Quelpr Physics Review

Module 2
Simple Harmonic Motion
• Simple Harmonic Motion is oscillatory motion along a straight line in which acceleration
is always directly proportional to displacement, and always acts in a direction opposite to
the displacement.
• The conditions for simple harmonic motion are as follows:
o The acceleration must be directly proportional to displacement but must take
place in the opposite direction.
o Total energy of the system remains constant.
o Must have a constant amplitude
o Must have a constant time period or frequency
o Must have a restoring force (Elasticity is present)
o Must have inertia (able to overshoot the equilibrium position)

Equations of SHM
• Simple Harmonic motion can be represented through the defining equation:

𝑎𝑎 = −𝜔𝜔2 𝑥𝑥

o Where 𝑎𝑎 is acceleration, 𝜔𝜔 is angular frequency and 𝑥𝑥 is displacement.

o Angular frequency is a term used to describe the motion of an oscillating
object, and is related to the angular velocity of an object in circular
motion.
2𝜋𝜋
o 𝜔𝜔 = 𝑇𝑇
= 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
• The displacement of an object in circular motion projected along the diameter from the
equilibrium position at O is given as 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜃𝜃
• The displacement over time can be shown on a cosine graph.

• The displacement of an object in simple harmonic motion can be expressed as either:

𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
o The equation used depends on where the oscillating object is at t=0.
o If the object is released from its amplitude, then at t=0, the object is at positive
amplitude, and begins oscillating from its amplitude:
 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
o If the object begins oscillating from equilibrium position, at t=0 its displacement
is 0:
 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
• The velocity of an object in simple harmonic motion at a particular displacement can be
expressed as:
o 𝑣𝑣 = ±𝜔𝜔√𝐴𝐴2 − 𝑥𝑥 2
• Maximum velocity occurs at the equilibrium position, i.e. when x=0
 o 𝑣𝑣𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
o 𝑎𝑎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝜔𝜔2 𝐴𝐴
• If the displacement is given as 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔:
o 𝑣𝑣 = −𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
o 𝑎𝑎 = −𝜔𝜔2 𝐴𝐴 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
• If the displacement is given as 𝑥𝑥 = 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔:
o 𝑣𝑣 = 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 cos 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
o 𝑎𝑎 = −𝜔𝜔2 𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔
• The following are graphs of displacement, velocity and acceleration with respect to time:
• For any object in simple harmonic motion, total energy remains constant, as long as there
are no losses due to friction.
• Potential energy is maximum at amplitude, as the object is briefly stationary and has no
kinetic energy
• Kinetic energy is maximum as the object passes the equilibrium position, as it reaches
maximum velocity, and the object has no potential energy
• Energy is interchanged between potential and kinetic energy as the object oscillates:
• Mass Spring Oscillators take the form of vertical and horizontal mass spring oscillators:
 • Regardless of whether it is a vertical or horizontal mass spring oscillator, the equations
representing the acceleration and period are the same:
𝑘𝑘
o 𝑎𝑎 = − 𝑚𝑚 𝑥𝑥
𝑚𝑚
o 𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋� 𝑘𝑘

• The total energy of a mass spring oscillator can be found as follows:

1 1
o 𝐸𝐸 = 2 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2
• And since the maximum potential energy will be based on the maximum extension of the
1
spring, and therefore its elastic potential energy, 2 𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴2 :
1 1 1
o 2
𝑘𝑘𝐴𝐴2 = 2 𝑘𝑘𝑥𝑥 2 + 2 𝑚𝑚𝑣𝑣 2

Springs in Parallel and Series

• The effective spring constant, k is the spring constant that appears to be acting in a
spring system containing multiple springs.
• For springs in parallel:
o 𝑘𝑘 = 𝑘𝑘1 + 𝑘𝑘2
 1 1 1
o 𝑘𝑘
= 𝑘𝑘 + 𝑘𝑘
1 2

• For a mass attached to a string in a simple pendulum, Simple Harmonic Motion is

observed for small angles of swing (<30°)
𝑔𝑔
o 𝑎𝑎 = − � 𝑙𝑙 � 𝑥𝑥
𝑙𝑙
o 𝑇𝑇 = 2𝜋𝜋�𝑔𝑔
Forced Vibrations
• A periodic force is a force applied to a system at regular intervals.
• A system oscillating without a periodic force being applied to it is oscillating at its
natural frequency.
• A system oscillating with a periodic force being applied to it is undergoing forced
vibrations.
• If a periodic force is applied to a system at varying frequencies (applied frequencies), the
amplitude of oscillations of the system will increase until it reaches a maximum
amplitude at a particular frequency.

o Essentially, as the applied frequency approaches the natural frequency of a

system, the amplitude increases to a maximum where the applied frequency of a
periodic force and the natural frequency of the system are the same.
o This phenomenon is known as resonance.

Resonance
• Resonance is the phenomenon where a system oscillates at larger amplitudes when the
frequency of an applied periodic force is equal or close to the natural frequency of the
system.
• When the system is oscillating at the maximum amplitude, the phase difference between
𝜋𝜋
the displacement and the periodic force is 2 .
o The periodic force is then exactly in phase with the velocity of the oscillating
system, and the system is in resonance.
• Examples of resonance:
o Barton’s pendulums:
 o Bridge Oscillations (a disadvantage of resonance):

 A steady trail of people in step with each other walking across a

footbridge can cause resonant oscillations of the bridge. Soldiers marching
in columns are taught to break out of step with each other when they cross
a footbridge, to avoid causing resonance. Soon after it was opened, the
Millennium Bridge in London had to be closed and fitted with a more
suitable damping system because it swayed in resonance when people first
walked across it.
o Mechanical Resonance (advantageous resonance)
 Ultrasound is used to shatter small outgrowths of bone called spurs by
matching the frequency of the ultrasound to the natural frequency of the
outgrowth.
o Electrical Resonance (advantageous resonance)
 Resonance is used to tune radios and televisions.
 When the natural frequency of a radio is ‘tuned’ to a particular frequency,
only broadcast signals coming from a station at that frequency will be
received loudly, allowing one station to be heard predominantly.
o Magnetic Resonance Imaging (advantageous resonance)
 Resonance is used in medical diagnostic imaging of the body.
 The resonance of hydrogen nuclei in response to an emitted radio wave is
detected, producing a special type of image.

Damping
• Damping is the decrease in amplitude of an oscillating system over time due to loss of
energy.
• There are three types of damping: under-damping, critical damping and over-damping
• Under-Damping: the amplitude of the object decreases over time, with the object
making several oscillations before coming to rest.

 Mass-spring and pendulum systems do work against friction (drag from

the air) and slowly lose energy over time.
 The strings of string instruments (eg guitar and piano) are under-damped
and slowly lose energy as they produce pleasant sounds and lose energy to
the air they vibrate.
• Critical Damping: the oscillating object reaches the equilibrium position in the shortest
possible time and remains there without passing through it.
o For example:
 Spring operated doors in air conditioned rooms are critically damped to
ensure the doors close in the shortest possible time.
 Shock absorbers in cars use pistons with holes to provide a frictional
damping force as the piston moves through a special fluid in a cylinder.
• Over Damping: the object does not oscillate at all, and instead very slowly reaches the
equilibrium position because the energy loss is so great.
o For example:
 Exit doors to buildings or auditoriums with large capacities are over
damped to allow the door to close slowly in the case of emergency or to
accommodate the disabled.
• The fluid used in the closing mechanism is very viscous and
provides a lot of friction to prevent oscillation.
 Analog electrical meters make use of the aluminium frame on which the
coil is wound to provide damping. The magnetic field about the frame
opposes the magnetic field about the coil. This action reduces the overall
field of the moving coil so that it swings more slowly. In effect, the faster
the coil swings, the more the aluminium frame’s field slows it down. This
causes the coil and pointer to rotate relatively slowly and smoothly to the
correct reading without vibrating.
Properties of Waves
A wave is a travelling disturbance that propagates through a medium, transporting energy from
one location (its source) to another location, without transporting matter.

Wave Parameters
• Displacement- the distance and direction of a vibrating particle from its equilibrium
position
• Amplitude- the maximum displacement of a vibrating particle from the equilibrium
position, or the height of a wave crest/depth of a wave trough from the equilibrium
position.
• Wavelength- the distance between two consecutive points on a wave in phase, or
between two successive crests or troughs.

• Period- the time taken for a particle on the wave to complete one complete oscillation, or
the time taken for the crest of a wave to move forward one wavelength.
• Frequency- this is the number of crests passing a given point per second
1
o 𝑓𝑓 = 𝑇𝑇 , 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑇𝑇 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝
• Velocity (Wave Speed)- the distance by the wave travelled per unit time
𝑥𝑥 𝜆𝜆
o 𝑣𝑣 = 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑇𝑇 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
• Phase- the fraction of an oscillation completed by a particle on a wave since the start of
the cycle.
o Phase difference is the fraction of a cycle between two particles vibrating at the
same frequency along a wave.
o For two points separated by a distance d along a wave of wavelength 𝜆𝜆:
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
 Phase difference, 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜆𝜆
  Two waves are in phase if they have a phase difference of 2𝜋𝜋 or a whole
number multiple of 2𝜋𝜋, i.e. 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. Or if they have a path difference of n𝜆𝜆 (n
can be 0, 1, 2, 3). They undergo constructive interference.
 Two waves are in antiphase if they have a phase difference of 𝜋𝜋 or 2𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 +
1
𝜋𝜋. Or if they have a path difference of �𝑛𝑛 + 2� 𝜆𝜆, (n can be 0, 1, 2, 3).
They undergo destructive interference.
• Intensity- the energy carried by a wave through a unit area per unit time
o 𝐼𝐼 = 2𝜋𝜋 2 𝑓𝑓 2 𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝐴𝐴2
o Therefore, 𝐼𝐼 ∝ 𝐴𝐴2 , the intensity of a wave is directly proportional to the
square of its amplitude.

Transverse and Longitudinal Waves

• A transverse wave is a wave in which oscillations occur at right angles to the direction
of travel of the wave.
o Waves are made up of crests and troughs
o Transverse waves can be polarized

• A longitudinal wave is a wave in which oscillations occur along the line of travel of the
wave
o Waves are made up of compressions and rarefactions
o Longitudinal waves cannot be polarized

Polarization
• Polarization is the restriction of transverse waves to one plane of vibration.
 • Unpolarized waves change from one plane to another.
• Ordinary light waves are unpolarised, or polarised in all planes.
• A polaroid sheet can be used to polarize light; it behaves like a set of slits which only
allow light in one plane to pass through.
o They are used in photography to block out reflections when taking pictures
through glass or water, since the light reflected from them is usually polarized in
one plane.
o Polarised sunglasses block out one of the two net components of light, reducing
intensity to about 50%.
o 3D glasses contain polarizing sheets at perpendicular axes in either eye so that
two separate images can be sent to either eye simultaneously, giving the illusion
of depth.

Progressive and Stationary Waves

• Progressive Waves or travelling waves transfer energy from one point to another. They
propagate through the medium.
• Stationary waves (or standing waves) do not transfer energy, instead energy is confined.
They occur when a progressive wave is being reflected back and forth in a small region
of space.
o It can be said that a standing wave is the pattern formed due to the
interference of two waves (of equal frequency and amplitude) along the same
medium.
o Each pattern forms at a particular frequency known as a harmonic, which
depends on the length of the region (eg length of the string) and the number of the
harmonic (first, second, third…)
• For a string of length L clamped at both ends, if it is plucked, standing waves can take
one of several modes of vibration:
 • These standing waves have points that do not oscillate, known as nodes, where the two
reflecting waves are in antiphase, and points which oscillate to maximum amplitude
halfway between nodes, called antinodes, where the two waves are in phase.
• The amplitude for each point varies along the standing wave, since the wave does not
propagate.
• These standing waves are produced at resonance, and the string is said to resonate at
these certain frequencies, called resonant frequencies.
o Resonant frequencies are the frequencies of vibration for which a standing wave
can be generated in a medium.
• The wavelength of the nth harmonic in a string clamped at both ends can be found as
2𝐿𝐿
o 𝜆𝜆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛
, where n is 1, 2, 3, 4 or any other natural number.
𝑣𝑣
• The first harmonic has a frequency of 𝑓𝑓1 = 2𝐿𝐿.

• The resonant frequency that corresponds to the nth wavelength is:

𝑣𝑣
o 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 �2𝐿𝐿� = 𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓1 , where n is 1, 2, 3, 4 or any other natural number.
2𝑉𝑉
o Thus, the 2nd harmonic’s frequency is 𝑓𝑓2 = 2𝐿𝐿
.
 The 2nd harmonic is also called the 1st overtone.
 The nth overtone is the nth next possible harmonic above the fundamental
frequency.

Stationary Waves on A Strip Fixed at One End, or In a Closed Tube

• When the string is fixed at one end, the fixed endpoint is a node while the free endpoint
is an antinode.
 One end is free to oscillate, while the other is fixed.

• The same applies to an air column within a pipe when one end is closed:

Air molecules can vibrate freely at the open end, but cannot vibrate at the closed end.
𝜆𝜆1
• As shown above, the first harmonic in a closed tube occurs where 𝐿𝐿 = , thus:
4
4𝐿𝐿
o 𝜆𝜆𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛
, 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 3, 5 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛.
𝑣𝑣
o 𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 �4𝐿𝐿� = 𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓1
 Note that only odd number harmonics are possible for a closed tube or a
string fixed at one end.
 Thus, the 1st overtone would be the 3rd harmonic, as only odd number
harmonics are possible.
• The wave speed, 𝑣𝑣, of a stationary wave through a certain string of tension 𝜏𝜏 and linear
density 𝜇𝜇 can be found as:

𝜏𝜏
𝑣𝑣 = �
𝜇𝜇

𝑚𝑚
Where 𝜇𝜇 = 𝑙𝑙
Example:

• The Resonance Tube:

A resonance tube is a hollow cylindrical tube partially filled

with water and forced into vibration by a tuning fork. The
tuning fork vibrates at a certain frequency and forces the air in
the tube to vibrate at that frequency.
We know that an increase in the length of a vibrational
system (here, the air in the tube) increases the wavelength and
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
decreases the natural frequency of that system (𝐿𝐿 = 2
=
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
2𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑛
).

Conversely, a decrease in the length of a vibrational system

decreases the wavelength and increases the natural
frequency.
So by raising and lowering the water level, the natural frequency of the air in the tube could be
matched to the frequency at which the tuning fork vibrates. When the match is achieved, the
tuning fork forces the air column inside of the resonance tube to vibrate at its own natural
frequency and resonance is achieved. The result of resonance is always a big vibration - that is,
a loud sound.

Behaviour of Waves
Rectilinear Propagation
• In a homogenous medium, a wave travels at a constant speed in a straight line.

Reflection
• Occurs when a wave changes direction at a boundary between two media, remaining in
the original medium.
• The laws of reflection state that:
 o When waves are reflected off a plane surface, the angle of incidence is equal to
the angle of reflection.
 When waves reflect off a concave surface, they are brought to a focus (eg.
Satellite dish)
o The angle of incidence, normal and angle of reflection all lie in the same plane.
• Waves can also be partially reflected or transmitted across a boundary, depending on the
nature of the boundary.
• The wavelength and frequency remain unchanged.

Refraction
• This is the change in direction of a wave as it crosses a boundary between two media
and undergoes a change in speed.
• When a wave refracts, there is always some level of reflection, that is, partial
reflection at the boundary.
• If the wave slows down, it will refract towards the normal; if the wave speeds up it
will refract away from the normal.
 • If the wave slows down, the wavelength decreases and the frequency remains
unchanged (𝑣𝑣 ∝ 𝜆𝜆), while if the wave speeds up, the wavelength increases and the
frequency remains constant.
• The laws of refraction state that:
o The angle of incidence, normal and angle of refraction all lie in the same plane.
o The ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a
constant (Snell’s Law)
𝑛𝑛1 sin 𝑖𝑖 = 𝑛𝑛2 sin 𝑟𝑟
• Snell’s law can also state that: the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of
the angle of refraction is equal to the ratio between the refractive indices of the two
media
sin 𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛2 𝑣𝑣1 𝜆𝜆1
= = =
sin 𝑟𝑟 𝑛𝑛1 𝑣𝑣2 𝜆𝜆2

• The refractive index, n, of a material is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in free
space to the speed of light in the material. In equation form, this is given by:
𝑐𝑐
o 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑣𝑣 , 𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑡𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙ℎ𝑡𝑡

Total Internal Reflection

• Total Internal Reflection is the phenomenon in which a light ray originating in an
optically dense medium is reflected at a boundary with a less optically dense medium
back into the original medium rather than being refracted out when the light ray is
incident at an angle greater than the critical angle.
o No light is refracted out of the original medium.
• There are two conditions for Total Internal Reflection:
o The light must be travelling through a medium of higher refractive index as it
strikes the boundary with a medium of lower refractive index.
o The angle at which the light strikes the boundary must be larger than the critical
angle
• The critical angle is the angle of incidence for which the angle of refraction is 90°:
𝑛𝑛1 sin 𝐶𝐶 = 𝑛𝑛2 sin 90
𝑛𝑛2
sin 𝐶𝐶 =
𝑛𝑛1
Where n1 must be the refractive index of the optically denser medium, i.e. the higher
refractive index. When TIR occurs at a boundary with air, n2 is 1.
• Examples:
o Retroreflectors are used on vehicles and roads to reflect lights back to their
source.

 This is often used in the rear and front reflectors of bicycles.

 Light entering a fibre at a small angle of incidence makes an angle of

incidence exceeding the critical angle along the length of the fibre. Hence
total internal reflection occurs. Multiple reflections occur along the fibre
with little loss of light.
 Optical fibres are used for carrying signals over the internet.
 Fibres can be bundled, thus carrying a large amount of information along
a narrow cable.
 Fibre optic cables are lighter than metal wires and are less affected by
weathering.
 • Bundled optical fibres are also used in endoscopes in medicine. A physician can ‘look’
into the stomach, for example, for diagnostic purposes.

Diffraction
• Diffraction is the phenomenon in which a wave spreads out in various directions when
passing through a gap of a similar magnitude to its wavelength.

Interference
• Interference describes the interaction between two waves in the same location, that is,
superposition of two waves of the same type.
• In order for interference to occur, the waves must be coherent
o Two wave sources are coherent if there is a constant phase relation between the
waves and an identical frequency and wavelength.
• The Principle of Superposition states that when two waves are at the same place at the
same time, their displacements can be added algebraically to produce a resultant wave.
• There are two types of interference, constructive and destructive interference.
 o Constructive Interference occurs when both superposed waves are in phase,
causing a greater resultant amplitude/displacement.
o Destructive Interference occurs when the superposed waves are out of phase,
causing a resultant amplitude less than the amplitude/displacement of the
superposed waves.
 If the waves are in antiphase (phase difference of 𝜋𝜋), complete
destructive interference occurs, where the amplitude and displacement
resulting are zero.

• Remember that interference requires two coherent wave sources to occur. Young’s
Double Slit experiment utilized a monochromatic source of light and a single narrow slit
to diffract the light and create a uniform wavefront.
• Since 𝜃𝜃1 ≈ 𝜃𝜃2 and sin 𝜃𝜃 = tan 𝜃𝜃 for small angles:
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
o sin 𝜃𝜃1 = sin 𝜃𝜃2 = tan 𝜃𝜃2 , where sin 𝜃𝜃1 = 𝑎𝑎
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 tan 𝜃𝜃2 = 𝐷𝐷
:
𝝀𝝀 𝒙𝒙
 𝒂𝒂
= 𝑫𝑫
 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
• Since sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝑎𝑎
, 𝒏𝒏𝒏𝒏 = 𝒂𝒂 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽
• The highest order of bright fringe (i.e. highest value of n) produced by a certain
diffraction experiment can be found as:
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑎𝑎 sin 90
𝑎𝑎
𝑛𝑛 =
𝜆𝜆
• A diffraction grating consists of many evenly spaced, close slits in a material.
o If the spacing between slits is the same (a) in the diffraction grating as in the
double slit, the same interference pattern will be produced, except that the fringes
will be less tapered, resulting in more concentrated bright fringes and more
defined dark spaces as dark fringes.

• Light is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

• Electromagnetic waves all travel in free space at the same speed, the speed of light (3.0 ×
108 ms-1)
• The wavelengths of visible light extend from about 400 nm (ultraviolet) to 700 nm
(red).
• Note: Since wave speed remains constant, an increase in wavelength must follow a
𝑣𝑣
decrease in frequency, 𝜆𝜆 = 𝑓𝑓
Physics of the Ear and the Eye
The Ear
Sound
• Sound describes travelling longitudinal waves passing through a material medium like
air.
o Sound is produced by a mechanically vibrating source like the diaphragm of a
speaker
o A medium is required because sound waves comprise compressions and
rarefactions (regions of low and high pressure when they are in air), nothing
would be available to compress or rarefy in empty space.
• Pitch is related to the frequency of a sound, and is perceived as the highness or
lowness/depth of a sound.
• Sound frequencies make up a spectrum with three major sections:
o Audible Sound- Sound between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz, which is detectable
generally by the human ear.
o Infrasound- Sound less than 20Hz
o Ultrasound- Sound greater than 20,000 Hz
• Sound Intensity is related to the amplitude of a sound wave (remember that 𝐼𝐼 ∝ 𝐴𝐴2 ), and
is perceived as the loudness of a sound wave
o Note that intensity (Wm-2) and loudness (dB) are two different physical
quantities
o Intensity is defined as the energy crossing perpendicularly across a material per
unit time per unit area:
𝑃𝑃
 𝐼𝐼 = 𝐴𝐴
  For a sound wave, intensity a distance r from the source is given as 𝐼𝐼 =
𝑃𝑃
4𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 2
• Sound Quality (also called timbre) refers to the presence of harmonic frequencies that
give a sound a distinctive identity.
• Speed- The speed of sound in air at a temperature 𝜃𝜃°𝐶𝐶 is given as:
o 𝑣𝑣 ≈ (330 + 0.60 𝜃𝜃)𝑚𝑚𝑠𝑠 −1

Intensity, Loudness
• The human ear can comfortably detect sounds of intensities between 10−12 Wm−2 to 1 Wm−2.
o 10−12 Wm−2 is the threshold intensity of hearing (I0), the lowest intensity usually
detectable by the human ear for a 1 kHz sound.
o 1 Wm-2 is considered the threshold of pain, the highest intensity of sound able to
be comfortably detected by the human ear for a 1 kHz sound.. Beyond this, the
intensity of sound becomes painful and even harmful to the ear.
• Loudness is measured in intensity (Wm-2) or sound level (decibels).
o Decibel sound level, corresponding to a sound intensity I, is defined as 10 times
the logarithmic ratio of the intensity, I, of the sound to the threshold intensity of
hearing, I0.
𝐼𝐼
• 𝛽𝛽(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = 10 log �𝐼𝐼 �
0

The Eye
Lenses
• A lens is a transparent material which has at least one curved surface.
• Important definitions for lenses:
o The Optical Centre is the physical centre of the lens
o The principal axis is the line passing through the optical centre of the lens and is
perpendicular to both of its surfaces.
o The principal focus is the point on the principal axis where rays parallel and
close to the principal axis converge or appear to converge.
o The focal length (f) is the distance between the optical centre and the principal
focus.
o The focal plane is the plane passing through the principal focus. This is the
plane upon which all light rays parallel to each other (don’t have to be parallel to
the principal axis) converge on this plane.
1
o The power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length, 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑓𝑓. It represents the
converging or diverging ability of the lens, and is measured in dioptres (D) or m-1.
 Note that converging lenses have positive powers, while diverging lenses
have negative powers.
 1 1 1
• 𝑓𝑓
= 𝑃𝑃 = 𝑢𝑢 + 𝑣𝑣
ℎ 𝑣𝑣
• 𝑚𝑚 = ℎ 𝑖𝑖 = − 𝑢𝑢
𝑜𝑜
o Note that v (image distance) is positive when the image is on the opposite side of
the object, forming a real image, but negative when the image is on the same
side as the object, forming a virtual image.
• Thicker lenses have shorter focal lengths.

Accommodation of the Eye

• Accommodation is the process by which eye adjusts the lens (through the ciliary
muscles) to keep an object in focus on the retina as its distance from the eye varies.
• The depth of focus of the eye for a certain state of the lens (i.e. when it is at a particular
thickness) is the distance in front and behind the focal point (or retina) over which the
image may be focused without causing a sharpness reduction beyond a certain
tolerable amount.
• To form focused images on the retina, the eye accommodates by adjusting the thickness
of the lens (remember that a thicker lens refracts light rays more, and has a shorter focal
length).
o When the eye is focusing on a distant object, the lens becomes thin to increase the
focal length.
o When the eye is focusing on a close object, the lens becomes thicker to shorten
the focal length.

• Far-sightedness or long-sightedness/hyperopia/hypermetropia is the condition in which a

person can se distant objects clearly but cannot focus on close objects.
o Either the eyeball is too short or the lens is not sufficiently curved, even when the
ciliary muscles contract.
o A converging lens corrects far sight by increasing the power of the lens system of
the eye and decreasing focal length.
• Near-sightedness or myopia/short-sightedness is the condition in which a person can see
close objects clearly but cannot focus on distant objects.

o A diverging lens corrects far sight by decreasing the power of the lens system of
the eye and increasing focal length.
• Astigmatism is the optical defect in which a person’s eye is shaped somewhat
cylindrically rather than spherically, resulting in the person seeing blurred images.
o Correcting lenses have correcting cylindrical lenses
• Presbyopia is the loss of elasticity of the lens due to age, resulting in the loss of ability
for the eye to accommodate successfully.
o Bifocal lenses are usually prescribed. The upper part is a diverging lens to enable
clear distance vision, and the lower part is converging to enable close vision.
o Varifocus or progressive lenses are also used. The power of the lens varies
gradually from diverging to converging.
• A cataract is a cloudy area that forms in the lens of the eye, resulting in the increased
opacity of the lens. Blindness may result.