfaces

Definitions, Loads Applied to Aircraft Structures
1)Tension/Tensile Load
One which tends to stretch a structural member.

Components designed to resist tensile loads are known

as ties.

2)Compression/Compressive loads
Opposite of tensile loads and tend to shorten structural
members.

Components designed to resist compressive loads are

known as struts.

3)Shear
Shear is a force which tends to slide one face of the
material over an adjacent face.

Riveted joints are designed to resist shear forces.

Combination Loadings
Bending
Bending of the structure involves the three
basic loadings:

Tension as the outer edge stretches.

Compression as the inner edge squeezes
together.
Shear across the structure as the forces try to split it.

Torsion/Twisting force
Produce tension at the outer edge

Compression in the centre

Shear across the structure.

Stress
Stress is the internal force per unit area.

Stress is defined as the force per unit of area and is

measured in units of N/mm2 or MN/m2.

Strain
Strain is defined as the deformation caused by the action of stress on a material.

It is normally given as the change in dimension expressed as a percentage of the original dimensions
of the object.

Buckling
Buckling occurs to thin sheet materials when they are
subjected to end loads and if subjected to compressive
forces.

Elasticity
Property of matter by virtue of which an object
regains its original shape and size is called
elasticity.

Elastic Limit
Maximum load a material can take and sustain it elastic property or elasticity.
If any load takes the structure beyond the elastic limit, the permanent deformation
will take place
Design Limit Load (DLL)
This is the maximum load that the designer would expect the airframe or component to experience in
service.

These values are based on ‘g’-forces and derived from failure values determined experimentally at
the design stage.

Design Ultimate Load (DUL)

The DUL is the DLL × the safety factor.
DUL=DLL × SAFETY FACTOR
The minimum safety factor specified in design requirements is 1.5.
The structure must withstand DUL without collapse.

Safety Factor
The safety factor is the ratio of the ultimate load to the limit load.
Design Philosophies
Safe Life
The safe life of an aircraft structure is defined as the minimum life during which it is known that no
catastrophic damage should occur.
Life-counts for components of assemblies may be recorded as a number of flying hours, cycles of
landing, pressurization events, accelerations or even on a calendar basis.
After the elapsed life-count or fatigue cycle (typically pressurisations or landings) has been reached,
the item is replaced or overhauled.
In the operational life of the aircraft, and to minimize the chances of failure due to fatigue, aircraft
designers apply the principle of Fail-safe construction or Damage tolerance.

Fail-safe Structure
If failure of a critical subsystem will cause severe losses, back-up systems are often employed, for
example, commercial aircraft have a minimum of two engines.
They are designed such that fully loaded airplane can take-off even if one engine fails.
If a structure element fails, the load it was carrying will be transferred to the other member.
Damage Tolerant structure

Fail-safe structures are rather heavy due to the extra structural members required to protect the
integrity of the structure.

Damage tolerant structure eliminates the extra structural members by spreading the loading of a
particular structure over a larger area.

This means that the structure is designed so that damage can be detected during the normal
inspection cycles before a failure occurs.

Fatigue
Weakness in metal or other material caused by repeated variation of stress.
Repeatedly applied and then removed a nominal load to and from a metal part(Known as cyclic load),
the part would break after a certain number of load-unload cycle, even when the maximum cyclic
stress level applied was much lower that the ultimate stress
As you reduce the magnitude of cyclic stress, the part would survive more before breaking
This behaviour became to be known as fatigue because it was originally thought the metal got tired.

Station Numbers
A method of locating components on the aircraft must be established in order that maintenance and
repairs can be carried out.
Stations: Designate location along the length of the a/c.
 Station numbers are given in inches Forwardoraft

Water Line: Vertical position from a ground line or horizontal datum.

Buttock line: Designate location left/right on the A/c.

Aircraft Structures
Fuselage
The fuselage is the main structure or body of the aircraft and carries the aircraft payload i.e. the
passengers and/or freight as well as the flight crew and cabin staff in safe, comfortable conditions.

Pressurized Aircraft
Structures must also be capable of supporting the axial and hoop stresses imposed by the
pressurization forces.
Axial Stress/Longitudinal Stress
Set up in the fuselage of aircraft when pressurized and
tend to elongate the fuselage.

Hoop Stress/Radial Stress

Hoop or radial stresses are set up in addition to axial
stress and tend to expand fuselage cross section area.

Fuselage Construction
There are three main types of construction in use:

Truss or framework type generally used for light, non-pressurized, aircraft.

Monocoque - Generally used for light aircraft

Semi-monocoque is more widely used on most other aircraft. This type of structure is now generally
referred to as Stressed Skin.

Framework

Framework consists of light gauge steel tubes welded

together to form a frame.

It is a strong, easily constructed and relatively

trouble free basic structure.

The framework is covered by a lightweight aluminium

alloy or fabric skin to give an enclosed,
aerodynamically efficient load carrying compartment.

Monocoque Construction
All the loads are taken by the skin with just light
internal frames or formers to give the required
shape.

Even slight damage to the skin can seriously

weaken the structure.
Extra strength needs to be built in around holes in the structure for windows, doors or
undercarriages as these will weaken the structure.

This type of construction is only suitable for smaller aircraft.

Semi-monocoque Construction
As aircraft became larger and the air loads greater the
pure monocoque structure was not strong enough
Additional structural members known as stringers
(stiffeners) and longerons were added to run
lengthwise along the fuselage joining the frames
together.
The light alloy skin is then attached to the frames and
stringers by riveting or adhesive bonding.
Stringers stiffen the skin and assist the sheet
materials to carry loads along their length.

Frames
Frames are vertical structures that are open in their
centre.
/They are designed to take the major loads and give the
aircraft its shape
(They are used in tail doors)

Bulkheads
The bulkheads are similar to frames but are usually solid
but may have access doors.
They are also designed to give the fuselage its shape and
take some of the main loads.
(They are used in cockpit doors)

Firewalls
There has to be means of separating the flight deck and cabin from the engine. This is called a
firewall.
The firewall is required to protect the flight crew and passengers in the event of an engine fire.

Flight Deck and Passenger Cabin Windows

Flight Deck Windows
The flight deck windows fitted to pressurized aircraft must
withstand both the loads of pressurization and impact loads
from birdstrikes.

They are constructed from toughened glass panels

attached to each side of a clear vinyl interlayer.

An electrically conducting coating, applied to the inside of

the outer glass panel is used to heat the window.

This prevents ice from forming and makes the window

more resilient and able to withstand birdstrikes.

Mainplanes (Wings)
Biplane
Braced monoplane
Cantilever monoplane

Biplane
Highly resistant to bending and
twisting.

Used on low speed A/C.

Produces More Drag.

Braced Monoplane
Also used on low speed aircraft.

Cantilever Monoplane

The mainplanes(wings) have to absorb the

stresses due to lift and drag in flight and, if of
cantilever design, their own weight when on the
ground.

This will be achieved by building the wing around one or more main load bearing members known as
spars.
These are constructed so that they will absorb the downwards bending stresses when the
aircraft is on the ground.
However when the aircraft is in flight the wing not only has to have the flexibility to bend upwards
but needs enough stiffness to resist the torsional loads which will cause twisting.

Bending stress relief mounting the engines on the wing and positioning the major fuel tanks within
the wing. During flight the fuel in the wing tanks is the last to be used.

Note: The maximum bending moment occurs at the wing root.

TORSION BOX STRUCTURE

Front spar and rear spar: (Bending

and twisting)Constructed so that they
will absorb the downward bending
stress when on the ground and the
upwards, rearwards and twisting
stress when in flight. Torsional loads.

Skin: takes the loads due to

differences in air pressures and the
mass and inertia of the fuel (if any) in
the wing tanks.

Stringers: are spanwise members

giving the wing rigidity by stiffening
the skin in compression.

Ribs: these maintain the aerofoil

shape of the wings, support the spars,
stringers and skin against buckling
and pass concentrated loads from
engines, landing gear and control
surfaces into the skin and spars.
Questions
1. What is the purpose of the wing main spar?
a. To withstand bending and torsional loads **
b. To withstand compressive and torsional loads
c. To withstand compressive and shear loads
d. To withstand bending and shear loads
2. What is the purpose of wing ribs?
a. To withstand the fatigue stresses
b. To shape the wing and support the skin **
c. To house the fuel and the landing gear
d. To provide local support for the skin
3. What is the purpose of stringers?
a. To absorb the torsional and compressive stresses
b. To produce stress risers and support the fatigue metres
c. To prevent buckling and bending by supporting and stiffening the skin **
d. To support the primary control surfaces
4. The airframe structure must remain substantially intact after experiencing:
a. the design ultimate load times a 1.5 safety factor
b. the design limit load plus the design ultimate load
c. three times the safety factor
d. the design limit load times a 1.5 factor of safety **
5. In the construction of airframes the primary purpose of frames or formers is to:
a. provide a means of attaching the stringers and skin panels
b. oppose hoop stresses and provide shape and form to the fuselage **
c. form the entrance door posts
d. support the wings
6. How can wing bending moments be reduced in flight?
a. By using aileron ‘up-float’ and keeping the centre section fuel tanks full for as long as
possible
b. By using aileron ‘up-float’ and using the fuel in the wings last **
c. By having tail-mounted engines and using aileron ‘down-float’
d. By having wing-mounted engines and using the wing fuel first
7. Regarding a safe life structure:
1. will only fail after a known number of operations or hours of use.
2. should not fail until a predicted number of fatigue cycles has been achieved.
3. has a programmed inspection cycle to detect and rectify faults.
4. is changed before its predicted life is reached.
a. 1 and 2 apply
b. 1 and 3 apply
c. 2, 3 and 4 apply **
d. all of the above apply.
8. A fail-safe structure:
1. has a programmed inspection cycle to detect and rectify faults.
2. is changed before its predicted life is reached.
3. has redundant strength which will tolerate a certain amount of structural damage.
4. is secondary structure of no structural significance.
a. 1 and 2 apply
b. 1 and 3 apply **
c. 3 and 4 apply
d. all of the above apply
9. The skin of a modern pressurized aircraft:
a. is made up of light alloy steel sheets built on the monocoque principle
b. houses the crew and the payload
 c. provides aerodynamic lift and prevents corrosion by keeping out adverse weather
d. is primary load bearing structure carrying much of the structural loads **
10. The primary purpose of the fuselage is to:
a. support the wings
b. house the crew and payload **
c. keep out adverse weather
d. provide access to the cockpit
11. Station numbers (Stn) and water lines (WL) are:
a. a means of locating airframe structure and components **
b. passenger seat locations
c. runway markings for guiding the aircraft to the terminal
d. compass alignment markings
12. Flight deck windows are constructed from:
a. an amalgam of strengthened glass and vinyl with rubber pressure seals
b. strengthened glass with shock absorbing clear vinyl interlayers and rubber pressure seals **
c. strengthened clear vinyl with an electrical conducting coat for de-icing and rubber pressure
seals
d. strengthened glass with rubber seals
13. A cantilever wing:
a. is externally braced with either struts and/or bracing wires
b. is supported at one end only with no external bracing **
c. has both an upper an lower aerofoil section
d. folds at the root section to ease storage in confined spaces
14. A torsion box:
a. is a structure within the fuselage to withstand compression, bending and twisting loads
b. is a structure formed between the wing spars, skin and ribs to resist bending and twisting
loads **
c. is a structure within the wing for housing the fuel tanks, flight controls and landing gear
d. is a structure designed to reduce the weight
15. A lightening hole in a rib:
a. prevents lightning strikes damaging the fuselage
b. provides a means of passing cables and controls through a pressure bulkhead
c. collects and disposes of electrical charges
d. lightens and stiffens the structure **
16. Control surface flutter:
a. provides additional lift for take-off and landing in the event of engine failure
b. occurs at high angles of attack
c. is a destructive vibration that must be damped out within the flight envelope**
d. is a means of predicting the critical safe life of the wing
17. Control surface flutter is minimized by:
a. reducing the moment of the critical engine
b. aerodynamic balance of the control cables
c. changing the wings before they reach their critical life
d. mass balance of the control surface **
18. A damage tolerant structure:
a. has degree of structural strength redundancy spread over a large area **
b. is light, non load bearing structure, damage to which will not adversely affect the aircraft
c. is replaced when it reaches its predicted life
d. need not be repaired until the aircraft undergoes deep maintenance
19. Aircraft structures consists mainly of:
a. light alloy steel sheets with copper rivets and titanium or steel materials at points requiring
high strength
b. magnesium alloy sheets with aluminium rivets and titanium or steel at points requiring high
strength
 c. aluminium alloy sheets and rivets with titanium or steel materials at points requiring high
strength **
d. aluminium sheets and rivets with titanium or steel materials at points requiring high
strength
20. The Maximum Zero Fuel Mass (MZFM) of an aircraft is:
a. the maximum permissible take-off mass of the aircraft
b. the maximum permissible mass of an aircraft with no usable fuel **
c. the maximum permissible mass of an aircraft with zero payload
d. the maximum permissible landing mass