Farm power and machinery Seb 2015

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

Agricultural Mechanization embraces the use of tools, implements and machines for
agricultural land development, crop production, harvesting, and preparation for storage, storage,
and on-farm processing. It includes three main power sources: human, animal, and mechanical.
The manufacture, distribution, repair, maintenance, management and utilization of agricultural
tools, implements and machines is covered under this discipline with regard as to how to supply
mechanization inputs to the farmer in an efficient and effective manner.
To mechanize there is need to take note of the following:
o There must be suitable equipment developed for timely production of goods.
o Manufacturing and availability of machine spare parts must be adequate to meet needs of
end users of such machinery.
o Maintenance of such machinery is essential for productivity and enhanced profit making.
o Effective utilization of the machinery (operators and technical staff must be available).
o Favorable condition of use such as government policy, political frame work, financial
obligation and seasoned professionals to handle vital aspect of mechanization are
essential.
Definition of terms
Machine: is the device that comprises of the stationery part and moving part combined together
to generate, transform or utilize the mechanical energy. All machines are made up of elements or
parts and units. Each element is a separate part of the machine and it may be have to be designed
separately and in assembly. Each element in turn can be a complete part or made up of several
small pieces which are joined together by riveting, welding etc.

Mechanics: is the science concerned with the motion of bodies under the action of forces,
including the special case in which the body remains constant.

Equipment: is the tangible property (other than land or buildings) that is used for different
activities like business, agriculture etc.

Tool: is the device or implement, especially one held in the hand, used to carry out a particular
function. It is piece of equipment that you use with your hands to make or repair something.

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Hand tools are devices that are primarily used in performing those jobs that does not require or
does not involve the use of a machine or a motor. These are handled and powered solely by the
person who is using these tools. One can see a large variety of hand tools, ranging from general
tools like hammers, pliers, wrenches, etc. to specific tools like calipers. Some hand tools can be
converted into power tools.
Mechanized agriculture
Mechanized agriculture: Is the process of using agricultural machinery to mechanize the work of
agriculture, greatly increasing farm worker productivity.
The effective mechanization contributes to increase production in two major ways: firstly, the
timeliness of operation and secondly the good quality of work. The requirement of power for
certain operations like seedbed preparation, cultivation and harvesting becomes so great that the
existing human and animal power in the country appears to be inadequate. As a result, the
operations are either partially done or sometimes completely neglected, resulting in low yield
due to poor growth or untimely harvesting or both.
Levels of Mechanization Technology
1. Hand tool technology is the simplest and most basic level of agricultural mechanization: the
use of tools and simple implements using human muscle as the main power source.
2. Draught animal technology refers to implements and machines utilizing animal muscle as
the main power source.
3. Mechanical power technology is the highest technology level in agricultural mechanization.
It embraces all agricultural machinery which obtains its main power from other sources other
than muscular power.
Within each of these three levels of mechanization technology, degrees of sophistication must be
distinguished. For example, a simple locally made single-axle tractor without differential gears
and gear box, a single axle tractor with gearbox and power-take-off, and a 70-kW tractor, are all
mechanical power technology, but with a large difference in sophistication and capability.
Objective of mechanization

1.To remove farm drudgery 7. Reduction of labor requirements and

enhancement of agricultural production through
2.To reduce cost of labor 8. higher rates of work output

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3.To increase income 9. Increasing the efficiency of agricultural
production and thus productivity
4.Provision of employment opportunities 10. Reducing post-harvest losses
5.Provision of good finishes for manually 11. Increasing value added to agricultural raw
unattainable farm operations materials
6.Reduction of drudgery in farm operations 12. Maintaining the integrity and quality of
farm products

Benefits of farm mechanization

It Increases efficiency and productivity  Increases the yield of land per unit
of area:
Leads to improvement in agricultural technique  It Leads to commercial agriculture
It Modifies social structure in rural areas.  It Solves the problem of labor
shortage
Introducing of commercial agriculture  It Results in better use of land

Limitation of farm mechanization

 High running costs  Degradation of landscape

 Displacement of workers  Destruction of soil structures
 Compaction of soil  Hazardous to health
 Causes of environmental pollution  Reduce social interaction associated
with farm work

CHAPTER TWO: FARM MACHINERY

Farm machinery is a mechanical devices, including tractors and implements, used in farming to

save labour. Farm machines include a great variety of devices with a wide range of complexity:
from simple hand-held implements used since prehistoric times to the complex harvesters of
modern mechanized agriculture. It means all machines and tools that are used in the production,
harvesting, and care of farm products, and includes trailers that are used to transport agricultural
produce or agricultural production materials between a local place of storage or supply and the

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farm, agricultural tractors, threshing machinery, hay-baling machinery, corn shellers,
hammermills, and machinery used in the production of horticultural, agricultural, and vegetable
products.

The operations of farming for which machines used are diverse. For crop production they include
handling of residues from previous crops; primary and secondary tillage of the
soil; fertilizer distribution and application; seeding, planting, and transplanting; cultivation; pest
control; harvesting; transportation; storage; premarketing processing; drainage; irrigation and
erosion control; and water conservation. Livestock production, which not so long ago depended
primarily on the pitchfork and scoop shovel, now uses many complicated and highly
sophisticated machines for handling water, feed, bedding, and manure, as well as for the many
special operations involved in producing milk and eggs.

In the early 19th century, animals were the chief source of power in farming. Later in the
century, steam power gained in importance. During World War I gasoline- (petrol-) powered
tractors became common, and diesel engines later became prevalent. In the developed countries,
the number of farm workers has steadily declined in the 20th century, while farm production has
increased because of the use of machinery.

MAJOR AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY

 Tractors  Combine Harvester & thresher
 Power Tillers  Implements
TRACTOR
Tractor is a self-propelled power unit having wheels or tracks for operating agricultural
implements and machines including trailers. Tractor engine is used as a prime mover for active
tools and stationary farm machinery through power take-off shaft (PTO) or belt pulley.

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SOME IMPORTANT TERMS CONNECTED WITH TRACTORS

Wheelbase: Wheel base is the horizontal distance between the front and rear wheels of a tractor,
measured at the ground contact.
Ground clearance: It is the height of the lowest point of die tractor from the ground surface, the
tractor being loaded to its maximum permissible weight.
Track: Track is the distance between the two wheels of the tractor on the same axle, measured at
the point of ground contact.
Turning space: It is the diameter of the smallest circle, described by the outermost point of the
tractor, while moving at a speed, not exceeding 2 km/hr with the steering wheels in full lock.
Cage wheel: It is a wheel or an attachment to a wheel with spaced cross bars for improving the
traction of the tractor in a wet field. It is generally used in paddy fields.
CLASSIFICATION OF TRACTORS
Tractors can be classified into three classes on the basis of structural-design:
(i) Wheel tractor: Tractors, having three or four pneumatic wheels are called wheel tractors.
Four wheel tractors are most popular everywhere.

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(ii) Crawler tractor: This is also called track type tractor or chain type tractor. In such tractors,
there is endless chain or track in place of pneumatic wheels.

(iii) Walking tractor (Power tiller): Power tiller is a walking type tractor. This tractor is usually
fitted with two wheels only. The direction of travel and its controls for field operation is
performed by the operator, walking behind the tractor.
On the basis of purpose, wheeled tractor is classified into three groups:
(a) General purpose tractor: It is used for major farm operations; such as ploughing,
harrowing, sowing, harvesting and transporting work. Such tractors have (i) low ground
clearance (ii) increased engine power (iii) good adhesion and (iv) wide tires.
(b) Row crop tractor: It is used for crop cultivation. Such tractor is provided with replaceable
driving wheels of different tread widths. It has high ground clearance to save damage of crops.
Wide wheel track can be adjusted to suit inter row distance.
(c) Special purpose tractor: It is used for definite jobs like cotton fields, marshy land, hillsides,
garden etc. Special designs are there for special purpose tractor.
Tractor Components
A tractor is made of following main components:

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(1) I. C. engine, (2) Clutch (3) Transmission gears (4) Differential unit (5) Final drive (6) Rear
wheels (7) Front wheels (8) Steering mechanism (9) Hydraulic control and hitch system (10)
Brakes (11) Power take-off unit (12) Tractor pulley and (13) Control panel.
Selection of farm tractors
To select appropriate size of farm tractors, the following must be considered.
Farm area to be cultivated Financial capability
Type of crops to grow Size of implement to be drive
Soil structure
Selection of tractor depends upon following factors:
(1) Land holding: Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to consider 1 hp
for every 1 hectares of land, in other words, one tractor of 20-25 hp is suitable for 20 hectares’
farm.
(2) Cropping pattern: Generally, less than 1.0 hectare/hp have been recommended where
adequate irrigation facilities are available and more than one crop is taken. So a 30-35 hp tractor
is suitable for 25 hectares’ farm.
(3) Soil condition: A tractor with less wheel base, higher ground clearance and low overall
weight may work successfully in lighter soil but it will not be able to give sufficient depth in
black cotton soil.
(4) Climatic condition: For very hot zone and desert area, air cooled engines are preferred over
water-cooled engines. Similarly, for higher altitude, air cooled engines are preferred because
water is liable to be frozen at higher altitude.
(5) Repairing facilities: It should be ensured that the tractor to be purchased has a dealer at
nearby place with all the technical skills for repair and maintenance of machine.
(6) Running cost: Tractors with less specific fuel consumption should be preferred over others
so that running cost may be less.
(7) Initial cost and resale value: While keeping the resale value in mind, the initial cost should
not be very high; otherwise higher amount of interest will have to be paid.
(8) Test report: Test report of tractors released from farm machinery testing stations should be
consulted for guidance.
1.1 Types of implement

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Implements are agricultural equipment’s that are attached or connected on the agricultural
machineries in accordance with their specific performance. E.g. Plough, harrow, planter,
furrower etc.
Implements are grouped into two: -
1. Mounted implements 2. Trailed implements
1. Mounted implements: are implements that can be held by the machinery with three point
linkage attachment. They can be hanged up by the machineries and do not have wheels.

2. Trailed implements: are implements that are not mounted in three- point linkage but are
pulled by the machineries with the help of the draw bar and wheeled by the wheels and
bearing of the rotary parts. They cannot be hanged up because they have only two point
linkage. The draw bar linkage point and the side bar linkage point. The draw bar linkage is
used to trail or pull the implements and the side bar linkage is used to prevent side way tilting
of the implement.

Different implements are used for different duties. Most of the time trailed implements are used
for land preparation duties, and mounted implements are used for cultivation duties.
Sources of Farm Power:
A farm power for various agricultural operations can be broadly classified as:

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(1) Tractive work such as seed bed preparation, cultivation, harvesting and transportation, and
(2) Stationary work like silage cutting, feed grinding, threshing, winnowing and lifting of
irrigation water. The common sources of farm power are: Human, mechanical, wind, solar,
electrical, animal, water, fuel and biogas. Meaning of farm power: This refers to the sources of
power used in doing farm work. Power refers to energy or force that can be used to do work. It
is measured in watts (w) and kilowatts (kW).
Human Power: This is derived from the power provided by human being. It is the most
common source of power in farm operations and all other farm operations require man as source
of energy. Human labour used as power in the farm may be skilled or unskilled and is commonly
used with traditional tools which involve more people than all other source of power.
Farm Operations Which Requires Human Power

1. Land clearing 2. Land preparation e.g. Ploughing, harrowing and riding.

3. Planting 4. Weeding
5. Harvesting 6. Storage
7. Food processing

Advantages Disadvantages
It is used to operate other sources of He or she is easily fatigued
farm power
It is the most intelligent source of It cannot perform tedious farm operations like land
power preparation, ridging, weeding, harvesting and
processing of product without been exhausted
It is required in all farm operations Output is very low as it can only work for few hours
It is easily controlled Poor state of health of individual may affect his
performance
It brings about the least damage to Man’s energy decreases with time.
crops.

Mechanical Power: This is derived from machine and engines such as planters, plough,

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harrows, ridgers and harvester etc. Mechanical power is the bedrock of mechanized agriculture
by which large hectares of land are cultivated within a given time.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. The use of machine makes operation 1. It can lead to displacement of labour, thereby
in the farm timely creating unemployment
2. It works faster and more efficient. 2. Machines are costly to purchase and requires
high cost of maintenance
3. It is not prone to disease 3. It requires skill to operate
4. Machines can be designed for use 4. Breakdown of machine can hold up farm work
under all types of conditions for sometime
5. It does not get fatigue. 5. It cannot be used by small scale farmer.

Animal Power:
Animal are still widely used as the major source in many countries. Land preparation, weed
management, crop threshing and transport are undertaken using animal power.
Oxen caribou and buffalo are the most popular animal power source for agricultural
practices although horses, donkeys, mules are used in many countries for transportation.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Cheap to maintain 1. Animals have limited daily working hours
2. Multipurpose use for meat and milk 2. Slow
3. Self-replacement 3. High man/ power ratio
4. Manure production 4. Limited range of working conditions
5. Animal require training.
Solar Power: This is farm power with the sun as source of energy
Electrical Power: Now-a-days electricity has become a very important source of power on
farms in various states of the country. It is steadily becoming more and more available with the
increase of various river valley projects and thermal stations.
Wind Power: is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, such as using wind
turbines to make electricity, winds mills for mechanical power, wind pumps for pumping water
or drainage, or sails to propel ships.
The windmill is a device for changing the kinetic energy of the wind into the kinetic energy of a

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rotating shaft. When wind blows against the blades, they rotate to turn the windmill shaft which
now possesses the mechanical power or energy and can be employed in farm operations. The
mill propeller is made up of two or three flat metal blades arranged on the tip of the shaft and the
rotating shaft can be connected to a water pump for pumping water for domestic and irrigation
purposes and can also be connected to a generator for the production of electricity.

Advantages Disadvantages
1. It is available everywhere 1. It is difficult to control
2. It is a cheap source of farm power 2. It cannot be stored
3. It is essential for drying of farm 3. Supply is erratic, and uncertain since
produce power depend on the wind
4. Used in winnowing that is separating 4. It is limited to certain farm operations
chaff grains
5. It can be used for propelling ships 5. Efficiency is highly variable

CHAPTER THREE: TRANSMISSION OF POWER

Mechanical Power Transmission Devices

Transmission is a speed reducing mechanism, equipped with several gears. It may be called a
sequence of gears and shafts, through which the engine power is transmitted to the tractor
wheels. The system consists of various devices that cause forward and backward movement of
tractor to suit different field condition. The complete path of power from the engine to the

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wheels is called power train.
The power is transmitted from one shaft to the other by means of belts, chains and gears. The
belts and ropes are flexible members which are used where distance between the two shafts is
large. The chains also have flexibility but they are preferred for intermediate distances. The gears
are used when the shafts are very close with each other. This type of drive is also called positive
drive because there is no slip. If the distance is slightly larger, chain drive can be used for
making it a positive drive. Belts and ropes transmit power due to the friction between the belt or
rope and the pulley.
The power transmission system consists of:
(a) Clutch (b) Transmission gears(c) Differential (d) Final drive (e) Rear axle (f) Rear wheels
(g) chain (I) rope (J) belt
Combination of all these components is responsible for transmission of power
A) Clutch is a device, used to connect and disconnect the tractor engine from the transmission
gears and drive wheels. Clutch transmits power by means of friction between driving
members and driven members.
B) Transmission Gears: Gears are usually made of alloy steel. A tractor engine runs at high
speed, but the rear wheel of the tractor requires power at low speed and high torque.

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A gear train is combination of gears that is used for transmitting motion from one shaft to
another. There are several types of gear trains.

C) Differential Unit
Differential unit is a special arrangement of gears to permit one of the rear wheels of the tractor
to rotate slower or faster than the other. While turning the tractor on a curved path, the inner
wheel has to travel lesser the tractor to move faster than the other at the turning point.
D) Final drive: Final drive is a gear reduction unit in the power trains between the differential
and the drive wheels. Final drive transmits the power finally to the rear axle and the wheels.
E) BRAKE
Brake is used to stop or slow down the motion of a tractor. It is mounted on the driving axle and
operated by two independent pedals. Each pedal can be operated independently to assistthe
turning of tractor during the fieldwork or locked together by means of a lock.
F) Hydraulic Control System
It is a mechanism in a tractor to raise, hold or lower the mounted or semi-mounted equipment’s
by hydraulic means.
G) Tractor Hitch
Implements are needed to be hitched properly for efficient and safe operation of the tractor.
Implements can be;
(i) Trailed (ii) Semi mounted and (iii) Mounted.
Implements can be hitched in two ways: (a) Drawbar hitch and (b) Three point linkage.
Drawbar hitch: Drawbar is a device by which the pulling power of the tractor is transmitted to
the trailing implements. It consists of a crossbar with suitable holes, attached to the lower hitch
links. It is fitted at the rear part of the tractor.

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Three point linkage: It is a combination of three links, one is upper link and two are lower links,
the links articulated to the tractor and the implements at their ends in order to connect the
implement to the tractor.
H) Power Take-Off Unit (PTO)
It is a part of tractor transmission system. It consists of a shaft, a shield and a cover. The shaft is
externally splined to transmit torsional power to another machine. A rigid guard fitted on a
tractor covers the power take-off shaft as a safety device. This guard is called power take-off
shield. Agricultural machines are coupled with this shaft at the rear part of the tractor.
I) Belt Pulley
All tractors are provided with a belt pulley. The function of the pulley is to transmit power from
the tractor to stationary machines by means of a belt. It is used to operate thresher, centrifugal
pumps, silage cutter and several other machines. The pulley is located either on the left, right or
rear side of the tractor.
The following types of belts are most commonly used

The flat belt is rectangular. The pulley for this belt is slightly crowned to prevent slip of the belt
to one side. It utilizes the friction between the flat surface of the belt and pulley.
The V-belt is trapezoidal. It utilizes the force of friction between the inclined sides of the belt
and pulley. They are preferred when distance is comparative shorter. Several V-belts can also be
used together if power transmitted is more.
The circular belt or rope is circular. Several ropes also can be used together to transmit more
power.
The belt drives are of the following types:
(a) Open belt drive, and

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(b) Cross belt drive.
Open Belt Drive
Open belt drive is used when sense of rotation of both the pulleys is same. It is desirable to keep
the tight side of the belt on the lower side and slack side at the top to increase the angle of
contact on the pulleys

Cross Belt Drive

In case of cross belt drive, the pulleys rotate in the opposite direction. The angle of contact of
belt on both the pulleys is equal. As shown in the figure, the belt has to bend in two different
planes.
As a result of this, belt wears very fast and therefore, this type of drive is not preferred for power
transmission. This can be used for transmission of speed at low power.

J) Chain
Like belts, chains can be used for larger center distances. They are made of metal and due to this

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chain is heavier than the belt but they are flexible like belts. It also requires lubrication from
time to time. The lubricant prevents chain from rusting and reduces wear.

Lubricating system

The lubrication circuit of an overhead-camshaft engine is shown in Figure as a block diagram. In

both diagrams, oil is delivered to the various parts of the engine by the oil pump and, after
performing its function, returns to the oil pan.

Oil circulates through the system as follows:

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Oil pump: - the pump is driven by the engine and takes oil from the oil pan through the strainer
and suction pipe. The strainer is provided to prevent any foreign matter from reaching the pump.
Oil leaving the pump is directed to the filter.

Regulator valve: -

The regulator valve regulates pressure in the system. As the engine speed increases, pump
output increases and this must be controlled to prevent excessive pressure in the system. When
the specified pressure for the engine is reached, the regulator valve opens to regulate the
pressure.

Main oil gallery: - the main oil gallery is a passage that runs the full length of the crankcase. A
number of drillings and passages from the gallery service to other parts of the lubrication system.

CHAPTER FOUR: TILLAGE

Tillage: It is a mechanical manipulation of soil to provide favorable condition for crop

production. Soil tillage consists of breaking the compact surface of earth to a certain depth and to
loosen the soil mass, so as to enable the roots of the crops to penetrate and spread into the soil.
2.1. Objectives of Tillage

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 To prepare a desirable soil structure for a deep seed bed or a root bed suitable for different
types of crops. (A granular structure is desirable to allow rapid infiltration and good retention
of rainfall, to provide adequate air capacity and exchange with in the soil and to minimize
resistance to root penetration. A good seed beds generally considered to imply finer particles
and greater firmness in the vicinity of the seed)
 Improve physical condition of soil
o For aeration
o For moisture control
 To increase water-absorbing capacity of the soil.
 To destroy the insects, pests and their breeding places and
 To control weeds or to remove unwanted crop plants (thinning)
 To manage plant residues. (Mixing of trash is desirable from the tilt and decomposition stand
points and retention of trash in the top layers reduce erosion)
 To minimize soil erosion. (By following counter tillage, listing and proper placement of
trash).
 To establish specific surface configurations for planting, irrigating, drainage, harvesting
operations etc.
 To incorporate and mix fertilizers, pesticides, soil amendments etc. in to the soil
Tillage Systems
Tillage system consists of sequences of operations that manipulate the soil in order to produce a
crop. The operations include tilling, planting, fertilization, pesticide application, harvesting, and
residue chopping or shredding. The ways in which these operations are implemented affect the
physical and chemical properties of the soil, which in turn affect plant growth.
There are two types of tillage systems namely a) conservation tillage system including no-till,
ridge till and mulch till systems and b) other than conservation tillage systems namely a) reduced
tillage system and b) conventional tillage system
Conservation tillage (30 percent or more crop residue left after planting)
Any tillage and planting system that covers 30 percent or more of the soil surface with crop
residue, after planting, to reduce soil erosion by water.

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Conversion tillage systems are further classified as a) no-till, b) ridge-till, and c) mulch-till
systems.
1. No- till: No-till is defined as a system in which the soil is left undisturbed from harvest to
planting except for nutrient injection. Planting or drilling is accomplished in a narrow
seedbed or slot created by coulters, row cleaners, disk openers, in-row chisels. Weed
control is accomplished primarily with herbicides. Cultivation may be used for
emergency weed control.
2. Minimum Tillage - It is the minimum soil manipulation necessary to meet tillage
requirements for crop production.
3. Strip Tillage - It is a tillage system in which only isolated bands of soil are tilled.
4. Rotary Tillage -It is the tillage operations employing rotary action to cut, break and mix
the soil.
5. Ridge-till: In ridge-till, the soil is also left undisturbed from harvest to planting except
for nutrient injection. Planting is completed in a seedbed prepared on ridges with sweeps,
disk openers, coulters, or row cleaners. Residue is left on the surface between ridges.
Weed control is accomplished with herbicides and/or cultivation. Ridges are rebuilt
during cultivation.
6. Mulch-till: The soil is disturbed before planting. Tillage tools such as chisels, field
cultivators, disks, sweeps or blades are used. Weed control is accomplished with
herbicides and/or cultivation. Mulch-till is a category that includes all conservation tillage
practices other than no-till and ridge-till. Two tillage practices that fall into this category
are zone-till and strip-till. Both of these tillage practices involve tilling a strip into which
seed and fertilizer are placed
7. Combined Tillage -Operations simultaneously utilizing two or more different types of
tillage tools or implements to simplify, control or reduce the number of operations over a
field are called combined tillage.

Other tillage systems (less than 30 percent crop residue left after planting)
Tillage systems that leave less than 30 percent crop residue after planting are not classified as
conservation tillage. However, these systems may meet erosion control goals with or without
other supporting conservation practices, such as strip cropping, contouring, terracing, etc.

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1) Reduced-till: Reduced-till systems leave 15-30 percent residue cover after planting.
2) Conventional-till: Conventional-till systems leave less than 15 percent residue cover after
planting. These systems generally involve plowing or some other form of intensive tillage.
2.2. Classification of Tillage Implements
Tillage is classified as primary and secondary tillage. The initial breaking up of the soil is
generally called primary tillage and subsequent operations carried out to break down the clods
and prepare the seed bed for planting is called secondary tillage.
The objectives of primary tillage are
a. To reduce soil strength c. To cover plant materials and burry weeds
b. To rearrange aggregates d. To kill insects and pests
Primary Tillage Implements

The implements used for primary tillage are called as primary tillage implements.
They include many animals drawn and tractor drawn implements. Animal drawn implements
mostly include indigenous ploughs and mould-board ploughs. Tractor drawn implements include
mould-board ploughs, disc ploughs, heavy duty disk harrows, subsoil ploughs, chisel ploughs
and other similar implements.
Mould Board Plough
This is one of the oldest of all agricultural implements and is generally considered to be the most
important tillage implement. Mould board ploughs are primarily intended for use in situation
where they are desired to invert the soil in order to bury crop residues.

A mould board plough consists of the following parts:

a. Share: The share is the first part of plough to enter the soil and cut a furrow slice. As
share is subjected to the wear, it is detachable and thus replaceable.
b. Mould board: It receives the furrow slice from the share and turns it. The mould board
is the most important part of the plow; because it is up on the mould board that the furrow
slice is broken, crushed and pulverized.
c. Land side: The land side assists in making a neat furrow. It presses against the furrow
wall, absorbing the sideways thrust of the plough.
d. Frog: Is the component that joins the share, the mould board and land side.

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e. Beam: provides the connection between the plough and the source of power (tractor or
animal)
f. Handle: are provided mostly on animal drawn ploughs for guidance by the operator.

Disc Plough
The disc plough was brought out in an effort to reduce friction by making a rolling bottom
instead of a bottom that would slide along a furrow.

The result of disc plough usage; however, show that it is adapted to conditions where the mould
board will not work such as the following: -

 Sticky, waxy, non-scouring soils and soils having hard pan

 Dry, hard ground that cannot be penetrated by mold board ploughs
 Rough, strong and Rooty ground,
 Deep ploughing

Disadvantages of disc plough

 It is not suitable for covering surface trash and weeds as effectively as moldboard plough
does.
 Comparatively, the disc plough leaves the soil in rough and cloddier condition than that of
mouldboard plough.
 Disc plough is much heavier than moldboard plough for equal capacities because
penetration of this plough is affected largely by its weight rather than suction. There is one
significant difference between moldboard plough and disc plough i.e. moldboard plough is
forced into the ground by the suction of the plough, while the disc plough is forced into the
ground by its own weight.

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disc plough attachments

Disc Scrapper
 Many disc ploughs are equipped with scrappers which give a good turning effect and
cover the trash in more satisfactorily manner.
 They also keep disc blades clean from sticky soils, and provide greater pulverization of
the furrow slice, also enable the plough to invert the slice and cover trash much better.
B. Weights

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 In tough, hard soil condition where penetration is difficult, weights are bolted to the rear
wheel or on the frame.
 Extra weights are also used to keep plough operation more stable.

Adjustment of disc plow

Various adjustments on the disc plough are aimed at controlling the depth and width of
ploughing to increase the pulverization.
 These objectives can be achieved as follows:
1. By decreasing the tilt angle, penetration is improved
2. By increasing the disc angle, width of cut is improved
3. By adding weight to the plow penetration can be increased
4. The disc plough should be well polished and sharp

Cutting angle adjustment

 In disc plow there are two types of adjustable cutting angles; horizontal disc angle
and the vertical tilt angle.
Disc and tilt angles

HORIZONTAL DISC ANGLE (HDA)

 It is the angle b/n the face of the blade and the direction of travel on the horizontal
plane.
 It affects the width of cut, and the larger the disc angle or more width of cut
requires more pull force.
 Increasing HDA –increases the width of cut
 Decreasing HDA – decreases width of cut
o o
 The usual disc angle is from 42 to 46

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Vertical Tilt Angle (VTA )-(tilt angle) ß
 It is the amount where disc is inclined or tilted from the vertical position.
 It is an important factor in adjusting the penetration of the disc in the soil.
 The vertical adjustment permit changes to meet various soil conditions.
 In hard, dry soils the discs work best in a vertical position, of course with a plenty
of weight in it.
VTA (ß) -improves depth of penetration
Increasing the VTA – decreases depth of penetration
Decreasing VTA – increases depth of penetration
The range of tilt is from 15o to25o .

Sub soiler
There are three layers of soil; top soil, hard pan and sub soil. Ploughs tillers and harrows work on
the top soil. Chisels usually work on hard pan and the sub soiler work in deeper soil.
Generally, the sub soiler plow is a heavy duty tool designed to operate below the normal depth of
tillage and to loosen the soil by lifting. Subsoiler operate in depth of 20-36in.Sub soiling is done
to improve water infiltration, drainage and root penetration by breaking up the impervious layer
below the normal tillage depth.

Free movement of air and good drainage are necessary for good crop yield. The constant
compacting by heavy tractors and implements tend to make the soil impervious to water, so sub
soiler are used to open such compacted soil for increasing yields.
SUBSOILER PARTS

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Frame(beam)

Standard
(Shank)
Point Foot

 Beam

- supports the standard

 Standard(shank)

- It can be vertical, slanted or curved towards the front.

-the top of the standard may be fastened to the beam.

- The standard on sub soiling ploughs are usually long and narrow with a heavy wedge
like point.
 Foot

- The foot is the projection of the lower end of the standard to which the point is bolted.
 Point

- It is the cutting portion of the subsoiler.

- It raises some of the hard soil, causing the soil above to break up.
Chisel Plough
Heavy duties implement like that of sub soilers which is used for heavy cultivation operation.

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Mostly used to up turn a furrow slice so that the underside of the furrow could be exposed to
atmosphere.

Secondary Tillage Implements

The term secondary tillage as used in this discussion mean stirring the soil at comparatively
shallow depths. In many cases it follows the deeper primary tillage operation.
It is possible to use some of the primary tillage implements to do secondary tillage operation.
The general objectives of secondary tillage are: -
1) To improve the seedbed by greater pulverization of the soil
2) To cut up crop residues and cover crops and mix vegetable matter with the top soil
3) To break up clods, firm the top soil; and put it in better till for seeding and germination
of seed
4) To destroy weeds on fallow lands
Some of secondary tillage implements include:
Disc harrow Cultivators
Spring tooth harrow Spike tooth harrow
Ridgeretc.
Disc harrow
It is a harrow, which performs the harrowing operation by means of a set, or a number of sets of
rotating slat discs, each set being mounted on a common shaft. Disc harrow is found very
suitable for hard ground, full of stalks and grasses. It cuts the lumps of soil, clods and roots.
Discs are mounted on one, two or more axles which may be set at a variable angle to the line of
motion. As the harrow is pulled ahead, the discs rotate on the ground.

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Depending upon the disc arrangements, disc harrows are divided into two classes a) Single
action and b) Double action.
1. Single action disc harrow
It is a harrow with two gangs placed end to end, which throw the soil in opposite directions. The
discs are arranged in such a way that right side gang throws the soil towards right, and left side
gang throws the soil towards left
2. Double action disc harrow
A disc harrow consisting of two or more gangs, in which a set of one or two gangs follow behind
the set of the other one or two, arranged in such a way that the front and back gangs throw the
soil in opposite directions.

Spike tooth harrow

It is a harrow with peg shaped teeth of diamond cross section to a rectangular frame.
It is used to break the clod, stir the soil, uproot the weeds, level the ground, break the soil and
cover the seeds. Its principle is to smoothen and level the soil directly after ploughing. Spike
tooth harrows may be of rigid type and flexible type.

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Spring tooth harrow

It is a harrow with tough flexible teeth, suitable to work in hard and stony soils. Spring tooth
harrow is fitted with springs having loops of elliptical shape. It gives a spring action in working
condition.

Triangular harrow
It is a spike tooth harrow with triangular frame. The frame is made of wood and pointed spikes
are fitted in the frame. The teeth of the spikes are fixed and not adjustable.

Cultivators stir and pulverize the soil, either before planting (to aerate the soil and prepare a
smooth, loose seedbed) or after the crop has begun growing (to kill weeds—controlled
disturbance of the topsoil close to the crop plants kills the surrounding weeds by uprooting them)

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The following are a few important functions performed by a cultivator.

1. Intercultural the fields.
2. Destroy the weeds in the field.
3. Aerate the soil for proper growth of crops.
4. Conserve moisture by preparing mulch on the surface.
5. To sow seeds when it is provided with sowing attachments.
6. To prevent surface evaporation and encourage rapid infiltration of rain water into the soil.
2.5. Methods of ploughing
Before starting the operation, it is necessary to be familiar with the qualities of good ploughing
 Perfectly straight furrow from end to end
 Thoroughly pulverized soil from top to bottom
 Back furrows must be slightly raised
 Dead furrows should be as less as possible
 Furrows must be uniform with one another
 Tillage pattern reduces the time spent in non-productive work.
 Minimize the number of turns and maximize the length of the tillage runs.
Before starting ploughing marking out is done marking with shallow furrow limits head land
and side land and where the ridge to be. Finishing is the final run made by the tractor which
forms open furrow and close up of the work. Finishing could be at the center or the side land,
depending on the method of plough. There are several patterns that can be used when tilling a
field.

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There are several patterns that can be used when tilling a field. These are:
A. circuitous pattern
B. headland pattern

CHAPTER FIVE: PLANTING EQUIPMENT

After soil tillage is accomplished and the soil is prepared to form a good seed bed, sowing or
planting will be followed. Sowing is performed either in broad cast or rows allows uniform
spacing between plants or rows & required depth of plowing.

Seeding or sowing is an art of placing seeds in the soil to have good germination in the field. A
perfect seeding gives
a. Correct amount of seed per unit area.
b. Correct depth at which seed is placed in the soil.
c. Correct spacing between row-to-row and plant-to-plant.

There are various types of sowing implements, designed and developed for use in the field that
would be attached to animal or tractor

Seed drill
Seed drill is an implement used for sowing seed & fertilizers in rows by mechanical means. It
only keeps spacing between rows but not between plants along the row.
Purpose of seed drill
 Minimize time required for sowing
 To sow the seed in row so that inter cultivation operation can be easily can be done by
machinery.
 Increase the yield
 Seeds are metered automatically and accurately
 It meters the seed and drop uniformly at a desired depth without injury.
 It covers the seed and compact the soil around them.
Classification of Seed Drill
a). depending upon the seed metering device b). depending up on usage
 Manually metered Plain seed drill- used drilling the seed

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only
 Mechanically metered Seed and fertilizer drill- used for drilling
 Pneumatically metered seed & dropping fertilizer

c). based on power source d). based on hitching

 Animal drawn seed drill  Mounted type seed drill
 Tractor drawn seed drill  Trailer type seed drill
 Self-propelled seed drill  Semi - mounted type seed drill
Components or Parts of Seed Drill

Seed drill has the following parts:

1. Seed box(hopper):

Seed and fertilizer boxes are mostly made from metal sheet or fiber glasses. It should be made
from corrosion free material having narrow sloping bottom, so that the grain drop from the
bottom easily due to its weight. It may have rectangular, trapezoidal or oval shape.

1. Seed metering devices:

The system helps to control placement of the seed at a given rate. There are several types
of metering mechanism but the most commonly used are:

I. fluted –feed wheel system

II. Fluted-feed roller system
It consists of the fluted roller and the seed cut off, both are mounted on the shaft which run
below and the length of the seed box. When the fluted roller rotates, the seed falls in to the roller
groove by gravity and discharged to the furrow opener. The amount of seed to be sown is
regulated by exposing more or less of the fluted roller in the opening of the seed box.

 When more of the fluted roller is exposed to the opening of the seed box, the seed rate
will be greater and vice versa

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
2. Furrow opener: is a part which used to open the soil for the seed to be placed at the
desired depth.
3. Covering devices: is a part of seed drill which covers the seed in to the soil. This may
reduce the loss of seed & increases the probability of the seed to be germinated.
4. Seed tube: the metered seed is dropped in to the seed tube and pass to the furrow through
furrow opener.
Adjustment on the seed drill

Some of the adjustments to be made on seed drill are

a. Row to row spacing: is done by side way adjustment of furrow opener.
b. Depth of sowing: is achieved by adjusting the depth of furrow opener.
c. Quantity of seed to be sown: controlled by setting the appropriate hole
size.
2.3. Planter

Planters can do more accurate and careful job with large seed than small seed. Planters are used
for row drilling or check row planting of larger seeds. Rows are far apart which allow easy
intercropping.

Components of planter

Hopper: is a container made of steel in a round tapered or trapezoidal shape in which the seed is
kept.

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Metering devices: is consists of rotating plate at the bottom of seed hoppers. The plate has
suitable notch or holes called cell.

Seed delivery mechanism: the seed plate rotate through suitable set of gear and chain derive
through land wheel. The seed plate being run under the hopper, receives the seeds in its cell.
After receiving the seed, the plate moves under cutoff. The function of cutoff & the knock out
plate in the planter is to limit the seed to correct number & reject it from the cell in to the seed
tube.

Furrow opener: it opens furrow like trenches in the soil for receiving the seed as they are drop.

Furrow covering devices: pressing wheel is the most common furrow covering devices for
planter with covering blades, tins, or discs.

Seed tubes: is a part which receives the seed which has been metered by metering unit and
conveyed to furrow openers.

Adjustment of planter

The adjustment that should be done on planter is

A. row spacing: this can be controlled by adjusting the distance between furrow openers.

B. depth of seed placement: is controlled by adjusting the penetration depth of furrow openers.

Function of seed planter: Seed planter performs the following functions

i) To carry the seeds.
ii) To open furrow to an uniform depth
iii) To meter the seeds
iv) To place the seed in furrows in an acceptable pattern
v) To cover the seeds and compact the soil around the seed.

Difference between seed drill and seed planter

Seed planter meters from seed to seed as well as row to row distance but seed drill meters only
row to tow distance. Seed planter is mainly used for large sized seeds whereas seed drill is used
for smaller seeds.

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Method of Planting

(i) Broadcasting
Broadcasting is the process of random scattering of seed on the surface of seedbeds. It can be
done manually or mechanically both. When broadcasting is done manually, uniformity of seed
depends upon skill of the man. Soon after broadcasting the seeds are covered by planking or
some other devices. Usually higher seed rate is obtained in this system. Mechanical broadcasters
are used for large-scale work. This machine scatters the seeds on the surface of the seedbed at
controlled rates.

(ii) Dibbling
Dibbling is the process of placing and seeds in holes made in seedbed and covering them. In this
method, seeds are placed in holes make at definite depth at fixed spacing. The equipment used
for dibbling is called dibbler. It is a conical instrument used to make proper holes in the field.
(iii) Drilling
Drilling consists of dropping the seeds in furrow lines in a continuous flow and covering them
with soil. Seed metering may be done either manually or mechanically. The number of rows
planted may be one or more. This method is very helpful in achieving proper depth, proper
spacing and proper amount of seed to be sown in the field.

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(iv). Precision drill planting

The pattern resulting from the accurate placement (and subsequent covering) of single seeds in
furrows at about equal intervals to give definite rows of almost equally spaced single plants.

Calibration
Calibration of an instrument is the process of determining its accuracy. The process involves
obtaining a reading from the instrument and measuring its variation from the reading obtained
from a standard instrument. Calibration of an instrument also involves adjusting its precision and
accuracy so that its readings come in accordance with the established standard.

Calibration of equipment needs to be carried out on a regular basis. This is because instruments
tend to deviate owing to hard operating conditions, mechanical shocks or exposure to extreme
temperature or pressure. Frequency of calibration would depend on the tolerance level. When the
objective of the measurement is critical calibration would need to be carried out more frequently
and with great accuracy. To assure accuracy in instrument calibration, it is vital to ensure that

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each component of the measuring instrument is conforming to its specified standard. Regular
equipment calibration carried out in a set format helps you obtain valid data and operate in a safe
working environment.
Calibration is a procedure for checking the rate of planting or applying various materials before
going to the field. The operator’s manual serves as a guide to setting the row-crop planter to
plant the desired rate of seeds per hectare or to apply the recommended rate of chemicals
(herbicide, insecticide, and fertilizer).
Procedure for calibration 
1. jack up the planter- prepare to do mechanical work.
2. measure diameter of drive wheel and calculate its circumference C=пd
3. calculate the width of planter W= no of furrow opener* spacing between two furrow
openers
4. calculate length of travel (L) necessary to cover 0.1 ha A=L*W, L=A/W
5. calculate the number of revolution (N) needed to cover length L, N=L/пd , N=L/C
6. put seeds in hopper & rotate the wheel N times, collect the total seed dropped
7. multiply the amount of seed collected in step 6 by 10 to get for 1ha
8. compare the seed required with the seed amount planted on the field.
 Seed rate can be checked in two methods:
1. Plant population per area (count the no. Of seeds per area)
2. Seed weight per area. (Weight the amount of seed per area).
Calibration on number bases
1. No of seed per area is given
spacing between seed = 0.7m
spacing between row = 0.8m
Calculate number of seed required per ha?
    A= 0.7X0.8=0.56m2
0.7     1seed = 0.56m2
0.8 x = 10,000m2
x= 17857seeds/ha

so, a planter is calibrated to plant approximately 17857seeds per hector.

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CHAPTER 6: FERTILIZER AND CHEMICAL APPLICATORS

Plants also have three main "food groups", or rather "macro nutrients", the three elements that
make up the bulk of a fertilizer: NPK. Plants need a lot of that stuff. NPK needs to be available
to the plant in the right ratio, just like we need a good balance of carbohydrates, protein and fats.
The type of equipment you use to apply fertilizer depends on a lot of things-the plant, how it’s
planted, the weather-not to mention the type of fertilizer.
Fertilizer application equipment can apply chemicals in dry or liquid form. The appropriate
equipment places the material at the desired rate in the desired location. In barefoot nurseries,
fertilizer is usually applied dry in granulated pellets or coated form. In container production,
nutrients may be applied in granular slow-release form or, more commonly, injected directly into
the irrigation water supply, otherwise known as fertigation. Fertilizers are applied to the soil to
increase the available supply of plant nutrients (principally nitrogen, phosphorous, and
potassium) and thus promote greater yields or better crop quality. 
Fertilizers can be applied to the soil in several forms, such as:
 Granular or pellets of fertilizers of various formula
 Fertilizers in the form of liquid and gaseous form
Organic fertilizers -include farmyard manures, which are applied in large quantities. Organic
fertilizers include naturally occurring organic materials, (e.g. manure, worm castings, compost
and so on.)
Inorganic fertilizers -inorganic fertilizers composed of synthetic chemicals and minerals which
produces ammonia as the end product. Inorganic or commercial fertilizers include urea, DAP
and supper phosphates, which are applied in smaller predetermined quantities relative to the
organic ones. The fertilizer equipment needed will, therefore, be selected depending on the type
of fertilizer and the form of application.
All types of fertilizer equipment have: Storage unit, metering mechanism, Carrying frame.
1. Granular Fertilizer Applicators: -Dry, granular fertilizers have for many years been the
most common types of fertilizers used by farmers. Their applicators can be designed as
attachments with planters so as to permit dual operations in connection.  Some of the application
methods for granular fertilizers are: Broadcasting before plowing, Deep placement with chisel-
type cultivator, Broadcasted after plowing and before planting, Applied during the planting

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operation, Side-dressing applications on growing row crops or broadcasted top-dressing on
solid-planted crops, Drilled into established pastures and other sods with special equipment.

2.Liquid fertilizer applicators: - When nitrogen, phosphorus, and potash are applied as a
complete fertilizer, the combination is near chemical neutrality and is termed a non pressure
liquid fertilizer, It can be sprayed out by: gravity flow, pump, or air pressure. It can be sprayed
either with ground equipment or by aircraft. Non-pressure liquid fertilizer attachments are
available for many planters, usually with one fiberglass tank provided for each two rows.  And
Furrow openers and band locations are the same as for dry fertilizers, except that the openers
have small tubes which discharge the liquid close to the furrow bottom.

Flow rate per area will vary appreciably with: pressure or head change, nozzle diameter, Forward
speed of tractor
Application equipment for dry chemicals
Drop-type fertilizer distributor
Tractor-mounted and trailer machines are available; hand-pushed distributors generally are used
for small beds. Dry fertilizer is loaded into a hopper, which has a V-bottom with agitator and
adjustable gates that control the rate of flow through the holes. Hopper widths are available from
2 to 12 feet and spread the fertilizer over the bed.
Broadcast spreader
This is also called a spin or cyclone spreader. The fertilizer hopper can be trailer- or tractor-
mounted, but hand-operated machines are also available. One or two spinning disks located
below the hopper and powered by the tractor or a set of drive wheels distribute the fertilizer.
Application rate is controlled by a slide gate. Ground coverage is greater than with the drop-type
distributor, but uniformity is not as good.
Seed drills
This equipment can be fitted with fertilizer hoppers that apply chemicals at the same time
seeding is done. Metering devices include the star wheel, feed roll, wire worm or auger. Drop
tubes direct the fertilizer into the same furrow as the seed. Liquid fertilizer can also be injected
into the soil.
Individual pot applicators

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This drop-type applicator feeds small quantities into individual containers. The hopper holds a
quantity of fertilizer that can be conveniently carried. A measuring device meters the chemical
and drops it into the pot, and several thousand pots can be fed per hour.
Fertigation
Fertigation is the controlled feeding of nutrients to plants through the irrigation system.
Application of fertilizer through the water system has several advantages:
Easy adjustment of nutrients, depending on crop needs.
Nutrients become available to the plants quicker.
More accurate placement of fertilizer.
Less fertilizer needed.
Reduced labor to apply fertilizer.
Irrigation can be done with many systems; four are described here.
Manure spreader
A manure spreader or muck spreader or honey wagon is an agricultural machine used to
distribute manure over a field as a fertilizer. A typical (modern) manure spreader consists of a
trailer towed behind a tractor with a rotating mechanism driven by the tractor's power take off
(PTO).

Crops are subjected to be attacked by a wide range of pests and diseases that includes weeds,
insects and fungi. These can affect the crop yield in both quality and quantity. Therefore the
control measure shall be taken to avoid attacks of pests and diseases.

Currently there are five categories of plant protection methods: namely chemical, biological,
agronomical, mechanical and biophysical.

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Chemical method – is based on the use of substances that are toxic to harmful organisms. such
as insecticide, herbicide and pesticide.

Biological method – is based on the use of predatory and parasitic insects, predatory mites,
microorganisms, nematodes, birds, mammals, and so forth to reduce the numbers of harmful
organisms.

Agronomical method – consists of the use of all ranges of agronomical measures such as crop
protection, soil cultivation, optimum sowing time, selection of pest and disease resistant variety
that are improving the soil condition and provide favorable condition for growth of crop, but
unfavorable condition for harmful organisms. 

Mechanical method –consists the use of barrier and trap ditches, sticky strips, various devices to
catch pests and so on.

Bio-Physical Method – this method is very expensive and based on the use of such physical
agents as: radioactive and gamma radiation -to sterilize the insects, ultrasound and various
sources of light –to trap insects and signal their appearance in nature.

Toxic Chemicals and Their Method of Application

Crop quality and yields have been improved and the use of chemical herbicides has greatly
reduced labor requirements for weed control. But the wide spread use of pesticides has resulted

in some serious environmental and health problems.

Types of chemicals applied are:

Pesticides to protect pests Fungicides to protect fungi disease

Herbicides to protect weeds Bactericide to protect bacterial disease

Method of application is dependent upon:

Area of infestation, condition of plant and Type of crop

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Depending on these factors one of the following methods is adapted:

Spraying – fine liquid droplet Fumigation – vapor gas

Dusting – fine powder Seed dressing – on surface and tissue of seed
Poison baits – coating by poison Chemo-therapy – applying internally acting chemicals that
are preventing extra cell division which is harming the plant.
Sprayer: Sprayer is an implement which can apply chemicals in the form of liquid.

Knapsack sprayer

Hand-held and backpack sprayers are inexpensive tools used to apply pesticides on small
acreages. Home gardens, yards, small orchards, and green houses are examples of areas that

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often require pesticide applications to protect them from weeds, insects, and diseases. Effective
pest control depends on applying the proper amount of pesticide. These sprayers have all the
main components of a sprayer unit including the tank, pump, hose, nozzle, strainer, valve etc.
The tank is a plastic container of moderate size with strap to carry it on the back of a person. The
pump could be hand driven or could be powered by a small engine.
The person holds the long rigid end of the flexible hose to direct the nozzle to the required target
during spraying.
Boom sprayer

This is a rigid structure to carry the tubes with their nozzles along the width of operation. Large
width booms are divided into left, right and central sections connected by hinges so that the outer
sections could be folded to narrow the width when transporting it to and from the field. Boom
length varies from 4 to 20 meters.

Sprayer Parts and Their Function

Machines for applying liquid sprays differ from dusting machines because the sprayer requires a
pump instead of a fan to force the liquid out through the nozzle, which can be adjusted to
regulate the quantity applied.
The main parts of sprayer are:

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 Tank: is a part made of corrosive resistance material from rolled brass sheet or
galvanized iron or fiber glasses. It stores chemicals to be applied.
 Pump: is important for atomization of the fluid to be sprayed. That means it pressurize
the fluid in order to discharge it through the nozzle.
 Agitator: it provides the mixing action of chemical in the tank.
 Pressure gage: is an indicator of operating pressure so that it is used to adjust the sprayer
to the correct operating pressure.
 Pipes: is a part which distributes the chemical to various nozzles.
 Valve: mount on the delivery line to control the discharge. I.e. it prevents excessive
pressure.
 Filter: is used to ensure free flow of fluid by trapping an wanted material. Each of these
components has other parts like washers, nipples, nuts and so on.
 Nozzle: are parts which perform the following function.
- measure the fluid to be sprayed at required rate of application
- Atomize the liquid in to needed size of droplets
Atomization is the breaking up of liquid in to fine droplets by the tearing action
- It propels the droplet to the target
- It provides even distribution of spraying liquid
The size of droplet may vary based on size of nozzle, operating pressure, and viscosity of
liquid and surface tension of liquid.
Selection of Sprayer
The following factor shall be considered for selection of sprayer.
a) Volume of discharge
b) Nature of crop to be treated
c) Size of implement
d) Skill of operator
e) Cost of sprayer
f) Care and maintenance procedure required
Safety Guideline to Use Sprayer
o Spraying should be done in the direction of wind

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o Be careful not to spray on the field which contains crops ready for harvest.
o Make sure that not to apply chemicals to any water channel & on grass land
o The operator should not have any injury or cut on his body.
o Eating, smoking, drinking should be avoided during the process of spraying.
o Wash your hands after operation.
o Empty chemical container should be buried in the soil.
Maintenance
a) At the end of the day empty the tank of chemical and partly fill it with water and clean it.
b) At the end of the season remove all chemicals from it, clean the nozzle and store them
separately.
c) Periodical maintenance check all washer and packing for crakes and fracture
A. Duster
Duster is an implement used to apply a crop protection material (chemical) in the form of
powder. Many insects and plant diseases can be controlled more effectively and economically
with dusts than with liquid sprays. Dusts may be applied with hand dusters, traction dusters,
power take-off dusters, and airplanes.

Figure, Hand dust

Advantage of duster,
 Dusting is preferable where water is not available.
 Duster is better for application of chemical over soil surface.
 Dusting is more useful against chewing insect and pest.
 Chemical for dusting have light weight than the chemical to be sprayed.
 Homogeneity of application is better in the form of powder
 It has low cost
Disadvantage

The powder chemical do not adhere to foliage of crop

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Some preconditions are required for dusting such as
- constant fan speed
- constant forward speed
It is not recommended in windy area since the powder chemical will be carried away out
of the target.
Component of Duster
o Hopper: it is container which could store chemical in the form of powder.
o Agitator: receive power from hand crack or agitator shaft through engine or hand in
order to bring the chemical in to motion. (to stir the dust)
o Delivery blower: is a part which creates an air stream that carries the powder to the
target.
Classification of Duster
It may classify as
o Manually Operated Duster: have an enclosed fan geared to a hand crack and hopper. It
is equipped with an agitator to stir the dust. It is carried to the shoulder of the operator.
o Power Operated Duster: is consists of power-driven fan, a hopper and the delivery
spout. The operating principle is similar with that of manually operating duster except
the source of power and its capacity.
CHAPTER SEVEN: HARVESTERS & THRESHERS
When the crop reach at a stage of maturity and form seeds that are ripen and get ready for
consumption have to be harvested from the field. For this purpose, there are many implements
such as mower, threshers, cleaners and combine harvester.
1. Mower
It is intended primarily to cut grass and other forage crop. However, it may be adapted to harvest
cereals like wheat.
Working principle of mower
The cutting principle of mower is similar with that of a scissor. I.e. two sharp blades share the
stalk of the grass at a certain speed.
Types of mower
Mower can be classified

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 According to working principle
-cutter bar mower: has knife that cuts the material by reciprocating (back & forth) motion
-rotary mower: has one or more rotating blades mounted horizontally which cut the material by
rotational motion.
 According to the power source
-Tractor driven mower, Self-propelled mower, and Animal drawn mower:
Cutter bar mower
It has two plates called ledger plate and knife section called stationary plate & movable plate
respectively. When the knife section moves back and forth on the stationary plate it can cut the
crop or grass by shearing action. These two plates are mounted on a bar called cutter bar. For
normal cutting action there should be clearance between these two plates which is provided by
knife clip.
I. Knife: is consists of a knife strip head (connection point) and the knife section
(individual cutting unit).
II. Guards: are parts which protect the knife being damaged by external material (rock)
& act as a fixed shearing edge for cutting action. It also divides crops and guides
them in to knife section for cutting.
III. Ledger plate: is the stationery cutting part of a guard and can have either smooth or
serrated edge
IV. Wear plate: serves as a guide for a knife track and keep the knife back in proper
position so that the shearing action is maintained.
V. Knife holding clip: holds properly the knife section against the ledger plate for clean
cutting. That is, it regulates the clearance between the knife section and the ledger
plate.

2. Stationary Thresher

Purpose

Thresher is a machine used to remove grain from the plant by striking, cutting, or rubbing action.
It also cleans the grain from chaff, impurities and etc. and finally grading it ready for use.

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Functional Component of Stationary Thresher

Feeding unit: feed the crop to the threshing cylinder. Different type of stationary thresher may
have different feeding unit.

Concave: is the stationary part of threshing system. So, it is called stationary plate. The rubbing
action between the cylinder rasp and concave bars separate the grain from the crop. Then it falls
through the grates in to the bottom pan of and travel to the cleaning section.

Threshing cylinder: have different type of beater heads or pegs on its circumference and usually
revolve (rotate) to achieve threshing action by beating or rubbing action.

Cleaning and separating unit: is used to separate the grain from the chaff. It has components
like blower (aspirator) and sieves. Here, the oscillating action of the sieves in combination with
the aspirator helps in effective cleaning of grain from the chaff.

Principle of Thresher Operation

The crop is fed from the hopper in to the threshing area .it threshed due to impact and rubbing
action between the threshing cylinder and the stationary concave. The threshed grain falls
through the holes of the concave and passed to the oscillating sieves and cleaned by air current
produced by the blower. The clean grain goes to the out let. The straw from the cylinder pass to
the straw walker in which the un- threshed ear head separated and re circulated to concave-
cylinder unit for re threshing.

Thresher Performance

The performance of threshing machine is affected by the following operational condition.

Cylinder speed: is the speed by which the threshing cylinder rotates. If the speed is excess, it
will crack the grain and too low speed can give un-threshed grain. Therefore, it should be set at
the optimum speed.

Concave clearance: is the gap between the cylinder and concave. If this clearance is too small,
the broken grain will be increase and the power requirement will be increase. Too large clearance
will be result unthreshed grain.

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Fan (Blower) Speed: if the blower speed is low, the chaff and other dust come along grain. If
the speed is very high, it may take out the grain together with chaff and dust. This resulted into
loss of grain. Therefore, the speed of blower should be set properly by observing the
performance of thresher.

Selection of Stationary Thresher

Proper selection of machine should be made to fulfill the need of farmer. Some of the factors that
govern the proper selection are;
 Type of thresher, Capacity of thresher, Quality of thresher, Cost of thresher, Safety
measure, Provision of adjustment, Availability of spare part, Suitability of thresher for
other type of crop
Troubles in Using Stationary Thresher

o Breakage of grain, Unsatisfactory cleaning of grain, chocking of threshing, cylinder,

Reduction of out put
Safety Precaution in Operation

 Never examine or adjust cylinder-concave clearance when the power unit is running.
 Don’t feed the material more than the recommended rate.
 Make adjustment to obtain minimum loss from each unit.
 It is desirable to dry the crop before feeding as far as possible.
 Don’t attempt to remove any blockage or clogging of straw and grains when the thresher is
working.
Combine Harvester

Purpose

A combine harvester – thresher is more sophisticated than most of other harvesting machine and
usually intended for large farm and gives the advantage of being able to carry out cutting
(harvesting), threshing, cleaning and bagging.

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Operation Functional unit

o cutting the standing crop cutting unit
o feeding the cut crop to the threshing unit Feeding unit
o threshing (detaching the individual seed from the supporting Threshing unit
part)
o separating the seed and the chaff from the straw Separating unit
o cleaning the chaff and other debris from the seed Cleaning unit
o collecting the threshed grain (seed)and bagging Handling unit

I. Cutting Unit (header): is a unit which cut the standing crop and delivers it the feeding
mechanism. It consists of:
a. Divider: used to divide the crop, which comes to the machine and define the swath to be
cut.
b. Reel: Holds the crop against the cutter bar while the crop is cut. It is the first part that
touches the standing crop.
c. Cutter Bar has a reciprocating knife section and the stationary ledger plate which
accomplish the cutting action.
II. Feeding Unit (Feeder Conveyor): moves the cut material upward to the cylinder and
concave assembly, where it is threshed.
III. Threshing Unit: it refers the removal of the seed from the heads or pods of grain and the
removal of corn from the cob part of ear. This operation takes place in the combine between the
rotating cylinder and stationary concave assembly. Here the drains are separated from the crop

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due to rubbing action b/n the cylinder rasp and the concave bars. Then the threshed crop passes
to the oscillating grain pan.
IV. Separating Unit: in this unit the longer straw and any other unthreshed heads are separated
from the grain. The threshed grain falls through the grates to the oscillating pan which moves
back to the cleaning shoe. Removing the threshed grain from the mass of straw is accomplished
by the straw rack, which tosses and trembles the straw and propels it to the rear.
V. Cleaning Unit: this unit separates the clean grain from the chaff, dust, and short straw. This is
accomplishing by the air current produced from a blower (fan) and with the help of shoe sieves,
chaffer, and chaffer extension. Here the light material is blown out of the rear of the combine and
the clean grain falls through the shoe sieves, and carried by the grain auger to an elevator which
in turn carries it to the grain tank on the machine.

Adjustment of combines
All the grain should be ripe before being combined direct in the field. If crops are not uniformly
ripe, they are generally wind rowed, i.e. cut and left in the field in rows for a day or two for
conditioning them for threshing. A combine fitted with a pick-up reel is used for threshing
windrowed crop. Rate of combining is governed by the volume of straw handled rather than by the
weight of the grain collected.

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Proper adjustment of various parts of the combine is necessary for best performance of the
machine. These include the height and speed of the reel, height of the header above ground
surface, cylinder speed and clearance, sieve openings, fan speed and shutter orientation. Height of
the bars of the reel when harvesting standing crops shall be at about 15 cm below the ears. At
higher positions the bar may miss a certain portion of the ears whereas at lower positions the
machine may be over loaded with straw. Excessive speed of the reel may cause the ears to shatter
leading to higher degree of grain loss. The speed of the threshing drum (cylinder) should not be too
high to cause grain damage nor should it be too low to give higher level of un-threshed heads. The
clearance between the concave and the cylinder at the entrance of the threshing unit should not be
very wide for that would lead to high rate of un-threshed head. Narrow clearance on the other hand
results in increased grain damage. Similarly the clearance at the exit should be adjusted according
to the manufacture recommendation for the specific crop. The fan speed, where applicable, and the
shutter direction should also be adjusted as recommended by the manufacture.

Too much draft blows the grain out of the back of the machine, while too little fails to keep the
screen clean. It is advisable to keep the last quarter of the screen clear on most machines. It should
be remembered that any adjustment done to a particular component of a combine harvester will
reflect on the performance of other components. If all parts of a combine are correctly set,
excessive losses of seed over the back generally indicate that the threshing and separating
mechanism is being asked to operate beyond its capacity, and a reduction in forward speed will
usually reduce such losses. Some combines are fitted with monitors, which employ ultra-sonic
sensors that detect the sounds of the grained striking them. The sounds are registered
electronically, and displayed as a meter reading in front of the driver.

Combine losses
Losses relating to the combining of grains are as follows:

1. Shatter loss: - Grain lying on the ground or out of reach of the cutter bar.
2. Cutter bar loss: Grain lost due to rough handling of the standing crop by the cutter bar. It also
includes loss for the windrower cutter bar and the combine's pick up attachments in case of
windowing.
3. Threshing loss: Grain lost inform of un-threshed heads via the rear of the combine.

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4. Separating loss: Grain lost in form of threshed grain via the rear of the combine.
5. Cleaning loss: loss in value of the crop due to the presence of foreign matter in the grain tank.
Proper adjustment of the cutting, threshing, separating and cleaning units helps to minimize these
losses.

Operational condition of combine harvester

Threshing effectiveness is mainly related to the operational condition of the combiner such as
speed of the cylinder, the cylinder concave clearance & the blower speed. The others are crop
types, crop moisture content and the feed rate at which the material convey in to the machine. So,
to increase the effectiveness of the machine, it is important to make some type of adjustment on
the operational
Concave clearance: is the gap between the rotating cylinder and the stationary concave. If
this clearance is to narrow, grain breakage will be resulted and excessive clearance can cause un
threshed ear head. Therefore, it should be adjusted by raising or lowering the cylinder. The
amount of clearance shall be decided based on the type of crop and the peripheral speed.
Cylinder speed: is the speed by which the cylinder rotates. The cylinder speed requirement can
vary with different crops and weather conditions. The speed of the cylinder should be set at the
maximum rpm recommended for the particular type of crop. Then decrease it until broken grains
are disappearing.
Blower speed: is the speed of the fan which produces air current. It shall be also adjusted by
observing the performance of threshing.
Trouble shooting
The different types of trouble that can occur in the combine are
 Threshing trouble: is classified as over threshing and under threshing trouble
o Over threshing trouble: is refers to very aggressive threshing and is evidenced
by broken or skinned seed or very small broken cob pieces in the grain pan. It is
caused by;
-very high speed of cylinder
-too narrow clearance between the rotating cylinder and the
Stationary concave
-too dry seed

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-Light feeding rate
o Under threshing trouble: is refers to the incomplete threshes that leaves the seeds on
the head and pod. This is caused by;
-too low of cylinder speed
-very wide clearance between the rotating cylinder and the
Stationary concave
-immature crop
-heavy feeding rate
 Cleaning problem: it can be categorized as over cleaning and under cleaning problem.
o Over cleaning: refers to the conditions which exist when the grain is dropped on the
ground behind the machine. It is caused by;
-too much air current
-sieves closed too tightly
o Under cleaning: is resulted in dirt and chaff mixed with the grain in the grain bin. it
is caused by;
-too little air current
-sieves too widely opened

The whole machine is composed of the following components:

(1) Header (11) Grain sieve
(2) Reel (12) Grain auger
(3) Cutter bar (13) Tailing auger
(4) Elevator canvas (14) Tail board
(5) Feeder canvas (15) Straw spreader
(6) Feeding drum (16) Return conveyor
(7) Threshing drum (17) Shaker
(8) Concave unit (18) Grain elevator
(9) Fan (19) Grain container.
(10) Chauffer sieve

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CHAPTER EIGHT: ESTIMATION OF COST OF FARM MACHINERY

Machinery and equipment are major cost items in farm businesses. Larger machines, new
technology, higher prices for parts and new machinery, and higher energy prices have all caused
machinery and power costs to rise in recent years. However, good machinery managers can
control machinery and power costs per hectare. Making smart decisions about how to acquire
machinery, when to trade, and how much capacity to invest in can reduce machinery costs. All
of these decisions require accurate estimates of the costs of owning and operating farm
machinery. Farm machinery costs can be divided into two categories thus are:

 Annual ownership costs (fixed costs), which occur regardless of machine use

 Operating costs (variable costs), which vary directly with the amount of machine use.

The true value of these costs is not known until the machine is sold or worn out. But the costs
can be estimated by making a few assumptions about machine life, annual use, and fuel and
labour prices.

Ownership costs (also called fixed costs) include:

 depreciation,  taxes, insurance, and

 interest (opportunity cost),  housing and maintenance facilities.

Depreciation:
Depreciation is a cost resulting from wear, obsolescence, and age of the machine. The
introduction of new technology or a major design change may make an older machine suddenly

obsolete, causing a sharp decline in its remaining value. But age and accumulated hours of use

are usually the most important factors in determining the remaining value of a machine.

Before an estimate of annual depreciation can be calculated, an economic life for the machine
and a salvage value at the end of the economic life need to be specified. The economic life of
a machine is the number of years for which costs are to be estimated. It is often less than the
machine’s service life because most farmers trade a machine for a different one before it is

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completely worn out. A good rule of thumb is to use an economic life of 10 to 12 years for most
farm machines and a 15-year life for tractors.

Salvage value is an estimate of the sale value of the machine at the end of its economic life. It is
the amount you can expect to receive as a trade-in allowance, an estimate of the used market
value if you expect to sell the machine outright, or zero if you plan to keep the machine until it is
worn out. Estimates of the remaining value of tractors and other classes of farm machines as a
percent of new list price are listed in Tables below.

Calculate the depreciation cost of 180 hp tractor with list price of 150,000. Dealer discounts are
assumed to reduce the actual purchase price to $130,000 with an economic life of 15 years and
8% interest. The tractor is expected to be used for 400 hrs per year.

 Salvage value = current list price x remaining value factor (Table 1)

= $150,000 x 23%

= $ 34,500

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 Total depreciation = purchase price – salvage value

= $130,000 - $34,500

= $95,500

Interest

Interest cost is the interest on the capital you have invested in the machine. If you borrow money
to buy a machine, the lender will determine the interest rate to charge. The joint costs of
depreciation and interest can be calculated by using a capital recovery factor. Capital recovery
is the number of dollars that would have to be set aside each year to just repay the value lost due
to depreciation, and pay interest costs.

Table below shows capital recovery factors for various combinations of real interest rates and
economic lives.

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For the example, the capital recovery factor for 15 years and 5 percent (interest rate) is .096.

The annual capital recovery cost is found by first multiplying the appropriate capital recovery
factor by the difference between the total depreciation, then adding the product of the interest
rate and the salvage value to it.

 For the example values given above:

Capital recovery = (total depreciation x capital recovery factor) + (salvage value x interest
rate)

= ($95,500 x .096) + ($34,500 x .05)

= $9,168 + $1,725

= $10,893 per year

Taxes, insurance, and housing (TIH)

These three costs are usually much smaller than depreciation and interest, but they need to be
considered. Insurance should be carried on farm machinery to allow for replacement in case of a
disaster such as a fire or tornado. If insurance is not carried, the risk is assumed by the rest of the
farm business. To simplify calculating TIH costs, they can be lumped together as 1 percent of the
purchase price.

TIH = 0.01 x purchase price

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For our tractor example, these three costs would be:

TIH = 0.01 x $130,000

= $1,300 per year

Total ownership cost

The estimated costs of depreciation, interest, taxes, insurance and housing are added together to
find the total ownership cost.

Operating costs (also called variable costs)

Operating costs include repairs and maintenance, fuel, lubrication and an operator labour

How to reduce fixed cost

Fixed costs account 50 to 75% of total machinery costs. They are called fixed cost because they
vary only slightly with amount of annual use. Operating costs (repair, fuel, lubricant, labor, etc)
vary directly with usage but stay constant on a per-ha basis. Fixed cost may be reduced much
easier than operating cost by:

1) Having the proper amount of equipment you have to match the amount of work with the total
capacity of your machines. Owning extra equipment increases the fixed cost unnecessarily.
2) Longer of ownership of machinery
Trading frequently will increase fixed costs, because the annual fixed cost will be higher.
Longer ownership will lower the annual fixed cost. The cost of annual maintenance is
definitely lower than for longer ownership is definitely very much lower than the annual
difference incurred in fixed cost due to shorter ownership.

3. Buying used equipment

It is a good way to lower fixed costs provided care is taken to be sure that repairs and down
time will not be more than off-set the saving. Buying directly from a farmer rather than a
dealer may reduce the cost. This is most advantageous when buying equipment without
engines and power trains e.g. plows The disadvantage is that the buyer may not know the
exact condition of the used machine. The potential cost for excessive repair and downtime is
unknown.

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Repairs and Maintenance

Repair costs occur because of routine maintenance, wear and tear, and accidents. Repair costs for
a particular type of machine vary widely from one geographic region to another because of soil
type, rocks, terrain, climate, and other conditions. Within a local area, repair costs vary from
farm to farm because of different management policies and operator skill. The best data for
estimating repair costs are the operator’s own records of past repair expenses.

Good records indicate whether a machine has had above or below average repair costs and when
major overhauls may be needed. They also will provide information about the operator’s
maintenance program and mechanical ability. Without such data, repair costs must be estimated
from average experience.

The values in Table below shows the relationship between the sum of all repair costs for a
machine and the total hours of use during its lifetime, based on historical repair data. The total
accumulated repair costs are then calculated as a percentage of the current list price of the
machine, because repair and maintenance costs usually change at about the same rate as new list
prices. Because the tractor in the example will be used about 400 hours per year, it will have
accumulated about 6,000 hours of operation by the end of its 15-year economic life (400 hours *
15 years = 6,000 hours).

The total accumulated repair costs for a two-wheel drive tractor will be equal to about 25 percent
of its new list price. Therefore, total accumulated repairs can be estimated to be:

Accumulated repairs = 0.25 * $150,000

= $37,500

The average repair cost per hour can be calculated by dividing the total accumulated repair cost
by the total accumulated hours: Repair cost/hour = $37,500 / 6,000 hours

=$6.25/hour

When to Repair

Whether to trade or repair is a problem for machinery owners when they are limited on capital or
want to cut costs without hurting production. First of all, tractors and other machines seldom

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reach their point of minimum cost before the tenth year. There may be many reasons, including
loss of reliability, that justify the trade before that time. Is you are in the tight squeeze and really
can’t afford the trade, then here are some factors that you need to consider. You can save
expenses by rigidly following a good maintenance program.

Next avoid overloading and lugging down engines. Properly match machines and equipment.
These practices will help you avoid expensive repair costs to the engine and power train.

When to repair and keep on using.

1. If the machine or the tractor has a good record reliability.

2. If you have followed a good maintenance program and repairs have been only those
expected.
3. If there have been no problems with the engine and power train other than normal
overhauls.
4. If the equipment is adequate for your farming needs.
5. If the equipment in question is fairly simple like tillage tools, it is more economical to
repair as long as the machine is functional and does not have a damaged frame, or bent
axle.

Fuel Costs

Average fuel consumption (in gallons per hour) for farm tractors on a year-round basis without
reference to any specific implement also can be estimated with these equations:

0.060 x maximum PTO horsepower for gasoline engines

0.044 x maximum PTO horsepower for diesel engines

For our 180-horsepower diesel tractor example: Average diesel fuel consumption = 0.044 x 180
horsepower = 7.92 gallons/hour

Average fuel cost/hour = 7.92 gallons/hour x $1.00/gallon = $7.92/hour

Lubrication costs

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Surveys indicate that total lubrication costs on most farms average about 15 percent of fuel costs.
Therefore, once the fuel cost per hour has been estimated, it can be multiplied by 0.15 to estimate
total lubrication costs. For our tractor example, average fuel cost was $7.92 per hour, so average
lubrication cost would be:

Lubrication = 0.15 x $7.92

= $1.19/hour

Labour costs

Because different size machines require different quantities of labour to accomplish such tasks as
planting or harvesting, it is important to consider labour costs in machinery analysis.

Actual hours of labour usually exceed field machine time by 10 to 20 percent, because of travel
time and the time required to lubricate and service machines. Consequently, labour costs can be
estimated by multiplying the labour wage rate times 1.1 or 1.2.

Using a labour value of $10 per hour and the accumulated hour is 30hr for our tractor example:

Labour cost/hour = $10.00 x 1.1 x 30

= $330.00

Different wage rates can be used for operations requiring different levels of operator skill

CHAPTER NINE: SELECTION & MANAGEMENT OF FARM

MACHINERY

Farm Machine Selection

Organizing an ideal machinery collection for a farm is not easy. A machine that works best one
year may not work well the next because of changes in weather conditions or crop production
practices. The farm size to be worked or availability of labor may change. Improved machines
may appear on the market making older ones obsolete. Because of the unpredictable nature of
many of these variables, good machinery management needs a system that is flexible enough to
adapt to a broad range of weather and crop conditions in order to minimize long-run costs and
production risks.

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The selection of farm machinery depends on: -

Size (Capacity) of the machine

Simplicity of operation
Versatility of the machine
Availability of spare parts in the market
Reliability of the machine
Machine Performance

First, each piece of machinery must perform reliably under a variety of field conditions or it will
be a poor investment regardless of its cost. Tillage implements should prepare a satisfactory
field while conserving moisture, destroying early weed growth and minimizing erosion potential.
Planters and seeders should provide consistent seed placement and population as well as properly
apply fertilizers. The chemical sprayers must apply the pesticides uniformly and at the desired
rate. Harvesting equipment must harvest clean, undamaged grain while minimizing field losses.

The performance of a machine often depends on the skill of the operator, or on weather and soil
conditions. Nevertheless, differences among machines can be evaluated through field trials,
research reports and personal experience.

To determine a farm's optimal machinery capacity, the farm manager needs to know:

 The amount of hectare of each crop to be produced;

 The tillage, planting, and harvesting operations;

 Costs of various types and sizes of machinery;

 Labor costs; and

 The costs of untimely operations.

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Field Capacity

Theoretical Field Capacity:  

 It is the rate of field coverage of an implement that would be obtained if the machine
were performing its function 100% of the time at the rated forward speed and always
covered 100% of its width.

TFC= WxS

where, W= operating width(m.)

S= forward speed(km/hr.)

Effective Field Capacity:

 It is the actual average rate of coverage by the machine. It is expressed as ha/hr.

EFC=W x S x Ef

           EFC= Effective Field Capacity, ha/hr

         W=Rated width of implement, m

            S=Speed of travel, Km/hr

               Ef=Field Efficiency, %

Thus, Effective field capacities on the basis of total minutes per ha., is the sum of the
theoretical time per hectare plus the time per hectare required for turns plus the time per
hectare required for ‘support functions’ i.e. time lost as a result of;

 Adjusting or lubricating the machine

 Breakdowns

 Clogging

 Turning at ends

 Adding seed or fertilizer

 Unloading of harvested products

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 Waiting for crop transport equipment etc.

Field Efficiency

 It is the ratio of effective field capacity to theoretical field capacity, in %.  It includes the
effect of time lost in the field and failure to utilize the full width of the machine.

EFC
FE (%) = ×100 %
TFC

EXAMPLE 1

 A single-tine subsoiler is used at a speed of 5 km/hr, and at a spacing of 2m. From field
observations it is determined that 17 percent of the time is spent on turning at the
headlands and refueling the tractor.

Material Capacity

- It is the measure of material, such as silage or grain, harvested by a machine.

- In the case of harvesting machines such as combines, this does not show the capacity as it
measures only the amount of grain or forage harvested.
Throughput Capacity

This is a special term used to compare machines that separate undesirable material from the
desirable material. E.g. Combine, potato harvester.

- In these cases the weight of material handled is the accurate capacity measure.
- Throughput refers to the time rate of handling a total weight of material, usually in terms of
kg per hour.
- In case of Combines throughput includes grain, Chaff straw and any other material that
enters the header.
Mechanization Input Management Decisions

Mechanization Decisions Need to Consider:

(i) Farm power requirements to increase agricultural productivity

(ii) appropriate technology choice consistent with resource availability and social/economic
objectives.

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Mechanization as a means of increasing productivity will need to:

 Increase employment opportunities,

 Increase non- farm activity in rural sector,

 Increase food supply to farming family,

 Increase skills.

Acquiring Farm Machinery Services

Your choice for acquiring farm machinery will depend on your answers to the following
questions:

 How much will it cost to own and operate an item of

machinery?

 What other ways are available for you to acquire the machine’s services?

 What are their expected costs?

 How much capital will you need if you purchase the machine?

 Can you afford that much investment?

 Can capital be used more profitably in other areas of your farm business?

 What is the income tax advantages of each method?

 Do you have the ability, tools, and labour to operate the machine and maintain it?

 Are current technological developments likely to make the machine obsolete in the near
future?

 Are you likely to change production practices or farm size in the near future and no
longer need this type or size of machine?

Ownership

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Ownership is by far the most popular method of acquiring long-term control of farm machinery
services. By owning a machine, you control its use and the quality of its performance. You
provide the labour to operate it, and you assume responsibility for repairs and maintenance,
liquidation, and obsolescence. Machinery ownership may be the least expensive choice in the
long run, especially for high-use equipment.

Joint ownership

Allows you to share the responsibility for investment, repairs, and labour with someone else, and
reduce ownership costs per acre

However, cooperation is absolutely essential. The parties must approve of each other’s work
habits and care of the machine, develop a system for scheduling use of the machine, and agree on
responsibility for labour and repairs. Most importantly, a written agreement should be
developed with details of how the co-ownership will be dissolved in case of disagreement,
termination of farming by one party, or death of one party, and with a method for determining
the machine’s value at the time of dissolution.

Custom Hire

Custom hiring is a popular method of gaining short-term control of farm machinery, particularly
for harvesting and for applying fertilizer and pesticides. Custom services may be available from
a neighbour, a local dealer, or a business specializing in custom farming that performs all types
of field operations.

Advantages

 Custom hiring has several advantages compared to other methods of acquiring machine
services:

 You get a machine and an operator. That means you don’t have to assume the
responsibility for operating the machine or its daily care. You can perform some other
tasks while the machine is operating, reducing the need to hire extra help.

 You have no responsibility or costs for machine repairs.

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 Custom hiring is particularly useful for specialized machines that are expensive to
purchase and used only seasonally. This method also is attractive for operators with
limited investment capital and for small-scale farmers.

Disadvantages

 There may not be a competent operator and machine available for hire.

 You will not be operating the machine so you will not have complete control over the
quality of the job performed.

 The custom operator may not get to your farm exactly when you want or during the
optimum time for your crop because of scheduling problems.

Rental

 A rental agreement secures the use of a machine for a short period of time. Charges are
usually made per acre, hour, day, week, month, or season, with a minimum charge even if
actual use is less than that specified in the contract.

Rental agreements differ from custom hire in several ways:

 An operator is not furnished. You have responsibility for operation and daily
maintenance of the machine.

 You are responsible for daily maintenance, and you may be responsible for major repairs
on longer term contracts.

 Since you operate the machine, you can control the quality of the job and use it whenever
you want during the rental period.

 Short-term rental of farm machinery should be considered if:

 You need an expensive machine such as a grain drill for only a short period of time each
year.

 You want to supplement your present machinery system temporarily, during a late season
or emergency, for example.

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 You want to try a new technology or production practice on your farm before buying the
machine that performs it.

Leasing

 Long-term leasing of farm machinery is becoming more popular, although it has not
grown as rapidly in agriculture as in some nonfarm industries. Leases of 3 to 5 years in
length are most common.

 Like ownership, leasing gives you complete control of the machine for the period of the
lease. You are responsible for labour to operate it, for repair costs, and other operating
expenses. At the end of the lease period, you have the options of turning the machine in
for a new leased machine, purchasing it, or returning it to the leassor.

 As a summary: - agricultural machines increase productivity of land and labor by meeting

timeliness of farm operations and increase work out-put per unit time and also enables
efficient utilization of inputs such as seeds, fertilizers and irrigation water if only properly
selected and managed.

Estimating Power Requirements

It is important to match power units to the size and type of machines so all field operations can
be carried out on time with a minimum of cost. When the amount of power of the power unit
limits the size of equipment to be used with it, it is important to match them accurately. If the
tractor is oversized for implements, the costs will be excessive for the work done. If the
implements selected are too large for the tractor, the quality and quantity of work may be
lessened or the tractor will be overloaded, usually causing expensive breakdowns.

When selecting a power unit, the following factors needed considerations.

1) Engine type - diesel, gasoline, LP gas

2) Power rating,
3) Soil resistance
4) Tractor size & type (2- or 4- wheel driven)
5) Matching implementation & sizing for critical work.
6) Power rating

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7) Power = Force × Speed
8) Unit in SI units is Watt and Kilowatt
nx force( KN )× speed (Km/h)
9) KW = Where: KW = kilowatt, KN = kilo Newton
3.6
Km/h = kilometer per hour
10) To determine the power requirement for a given work, the working speed and draft
requirement must be known. Draft of many machines is expressed as force per unit width
of operation. For ploughs, specific soil resistance, width and depth of cut shall be
determined to compute draft.

Tractor Size Required

Tractor power is measured in KW. Break power is the maximum power the engine can develop.
There are three different forms of power obtained from a tractor, namely Drawbar power, Power
Take Off power, and Hydraulic power.

Power take off power (PTOP)- is the power measured at the PTO shaft at the rear of the tractor.

Drawbar Power (DBP) - is a measure of the pulling power of the engine as measured at the
drawbar.

Hydraulic power (HP) is the power available from the hydraulic system of the tractor to operate
hydraulically operated or driven machines on or attached to the tractor.

Of the various methods of rating tractor power, maximum PTO power is the most commonly
used. Exceptions are some of the larger 4-wheel drive tractors and crawlers that don't have a
PTO shaft. They may be given an engine power (flywheel) or maximum draw bar power rating.
Available DBP is affected by speed, slippage, rolling resistance and tire size.

When matching tractor and implements, three important factors are considered.

1. Tractor must not be overloaded or early failure of components will occur.

2. Implement must be pulled at proper speed or optimum performance cannot be obtained.
3. The soil condition and their effects on machine performance must be considered.
The available tractor power is used for:

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- Moving the tractor over the ground
- Pulling the implement over the ground.
- Power the implement for useful work.
Two steps to avoid tractor overloading: -

1. Match for higher field speeds to reduce the loading and wear on the tractor power train.
2. Ballast the tractor so you will have 10 to15% wheel slip for good traction conditions.

CHAPTER TEN: HANDLING AND MAINTENANCE OF FARM MACHINERY

What is Maintenance?

Maintenance is the actions associated with equipment repair after it is broken. The dictionary
defines maintenance as follows: “the work of keeping something in proper condition; upkeep.”
This would imply that maintenance should be actions taken to prevent a device or component
from failing or to repair normal equipment degradation experienced with the operation of the
device to keep it in proper working order.

Types of Maintenance

1. Preventive Maintenance

Preventive maintenance (PM) is the practice of maintaining equipment on a regular schedule

based on elapsed time or meter readings. The intent of PM is to “prevent” maintenance
problems or failures before they take place by following routine and comprehensive maintenance
procedures. The goal is to achieve fewer, shorter, and more predictable outages.  

Some advantages of PM are

• It is predictable, making budgeting, planning, and resource leveling possible.

• When properly practiced, it generally prevents most major problems, thus reducing
forced outages, “reactive maintenance,” and maintenance costs in general.

• It assures managers that equipment is being maintained.

• It is easily understood and justified.

PM does have some drawbacks:

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• It is time consuming and resource intensive.

• It does not consider actual equipment condition when scheduling or performing the
maintenance.

• It can cause problems in equipment in addition to solving them (e.g., damaging seals,
stripping threads).

2. Corrective Maintenance Types

Corrective maintenance may be classified into five major categories. These are:

fail-repair Overhaul
Salvage servicing.
Rebuild

Fail-repair

The failed item is restored to its operational state.

Salvage

This element of corrective maintenance is concerned with disposal of non-repairable material

and use of salvaged material from non-repairable equipment/item in the repair, overhaul, or
rebuild programs.

Rebuild

This is concerned with restoring an item to a standard as close as possible to original state in
performance, life expectancy, and appearance. This is achieved through complete disassembly,
examination of all components, repair and replacement of worn/unserviceable parts as per
original specifications and manufacturing tolerances, and reassembly and testing to original
production guidelines.

Overhaul

Restoring an item to its total serviceable state as per maintenance serviceability standards, using
the “inspect and repair only as appropriate” approach.

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Servicing

Servicing may be needed because of the corrective maintenance action; for example, engine
repair can lead to crankcase refill, welding on, etc. Another example could be that the
replacement of an air bottle may require system recharging.

3. Condition-Based Maintenance

This program relies on knowing the condition of individual pieces of equipment.

Some features of CBM include:

 Monitoring equipment parameters such as temperatures, pressures, vibrations, leakage

current, dissolved gas analysis, etc.
 Infrared scanning.
 Monitoring carefully operator-gathered data.
 Securing results in knowledgeable maintenance decisions which would reduce overall
costs by focusing Testing on a periodic basis and/or when problems are suspected such
as Doble testing, vibration testing, and only on equipment that really needs attention.

Drawbacks of CBM include

 it is very difficult and expensive to monitor some quantities.

 It requires knowledgeable and consistent analysis to be effective; and also condition
monitoring equipment and systems themselves require maintenance.
 Because of these drawbacks, it is nearly impossible to have an entirely CBM program.

Common Damages in Agricultural Machinery

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Common damages in agricultural machineries could be always happening on day to day
activities of the machine. These damages can be a result of proper operating situations or un
proper. Investigation on the causes of damages is very crucial to maintain the machine and
totally avoid the problem.

Wear
In materials science, wear is erosion or sideways displacement of material from its "derivative"
and original position on a solid surface performed by the action of another surface. Wear is
related to interactions between surfaces and more specifically the removal and deformation of
material on a surface as a result of mechanical action of the opposite surface. The need for
relative motion between two surfaces and initial mechanical contact between asperities is an
important distinction between mechanical wear compared to other processes with similar
outcomes.

Corrosion

Corrosion is partial or complete wearing away, dissolving, or softening of any substance by

chemical or electrochemical reaction with its environment. The term corrosion specifically
applies to the gradual action of natural agents, such as air or salt water, on metals. The most
familiar example of corrosion is the rusting of iron, a complex chemical reaction in which the
iron combines with both oxygen and water to form hydrated iron oxide. The oxide is a solid that
retains the same general form as the metal from which it is formed but, porous and somewhat
bulkier, is relatively weak and brittle.

Three methods may be used to prevent the rusting of iron:

(1) alloying the iron so that it will be chemically resistant to corrosion;

(2) coating it with a material that will react with the corroding substances more readily than the
iron does and thus, while being consumed, protect the iron.

(3) covering it with an impermeable surface coating so that air and water cannot reach it. The
alloying method is the most satisfactory but the most expensive.

Fatigue

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Fatigue occurs when a material is subjected to repeated loading and unloading. If the loads are
above a certain threshold, microscopic cracks will begin to form at the surface. Eventually a
crack will reach a critical size, and the structure will suddenly fracture. The shape of the structure
will significantly affect the fatigue life; square holes or sharp corners will lead to elevated local
stresses where fatigue cracks can initiate. Round holes and smooth transitions or fillets are
therefore important to increase the fatigue strength of the structure.

Ageing

The change in the mechanical, physical, and chemical properties of metals and alloys resulting
from the lack of thermodynamic equilibrium in the original state and the gradual approach of the
structure to the equilibrium state under conditions that permits a sufficient diffusion rate for the
atoms. Upon rapid cooling from high temperatures (in hardening or after crystallization and hot
working), metals and alloys retain either partially or completely the atomic structure
characteristic of the high-temperature state.

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