POLITICAL PHILOSOPHERS

BY ABHAY PRATAP SINGH

11th F
INDEX
1) Acknowledgement
2) Objective
3) Introduction
4) Chapter 1 Mahatma Gandhi
5) Chapter 2 B. R. Ambedkar
6) Chapter 3 John Stuart Mill
7) Chapter 4 Karl Marx
8) Bibliography
 Acknowledgement
I would like to extend my sincere and heartfelt gratitude to my
political science teacher who helped me in this project and has
always been very cooperative and without her help, cooperation,
guidance and encouragement, this project couldn’t have been
what it evolved to be
I extend my heartfelt thanks to my principal and faculty for their
and constant supervision.
I am also thankful for the cooperation and encouragement from
my parents.
At last, gratitude to all my friends, who also helped me to
complete this project within the limited time frame.
 OBJECTIVE
It is an attempt to find out beliefs and philosophies
various political philosophers from the world
I have taken Indian and western political
philosophers
So that we can see the similarities and differences in
the thinking of philosophers I have tried my best to
complete this project in the guidelines given by the
CBSE
 INTRODUCTION
The following project is on the revolutionaries
of Late modern (born between 1750 CE and
1900 CE) I have focused on their life and beliefs
and philosophies and their various works
CHAPTER 1
Mahatma Gandhi
 Mahatma Gandhi
LIFE- Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi October 1869 – 30 January 1948) was an
Indian lawyer, Anti-colonial nationalist and political ethicist who employed
nonviolent resistance to lead the successful campaign for India's independence
from British rule, and to later inspire movements for civil rights and freedom
across the world. Born and raised in a Hindu family in coastal Gujarat, Gandhi
trained in the law at the Inner Temple, London, and was called to the bar at age
22 in June 1891. After two uncertain years in India, where he was unable to start
a successful law practice, he moved to South Africa in 1893 to represent an Indian
merchant in a lawsuit. He went on to live in South Africa for 21 years. It was here
that Gandhi raised a family and first employed nonviolent resistance in a
campaign for civil rights. In 1915, aged 45, he returned to India and soon set
about organizing peasants, farmers, and urban Laboure's to protest against
excessive land-tax and discrimination.

BELIEFS AND PHLOSOPHIES

Truth and Satyagraha- Gandhi dedicated his life to discovering and pursuing truth, or Satya,
and called his movement satyagraha, which means "appeal to, insistence on, or reliance on the
Truth". The first formulation of the satyagraha as a political movement and principle occurred
in 1920, which he tabled as "Resolution on Non-cooperation" in September that year before a
session of the Indian Congress. It was the satyagraha formulation and step, states Dennis
Dalton, that deeply resonated with beliefs and culture of his people, embedded him into the
popular consciousness, transforming him quickly into Mahatma. Gandhi stated that the most
important battle to fight was overcoming his own demons, fears, and insecurities. Gandhi
summarized his beliefs first when he said "God is Truth". He would later change this statement
to "Truth is God". Thus, Satya (truth) in Gandhi's philosophy is "God". Gandhi, states Richards,
described the term "God" not as a separate power, but as the Being (Brahman, Atman) of the
Advaita Vedanta tradition, a nondual universal that pervades in all things, in each person and all
life. According to Nicholas Gier, this to Gandhi meant the unity of God and humans, that all
beings have the same one soul and therefore equality, that atman exists and is same as
everything in the universe, ahimsa (non-violence) is the very nature of this atman.
Nonviolence- Although Gandhi was not the originator of the principle of nonviolence, he was
the first to apply it in the political field on a large scale. The concept of nonviolence (ahimsa)
Has a long history in Indian religious thought, and is considered the highest dharma (ethical
value virtue), a precept to be observed towards all living beings (sarvbhuta), at all times
(Sarvada), in all respects (Saratha), in action, words and thought. Gandhi explains his
philosophy and ideas about ahimsa as a political means in his autobiography The Story of My
Experiments with Truth. Gandhi as a politician, in practice, settled for less than complete non-
violence. His method of non-violent Satyagraha could easily attract masses and it fitted in with
the interests and sentiments of business groups, better-off people and dominant sections of
peasantry, who did not want an uncontrolled and violent social revolution which could create
losses for them. His doctrine of ahimsa lay at the core of unifying role played by the Gandhian
Congress. But during Quit India movement even many staunch Gandhians used 'violent means'.

Gandhism- Gandhism designates the ideas and principles Gandhi promoted; of central
importance is nonviolent resistance. A Gandhian can mean either an individual who follows, or
a specific philosophy which is attributed to, Gandhism. M. M. Sankhdher argues that Gandhism
is not a systematic position in metaphysics or in political philosophy. Rather, it is a political
creed, an economic doctrine, a religious outlook, a moral precept, and especially, a
humanitarian world view. It is an effort not to systematise wisdom but to transform society and
is based on an undying faith in the goodness of human nature. However, Gandhi himself did not
approve of the notion of "Gandhism", as he explained in 1936:
There is no such thing as "Gandhism", and I do not want to leave any sect after me. I do not
claim to have originated any new principle or doctrine. I have simply tried in my own way to
apply the eternal truths to our daily life and problems ... The opinions I have formed and the
conclusions I have arrived at are not final. I may change them tomorrow. I have nothing new to
teach the world. Truth and nonviolence are as old as the hills.

Works
• The Story of My Experiments with Truth
• Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule
• newspapers like Harijan in Gujarati, in Hindi and in the English language
CHAPTER 2
B. R. Ambedkar
 B. R. Ambedkar
LIFE- Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar (14 April 1891 – 6 December 1956) was an Indian jurist,
economist, social reformer and political leader who headed the committee drafting the
Constitution of India from the Constituent Assembly debates, served as Law and Justice
minister in the first cabinet of Jawaharlal Nehru, and inspired the Dalit Buddhist movement
after renouncing Hinduism.
Ambedkar graduated from Elphinstone College, University of Bombay, and studied economics
at Columbia University and the London School of Economics, receiving doctorates in 1927 and
1923 respectively and was among a handful of Indian students to have done so at either
institution in the 1920s. He also trained in the law at Gray's Inn, London. In his early career, he
was an economist, professor, and lawyer. His later life was marked by his political activities; he
became involved in campaigning and negotiations for India's independence, publishing journals,
advocating political rights and social freedom for Dalits, and contributing significantly to the
establishment of the state of India. In 1956, he converted to Buddhism, initiating mass
conversions of Dalits.

BELIEFS AND PHLOSOPHIES

Opposition to untouchability- As Ambedkar was educated by the Princely State of Baroda,
he was bound to serve it. He was appointed Military Secretary to the Gaikwad but had to quit in
a short time. He described the incident in his autobiography, Waiting for a Visa. Thereafter, he
tried to find ways to make a living for his growing family. He worked as a private tutor, as an
accountant, and established an investment consulting business, but it failed when his clients
learned that he was an untouchable. In 1918, he became Professor of Political Economy in the
Sydenham College of Commerce and Economics in Mumbai. Although he was successful with
the students, other professors objected to his sharing a drinking-water jug with them. By 1927,
Ambedkar had decided to launch active movements against untouchability. He began with
public movements and marches to open up public drinking water resources. He also began a
struggle for the right to enter Hindu temples. He led a satyagraha in Mahad to fight for the
right of the untouchable community to draw water from the main water tank of the town. In a
conference in late 1927, Ambedkar publicly condemned the classic Hindu text, the Manusmriti
(Laws of Manu), for ideologically justifying caste discrimination and "untouchability", and he
ceremonially burned copies of the ancient text. On 25 December 1927, he led thousands of
followers to burn copies of Manusmriti. Thus, annually 25 December is celebrated as
Manusmriti Dahan Din (Manusmriti Burning Day) by Ambedkarites and Dalits.
Communism- Ambedkar's views on Communism were expressed in two 1956 texts, “Buddha
or Karl Marx” and “Buddhism and Communism" He accepted the Marxist theory that the
privileged Few's exploitation of the masses perpetuated poverty and its issues. However, he did
not see this exploitation as purely economic, theorizing that the cultural aspects of exploitation
are as bad or worse than economic exploitation. In addition, he did not see economic
relationships as the only important aspect of human life. He also saw Communists as willing to
resort to any means to achieve proletarian revolution, including violence, while he himself saw
democratic and peaceful measures as the best option for change. Ambedkar also opposed the
Marxist idea of controlling all the means of production and ending private ownership of
property: seeing the latter measure as not able to fix the problems of society. In addition,
rather than advocating for the eventual annihilation of the state as Marxism does, Ambedkar
believed in a classless society, but also believed the state would exist as long as society and that
it should be active in development. But in the 1950s, in an interview he gave to BBC, he
accepted that the current liberal democratic system will collapse and the alternative, as he
thinks, "is some kind of communism".

Works
• Castes in India: Their Mechanism, Genesis and Development and 11 Other Essays
• The Annihilation of Caste (1936)
• The Buddha and his Dhamma
• Who Were the Shudras? (1946)
• The Untouchables Who Were They and Why They Became Untouchables?
CHAPTER 3
John Stuart Mill
 John Stuart Mill
LIFE- John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 – 7 May 1873) was an English philosopher, political
economist, Member of Parliament (MP) and civil servant. One of the most influential thinkers in
the history of classical liberalism, he contributed widely to social theory, political theory, and
political economy. Dubbed "the most influential English-speaking philosopher of the nineteenth
century", he conceived of liberty as justifying the freedom of the individual in opposition to
unlimited state and social control.
Mill was a proponent of utilitarianism, an ethical theory developed by his predecessor Jeremy
Bentham. He contributed to the investigation of scientific methodology, though his knowledge
of the topic was based on the writings of others, notably William Whewell, John Herschel, and
Auguste Comte, and research carried out for Mill by Alexander Bain. He engaged in written
debate with Whewell.

BELIEFS AND PHLOSOPHIES

Liberty- Mill's view on liberty, is that individuals ought to be free to do as they wished unless
they caused harm to others. Individuals are rational enough to make decisions about their well-
being. Government should interfere when it is for the protection of society.

Harm principle- The belief that freedom of speech would advance society presupposed a
society sufficiently culturally and institutionally advanced to be capable of progressive
improvement. If any argument is really wrong or harmful, the public will judge it as wrong or
harmful, and then those arguments cannot be sustained and will be excluded. Mill argued that
even any arguments which are used in justifying murder or rebellion against the government
shouldn't be politically suppressed or socially persecuted. According to him, if rebellion is really
necessary, people should rebel; if murder is truly proper, it should be allowed. However, the
way to express those arguments should be a public speech or writing, not in a way that causes
actual harm to others. Such is the harm principle: "That the only purpose for which power can
be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent
harm to others."
Economic philosophy- Mill's early economic philosophy was one of free markets. However,
he accepted interventions in the economy, such as a tax on alcohol, if there were sufficient
utilitarian grounds. He also accepted the principle of legislative intervention for the purpose of
animal welfare. He originally believed that "equality of taxation" meant "equality of sacrifice"
and that progressive taxation penalized those who worked harder and saved more and was
therefore "a mild form of robbery".
Given an equal tax rate regardless of income, Mill agreed that inheritance should be taxed. A
utilitarian society would agree that everyone should be equal one way or another. Therefore,
receiving inheritance would put one ahead of society unless taxed on the inheritance. Those
who donate should consider and choose carefully where their money goes—some charities are
more deserving than others. Considering public charities boards such as a government will
disburse the money equally. However, a private charity board like a church would disburse the
monies fairly to those who are in more need than others.

Freedom of speech- On Liberty involves an impassioned defense of free speech. Mill argues
that free discourse is a necessary condition for intellectual and social progress. We can never be
sure, he contends, that a silenced opinion does not contain some element of the truth. He also
argues that allowing people to air false opinions is productive for two reasons. First, individuals
are more likely to abandon erroneous beliefs if they are engaged in an open exchange of ideas.
Second, by forcing other individuals to re-examine and re-affirm their beliefs in the process of
debate, these beliefs are kept from declining into mere dogma. It is not enough for Mill that
one simply has an unexamined belief that happens to be true; one must understand why the
belief in question is the true one. Along those same lines Mill wrote, "unmeasured vituperation
employed on the side of prevailing opinion, really does deter people from expressing contrary
opinions, and from listening to those who express them."

WORKS
• A System of Logic
• Principles of Political Economy
• On Liberty
• Considerations on Representative Government
CHAPTER 4
Karl Marx
 Karl Marx
LIFE- Karl Heinrich Marx (German: [maʁks]; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German
philosopher, critic of political economy, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist,
journalist and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 pamphlet The
Communist Manifesto and the four-volume Das Kapital (1867–1883). Marx's political and
philosophical thought had enormous influence on subsequent intellectual, economic, and
political history. His name has been used as an adjective, a noun, and a school of social theory.
Born in Trier, Germany, Marx studied law and philosophy at the universities of Bonn and Berlin.
He married German theatre critic and political activist Jenny von Westphalen in 1843. Due to
his political publications, Marx became stateless and lived in exile with his wife and children in
London for decades, where he continued to develop his thought in collaboration with German
philosopher Friedrich Engels and publish his writings, researching in the British Museum
Reading Room.

BELIEFS AND PHLOSOPHIES

Human nature- Like Tocqueville, who described a faceless and bureaucratic despotism with
no identifiable despot, Marx also broke with classical thinkers who spoke of a single tyrant and
with Montesquieu, who discussed the nature of the single despot. Instead, Marx set out to
analyze "the despotism of capital". Fundamentally, Marx assumed that human history involves
transforming human nature which encompasses both human beings and material objects.
Humans recognize that they possess both actual and potential selves. For both Marx and Hegel,
self-development begins with an experience of internal alienation stemming from this
recognition, followed by a realization that the actual self, as a subjective agent, renders its
potential counterpart an object to be apprehended
+
 Philosophy and social thought- Marx's polemic with other thinkers often
occurred through critique and thus he has been called "the first great user of critical method in
social sciences". He criticized speculative philosophy, equating metaphysics with ideology. By
adopting this approach, Marx attempted to separate key findings from ideological biases. This
set him apart from many contemporary philosophers.

WORKS-
• Theory of Underconsumption
• Crisis theory
• The Civil War in France
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_political_philo
sophers

• NCERT political theory