Chapter 1 Rocks and Mineral and Their Extraction Notes

CHAPTER 1
ROCKS AND MINERALS AND THEIR EXTRACTION

The Earth is a rocky planet. It is made from rocks and metal
ores, which makes it the densest planet in the solar system. This is
mainly because the core consists of iron surrounded by a mantle of
rock. What is a rock?
A rock is a solid mass of geological materials.
A rock is a solid collection of mineral grains that grow or become cemented together.
Formation of rocks:
The planet Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago. The force
of gravity pulled the heavier elements together first, forming the
core. The lighter elements then formed the Earth’s crust about 3–4
billion years ago. The mantle developed as a layer between the
dense core and the light crust. This structure still exists today.
The structure of the Earth:

The all of the Earth’s surface is covered by only three types of rock,
they are:
1. Igneous rocks:
Igneous rocks (from the Latin word for fire) form when hot, molten rock
crystallizes and solidifies.
• When molten rock from the crust and upper mantle cools,
igneous rocks are formed. The molten rock is called magma when
it is still below the surface and lava when it reaches the surface.
• Magma is found in the outer mantle; it is hot, liquid rock that is
under pressure from the rocks above it. When it cools it turns to
solid rock. When liquid magma rises to the surface from
volcanoes the cooling occurs quickly and forms lava.
• Igneous rocks are made of material that was once molten; they
usually contain crystals that are formed as the molten material
cools.
• The crystals found in rocks are formed when solutions of
minerals cannot absorb any more dissolved minerals.
• Some of each mineral type precipitates out of solution to form the
centre of a crystal. This then provides a surface for more mineral
ions to precipitate onto. The crystal becomes larger until the
solution disappears.
• Extrusive igneous rock: If the rock cools quickly, only very
small crystals can form before the rock becomes solid e.g basalt.
• Intrusive igneous rock: If magma rises from the mantle into the
crust without reaching the Earth’s surface, then the magma
cools more slowly, allowing the formation of larger crystals. Many
of these crystals contain valuable minerals that are used for a
wide range of industrial processes e.g granite.
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2. Sedimentary rocks
• Are formed by the weathering of existing rocks at the Earth’s
surface, the accumulation and fossilisation of living material, or
the precipitation of dissolved materials out of solution in water.
• Weathering processes release small mineral particles that
accumulate to form sediment (small particles of rocks). Over
time, layers of sediment build up to form sedimentary rock.
• The sediments include different-sized mineral particles. The
smallest particles are clays, followed by silts and then sands.
These particles are important in the formation of soils. Larger
particles of gravels and small boulders can also be found in

sediments.
• The particles are transported by streams and rivers and then
deposited as sediment. Each layer of sediment becomes more
compact and harder because of the pressure created by the
newer deposits above them. Examples of sedimentary rock are
limestone, sandstone and shale.
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3. Metamorphic rocks:
• Are created from existing rocks when the heat or pressure or
both heat and pressure, causes changes in the rock crystals
without melting the existing rock. The existing rock therefore
changes in structure, becoming a metamorphic rock. The
changes in structure can be chemical or physical or both.
• Sedimentary and igneous rocks can become metamorphic rocks,
and a metamorphic rock can become another metamorphic rock.
• Metamorphic rocks are usually harder than sedimentary rocks.
• Examples of metamorphic rocks are marble and slate.
The rock cycle:
• When the Earth’s crust first formed, all the rocks were igneous.
These rocks were slowly eroded, releasing small particles that
formed sediment, and these sediments built up over time to form
sedimentary rocks. The rocks that make up the Earth’s crust are
always moving, which creates the heat and pressure needed to
form metamorphic rock.
All rock types are constantly eroded and formed in the rock cycle.
• The rock cycle is a representation of the changes between the
three rock types and processes causing them.
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Characteristics of the different rock types.
Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Made from liquid Made from other Made from existing
magma rock fragments rock
Rock fragments
The original rock is
Magma cools to form become buried and
changed in form by
solid rock increased pressure
heat and pressure
forms a rock
Mineral crystals
sometimes present;
Mineral crystals
the size of the Crystals absent
present
crystals depend on
the speed of cooling
Fossils may be
No fossils present No fossils present
present
Key Terms
Rock: a combination of one or more minerals

Mineral: a naturally occurring inorganic substance
with a specific chemical composition
Igneous rock: rock made during a volcanic process
Magma: molten rock below the surface of the Earth
Solution: formed when a solid is dissolved in a liquid
precipitates: when a substance comes out of solution
Ion: an atom in which the number of positively charged
protons is not equal to the number of negatively
charged electrons.
Sedimentary rock: a rock formed from material derived
from the weathering of other rocks or the accumulation
of dead plants and animals
Metamorphic rock: a rock formed from existing rocks
by a combination of heat and pressure
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Assessment
Compaction
and
Cementation
The rock cycle.

1. Complete the Figure above with processes on the arrows
and intermediate stages in the ovals.
The processes should be chosen from the list provided; one has
been done for you.
heat and pressure Weathering and erosion

heat and pressure
melting melting magma

Cooling
sediment
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2. Add the names of the correct rock type to Table below:
Description Rock Type

Rocks formed in the sea from
particles of eroded rock
Rocks changed by heat
Rocks formed from the cooling of
other molten rock
A : Crust
B: Mantle
C: Core
Extraction of rocks and minerals from the earth
 Minerals provide us with a wide range of materials that we use in
everyday life.
 Coal and oil provide energy and many chemicals used in industry.
 Metallic ores provide us with the metals and alloys needed to
make products such as computers, mobile phones, cars, wires
and nails.
 The demand for minerals continues to increase, both from
developed and developing countries.
 People have searched for minerals for thousands of years. The
simplest way to find mineral deposits is to look carefully at the
surface of rocks. This process of prospecting has found nearly all
the surface deposits of minerals worldwide.
Exploring for minerals:

• Prospecting: a process of searching for minerals by examining
the surface of the rocks.
• Remote sensing: a process in which information is gathered
about the Earth’s surface from above.
▪ Photographs of the area are taken from air.
▪ The images are carefully analyzed for mineral
presence.
▪ Aerial photography can cover more ground than a
person on the surface.
• Radiation detection:
▪ Mineral deposits are weathered at the Earth’s
surface, forming mineral oxides.
▪ They can be detected by their unique radiation
pattern (recorded by a satellite and downloaded to a
computer for analysis).
• Satellite signals:
▪ Some satellites send signals to the Earth’s surface
and collect the reflected signals, indicating the
presence of minerals.
▪ The system works in all weather conditions.
• Satellite images:
 Computers are used to process the data from a region of
interest to check for mineral presence.
 Geologists confirm the presence of the mineral by visiting the
location.
 Geologists can further check the availability of the mineral in
nearby areas.
 Using satellites saves time and costs less.
• Geochemical analysis:
• analyzing the chemical properties of rocks(by taking samples).
 The samples can be taken from stream sediments, soil or
rocks (using shallow drilling).
 The location of the sample points can be accurately found
using the Global Positioning System (GPS).
• Geophysics: method to identify mineral ores present in rocks
using their physical properties.
▪ A series of vibrations are sent through the Earth’s
surface.
▪ Several sensors are placed at different distances
from the source of vibrations on the surface.
▪ The vibrations create shock waves that travel down
into the rock layers.
▪ They are reflected back to the sensors on the surface.
▪ The shock waves record different patterns
depending on the mineral present in the rock layers.
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Methods of extraction:
• Surface mining: includes open-cast (open-pit, open-cut) and

strip mining.
 Open-pit mining is used when a valuable deposit is located

near the surface.
The material above the deposit is called overburden.
 The vegetation is cleared and topsoil removed.
 The rocks are broke up and loosened with explosives.
 The loose rock is removed using diggers.
 The rock or mineral is tipped into trucks or railway wagons.
 Building materials such as sand, gravel and stone are removed
from open pits called quarries.
 Strip mining is used to mine a seam of mineral.
 The overburden (overlying rock and soil) is removed as a thin
strip.
 It is mainly used to mine coal.
• Sub-surface mining: includes deep and shaft mining.
▪ A vertical shaft is sunk down to the rock layer containing
minerals.
▪ A horizontal tunnel (adit, drift) is made, following the
mineral layer.
The minerals are extracted by digging (by machines and


miners).
 The loose rock is brought from the mine and piled up on waste
heaps on the surface.
 The minerals are brought to the surface and transported in
trucks or trains.
Compared with open-pit mining, any form of shaft mining is more
difficult because a supply of fresh air and water drainage has to be
provided. There are also the dangers of collapsing tunnels as well as
the risks of poisonous gas, explosion and underground fire.
Factors That Affect The Decision to Extract Rocks and
Minerals:
1. The costs of exploration and extraction:

 Probable cost of extracting one tonne is calculated.
 There are fewer technical difficulties of mining on a large scale
using open-pit mining as there’d be low extraction costs per

tonne.
 Shaft mining is costlier to set up and maintain as the cost per
tonne will be higher. So, only deposits of higher value can be

mined in this way.
2. Geology:
 High-grade ores yield more of the required chemical elements
than low-grade ores.
 Small deposits of high-grade ore are worth mining.
 Small deposits of low-grade ore that cannot be mined at a
profit are left as reserves.
3. Accessibility:
 Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plants can
be difficult and expensive.
 The cost of building road or rail links to the processing plant
or to the nearest port for export has to be considered.
 Carrying out some processing at the mine reduces transport
costs.
 The mining company must be given a licence before extracting
a deposit.
 A long-term agreement between the government and mining
company must be reached to avoid rapid rises in the tax,
which makes the mining unprofitable.
4. Environmental Impact Assessment:
 For a licence application to be approved, the company must
have a plan to keep the loss of habitat minimal, followed by
the restoration of land proceeding the completion of mining.
 The choice of site for mine waste should also be considered.
Supply and demand: the relation between how much of a
commodity is available and how much is needed or wanted by
the consumers.
 Increase in world demand for any mineral ore will elevate the
prices.
 The profit from a working mine depends on changes in supply
and demand.
 If the demand is too high, mines that were not profitable
before become worth mining.
 If the demand falls, working mines may get into a loss due
to the transport and extraction expenses.

Key Terms
ore: a rock with enough of an important element to make it

worth mining
Prospecting: a process of searching for minerals
Remote sensing: a process in which information is gathered bout the
Earth’s surface from above
Geochemical: the chemical properties of rocks
Geophysical: the physical properties of rocks
Surface mining: a type of mining used when the mineral
is either exposed on the surface or overlain by only small
amounts of overburden
overburden: the rock and soil overlying an
economically viable mineral deposit
open-pit mining: a type of surface mining
Strip mining: a type of surface mining
Sub-surface mining: a type of mining used when the deposit is covered
by a deep layer(s) of unwanted rock
Deep mining: a type of sub-surface mining
Shaft mining: a type of sub-surface mining
Impact of rock and mineral extraction
https://greenliving.lovetoknow.com/How_Does_Mining_Affect_the_Environment
1. Environmental impacts
Impacts on the environment from the extraction of rocks and
minerals range from large-scale habitat destruction to pollution of
the atmosphere, land and water. Those living near the site are also
affected by noise and visual pollution.
a. Ecological impacts
• Loss of habitat for some species of plants and animals. As the
vegetation is cleared, the plants removed have lost a place to grow,
so the animals that depend on the plants for food and shelter are
affected.
• At the beginning of deep mining operations (as shafts have to be
dug down), only a small area of land is cleared. After this type of
mine has been working for several years, more habitats will be
destroyed as the amount of mine waste stored aboveground
increases.
• After the seams of valuable mineral have been removed, the
overburden is spread over the mined area to restore the land. The
new land surface will slowly become covered in some plant species.
However, this vegetation will have less biodiversity compared with
the original vegetation. This means that some plant and animal
habitats will still be lost from an area for many years, even though
the land surface has been restored.
• When a company applies for a licence to start working, an
environmental impact assessment is carried out. The licence
application is usually approved if the company has a plan to keep
the loss of habitat as small as possible and then to restore the land
after mining has finished.
• Environmental impact assessment: a process by which the
probable effects on the environment of a development are assessed
and measured.
b. Pollution
• The working life of any type of mine will result in some pollution
of the environment.
• Noise pollution: due to machinery and explosive disturbs the
behaviour of animals species and causes hearing problems for
people. Deep mining produces less noise than surface mining.
• Water pollution: water supplies may also be polluted, making it
unsafe for people to drink.
• The water may become acidic and dissolve toxic metal ions-this
combination kills many aquatic organisms.

• Some of the metal ions exist only in low concentrations in bodies
of water. However, organisms absorb these ions and retain them in
their body, reaching concentrations much higher than that in the
water. This is called bioaccumulation.
• The concentrations increase further in organisms that are higher
up the food chain and can cause the death of top consumers. This
process is called biomagnification
• Land pollution: toxic nature of the waste doesn’t allow plant
growth even years after the mining is stopped.
• Air pollution: mining activities release dust particles, which will
settle on the vegetation near the mine. Dust reduces plant growth:
the leaves of plants need to absorb light energy to perform
photosynthesis. If light cannot penetrate a layer of dust on a leaf
surface, then the rate of photosynthesis is reduced.
• Dust from mining activities may also have toxic effects. This can
also reduce or stop plant growth, and the particles can be
dangerous to human health.
• Breathing in dust that then remains in the lungs can lead to
serious lung diseases that can cause death.
• Some harmful substances can also be absorbed through human
skin.
• Visual pollution: Evidence of mining activity can often be seen
because the landscape is damaged.
2. Economic Impacts:
• Provides employment for people and provides taxes for the
government.
• Number of people will be directly employed to extract minerals.
• Further jobs are created if the mineral is then refined and
processed in the same country.
• If all these activities occur in the same country, this will generate
the most income for buying goods and services as well as investing
in infrastructure projects.
• Improvements to transport and services, such as healthcare and
education, will be required to supply any mining industry as well
as support the mineworkers and their families.

Managing The Impact of Rock and Mineral Extraction
Safe disposal of mining waste:
• Mine waste will be stored to prevent collapse.
• The site of the mine waste must also prevent the possibility of
water pollution.
• The waste must be monitored to detect any movement or further
pollution.
Land restoration and bioremediation:
• Soil improvement:
• When mining has finished, the land needs to be restored.
• The waste can then be covered by a layer of soil, which may be
enriched with fertiliser.
• Planting Trees:
• After improving the soil fertility, plants and trees can be grown in
that area, helping an ecosystem to be reborn.
• Bioremediation: a process of removing pollutants from waste
using living organisms.
• In situ treatment: treatment of contaminated waste where it’s
left.
• Ex situ treatment: removal of contaminated waste from a site to
a treatment plant. Often happens slowly (can be sped up by
providing oxygen and nitrogen).
• Microorganisms, like bacteria, can absorb pollutants and
metabolise them into less harmful substances.
• Some plants have the ability to bioaccumulate toxic metals.
• After these plants grows for a while, the parts of the plants
aboveground are removed so the waste in the ground becomes less
toxic.
• Making lakes and natural reserves:
• Several tree and herb species are introduced.
• As their populations grow, they create habitats for many species.
• These nature reserves become valuable green spaces for human
recreation and help in maintaining biodiversity.
• If the rock lining the hole (created by the extraction) is non-toxic
and impervious to water, it can be filled with water to form a
reservoir or lake.
• It is used for irrigating farmland or processed to provide clean,
safe drinking water for humans.
• Using as landfill sites:
• Landfilling: the waste is tipped into a hole; from time to time it
is levelled off and compacted.

• Sanitary landfilling: As in landfilling, the waste is used to fill the
hole, but alternating layers of waste and sand are used.
Key Terms
Environmental impact assessment: a process

by which
the probable effects on the environment of a
development are assessed and measured.
Biomagnification: the process in which the
concentration of
a substance in living things becomes higher
at progressively
. higher levels in a food chain or web.
Bioremediation: a process in which living
things are used to remove toxic chemicals from a
natural site
Sustainable Use of Rocks and Minerals:
• Sustainable use means use that meets the needs of the present
without affecting the ability of future generations to meet their
needs.
• Sustainable resource will never run out, and this can be achieved
in fisheries, agriculture and forestry, where the resource is biological
and can be regrown. Unlike these biological systems, such things as
rocks and minerals will not last indefinitely.
• The sustainable development of the reserves of any rock or
mineral must take into account environmental, economic and
social factors.
Sustainable resource: a resource that can be continuously
replenished e.g. agriculture, forestry, etc. Sustainable
development: development that meets the needs of the
present, without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.

Strategies for the Sustainable Use of Rocks and
Minerals:
• Increasing the efficiency of the extraction of rocks and
minerals:
▪ Mine wastes must be processed for the second time.
▪ This allows the valuable minerals to be recovered and reduces the
risk of pollution due to mine waste.
▪ Chemical treatment of the waste and biological treatment (using
microorganisms) extracts much of the valuable mineral still within it.
▪ Improvements in the performance of the machines used in mining
and processing.
▪ Greater use of data analysis by computers (to predict geological
conditions).
• Increasing the efficiency of the use of rocks and minerals:
▪ Engineering solutions e.g. design steel beams with same strength
but using less steel.
• The need to recycle rocks and minerals:
▪ Recycling uses less energy than processing the ores.
▪ Recycling also produces less waste and thus, reduces the risk of
pollution.
• Legislation:
▪ The governments pass laws that require manufacturers to become
responsible for recycling and reuse.

CHAPTER 2
ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENT

Fossil fuel formation
• Fossil fuels: carbon-based fuels, formed over many millions of
years ago from the decay of living matter.
• Coal: formed from plants.
• Oil and natural gas: formed from sea creatures.
Formation of coal:
• Huge forests grew millions of years ago covering most of the Earth.
• The vegetation died and formed peat.
• The peat was compressed between layers of sediments to form
lignite (low-grade coal).
• Further compression formed coal.
Formation of oil and natural gas:
• Small animals and plants die and fall to the bottom of the sea.
• Their remains are covered by sediments.
• As the sediments start forming layers, they start to change into
sandstone as the temperature and pressure increase.
• The heat and pressure turn the remains into crude oil and
natural gas.
• They separate and rise through the sandstone, filling in the pores.
• The rock above the oil and gas is impervious (non-porous).
• So, they get trapped underneath it.

Energy resources and the generation of
electricity
• The demand for energy is increasing worldwide due to:
- Increasing population size.
- Increasing industrialisation and urbanisation.
- Improvements in standards of living and expectations.
Types of energy sources:
NON-RENEWABLE RENEWABLE
Limited. Can be used over and over
again.
Take millions of years to get Can be replenished in a short
replenished. period of time.
•Fossil fuels (coal, oil and •Geothermal power;
natural gas); • Hydro-electric power;
• Nuclear power (using • Tidal power;
uranium). • Wave power;
• Wind power;
• Solar power;
• Biofuels e.g. bioethanol,
biogas and wood.
How energy sources are used to generate electricity:
• Most electricity is generated by electromagnetic induction
which transforms kinetic energy into electric energy.
• Turbine: a machine, often containing fins, that is made to
revolve by gas, steam or air (it is connected to a generator).
• Generator: a machine that converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy.
Fossil Fuels and Biofuels:
• These produce a massive amount of energy during combustion
that is used to heat water and convert it into steam, which
thereby drives the turbines.
Nuclear Power:
• Uranium, a radioactive element, releases huge amounts of energy
when nuclear fission (splitting of the atom) occurs.
• This energy is used to heat the water, produce steam, and rotate
the turbines.
Geothermal Power:
• Cold water is pumped under pressure into a layer of hot rocks.
• The rocks heat the water.
The hot water returns to the surface under pressure and heats the
second supply of water using a heat exchanger.
• The steam produced in the second supply moves the turbine,
generating electricity.
Wind Power:
• Wind turbines have shafts (blades) that rotate due to wind.
• Gearbox maximises the rotation of the shaft.
• Brakes slow down or stop the rotor in very windy conditions,
preventing damage to
the blade.
• As the turbine rotates, the generator produces electricity.
Solar Power:
• Uses photovoltaic cells that produce a small electric charge when
exposed to light.
• A bank of cells organised into solar panels produce a significant
amount of electricity.
Tidal Power:
• Uses the natural rise and fall in the level of water in an area.
• When the levels drop, water is held back by a tidal barrage (a
small dam that releases water back through a turbine).
Wave power:
• Also uses turbine and generator.
• Uses the smaller differences in water levels that are caused by
wind.
Hydro-electric Power:
• Uses a dam on a river to store water in a reservoir.

• Water is released from the reservoir that flows through the
turbine, rotating it.
• The turbine then activates a generator that generates electricity.
Advantages and Disadvantages of:
Fossil Fuels:
ADVANTAGES:
• Plentiful supply
• Provides job opportunities (mining and processing)
• The technology used is well-known and the methods of extraction
are well-practiced.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Carbon dioxide and toxic gases are released when burnt
(contributes to global warming).
• • Damages local area.
• Limited supply (non-renewable).
Biofuels:
ADVANTAGES:
• Renewable source
• Growing more plants uses carbon dioxide.
• Plentiful suppl
DISADVANTAGES:
• Carbon dioxide and toxic gases are released when burnt.
• Lot of land needed
• Shortage of land for agriculture (increase in food prices).
• Removal of natural ecosystems (reduction in biodiversity).

Nuclear Power:
ADVANTAGES:
• Does not produce carbon dioxide.
• Large amount of energy is produced with a small amount of fuel.
• Provides job opportunities.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Risk of radiation leakage.
• Radioactive waste cannot be recycled since it is active for
centuries;
• Limited supply (non-renewable).
Geothermal Power:
ADVANTAGES:
• Does not produce carbon dioxide (doesn’t contribute to global
warming).
• Unlimited supply (renewable).
DISADVANTAGES:
• Expensive to install.
• Only certain areas have suitable conditions.

Wind Power:
ADVANTAGES:
warming).
• Renewable.
• Very low cost once built
DISADVANTAGES:
• Generation of electricity is weather-dependent.
• Only certain locations are suitable;
• Visual impact.
• Uses a large area.
Solar Power:
ADVANTAGES:
warming).
• Costly to build
DISADVANTAGES:
• Weather-dependent.
Tidal Power:
ADVANTAGES:
• Does not produce carbon dioxide ‫ ؞‬doesn’t contribute to global
warming.
• Tidal movements are not weather-dependent.
.DISADVANTAGES:
• Limited to specific coastal areas
• Impact on tourism and local fishermen.
Wave Power:
ADVANTAGES:
warming).
• Renewable.
DISADVANTAGES:
• Limited to specific areas.
• Not very efficient at present.
Hydro-electric Power:
ADVANTAGES:
warming).
• Water can be reused
DISADVANTAGES:
• Dams impact the natural flow of water.

Villages and ecosystems may be destroyed
Key Term:
Fossil fuel: a carbon-based fuel, formed over many

millions of years from the decay of living matter. Non-
renewable: an item or resource that exists in a finite
amount that cannot be replaced.
Renewable: an item or resource that will not be used
up or can be replaced.
Electromagnetic induction: a process used for
generating electricity that uses the movement of a
metal coil and a magnet.
Generator: a machine that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy.
Turbine: a machine, often containing fins that is
made to revolve by the use of gas, steam or air.
Solar power: harnessing energy from sunlight.
Tidal power: the use of tides (the natural change in
sea level) to generate electricity.
Wave power: the use of changes in the height of a
body of water to generate electricity.
Energy demand
Domestic demand:
• The impact of more efficient manufacturing process has meant
that many goods have become more affordable.
• Created by affordability, availability and social status.
• Most of the purchases that are considered as necessities now
increase the demand for energy supplies, notably electricity.
- Fruits and vegetables, that aren’t naturally available in the

season locally, are produced in glasshouse or in areas with
a favourable climate and are then transported.
- In both the scenarios (glasshouse operation and transport),
the energy cost is significant.
Industrial demand:
• Manufacturing requires the use of large amounts of energy
throughout the production e.g. iron and steel production.
• Advanced manufacturing techniques made the products that
were once luxury items, cheaper.
- So, more people want to buy them.
- The demand for the product increases.
- The demand for energy (needed for production) also
increases.
Transport:
• Manufacturers supply customers across the globe.
• This decreases production costs in countries that import, but
increases the transport costs as they require large amounts of
fossil fuels to operate.
• There has been a significant increase in the amount of shipping
and air transport journeys.
Economic factors:
Personal and national wealth:
• If economic conditions are good:

- Higher employment
- More money to spend on luxury items;
- Increase in demand for the product;
- Increase in demand for energy (for production).
• If economic conditions are poor:

- Families have less money to spend on luxury items;
- Need to make savings;
- Reduce the use of fuel;
- Reduce the purchase and use of electrical items.
- Decrease in the demand for energy.
• Decline in the economy of one country can have a

global impact.
• Ex. Reduction in the economy of China meant a worldwide:
o Reduction in production of steel.
o Decrease in the amount of manufactured goods
(transported by ships).
o Decrease in the price of oil (energy source).
Climate:
• The demand for energy with regard to climate depends on the
country.
• People living in a temperate climate are likely to experience colder
winters, so the energy demand for heating would be far higher.
• They also experience fewer hours of daylight.
• This increases the usage of electrical lighting.
• Climate change (excessive heat or cold) increased the energy
consumption (particularly in urban areas).
• Need for additional heating or Installation and operation of air-
conditioning units.
Assessment:
1. The table below shows the approximate amount of energy
used per head of population in a year.
Country Energy used per head of population/watt year-1

Eritrea 188
Iceland 22560
Sri lanka 636
USA 9538
a) What percentage of annual energy use of a person from Iceland

is used by an equivalent person from Eritrea?
b) ………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
c) Explain the reason for the difference in the energy use between
two higher countries and the two lower use countries?
d) ………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
e) Iceland relies mainly on geothermal energy as its power source.

Describe how this could be used to generate electricity.
f) ………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
g) It has been stated that a healthy or strong world economy is

poor news for energy use. Describe why this might be thought
to be the case.
h) ………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………….
Conservation and management of energy resources
Strategies for effective energy use:

• Reduce consumption:
- Reducing the amount of energy used to heat a building.
Mr.Aziz ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IGCSE

33
- Using more equipment and less energy if the equipment

uses energy efficiency. e.g. reducing the amount of energy
used to heat buildings in colder climate.
- Standard house loses heat through a variety of routs (30-
35% through the roof, 18-25% through walls, 21-31%
through windows, and 6-9% through air leakage).
- Different technologies can be used to reduce this heat loss.
One of them being insulation
- Insulation is constructing using material with good
insulation properties prevents loss of heat.
▪ Loft insulation: adding an insulation layer into the roof
space.
▪ Underfloor insulation: adding an insulation layer on the
floor e.g. carpet.
▪ Cavity wall insulation: a gap between inside and
outside walls is filled with an insulating material, causing
the heat to pass through more slowly.
▪ Double glazing: two panes of glass with a gap in the
middle to act as an insulator. This sealed gap is usually
filled with air or an inert gas e.g. argon.
▪ Triple glazing can also be used, but it is too expensive.
- Electrical devices must be turned off when not in use.
- Devices can be left in ‘standby’ mode and can be accessed
rapidly.
- More energy-efficient devices must be bought.
- Developing alternative fuels for vehicles and further
development in engine technology.
- ‘Scrappage’ schemes: remove inefficient machines from use
(electrical appliances or vehicles).
• Energy from waste:

- Reusing existing materials to extract energy from them
before they are disposed.
- Anaerobic digestion: breaking down of organic matter
(waste food and vegetation) using bacteria.
- This process takes place in a sealed container and releases
methane (a flammable gas) that can be used for heating
purposes.

34
- The composted waste can be used as organic matter to

improve soil structure.
- Household rubbish can be incinerated (burnt) to produce
heat that can be used to generate electricity.
ADVANTAGES: Waste from burning (ash) is small in
volume. Thus, it doesn’t take up much space.
DISADVANTAGES: Produces poisonous gases during
combustion.
- The food processing industries use large quantities of
cooking oil, these vegetable oils, once used, need to be
disposed.
- These oils can be collected and recycled into biofuels
suitable for running vehicles;
- It can be used exclusively or as an additive.
• Education:
- Benefits of the technology must be communicated to others.
- Promote new ways of thinking;
- The message must be that significant savings in energy bills
can be made over the longer term, reducing energy use.
- Energy-efficiency ratings must be provided for new
products to compare with the old ones.
- Laws passed by the government to make changes rapidly:
a. Stricter building regulations: new constructions must be
more energy efficient.
b. Preventing the sales of inefficient types of electrical
devices.
- Some governments Incentive to encourage the purchase
of more efficient technologies:
a. Insulating older houses that are energy efficient;
b. Replacing older, inefficient electrical devices;
c. Scrapping older, inefficient cars that emit more pollutants.
• Exploiting existing energy resources:

- The type of energy source used depends on social,
environmental and economic factors.
- The current solution is to use a renewable resource as a
primary energy source when possible and have a fossil-fuel

35
(or biofuel) powered station available as a backup when

weather conditions are not suitable.
- This is a reliable source for industry and households and
reduces the amount of fossil fuels used.
• Transport policies:
Government initiative include:
- Regulations regarding the quality of exhaust gases from
vehicles.
- Check on the fuel efficiency.
- Restrictions on where vehicles may go.
- Taxation on fuels.
- Surcharges for travelling to certain places at peak times.
- Improving public transport so it is easier and cheaper than
using cars.
- Improving routes for cyclists and pedestrians.
- Encouraging car-sharing;
- Restricting when cars can be used e.g. odd even rule in
Delhi and Paris.
- Providing grants to buy more fuel-efficient vehicles and for
vehicles using cleaner technology such as electric-powered
vehicles.
• Development of new resources:
Fracking:
- Obtaining oil or gas from shale rock by splitting them open
using water, sand and chemicals.
- A vertical hole (2-3 km deep) is drilled to reach the fuel-
rich rocks (shale rocks).
- Water, sand and chemicals are pumped down into the
shale rock layer.
- This causes the rock to fracture, releasing oil and natural
gas, which are forced back to the surface and collected.
- Purpose of the three components:
▪ Water: easy to handle (in high pressure).
▪ Chemicals: stop the blockage of pipes.
▪ Sand: keeps the cracks in the rock open (proppant).

36
ADVANTAGES
• Allow access to more oil and gas.
• Less pollution than burning coal.
• Provide many jobs locally.
• Reduce the need to import oil or gas.
• The need to import reduces;
DISADVANTAGES
• Risk of toxins entering the water table.
• Chemicals are toxic and may affect local residents.
• Uses a lot of water; may cause water scarcity;
• Noise pollution.
• Natural areas damaged.
• May cause additional Earth tremors by lowering the level
of rock.

37
Impact of oil pollution

Despite of the research into other forms of energy, the world is still
very reliant on oil because:
- It is relatively easy to store and transport.
- It is easier to extract from the ground than solid materials
such as coal.
- It can be made into a number of different products.
- It produces less pollution when burnt compared with coal.
Oil is not present in every location, so the supplies have to be

transported to the customers. Oil is toxic and spillage can cause
great damage.
• the Main causes of marine oil spills:

- Offshore oil extraction: leakage from the rigs.
- Oil pipelines: leaks in the oil pipework.
- Shipping: risk of collision or damage to oil tankers.
• Effects of an oil spill:
Organism or habitat IMPACT OF OIL
PHYTOPLANKTON • Oil floats on the surface of

the water and blocks the
sunlight from entering. The
phytoplankton can’t
photosynthesise, so they
die.
FISH • Shortage of food; reduction
in phytoplankton.
• Oil floating on the surface
prevents gas exchange.

38
• Fish become short of

oxygen and die.
• Direct contact of the fish
with oil affects their gills.
BIRDS • Shortage of food as fish

and other creatures die.
• May consume oil when
eating fish (toxic).
• When hunting for food,
feathers get covered with
oil, affecting their ability to
fly.
MAMMALS • Food sources are depleted.

• Mammals may also
swallow oil while feeding
(toxic).
• Coating of oil will affect
their skin.
REEFS • Complete devastation of the

reef due to lack of oxygen
(species die).
• Areas may be covered in oil.
BEACHES • Oil (washed by tides) coats

rocks;
• Organisms in shallow
water and rock pools may
die due to toxic effects of
the oil.
• Animal food sources and
tourism are affected.

39
Management of oil pollution

• Reducing oil spills in marine environments:
- MARPOL (Marine Pollution): International Convention for
the Prevention of Pollution from Ships.
- Regulations of the MARPOL:
▪ Supervise the transport of oil at sea.
▪ All tankers must be certificated to show they have appropriate
systems in use.
▪ Else, it can result in a heavy fine or the ship may not be
permitted to leave port.
- Tanker design:
▪ Oil spill can be caused by damage to the hull (a hole in the
hull of the boat causes its contents to leak).
▪ Increase in the number of compartments within the hull of the
ship: if one of the compartment’s damaged, the contents of the
whole ship aren’t lost.
▪ Double-hulled tankers: if the outer layer’s damaged, the
contents are still secure by the inner plate.
▪ Though double-hulled tankers cost more than single-hulled,
the risks of oil spill are far less.
- Minimising the impact of oil spills:
▪ Floating booms: a floating barrier is used to surround the oil
slick, preventing it from spreading.
▪ This process works well when the spill covers a relatively small
area and the sea is calm.
▪ Detergent sprays: detergents help break down the oil slick into
smaller droplets that eventually degrade, and disperse it.
▪ They are effective on smaller spills, but cause damage to the
coral reefs themselves as they’re not tolerant to detergents.
▪ Skimmers: clean the water using a material that oil easily
attaches to.
▪ The skimmer drags oil off the seawater surface, that is then
scrapped off into a container.

40
▪ This system is used when oil slick is contained within a boom

and the sea is calm.
▪ When the oil reaches beaches, it can only be removed by hand
(difficult and time-consuming).
Key Terms
Fracking: the common term for

hydraulic fracking, the process of
obtaining oil or gas from shale rock by
the breaking open to rocks using
water, sand and chemicals.
Proppants: a material, such as sand,
used to keep cracks in the shale rocks
open to allow gas or oil extraction.
Double hulled: a ship design that
uses a second layer, allowing the cargo
to remain safe if the external layer is
damaged.

41
CHAPTER 3
AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT
The soil:
Soil it is fundamental to the growth of the plant.
Soil composition
• Mineral particles: combination of rock fragments and
other inorganic substances.
- They are formed due to physical, chemical and
biological weathering of the parent rock.
• Organic content: mixture of living plants,

animals, microorganisms and their dead remains.
• Air: held within the pore spaces (between the mineral
particles and organic content).
- Air enters the soil by diffusion.
• Water: held within the pore spaces (water that is available

for plant growth).
- Water enters the soil when there’s precipitation or
when the soil is irrigated.
The proportion of components in a typical cultivated soiL

42
• The proportion of these components depends on:
- Type of soil.
- Way it has been managed.
- Local climatic conditions.
- Size of the mineral particles.
Where do the soil components come from?

• The mineral particles (which occupy the largest volume
within the soil) are formed from the weathering and erosion
of the parent rock (the rock underlying the soil).
• Weathering is the process by which rocks are broken down
into smaller particles.
• Movement of these particles is known as erosion.
• The weathering of rock can take a number of forms:
- Physical weathering: is caused by frost, heat, water
and ice or wind.
- Chemical weathering: is caused by carbon dioxide (in
the air) combined with water to form a weak acid,
carbonic acid. This acid reacts with alkaline minerals in
the rock, causing the rest of the rock to crumble.
- Biological weathering: is caused by processes such as
the growth of plant roots into the cracks, movement of
animals across the rocks and organisms in the soil can
produce carbon dioxide which combines with water to
form carbonic acid.
• Soil particles can be classified into three groups according

to their size:

43
Particles Size of Texture Characteristics

type particles
Sand 2.0 – 0.02 Gritty Large pore size
mm Drains well
Contains large air
spaces
Silt 0.02 – 0.002 Silky or Less friction than sand
mm soapy Particles slippery
Clay ˂0.002 mm Sticky when Particles held together
wet tightly
Poor air spaces or
drainage
Forms a hard mass
when dried
Soils for plant growth

• Most plants require a combination of factors to
grow successfully. These include:
- The availability of important nutrients to support
plant growth.
- Anchorage to hold the roots securely.
- A supply of water.
- Oxygen around the roots to enable the root cells to respire.
• Plants require a supply of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and
a range of other elements to construct proteins and carry out
life processes
ELEMENT SUPPLIED AS
NITROGEN Nitrate ions (NO-3)
PHOSPHORUS Phosphate ions
(PO4-3)
POTASSIUM Potassium ions (K+)
• Organic content: many different decomposers that produce

humus (rich in nutrients) are involved:

44
-
Earthworms: break down vegetation; mix the soil;
aerate the soil; spread organic matter through the soil.
- Fungi: feed directly on dead matter; digest hard woody
items; aid plants to take up nutrients through their roots.
- Bacteria: work on organic matter; convert waste
products to simple chemicals; some convert nitrogen to
nitrates ‫ ؞‬important in nitrogen cycle.
• High levels of organic matter have the following
positive effects:
- Increase the water-holding capacity (like a sponge), that
means less irrigation is required.
- Increase air spaces in the soil.
- Increase no. of decomposers, tunnels and burrows in the
soil, providing additional drainage and less compaction.
- Prevent the loss of mineral nutrients (humus holds
onto mineral nutrients).
• Soil pH:
- Depends on the type of parent rock and pH of water
that flows into the area.
- Affects the uptake of nutrients by plant roots.
- Affects the availability of nutrients.
- Farmers can try changing the pH of the soil either to
acidify it (using fertilisers that have an acidic effect)
or make it alkaline (adding ground limestone).
• Signs of mineral nutrients deficiency in plants:
Plant Symptoms of deficiency

nutrients
Nitrogen (N) Slow growth, yellowing leaves (oldest first)
Phosphorus (P) Leaves dull with blue-green colour. Leaves fall
early
Potassium (K) Poor quality fruits and seeds, leaves with brown
edges
Sulfur (S) Yellowing of leaves (youngest first)

45
Calcium (Ca) Death of plant tissues. Poor fruit storage

Magnesium Yellowing of leaves between the leaf veins. Early
(Mg) leaf fall.
Iron (Fe) Yellowing of leaves between the veins (youngest
leaves frist)
Copper (Cu) Dark green leaves become twisted and withered
(young leaves first)
Zinc (Zn) Leaves show poor development, grow only to very
small size.
Boron (B) Leaves misshapen and malformed. Hard areas in fruits and
other storage organs.
• Sandy soils verses clay soils:

SAND Clay
Larger air spaces. Poor air spaces.
Drains well. Poor drainage.
Poor retention of Retains humus.

humus.
Easier to cultivate. Hard to cultivate.
The properties of organic matter mean that when it is added to

either of the two types soil it helps reduce their negative impacts
(it provides additional water-holding capacity to sandy soils
and increases the size of air spaces in clay soils.

46
Agriculture
Agriculture is defined as cultivation of animals, plants and
fungi for food and other products used to sustain human life. It
depends on number of factors:
- Climate.
- Culture.
- Technology.
- Economics.
Agriculture types:
SUBSISTENCE COMMERCIAL
Cultivation of food to meet the Cultivation of food with the main
needs of the farmers and their aim of selling them for cash.
families.
Surplus is bartered for other Some food may be used by the
goods (or cash). farmers.
Examples: wheat and Examples: tea, coffee, cocoa,
rice. sugarcane,
cotton, rice, wheat and corn.
ARABLE PASTORAL
Production of plants for Production of animals or
consumption by humans. animal-related products.
Examples: rice, wheat, maize Examples: grass/grain (to feed
and soybeans. the animals), milk, wool eggs.
Mixed
Farms that grow crops for food and rear
animals.

47
Extensive production Intensive production

Occur when there is small Occur where is a large amounts
amount of production from a are produced from small areas
large area of land of land
Assessment: place the letter of the following

farms/production types into a copy of the table below:
a: An intensive banana plantation in Caribbean.
b: Battery (caged) hens used to produce eggs.
c: Rice production by a farmer on small scale in Asia
using hillside terraces.
d: Tree plantations grown for the timber industry.
e: Nomadic farmers keeping sheep or goats.
f: a small family farm in North America growing a range of
vegetable and keeping chickens, trying to be self-
sufficient.
Subsistence Commercial
Arable
Pastoral
Mixed

48
Increasing agricultural yields

The demands of food keep on increasing as the global
population increase. And there is pressure on food production
in number of was, including:
• An increasing world population needing more resources.
• Climate change affecting the availability of fertile farmland.
• Increases in the standard of living creating a demand for
more food variety.
• Increasing settlement sizes reducing available farmland.
• Larger populations impacting on the availability of water
for irrigation.
Techniques for improving crop yield:

There are some successful techniques that help farmers meet
the need for increased food production to feed growing
population.
1. Crop rotation: is the principle of growing different types of
plants in different plots each year. Related groups of plants
are grown together during a season, then at the start of the
next season moved to different plot of land that has been
just used for a different plant group.
• Continually growing the same plants in the same place causes:
- a build-up of diseases in the soil that affect plant growth.
- an increase in the pest that attack the plants.
- a depletion in soil nutrients.
• A large plot of land usually divided into four smaller areas,
each to contain a particular type of plant:
- Legumes: have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their
root nodules.
- Leafy crops: vegetables that are required for their
leaves (require a lot nitrogen left by legumes).
- Root crops: have deep root systems.

49
- Fallow: the land is ploughed but left barren for a period

to restore soil fertility and to avoid surplus production.
Advantages of crop rotation:

▪ Diseases in the soil affecting the plant are left behind.
▪ Pests need to find a new site ‫ ؞‬their population is reduced.
▪ The soil in the new plot is likely to have the
essential nutrients.
▪ Crops ready to harvest at different times ‫ ؞‬less potential waste,
less labour and machinery needed.
2. Fertilizers: contain minerals such as nitrogen, potassium and

phosphorus. Add on to the nutrients available in the soil.
Advantages and disadvantages of different types of fertilisers:

TYPE ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
ORGANIC • Uses natural •Unpleasant to

resources. handle.
• Supplies organic • Harder to
matter. transport.
• Variable in
composition.
INORGANIC • Meet a particular •Cost of
need. manufacture.
• Easier to store. • Transportation
costs.
QUICK • Deficiency problems • Easily leach out
ACTING are dealt with swiftly. in heavy rain.
SLOW •No need to reapply. • Little immediate
ACTING impact.
3. Irrigation: supplying water to the crops.

• Why is irrigation important?

50
- Large percentage of a plant is made up of water.

- Essential for cell activity.
- Used in photosynthesis.
- Mineral nutrient uptake requires water in the soil.
- The water must be free from pollution and low in salt.
• The process of supplying water can be divided into three stages:
a: storage of the water.
b: transportation to the required site.
c: application to the plant.
• Common water application methods:
a: OVERHEAD SPRINKLERS
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Easy to setup. • Large droplets may cap the

• Can cover a large area from soil.
one sprinkler. • Small droplets may be
• No need to attach pipes to blown away by wind.
each plant. • Water lands on leaves and
soil,whichevaporates
quickly.
b: CLAY POT IRRIGATION SYSTEM
• Simple technology. • Only suitable for

• Easy to check the amount of permanent plants.
water. • Large labour cost.
• High efficiency.

51
C: TRICKLE DRIP SYSTEM

• Water placed directly at the • Expensive to install; complex
base of the plant; to maintain.
• Automated and controlled via • Grit can block tubes.
computer. • Inflexible; cannot be moved
• Water is used very efficiently. easily.
d: FLOOD IRRIGATION
• Inexpensive. • Inefficient use of water.
• Can cover large areas quickly. • Damages soil structure.
4. Control of competing organisms:

• Weeds are plants that is growing in an inappropriate place. They
need to be controlled because they:
▪ Compete with crops for light, water and nutrients.
▪ Reduce the quality of a seed or grain crop.
▪ Might be poisonous.
▪ Make cultivation difficult.
▪ Can block drainage systems with excessive growth.
▪ Can be a source of pests and diseases.
▪ Can look untidy (impact on tourism areas).
• Chemical control of weeds is the most efficient system for a large
area. Weed-killing chemicals are known as herbicides.
• Advantages of herbicides:
▪ Easier to manage;
▪ Alternatives may be less effective;

52
▪ Cheaper;
▪ Results are more predictable;
▪ Less labour needed;
▪ Effect is more rapid.
• Alternatives to herbicides are cultural controls:
▪ Hand weeding and hoeing;
▪ Weed barriers;
▪ Flame guns.
5. Controlling pests and diseases:
• A pest is an animal that attacks or feed upon the crop plant. A
chemical used to control a pest is known as a pesticide.
• The most common pests of plants are insects and a chemical
used to control insects is called an insecticide.
• A crop disease is caused by fungi, bacteria or viruses (pathogens).
• The most common are fungal diseases and are controlled by
fungicides.
Alternative to insecticides:
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: FIND NATURAL PREDATORS
•No chemical residues are left in • Not as instant as chemical
the crop; control;
• No impact of sprays in the • Pests may breed faster than
surrounding ecosystems; the predator;
• No need of reapplication; • Predator may feed on an
• The predators will die unintended plant.
naturally when the pests are
controlled.
6. Mechanisation:
- Larger area can be cultivated;
- Reduces labour cost;

53
-Ploughing can be done even when soil is heavy

-Additional attachments can be done to apply fertilisers
and pesticides.
- Tractors also have the capacity to transport large
loads, which is useful at harvest time.
7. Selective breeding: is a traditional method used for
improving the performance of crops and livestock. It is
as follows:
- Choose parents that exhibit the desired characteristics
of the species;
- Raise the offspring from these parents;
- Select the best offspring that shows the desired
characteristics;
- Repeat the process.
- This can be applied to both plants and animals.
Examples: beef cattle, dairy cattle, wheat and rice.
- Drawbacks: slow process; less success rate.
8. Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO): the DNA of one

organism is inserted into another.
•Disease and pest-resistance • Unknown impact of the new
may increase; characteristics on human health;
• Nutritional value may • Products are not natural;
increase; • Genes might get into wild plants
• Crops can be grown in if they
inhospitable areas; interbreed with GMOs ‫؞‬reducing
• Herbicide resistance may biodiversity;
increase; • Reduction in the gene pool.
• Higher yield.

54
9. Controlling the crop environments:

• Over very large areas it can be difficult or expensive to try and
control the environment, although there are some important
techniques such as:
- Providing shade for cattle.
- Using windbreak at the edges of crops to reduce wind speed.
- Removing trees that shade a crop in order to maximize the
light the plants receive.
• Over smaller areas, it is possible to invest more money in
controlling the environment.
- Greenhouse: used to manage the environment for plant
growth.
GROWTH HOW TO HOW TO

FACTOR INCREASE DECREASE
TEMPERATURE Operate heating Open roof

system (e.g. ventilators.
insulation).
LIGHT Supplementary Shading material
lighting in the roof.
HUMIDITY Misting units. Open roof

ventilators.
DAY LENGTH Supplementary Shading material
lighting and curtains.
WATER Sprinkler or Drainage

irrigation material
underneath
• Growing blueprint: the ideal environment conditions needed by a

plant for maximum growth.

55
The greenhouse effect:

-
Greenhouses heat up using the sun’s rays. This effect been
noticed and gives the name to the global warming effect.
- In the case of greenhouse, sunlight passes the glass (or
other transparent material). Moving through the glass
causing the wavelength of the energy to change, converting
a proportion of the energy into heat, which is trapped and
so the temperature inside becomes warmer.
10. Hydroponics: growing plants without soil, with the
nutrients the plant needs dissolved in water.
• No need for soil; • Expensive to set up;
• Can be used anywhere; • Suitable for small production
• Easy to harvest; areas;
• Exact nutrients needed are • Technical knowledge required;
provided; • Disease, if present, may spread
• Water is recycled; rapidly;
• Pollutant are not released • Plants can die quickly if
into the environment. conditions are not maintained.
• provides high yields.
• No weeds or pests and
disease.
Key Terms
Legumes: plants that contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria in

their roots to produce a source of nitrate.
Gene: a sequence of DNA that responsible for a
characteristics of a living organism.
Genetically modified organism (GMO): an organism whose
genetic material has been altered by genetic engineering.

56
The Impact of agriculture on people and the environment

• Overuse of herbicides and insecticides:
- Regular use of one insecticide can cause resistance
within the pest population.
Solution: use a range of different pesticides.
- Also cause unintended environmental damage:
beneficial insects like bees are also affected and food web
is disturbed.
- Spray drift: herbicides stay longer in the soil and
may affect the next crop.
- Heavy rainfall can cause leaching of the chemicals
into nearby lakes causing damage to other organisms.
• Overuse of fertilisers:
- Addition of extra mineral nutrients is waste of money and
resources if the soil has reached its maximum level;
- Heavy rain can dissolve the nutrients and cause leaching;
- Excess water containing dissolved fertilisers drain into
nearby lakes and rivers, leading to eutrophication;
- Nitrates from fertilisers if consumed can cause diseases
such as blue-baby syndrome;
- Large quantities can affect the pH of the soil and in turn,
the availability of minerals;
- Too much of trace elements can be toxic to the plant.
- Too much fertiliser dehydrates the plant (scorching);
- Imbalance of nutrient makes the plant produce lots of
foliage, but no flower.
Solution: strict limits on where, when and how the
fertilisers must be applied; can replace with organic fertilisers.
• Misuse of irrigation :too much irrigation can have various
negative effects:
- Damage to soil structure: when wet, air pockets are lost
and the soil is compacted;

57
- Death of plant roots as waterlogged soils prevent plant

roots from getting enough oxygen;
- Loss of nutrients as they are dissolved and washed away
with water;
- Soil erosion: large amount of water run-off will take some
of the soil particles with it.
- Soil capping: surface of the soil becomes hard.
- Salinisation: salt content of the soil can increase. Over-
irrigated soils become waterlogged and therefor the salt
move through the soil. When the sun causes evaporation of
water, the salt is left behind and plants will have difficult
taking up water by osmosis.
- Prevents soil cultivation as it’s difficult to cultivate soil
with a high-water content.
• Overproduction and waste:
- Waste from overproduction: the unsold proportion of the
crop.
- Waste of storage space: may take longer to sell a crop;
some crops need special conditions.
- Waste of transportation: to sell a crop, a farmer may need
to travel longer distances.
- Waste of quality products: low quality means less demand.
- Waste of labour: not an efficient use of time and labour if
too much is produced.
• Exhaustion of mineral ion content:
- The farmers use the soil over and over again with little to no
rest which leaves the soil depleted of nutrients and minerals.
Solution: crop rotation, mixed cropping and leaving the
land fallow.
• Cash crops replacing food crops:
- Most commercial farmers prefer to grow crops that generate
more cash. This causes a decline in the staple food available.
• Mechanization: while the use of machinery has increased yield,
it does have a number of impacts:
58
- For machine work efficiently, field have been made larger.

- Removing natural vegetation that may provide habitats for
other organisms.
- Machines use fossil fuels which are non-renewable
resources and their exhaust gases also contribute to air
pollution.
- Large machine exert high pressure on the soil through
tyres causing soil compaction.
- Use of machinery can affect jobs and employment.
• Soil erosion:
- Overcultivation: soils that are cultivated regularly lose soil
structure and are more vulnerable to erosion as they break
down to smaller particles.
Assessment:
1. Use the table below to describe how the amount of water can
affect certain growth factors.
Too little irrigation Too much irrigation

Nutrients availability
Root growth

59
2. Adding more fertilisers does not necessarily mean an increase

in crop growth. Give three reasons why this might be the case
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………
Causes and impacts of soil erosion:

There are a number of horizontal layers of soil, the topsoil is
the most fertile soil.
The structure of topsoil allows the most root growth because it
holds water but also supports air spaces. It is a dark because it
contains organic matter. Loss of this layer can affect the fertility
of the soil.
Soil profile

60
• Causes of soil erosion:

- Removal of natural vegetation: no more roots to bind
the soil together or slow down the torrents of water, so
flash flooding and rainwater run-off pick the soil and carry
it away.
- Overcultivation: ploughing breaks the soil into smaller
and lighter particles. These are more easily carried away by
wind.
- Overgrazing: livestock reduces the vegetation to nearly
ground level, sometimes leaving no roots to hold the soil.
Animals trample down the plants and their hoofs compact
the ground.
- Wind erosion: deforestation (due to need for space,
excessive grazing, increase in development of arable crops)
increases the chance of soil getting eroded by wind.
- Water erosion: water can erode soils in a number of ways:
+ Heavy rainfall carries the particles away.
+ Rainwater run-off: excess water that can’t be absorbed by
soil will transports the soil from that area;
+ Soil compaction reduces infiltration;

+ Gully erosion: gullies and streams contains a volume of
water erodes local soil forms deeper and deeper crevices.
Impacts of soil erosion:
- Topsoil is removed: the most productive layer is absent
(subsoil lacks in nutrients ad air spaces).
- Organisms living in the topsoil lose their habitat: impact
on the entire ecosystem.
- Silting up of water courses: flooding occurs as water bodies
can’t hold excess water (space taken up by silt).
- Silt deposits can form lagoons: providing breeding grounds
for mosquitoes. Silt affects the quality and availability of
water for drinking.

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- Aquatic organisms are buried under the silty layer:

preventing light from reaching the underwater plants (low
oxygen levels in ecosystem ‫ ؞‬no photosynthesis).
- Desertification: the process by which fertile land becomes
desert.
▪ Severe droughts lead to migration of the whole

community.
▪ Risk of famine and malnutrition, leading to lesser food
source.
Managing soil erosion

• Terracing: prevents the erosion of soil by rainwater on
steep slopes.
- In a natural slope: water runs down, increasing in
speed and volume, carrying soil in the run-off.
- In a terraced slope: water is held in the flat terraced areas,
causing less risk of run-off and more chance of infiltration.
- Often used for cultivation of rice.
• Contour ploughing: ploughing of land along the contour in a

parallel way.
- Ridges and troughs (furrows) run along the contour.

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- Each furrow holds water and prevents large torrents of

water running down the slope, preventing the formation
of gullies and run-off of topsoil.
- Useful for all gradients of slopes.
• Bunds: artificial banks at the edges of growing spaces to

hold back water.
- Useful for crops that require moist soils e.g. rice.
- The water is retained on the terrace.
- Increases the quantity and fertility of the soil.
• Windbreaks: a permeable barrier used to reduce the impact of

wind on an area.
- Without windbreaks, the soil is eroded away.
- Solid structures, like walls, force the wind into smaller
spaces, increasing wind speed and causing eddy currents.
- Permeable structures, like vegetation, allow some wind
to pass through, decreasing its speed and thus, the
amount of wind erosion.
- Advantages: additional habitats for beneficial insects;
roots of the windbreak prevent erosion due to run-off.

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• Maintaining crop cover:

- Sowing legumes immediately after a crop has
been harvested prevents soil erosion.
- It also provides more nitrogen to the soil, increasing
its fertility, for the next major crop.
- When cultivating, the legumes can be simply ploughed.
• ‘No dig’ method:

- Existing vegetation is left until the new crop is grown.
- Rather than cultivating the soil, herbicides are applied
to kill the weeds.
- Roots of the existing vegetation bind the soil until
the major plant is established.
- Risks: herbicide residues build up. If the control of
the cover vegetation is ineffective, it may compete with
the main crop as a weed.
• Addition of organic matter to improve soil structure:

- Provides additional air gaps in the soil ‫ ؞‬improves
soil structure;
- Increases decomposers in the soil as they feed on
the matter;
- Adds nutrients to the soil after decomposition.

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- Acts like a sponge, holding the extra water,

preventing dehydration of the soil;
- Reduces soil erosion as the organic matter acts like a
base to smaller particles.
• A multi-layering approach to cropping:

- A row of trees acts as windbreak;
- Tree canopy can provide shade for smaller plants
that don’t thrive for sunlight;
- Provide a natural habitat for animals, that feed on
pests; tree leaves fall to the ground and add on to the
organic matter.
• Mixed cropping: growing more than one type plant in
the same area.
- Resources in the soil, like nutrients, are used
more efficiently.
• Intercropping: rows of a different crop are grown between the
rows of the main crop. This maximises the use of space and
other resources.
• Crop rotation.
Sustainable agriculture
• Aims of sustainable agriculture:
- Meeting the needs of the population for agricultural
products;
- Making efficient use of non-renewable resources;
- Supporting the natural ecosystem by following natural
processes with farming techniques;
- Sustaining the economic independence of farmers.
• Organic fertilisers:

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- Are slow acting ‫ ؞‬reduces the risk of eutrophication;

- Are a waste product ‫ ؞‬using them saves on disposal costs;
- Are already present on many farms ‫ ؞‬minimal
transport costs;
- Do not require energy for their manufacture;
- Also improve soil structure.
• Managed grazing:
- Prevention of overgrazing;
- Ensure sufficient grazing by preventing scrubland
plants from establishing because they are eaten as
young seedlings;
- Maintaining appropriate soil fertility by animal waste;
- Maintaining good drainage prevents compaction of the soil.
• Crop rotation.
• Choice of varieties:(breeding)
- Use of pest-resistant varieties of crops:
reduces pesticide use.
- Use of drought-resistant varieties of crops:
reduces water usage for irrigation.
- Use of herbicide-resistant varieties of crops:
reduces herbicide use.
• Irrigation: efficiency in the use of water it is a priority.
• Trickle drip irrigation provides the following sustainable
benefits:
- Minimizing the amount of water used.
- Targeted delivery of water to the plants.
- The ability to only use the system when the plants
need water.
- A reduced risk of salinisation.
• Rainwater harvesting: the collection of rainwater, for example
from the roofs of buildings, and its storage in a tank or
reservoir for later use.

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Key Terms
Resistance: the ability of a living organism to survive
when exposed to a toxic chemical.
Eutrophication: a sequence events starting with
enrichment of water by mineral nutrients or organic
matter that leads to a reduction in oxygen levels in the
water and the death of fish and other animals.
Osmosis: the process by which mineral molecules pass
through the semi-permeable membrane from a weaker
solution to make the concentration of the mineral the
same both sides of the membrane.
Desertification: the process by which fertile land
becomes desert.
Famine: a lack of access to food, often over a large area.
Malnutrition: not having enough of the correct nutrients
to eat, causing ill health.
Terracing: the artificial development of flat area for
growing crops in a sloping terrain.
Intercropping: the technique of growing other crops
between the rows of a main crop.

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CHAPTER 4
WATER AND ITS MANAGEMENT
• Oceans cover 71% of the Earth’s surface.

• Oceans and seas contain 97% of all the Earth’s water.
• Only 3% of water on Earth is fresh-water.
• 69% of this 3% fresh-water is in the ‘deep freeze’ in the ice sheets.

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The Water Cycle:

• Precipitation: moisture that reaches the surface in the form of
rain, sleet, snow, or hail.
- Rain is the most common type.
• Surface run-off: precipitation that flows over the ground surface,
eventually finding its way into streams and rivers.
• Interception: precipitation that doesn’t reach the Earth’s surface
due to being obstructed by trees and plants.
• Infiltration: precipitation soaks into sub-surface soils and moves
into rocks through cracks and pore spaces.
• Through-flow: downslope movement of water through the soil,
roughly parallel to the ground surface.
• Ground water flow: slow horizontal movement of water through
rock.
• Evaporation: water from oceans, seas and other water bodies is
changed from water droplets to water vapour (invisible gas) in the
atmosphere due to heat.
• Transpiration: evaporation or diffusion of water from plant leaves.
• Condensation: water vapour converted back into liquid (water
droplets) or solid (particles of ice) due to a decrease in
temperature with increasing height by air currents, e.g. clouds.

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The main processes in the water cycle
Why human need water:

Domestic needs:
• In the home 3% of domestic water used for drinking and cooking.
• In MEDCs 50% of domestic water is used for washing and
flushing the toilet and 20% for washing clothes.
• Much less domestic water is used for washing, flushing the
toilets and laundry in LEDCs.
Industrial needs:
• Used for cooling in the production of electricity.
• Used as a solvent.
Agricultural needs:
• Irrigation is the greatest use of water in agriculture.
• For domestic animals.
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The main sources of fresh water (water supply)

• Surface water: water in lakes, rivers and swamps.
• Ground water: water in the soil, and in rocks under the surface
of the ground which are called Aquifers
Water from rivers:

• Water can be taken from rivers by simply dipping a bucket into it.
• Or often involving the construction of a reservoir which may be
created behind a dam or by the side of the river (a bank-side
reservoir). This water is not safe but can be treated to make it
potable.
• Service reservoir is another type of reservoir in which treated
and potable water is stored, e.g water towers and cisterns
Water from the ground:

• Alternating layers of permeable and impermeable rocks trap the
water in permeable rock;
• Aquifers: water stored in porous rocks (limestone or sandstone)
under the ground.
• The most common way in which water is obtained from aquifer is
to sink wells into them.
• If the water in the aquifer is not under pressure, it has to be
raised to the top of the well by a bucket (used in LEDCs). In
MEDCs motor-driven pump is more likely to be used.
• If the water is stored under pressure the aquifer is called
artesian aquifer.
• Water from a well sunk into an artesian aquifer will rise to the
surface without the need for a pump.

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Artesian aquifer
Water from the sea:

• To make water suitable for human consumption, salt has to be
removed in desalination process.
• The first method of desalination is distillation, in which water is
boiled and released as vapour leaving the salt behind.
• The vapour is then condensed as liquid water and can be used.
• It is 10-30% efficient and uses a lot of energy.
• Provision of energy and salt water (brine) is a source of pollution.
• The second method of desalination process is reverse osmosis, in
which salt water is pumped at high pressure through a fine
membrane.
• 30-50% efficient and requires lesser energy than distillation.

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Water quality and availability

• Water-rich countries: countries with plentiful fresh water
supplies:
- Some are large countries with plenty of land for rain to fall
on e.g. Russia, Canada, China, and some with the world’s
greatest rivers flowing through them e.g. Amazon, Yangtze,
Mississippi.
- However, big areas do not ensure water availability e.g.
Australia, Argentina, Sudan, due to containing substantial
areas of desert within its borders.
• Water-poor countries: countries with scarce fresh water
supplies:
- Dominated by desert countries.
- Except Singapore and Mauritius since they receive high
precipitation totals, but are tiny island states that have
only small areas for rain to fall on.
• Water conflict: conflict between countries, states, or groups over
an access to water resources.
• Physical water scarcity: not enough water to meet both human
demands and those of ecosystems to function effectively. This
may be due to low rainfall and/or high level of evaporation.

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-
Arid regions frequently suffer from physical water scarcity.
-
It also occurs where water seems abundant, but resources
are over-committed.
• Economic water scarcity: caused by a lack of investment in
water infrastructure or insufficient human capacity to satisfy the
demand of water in areas where the population cannot afford to
use an adequate source of water.
• Even if water is available, it may not be safe for drinking (potable).
Ways of ensuring that water is potable involve two principles:
- Sanitation system: which ensure that dirty water does
not mix with water intended for human use.
- Water treatment process: which ensure that the water
supplied to people is safe to drink.
• Unlike Rural areas, Urban areas have higher access to safe
drinking water because:
- Cities are more wealthy places with factories and offices;
- On average, people’s incomes are higher;
- Easier to put pressure on the politicians or leaders to
make improvements;
- Wealthy people are more likely to live in cities;
- Water pipes are easier and cheaper to build when a lot of
people live close together.

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Multipurpose dam projects
• The construction of dam across a river can be very expensive,

but the benefits are great. It helps with:
- Generation of electricity in hydro-electric power plants;
- Flood control
- Irrigation
- Tourism and leisure
- The provision of water
- Creation of habitat for wetland species
- Access by boat to otherwise inaccessible areas
- Renewable source of energy;
- Doesn’t produce greenhouse gases;
- Reduces fossil fuel consumption;
- Creates more jobs.
• The disadvantages of dam projects include:
- Relocating people
- Flooding land
- Disrupting the life cycles of fish and other aquatic organisms
- Altering the water supply for people downstream of the dam

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- Reducing the enrichment of the soil downstream of the dam

- The dam may become redundant as sediment in the river
sink to the bottom of the reservoir (siltation)
- Very expensive to build
- Requires maintenance
- Reduces jobs for farmers if natural fisheries are affected;
Assessment:
Look at the list of the advantages and disadvantages of dam
projects given above. Copy and complete the table below by
adding each of advantages and disadvantages to the correct cell.
advantages disadvantages
Environmental
Economical

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Social
Where to build a dam

• Deciding where to build a dam requires detailed studies
which include;
- High precipitation to provide sufficient water;
- Low temperature to prevent evaporation;
- Built on strong impermeable rock so water doesn’t
drain and has a good foundation;
- Built high up in order to have good potential for
hydro-electric power;
- Narrow, steep sided valley for economic reasons;
- Rivers and lakes nearby to provide water;
- Away from developed areas to reduce the risk of
pollution in reservoirs;
- Easily accessible.
• Are dams sustainable:

• Sustainability of dams:
- Alternative for burning of fossil fuels as no
greenhouse gases are produced.
• Unsustainability of dams:

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- Reservoir can become silted due to material carried into

it by rivers;
- Dam structure under a lot of pressure can deteriorate
and eventually fail;
- Have negative effects on the environment and
fish population.
Key terms
Potable: safe to drink.

Reservoirs: an artificial lake used as a source of
water supply, usually created behind a dam or by
the side of a river (bank-side reservoir).
Service reservoir: a reservoir where potable water
is stored e.g. Water tower and Cistern.
Wells: a hole bored or dug into rock to reach the
water stored in them.
Rivers: a large, natural stream of water flowing in
a channel to the sea, a lake, or another river.

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Water related diseases:

• Water provides a very good habitat for living things.
• There is plenty of food in water because of the presence of plants
and their ability to photosynthesise.
• Water provides a nutrient rich environment for bacteria.
• Bacteria may enter drinking water from sewage if sanitation is
poor. If these bacteria are pathogens, and the water in which
they live is drunk untreated, diseases can be spread.
• Water-borne disease: spread by consuming contaminated water
due to poor sanitation and untreated sewage, or by washing food,
pots and pans, or hands and face in dirty water. Examples:
cholera and typhoid.
cholera Typhoid
Infective bacterium Vibrio cholerae Salmonella typhi or

(pathogen) Salmonella paratyphi
Time before onset of A few hours up to 5 6-30 days

symptoms after days
infection
Symptoms Diarrhoea and Fever, abdominal pain
vomiting with a skin rash
Diarrhoea and
vomiting
Consequence Can be mild but can 3-5% of infected

lead to dehydration people remain as
and death carriers with no
symptoms
If untreated, fatal
complications can
arise
Treatment Rehydration Antibiotics

A vaccine exists A vaccine exists

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• Strategies to control cholera:

- Ensure that sewage and drinking water are kept separate.
- Sewage removed directly into a treatment works.
- Water being treated before it’s delivered into homes.
- Do not use contaminated water to wash food.
- Hands should be washed after contact with any
faecal material.
- Boiling water and chlorination.
• Water-bred disease: the carrier breeds in water and spreads the

disease by biting its victims. Example: malaria.
• Malaria: a life-threatening disease which is transmitted through
the bite of an infected Anopheles mosquito (vector) that carries
the Plasmodium parasite. Once bitten, the parasite reaches your
bloodstream.
- Symptoms: high temperature and fever, diarrhoea,
dehydration and feeling weak.
• Life cycle of the malaria parasite:

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• Strategies to control malaria:

• Individuals can prevent being bitten by mosquitoes by:
- Sleeping under mosquito nets treated with an insecticide.
- Wearing clothing that covers most of the body and treat
exposed parts of the body with mosquito-repellent.
- Spraying insecticide inside building and accommodation.
• For governments, strategies for malaria control are focused
on controlling the vector. This can be achieved by:
- Spraying insecticide inside building.
- Draining wetland areas to eliminate breeding grounds.
- Put oil over the tops of pools to stop the larvae from
breathing and stops adults from laying eggs.
- Introducing fish which eat the larvae and pupae.
• Eradicating malaria means completely removing of the malaria
parasite from the population. Controlling the vector is not enough.
Water pollution and its sources

• Sewage: waste matter that is rich in organic matter, thus
microbial organisms can thrive in it. It is usually disposed in
water bodies, and thus has to be treated.
• Domestic waste: sewage from rural and urban settlements carry
many pathogenic micro-organisms, increasing the content of
nitrates and phosphates in rivers.
• Detergents, metals and other manufactured products contain
traces of toxic chemicals.
• Industrial processes: use of chemicals, the processing of metal
ores, and the leaching of metals from waste heaps and dumps
cause the presence of metals in rivers (e.g. manganese, mercury,
copper).
• Gases from industrial chimneys enter the atmosphere, where
they dissolve in water and form acid rain.

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• Agricultural practices: surpluses of phosphorous and nitrogen

not absorbed by the plants are washed from the land or percolate
into the ground water.
• On farms, animal manure, synthetic fertiliser, and chemical
pesticides are main sources.
• Agrochemicals: pesticides, herbicides and fertiliser.
Impact of water pollution

• Global inequalities in sewage and water treatment: developing
countries have difficulty treating water and sewage compared to
developed countries as people aren’t educated and can’t put
pressure on the government.
• Risk of infectious bacterial diseases, typhoid and cholera:
water-borne diseases are caused by drinking contaminated water.
• Accumulation of toxic substances from industrial processes
in lakes and rivers: reduces oxygen in lakes and rivers, causing
reduction in photosynthesis and death of fish and insect larvae.
• Biomagnification of toxic substances in food chains:
increases concentration of a toxic substance (e.g. mercury and
pesticides) in the tissues of organisms at successively higher
levels in a food chain, causing illness.
• Bioaccumulation: accumulation of a toxic chemical in the tissue
of a particular organism.
• Formation of acid rain: burning fossil fuels such as coal and oil
produce sulfur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of nitrogen (NOx) that
are blown long distances and react with water in the atmosphere.
• SO2 dissolves in water to form sulfuric acid, and NOx dissolves
to form nitric acid that fall in the form of rain.
The effect of acid rain on organisms in rivers and lakes:

- Lower pH makes the environment intolerable for aquatic life;
- Fish egg-laying is reduced, and young fish are malformed;

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- Leaching of heavy metals such as aluminum, lead and

mercury from the soil into the water;
- Aluminum clogs fish gills and causes suffocation;
- Minerals essential for life, notably calcium and potassium,
are washed out of the lake or river, reducing algae growth
and leaving less food for fish and other animals.

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• Nutrient enrichment leading to eutrophication:

• Increase in nutrients, such as nitrates and phosphates, in a
water body causes algae bloom (rapid growth of algae).
• Death of algae causes an increase in organic matter that acts as
food for bacteria as they decompose the dead algae.
• Bacteria use up oxygen, reducing oxygen content in the water
and causing the death of organisms.
Nutrients enter water
Stimulate algae growth

and algal bloom
Algae die
Organic matter from

Bacteria decompose
sewage, manure,
paper waste and dead algae, increasing
many other sources the organic matter
Oxygen used up and

level is lowered
Fish and many other

aquatic animals,
including insect larvae
die
A flowchart showing how eutrophication occurs

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Managing pollution of fresh water

Improve sanitation: separates human excreta from contact with
humans, achieved by toilets and latrines.
• Waste can be removed by:
- Connection to a system of sewer pipes or sewerage that
collects human faeces, urine and waste water.
- Connection to a septic system, which consists of an
underground, sealed settling tank.
- Flush toilet: uses a holding tank for flushing water, and
water seal that prevents smells.
- Pour toilet: has a water seal but uses water poured by
hand for flushing.
85
- Pit latrine: type of toilet that collects human faeces in a

hole in the ground that is sometimes ventilated to take
away smells.
- Composting toilet: dry toilet in which vegetable waste,
straw, grass, sawdust, and ash are added to the human
waste to produce compost.
Treatment of sewage: aims to reduce the Biological Oxygen

Demand (BOD) of the sewage.
- Sewage outfall: waste water from homes and industries is
taken to a sewage treatment plant in sewers.
- Screening tank: large objects are removed from the waste
using a coarse grid.
- Primary treatment, first settling tank: solid organic
matter, mainly human waste, settles at the bottom of the
tank (sludge), which is treated in a sludge-digester.
- Clean water then overflows the sides of the tank and is
taken to the next stage.
- Secondary treatment, oxidation: water is pumped into a
tank where oxygen is bubbled through it. This encourages
the growth of bacteria and other microbes that break down
organic matter, which cause BOD.
- Secondary treatment, second settling tank: water
enters, where bacteria settle to the bottom, forming more
sludge. This cleaner water overflows the sides of the tank
as effluent, usually discharged into a river.
- Sludge digester: oxygen-free conditions are created that
encourage the growth of bacteria which can break down
the sludge, releasing methane that can be burnt. Treated
sludge can be dried in sludge lagoons and used as organic
fertiliser on farmland.

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- Tertiary treatment: further filtering out of its effluent or

its chlorination which produces even cleaner effluent that
protects the habitat in which it is released.
Water treatment: Water is made potable by undergoing

coagulation treatment, being filtered and disinfected.
- Coagulation: Particles in the water are stuck together and
settle to the bottom of the container. Water is then filtered
through sand.
- Chlorination: to kill remaining pathogens, chlorine is as a
disinfectant.
Pollution control and legislation: puts pressure on polluters to

find ways to reduce pollutants.
- Industries are required to monitor the pollution they cause
and keep it within set level.
- Bi-national Great lakes water quality agreement (GLWQA):
a loading limit of phosphorus was set at 11000 metric
tonnes year-1 in response to eutrophication issues in the
Great Lakes of USA and Canada.
- Fines for exceeding set limits.
- Companies may be prosecuted and in extreme cases,
forced to shut down.
- Companies may need government agreement on strategic
plans to reduce pollution levels.
- Incentives may be used to encourage companies to take
part, such as grants or tax relief, for those that do achieve
a reduction in pollution.

87
Key terms
Sewage: waste matter that is carried a way in sewers or

drains from domestic or industrial establishments.
Pathogen: an organism including bacteria and virus that
cause diseases.
Vector: an organism that carries disease-producing
organism.
Effluent: a discharge of liquid waste.
Chlorination: adding chlorine-based substances to
water.

88
CHAPTER 5
OCEAN AND FISHERIES
Oceans are very important part of life on Earth. They are sources
of:
• Food: fish that includes true fish, finfish, shellfish and other sea
animals that can be eaten.
• The main fisheries are located on the continental shelves because
the water is shallow there, so light can penetrate and there is
more oxygen as well as nutrients are abundant on the shelf.
• Chemicals and building materials: many materials in the
oceans have been eroded from the land, where rain and wind
break down rocks, and are carried into the oceans via rivers.
• Some substances can be extracted directly e.g. salt, magnesium,
tin, gold, titanium, diamonds.
- Salt: seawater that is left behind over many weeks in the
hot sun.
- Diamonds: found in greater numbers in ocean floor than
on land.
▪ Much harder to mine ocean floor as it must be dredged,
then the sediment silted.
- Sand, gravel and crushed rock: mined for the
construction industry.
▪ Physical damage can be caused to seabed and associated
habitats if care is not taken.
▪ Fine particle clouds that are produced resettle and
interfere with photosynthesis, they also act as a source of
heavy metals that can enter food chains.
- Oil: chemical that is extracted by offshore drilling rigs.
• Wave energy: an enormous amount of energy in the waves is
estimated to produce twice the present world energy production if
harnessed.

89
• Tidal energy: due to varying gravitational pull of the sun and

moon, water in the sea moves up and down on a twice-daily
basis. This causes it to come onto land and later recede, which
can be harnessed to generate electricity.
• Tourism: seaside is a major tourist attraction. People of MEDCs
are attracted to marine sites of great natural beauty, especially
coral reefs.
• Diving, snorkeling, windsurfing, jet skiing and deep-sea fishing or
simply sunbathing on the beach are some adventurous activities.
• There’s business in boat trips to view sea creatures, especially
whales and dolphins.
• Transport: ships are important to transport people and goods;
however, shipping is less common to transport people now due to
the advent of aviation.
• Pleasure cruises are still an important economic sector and bulk
freight is best transported from country to country on ships.
• Types of merchant (goods carrying) ships:
SHIP TYPE LOAD OR PURPOSE
Bulk carriers Transport of food such as rice and

wheat.
Container ships Entire load is carried in lorry-sized
containers, known as containerisation.
Tankers •Transport of fluids, especially liquefied
petroleum gas and liquefied natural
gas.
• Transport of vegetable oils and wine.
Refrigerated ships Transport of perishable items such as

vegetables, fruits, fish and dairy
products.
Roll-on/roll-off Transport of vehicles, together with
ships their loads, that can be driven on and
off the ship.

90
Coastal trading Used for trade between places that are

vessels close together, especially in island
groups.
Ferries Used for mainly for the movement of
foot passengers, sometimes with their
cars, mainly between islands or
between mainland and islands.
Cruise ships Used for pleasure voyages where the
facilities on the ship are a crucial part
of the trip.
Ocean liner Used to transport people from one port
to another.
• Potential for safe drinking water: only small proportion

of water is safe to drink.
• Salty water is unsafe as your body must remove the
salt, requiring more water.
• Purification of water is possible by desalination.
Assessment: text book p. 116 qu. 5.1-5.3

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World fisheries
Major ocean currents:
• Surface currents: movement of the surface water of the sea in a
constant direction.
• Prevailing wind: the direction from which the wind nearly
always blows in a particular area.
• Currents in the southern hemisphere are generally anticlockwise
as the winds blow from the south-east and force the western
Australian, Benguela, and Peruvian current northwards.
▪ Cold currents: come from the poles.
▪ Warm currents: come from the tropics or either side of the
equator.
Currents of the world
Finding fish

92
• Main fisheries are located on continental shelves where water is shallow

(<150m below sea level), allowing light to penetrate with plentiful oxygen
than further below.
The continental shelf
• Herbivorous fish rely on primary producers, mainly green algae

called phytoplankton. Carnivorous fish eat the herbivorous ones
or other carnivores.
• There’re parts of the food web, starting with the phytoplankton.
Thus, fish are found where there are plentiful phytoplankton.
• Phytoplankton produce their own food by photosynthesis which
requires light, water and carbon dioxide (CO2).
• Water is abundant in the oceans and CO2 dissolves in the water
from the atmosphere, therefore light is likely to be the limiting
factor for photosynthesis.

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• Most ocean water has absorbed all the sunlight by a depth of

only 200m. This 200m deep zone is called the euphotic zone,
below which photosynthesis will not take place.
Not all areas with continental shelves have significant

fisheries because:
• Phytoplankton need not just light, CO2 and water, which allow it
to make carbohydrates such as sugars, but they also require
mineral nutrients to make proteins.
• Making proteins requires a source of nitrogen and sulfur.
• Nucleic acids, which form the genes of living things, also require
phosphorus.
• The green pigment chlorophyll, which is essential for
photosynthesis, requires magnesium.
• The most important fisheries of the world are where the current
system stirs up decaying material from the seabed, which is rich
in nutrients.
• Upwelling: areas where minerals at the ocean floor are brought
up to the surface by currents.
• An example is the Peruvian anchovy off the west coast of South
America.

94
This graphic shows how displaced surface waters are replaced by cold, nutrient-rich
water that “wells up” from below. Conditions are optimal for upwelling along the coast
when winds blow along the shore.
• This upwelling is distured once every 10-15 years by an event

called El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
• El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO): the change in the
prevailing winds that leads to change in the pattern of currents
in the oceans of the South Pacific.
• Warm nutrient-poor water comes into the region from the equator.
• Results in no upwelling of the cold, nutrient rich water that
supports the anchovy fishery.
• No nutrients mean the phytoplankton do not grow well, so
there’s less food for the fish.
• Much of the production of the anchovy fishery was used for
fishmeal which is used to feed farmed fish, thus countries where
this is important, are affected by a crash in the anchovy fishery.
Assessment: text book, page 121, qu. 5.4 -

5.6 Impact of exploitation of the oceans
• Causes of overfishing of marine fish species:

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Demand for fish as food due to increasing world

-
population;
- Much bigger boats, which can work a long way from a port
for many weeks;
- Finding fish easily by using SONAR and detailed weather
data;
- Creation of huge nets that scoop up everything in an area,
often half of which is discarded as bycatch (animals caught
by fishers that are not the intended target of their fishing
effort).
• Impact of overfishing of marine fish species:
- Lack of growth in fish caught globally since 1990s, leading
to loss of job and reduction in food supply;
- Size of fish gets progressively smaller, increasing demand
for food;
- Harvest of untargeted/protected/endangered marine
species that are discarded at the sea or shore;
- Reduction in marine biodiversity, causing a disruption in
food chain.
- Nets;
- TRAWL NET (INCLUDING BOTTOM TRAWL NETS): Catch
all types of unwanted species and damage the seabed
during their use.

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- DRIFT NET: Drift with the current and are not

anchored. Often used in coastal waters.
- SEINE NET (INCLUDING PURSE SEINE): Hang like a

curtain in the water. A variant called the surrounding net
is often used.

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- DREDGE NET: Dragged along the seabed, mainly to

catch shellfish and other types of fish living in the mud.
Thus, they dig into the seabed with teeth or water jets.
• Farming marine species (Mariculture) reduces

the exploitation of fisheries:
- Due to the increasing human population, the increase in
demand for fish as food is above the production capacity of
oceans and seas;
- Overexploitation of the fisheries leads to a decline in wild
fish populations;
- So, fish are farmed in controlled environments.
- Aquaculture: farming fresh water fish.

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- Mariculture: aquaculture practised in marine

environments e.g. closed section of an ocean, tanks, ponds
and raceways filled with seawater.
▪ It reduces the pressure on wild population, allowing their
population to increase;
▪ Production is constant;
▪ No bycatch, as non-interest species are unlikely to be
present in the farm;
▪ No erosion of seabed, that is usually caused by trawl nets.
Strategies for managing the harvesting of marine species

Every country with coastline has a zone of 200 nautical miles
designed by UN convention on the law of the sea as economic
exclusion zone. A variety of strategies to do this are:
• Net types and mesh size and shape:
- If mesh size is too small, juvenile fish will be caught, reduces
the number of fish that grow to maturity and reproduce.
- A diamond-shaped mesh catches fish more easily, thus a
square mesh panel is often included in an otherwise
diamond net.
• Other methods of fishing:
- Many fish species naturally congregate near objects
floating in the ocean.
- Many fishers use fish aggregation devices (FADs) for tuna
fisheries.
▪ includes the usage of a log suspended below the surface
of the sea
▪ this attracts the tuna together with other species,
including tuna predators.
▪ once a good aggregation of fish is collected, they are
gathered in a giant net.
▪ this will take all other species and younger tuna fish with
it, leading to a large bycatch.

99
- Solution: Use pole and line method for catching the tuna.
Done right, this method is highly selective with very little
or no bycatch.
Pole and line method for catching the tuna
• Quotas:
- Legislators e.g. government set limits on how many and
what type of fish can be caught;
- The limits are set according to the information gathered
from networks across the world about fish populations;
- These limits ensure enough fish are left to reproduce and
replenish the fishery for the following season.
• Closed seasons:
- Governments and other legislation bodies can pass laws
that can close fisheries down for part of the year, most
commonly in the breeding season.
• Protected areas and reserves:
- some fisheries are protected by preventing fishing in certain
areas, often where the target species is known to breed.
• International agreements (implementing and monitoring):
Some fisheries are protected by conservation laws, e.g:
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- Magnuson-Stevens Fishery Conservation and

Management Act:
▪ Main law governing marine fisheries in the USA; It aims
to control the country’s terrestrial waters, conserve fishery
resources, enforce international fishing agreements,
develop underused fisheries and protect fish habitats.
- Economic exclusion zone:
▪ Every country with a coastline has a zone of 200 nautical
miles around it inside which the country responsible must
attempt to manage its fisheries so that they’re sustainable.
- International agreements: needed to regulate fisheries in
international waters, leading to the UN Convention on the
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
- ▪ Such an agreement is needed in the Mediterranean where
a 200 nautical mile exclusion zone has no meaning.
- Monitoring: a model system is operated by the African
country of Namibia.
▪ Larger vessels in its waters have onboard observers and
air patrols detect and deter unlicensed vessels;
▪ All landings are monitored at the country’s two fishing
ports;
▪ In addition, all vessels in the exclusion zone must keep
daily logs of their catches.
Effectiveness of these strategies:

▪ Because of the vastness of the oceans, it is difficult to
monitor fishery laws and agreements. Monitoring
organisations based in ports have more success;
▪ Due to fishing being important for both income and food
for many people, there is a huge incentive for illegal
activities;
▪ Quotas can easily be avoided by simply not declaring how
many fish are being caught;

101
▪ Overstretched authorities may not be able to check every

boat, and fishers may be willing to risk under- declaring
the size of their catch and not being checked;
▪ Usage of net with an illegally small mesh size, and
in areas where patrols are inadequate;
▪ Fishers frequently trespass in areas where they are
not supposed to fish.
Key Terms
Surface currents: movement of the surface water pf

the sea in a constant direction.
Prevailing wind: the direction from which the wind
nearly always blows in a particular area.
Limiting factor: of all the factors that might affect a
process, the one that is in shortest supply.
Euphotic zone: the top 200 m or so of seawater
through which light can penetrate and in which
photosynthesis can happen.
Upwelling: areas where minerals at the ocean floor
are brought to the surface by currents.
Overfishing: when the number of fish that caught is
greater than the rate at which the fish reproduce,
leading to a fall in fish number in an area.

102
CHAPTER 6
MANAGING NATURAL HAZARDS
• Natural hazard is a physical event that has the potential to cause

loss of life or injury and damage property and infrastructure.
Livelihoods can be lost and the environment damaged.
• Natural hazards can be classified in a number of ways. The most
common one is based on the cause of hazard, including:
- Geological hazards, e.g earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions.
- Climatic hazards, e.g drought, tropical cyclones, floods.
• A natural disaster is when there is serious disruption to a
community caused by a natural hazards.
• The impact of a natural disaster on a community depends on the:
- Length of time people are exposed to the natural hazards.
- Vulnerability of the people affected.
- People’s ability to cope with the effects.
What causes earthquakes and volcanic eruptions?

The structure of the Earth

103
LAYER TEMP (C0) STATE MATERIAL

INNER CORE 5000 – 6000 Solid (intense pressure Iron and nickel.
from overlying rocks).
OUTER CORE 4000 – 5000 Liquid. Iron and nickel.
MANTLE 1000 – 1200 Liquid (flows slowly due Mainly silicate
to conventional currents minerals.
from core).

104
• The Earth surface is not is not continuous layer. It is featured

and sections are called tectonic plates which are made of up of
crust and upper mantle (lithosphere). The surface of the Earth
is divided into 7 major and 8 minor plates as shown below.
The distribution of tectonic plates and zone of tectonic activity.
• Plates can be continental, oceanic or a mixture of both.

• Plates float on the mantle. Heat from the core creates convection
currents in the magma of the mantle and these cause plates to
move.
• Where the convention currents rise to the surface, the plates
move away from each other.
• Where the convention currents sink, plates move towards each
other.
• The place where two plates meet is called a plate boundary (or
plate margin).
• Plates can move away from, towards or sideways past each other.
• There are three types of plate boundary:
- Constructive (divergent).

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- Destructive (convergent).
- Conservative.
• Constructive (divergent) plate boundary:
- Two plates move away from each other.
- When two oceanic plates move away, a gap or weakness is
formed and magma rises to the surface (convention
currents) and solidifies when it comes in contact with cold
ocean water.
- The magma turns to lava and forms new basaltic ocean crust.
- They can also form shield or basic volcanoes (submarine)
and have non-explosive eruptions.
- This is known as sea-floor spreading or ridge push.
- Small Earthquakes are triggered.
- If two continental plates move away from each other, a rift
valley may form.
• Destructive (converging) plate boundary:

- Two plates move towards each other.
- When an oceanic plate and continental plate move towards
each other, the denser (oceanic) plate is forced down
(subducted) under the lighter (continental) plate.
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- This happens in the subduction zone and an ocean trench

is formed.
- The friction between the plates triggers Earthquakes.
- The heat produced due to friction turns the descending
plate into magma.
- The magma starts to rise and erupt (due to pressure) through
a weakness in the crust as an explosive composite volcano.
- Fold mountains are also formed.
- The magma that erupts at the surface forms a chain of
volcanic islands called an island arc.
- If two continental plates move towards each other, the
sediments between the two plates are compressed (collision
zone) and pushed upwards to form fold mountains.
- Earthquakes occur, but no volcanic activity as there’s no
subduction of oceanic plate.
Destructive (converging) plate boundary

107
• Conservative plate boundary:

- Two plates slide past each other.
- They move in different speeds.
- The plates get locked together and pressure builds up until
it is released as an Earthquake.
- The magnitude (strength) of an Earthquake is measured
using a seismometer on the Richter scale.

108
Characteristics of earthquakes:
- Earthquake is when the ground shakes in sudden jerks. It
results from a buildup and sudden release of tension.
- Occur mostly on the destructive and conservative plate
boundaries (and sometimes on the constructive plate
boundaries).
- The focus: is when the earthquake begins underground.
- Epicentre: the point on the surface above the focus.
- The release of tension sends seismic waves that travel
outwards from the focus.
- The magnitude is of an earthquake is measured on the
Richter scale by a seismometer.
- During an earthquake, faults or cracks may appear on the
Earth’s surface, the liquefaction may occurs if the ground
is made of loose sediments.
- A tsunami can also be created if an earthquake occurs
under the sea or in coastal area.
• Factors that affect the impact of an Earthquake:
- Location of the epicentre.
- Time of the Earthquake.
- Geology of the area.
- Relief of the area
- Severity of aftershocks.
- Level of development of human settlement.
- Population density.
- Building strength.
• Characteristics of volcanoes:
- A volcano is a hole or crack through which magma erupts
onto the surface. Gases and pyroclastic materials can also
be erupted.
- Found on constructive and destructive plate boundaries
and hotspots.
- There are two types of volcanoes activity:

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Intrusive, when magma cools underground to form

igneous rocks.
Extrusive, when magma flows out onto the Earth’s
surface as lava.
- There are many hazards associated an eruption such as
lahars (mudflows caused when ash mixes with heavy rain
or water from melting snow).
- There are different types of volcanoes depending on the
viscosity of the magma and the amount of gas in it:
1. Shield volcanoes:
- Found on constructive plate boundaries and hotspots and
formed by lava flow.
- Magma has low viscosity.
- Eruptions are non-explosive and consist of mainly basalt
lava.
- Examples include Mauna loa in Hawaii and volcanoes in
Iceland.
2. Composite(strato) volcanoes :
- Found in destructive plate boundaries.
- Conical shape.
- Formed by alternating layers of ash and lava
- Magma is viscus.
- Eruptions are explosive but infrequent and consist of ash,
shattered lava, volcanic bombs and gases.

110
Features of a volcano
Key terms:
Plate tectonics: a theory that helps explain the

formation of some of the important features on the
Earth’s surface and how the continents move. Fold
Mountains: mountains created where two or more
tectonic plates are pushed together compressing
the rocks and folding them upwards. Convention
currents: transfer heat from place to place. Heat
fromthe Earth’s core causes convention currents in
the mantle.

111
• Causes of tropical cyclones:

- Tropical cyclones, hurricanes and typhoons are found in
different parts of the world but they are all the same
weather feature.
- Cyclones are found in the Indian Ocean and Australia.
- Hurricanes in the Atlantic Ocean and eastern Pacific
Ocean and typhoons in western Pacific Ocean.
- Certain conditions are needed for tropical cyclones to form.
- Ocean surface temperature of at least 27°C. Warm water
provides the energy to evaporate more water that rises,
condenses, releasing huge amounts of energy.
- Ocean depth of at least 60m deep.
- These conditions occurring between 5° and 20° north and
south to have sufficient Coriolis effect (rotation of the
Earth to make the air spin).
- Very little wind shear (change in wind speed or direction).
Allows the vertical development of the storm.
- These conditions exist between May and November in the
Northern Hemisphere and between November and May in
the Southern Hemisphere.
• Distribution of tropical cyclones:
- Between 5° and 20° north and south.
- They do not form on the equator because the Coriolis effect
there is 0.
- The air at the equator tends to flow straight from high
pressure to low pressure, without any rotation.

112
• Characteristics of the tropical cyclones:

- It can be up to 800 km in diameter and up to 20 km in
height. It usually last for a week, moving 17-32 km /h. they
rotate in an ant-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and
in a clock-wise in the Southern Hemisphere.
- The typical weather expected as a tropical cyclone passes is:
+ Sky become cloudy, wind speed increases, rain with sunny
intervals.
+ Air pressure falls, wind speed continues to increase. Large
cumulonimbus clouds form and very heavy rain falls. This is the
eyewall or vortex.
+ In the eye of the storm the sky is clear, winds are light and
there is little rain. Temperatures are warm.
+ After the eye has passed cumulonimbus clouds form again,
heavy rain and strong winds.
+ wind speed and rainfall decrease. Sunny intervals.
• Tropical cyclones create the following hazards:
- Strong winds can cause structural damage to buildings.
- Heavy rainfall can lead to river flooding and landslides.

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- Storm surges can lead to flooding in low lying coastal

areas, the intense low pressure can raise sea levels and
strong winds can push waves up to 5 m high inland.
• Flooding
Flooding is when the discharge of a river exceeds the
capacity of the river’s channel and covers the adjacent
floodplain. Heavy rainfall is the cause of most floods.
• What causes flooding?
PHYSICAL CAUSE IMPACT

HEAVY RAINFALL • Reduces the infiltration capacity of the
soil;
• Increase in overland flow.
PROLONGED • Saturates the soil;
RAINFALL • Causes the water table to rise,
reducing infiltration capacity.
SNOWMELT •Overland flow occurs due to rapid
snowmelt.
LAND RELIEF • Steeper gradients lead to faster
overland flow ‫ ؞‬water has little time to
infiltrate.
SATURATED SOIL The more saturated the soil is (before
the rainfall), lesser infiltration and more
overland flow.
STORM SURGES, Flooding of low-lying coastal areas.
TSUNAMIS

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HUMAN CAUSE IMPACT

DEFORESTATION • Reduces interception and
infiltration.
CULTIVATION Ploughing down rather than
across slopes increases the
water flow.
URBANISATION • Concrete and tarmac are
impermeable surfaces (no
infiltration ‫ ؞‬high overland flow).
CLIMATE CHANGE Global warming may lead to rise
in sea levels and more rainfall
in some areas.
• Drought:
Drought is when there is a lack of rain or less rain than normal
over a long period of time.
• Causes of drought:
- Lack of rain caused by prolonged high pressure:
▪ Air in a high-pressure system sinks and doesn’t form rain
clouds.
- Effect of El Niño Southern Oscillation and La Niña:
▪ El Niño causes the surface water in the Pacific Ocean along
South America to be warmer.
▪ These warmer waters alter storm patterns and can cause
droughts in Australia.
▪ Whereas, La Niña causes the temperature of the water along
South America to decrease.
▪ The cooler conditions cause drought in parts of North and
South America.
- Effect of climate change:
▪ Warmer worldwide temperatures cause the rainfall to decrease
in some parts of the world, leading to drought.
- Human activities such as:

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. Agricultural practices can make land more vulnerable to

drought. Irrigation techniques increase farmers’
dependence on water. Overcultivation and overgrazing lead
to soil compaction and soil is less able to hold water.
. Deforestation: as a lack of trees decreases soil infiltration
and increases soil erosion.
. Building a dam on a large river can cause drought
downstream by reducing the flow of water.
Impacts of natural hazards
• Impacts of tectonic events:

- Damage to buildings and infrastructure;
- Fires from ruptures of gas pipes;
- Tsunamis hit coastlines;
- Landslides cover buildings and roads;
- Destruction of farmland, leading to starvation;
- Loss of wildlife habitats;
- Water-related diseases because victims are in temporary
accommodation with no sanitation or clean water, Water
is also contaminated by broken sewage pipes or untreated
sewage.
- Loss of life;
- Trauma, poor mental health;
- Financial losses when repairing the damage.
• Impacts of tropical cyclones:

- Flooding from storm surges and heavy rainfall;
- Loss of life;
- Disruption of electricity, transport and water supply;
- Water-borne diseases;
- Economic loss as production is halted;

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- Damage to crops, food shortages and loss of export

earnings;
- Loss of wildlife habitats.
• Impacts of flooding:
- Loss of life;
- Contamination of water supplies leading to disease;
- Loss of crops and livestock leading to food shortages;
- Deposition of silt from the flood waters;
- Recharge of groundwater stores;
- Rivers may change course;
- Financial losses when repairing the damage.
• Impacts of droughts:
- Water sources dry up, forcing people to travel
long distances to fetch water;
- Decline in crop yields;
- Loss of crops, livestock, plants and wildlife;
- Decrease in land prices as production declines and
farmers lose money;
- Migration from rural to urban areas;
- Unemployment;
- Increase in food prices;
- Health problems due to malnutrition;
- Soil erosion, leading to desertification;
- Increased risk of wildfires and poor air quality;
- Conflicts over water usage and food.

117
Strategies to manage the impacts of natural hazards:

Volcanoes:
• Prediction:
- Seismometers can be used to monitor tremors caused by
rising magma;
- Satellites using heat-seeking cameras can be used to
monitor increasing ground temperatures;
- Tiltmeters (measure very subtle changes in the surface of
the Earth as magma accumulates) and GPS can be used to
monitor changes in volcano shape;
- Emissions of steam and gas (sulfur dioxide) can be
monitored.
• Preparation and protection:
- Volcano hazard map (study past eruptions);
- Lava diversion channels and lava barriers ;
- Spraying lava with water;
- Halting lava advance by dropping concrete slabs into the
flow;
- Building reinforcements (sloping roofs to protect against
ashfall).
Earthquakes:
• Prediction:
- Monitor tremors (using seismometers), groundwater
levels and radon gas;
- Epicentres and frequencies of past events can be
mapped to check if a pattern is developing;
- Measurement of local magnetic fields;
- Hazard zone map can be drawn (geological info and
ground stability);
- Unusual animal behaviour.
118

- Earthquake-proof or aseismic buildings. Older buildings
can be modernised;
- Smart meters to switch off gas supplies, preventing fires;
- Land-use planning: important services (schools, hospitals)
must be built in low-risk areas.
Some features of an earthquakes proof buildings
Tropical cyclones:
• Prediction:
- Tracked using satellites.
- Cyclone shelters;
- Embankments along the coast;
- Preserve mangrove swamps to absorb the energy of storm
surges.

119
Flooding:
• Prediction:
- Monitoring the amount of rainfall and river discharge.
- Using the features of the drainage basin and type of storm
to determine the severity of the flood.
- Hard engineering projects (levees, flood barriers and dams);
- Soft engineering projects (afforestation and storage basins);
- Increasing the river channel (clearing vegetation);
- Land-use planning to restrict development on floodplains;
- Use of sandbags and pumps;
- Adapt houses to position power sockets 1.5 m above
ground level to prevent electrocution.
Droughts:
• Prediction:
- Monitoring precipitation and temperature.
- Increase water supplies (dams, reservoirs, wells,
percolation ponds, aquifers, pumps, water transfer by
pipeline and desalination);
- Water conservation (storage tanks, spray irrigation,
drought-tolerant crops, recycling water and reducing
deforestation);
- Agricultural improvements (shelterbelts to decrease wind
and evaporation, bunds to increase infiltration and fencing
to control overgrazing);
- Government stockpiling supplies of water, food and
medicine.
Opportunities presented by natural hazards:

• Individuals may want to be near family and friends.

120
• Confidence in prediction, preparation and protection.

• Employment opportunities e.g. tourism.
• No choice in moving if there is pressure on land or if it is
too expensive to move.
• After a volcanic eruption, fertile soils are created that
produce high crop yields.
- The scenery can be spectacular;
- Geothermal energy can be obtained easily;
- Possibility of mining minerals such as sulfur,
diamonds and gold.
• Living near rivers may provide a source of food, water
for drinking and irrigation.
- Communications may be easier;
- Flat land on either side is available for building on.
Key terms:
Discharge: the volume of water passing a

measurement point in a given time, measured
in cubic meters per second (cumecs).
Lag time: the time difference between peak of
the rainfall and peak discharge.
Antecedent soil moisture: the amount of
moisture present in the soil before a rainfall event.

121
CHAPTER 7
THE ATMOSPHERE AND HUMAN
ACTIVITIES The composition of the atmosphere:
• The Earth's atmosphere is composed of the following molecules:
nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon (1%), and then trace amounts
of carbon dioxide, neon, helium, methane, krypton, hydrogen,
nitrous oxide, xenon, ozone, iodine, carbon monoxide, and
ammonia. Lower altitudes also have quantities of water vapor.
COMPONENT % IN IMPORTANCE TO LIFE

ATMOSPHERE ON EARTH
NITROGEN (N2) 78.09 • Growth of plants.
OXYGEN (O2) 20.95 • Produced by
photosynthesis;
• Used in respiration.
WATER VAPOUR 0.2-4 • Source for precipitation;
(H2O) • Provides most of the
natural greenhouse gases;
• Vital for existence of life.

122
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.03 • Used by plants in

(CO2) photosynthesis;
• Greenhouse gas.
ARGON (Ar) 0.93 • Can create an inert
HELIUM (He), Trace atmosphere that protects
NEON (Ne), materials from reacting
KRYPTON (Kr) with oxygen or other gases.
NON GASOUS Trace • absorbs and reflects
PARTICALES incoming short-wave
DUST radiation. Water vapour
condenses in particles
forming droplets or ice
crystals which are the
basis of cloud formation.
POLUTANTS Trace Can lead to smog, acid
SULFUR rain, ozone depletion and
DIOXIDE(SO2), the enhanced greenhouse
NITROGENE effect.
DIOXIDE (NO2),
METHANE (CH4)
The structure of the atmosphere:

• The atmospheric pressure decreases as the height increases,
in all layers of the atmosphere.
• Based on temperature changes, the atmosphere is divided into
four layers:

123
The structure of the atmosphere
• The Troposphere:
▪ Temperature decreases with height as conduction and convection

of heat from the Earth’s surface decrease.
▪ the strength of the Earth’s gravitational pull declines with altitude,
and pressure declines too. In contrast, wind speeds increase with
height.
▪ The top of this layer is called the tropopause, where temperatures
remain fairly constant.
▪ This is the upper limit to the Earth’s weather and climate.
• The Stratosphere:
▪ Temperature increases slightly with height.

▪ This is called temperature inversion.

124
▪ This is caused by the concentration of ozone that absorbs the

incoming ultraviolet radiation from the Sun.
▪ This layer also acts as a shield against incoming meteorites which
burn out when they enter the Earth’s gravitational field.
▪ The top of this layer is called the stratopause.
• The Mesosphere:
▪ Temperature falls rapidly as there’s no dust, water vapour

or ozone to absorb the short-wave radiation.
▪ The upper limit of this layer is called the mesopause.
• The Thermosphere:
▪ Temperatures rise rapidly because of the absorption of

ultraviolet radiation by atomic oxygen.
▪ The upper limit of this layer is called the thermopause.
Assessment:
Copy and complete the following paragraph using the words
supplied in the list below. Beware as some of the words are not
correct.
The Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of …………………., with some
liquids and solids, held to Earth by …………………………,
……………………. is the most abundant gas (…… %). This follow by
……………………………………. A gas which makes up less than
0.93% is ………………………….. Another gas which is
………………………… and makes up ……..%. Plants make food from
this via photosynthesis. …………………….. is a gas found in the
…………………………. that absorbs potentially harmful ultra-violet
radiation.
Ozone 78.09% oxygen gases
nitrogen Thermosphere krypton pressure
argon gravity Carbon dioxide 20.95%
0.03% stratosphere

125
The natural greenhouse effect:

• Is a process that helps keep the Earth’s surface and atmosphere
warm.
• The Earth receives incoming short-wave radiation from the Sun.
▪ Half of this radiation is absorbed by the Earth’s surface.

▪ Around 20% is absorbed by the atmosphere.
▪ Around 30% is reflected by clouds and the Earth’s surface,
back into space.
• As the Earth’s surface warms, outgoing long-wave radiation
(infrared radiation) is emitted back into the atmosphere.
• Greenhouse gases absorb some of this radiation and deflect it
back to the Earth’s surface. This process maintains the Earth’s
temperature at around 33C⁰ warmer than it would otherwise be.
• Examples of greenhouse gases:
▪ Natural: water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane and
nitrous oxides.
▪ Artificial: Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
• The more the concentration of the greenhouse gases, the more
effectively they return radiation back to Earth.

126
Atmospheric pollution and its causes

• Air pollution occurs when the atmosphere contains gases and
substances (pollutants) in harmful amounts. The substances
that directly pollute the atmosphere are called primary
pollutants. If the primary pollutants undergo chemical reactions
the resulting compounds are called secondary pollutants.
• Smog:
- Burning of fossil fuels in industry, homes and vehicles
provides particles like smoke and dust for fog to form
around.
• Photochemical smog:
- Involves chemical reactions induced by sunlight on certain
pollutants.
- These reactions convert them into harmful substances, like
ground-level or tropospheric ozone (‘bad’ ozone).
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs):
- Chemicals which cause photochemical smog that easily
enter the atmosphere as gases, mainly from evaporation.
- Examples: hydrocarbons (like methane), ammonium
nitrate, carbon monoxide (incomplete combustion), etc.
• Temperature inversion: a weather condition when the air
temperature increases with altitude, rather than decreasing.
- During the day, the surfaces is heated due to longwave
radiation.
- On calm and clear nights, the Earth surface cools very
quickly, emitting radiation, cooling the air above it.
- At higher altitude, the air doesn’t cool as quickly, so this
air becomes warmer than the air below it.
- This layer of warm air is the inversion layer, that disrupts
the regular convection currents.
- The concentration of smog (pollutants) increases, often in
valleys surrounded by steep-sided hills.

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• Enhanced greenhouse effect: created by addition of greenhouse

gases to the atmosphere through human activities.
- More heat retained in the atmosphere.
- Increased temperature of the Earth’s surface, leading to
global warming and climate change.
GREENHOUSE GAS HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT INCREASE

THEIR ABUNDANCE
CARBON DIOXIDE • Burning of fossil fuels;
• Deforestation.
METHANE • Cattle and rice production;
• Coal mine ventilation;
• Deforestation;
• Decomposition of waste (landfill sites).
CFCs • Aerosol sprays;
• Fire extinguishers;
• Refrigeration;
• Air conditioning.
NITROGEN OXIDES • Vehicle exhausts;
• Chemical fertilisers.
TROPOSPHERIC • Chemical reactions involving nitrogen
OZONE oxides and unburnt fuel vapours.
• Acid rain: precipitation with a pH value of less than 7.

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-
Burning of fossil fuels in factories and power stations
release sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides.
- Vehicle emissions add further nitrogen oxides.
- When these gases mix and react with the water vapour in
the atmosphere, they form weak solutions of nitric and
sulfuric acid.
- They are carried by prevailing winds.
- They eventually fall to Earth as acid rain.
• Ozone layer depletion:
- Ozone is a greenhouse gas that can be found in
troposphere (bad ozone) and stratosphere (good ozone) but
it is concentrated at about 25 km in the stratosphere.
- Ozone layer protects the Earth from the Sun’s harmful
radiation.
- It is formed when oxygen (O2) filters from the top of the
troposphere and reacts under the influence of ultraviolet
radiation to form ozone (O3).
- It is continually formed, destroyed and replaced naturally,
creating a dynamic balance that is disturbed by human
activities.
- When CFCs reach the stratosphere, the ultraviolet
radiation breaks them down, releasing chlorine.
- Chlorine reacts with oxygen in a destructive process,
breaking down the ozone molecules to chlorine monoxide
and oxygen, depleting the layer and forming a hole.
- This hole allows harmful radiation to enter the Earth’s
atmosphere.

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Impact of atmospheric pollution
POLLUTANT IMPACT
SMOG • Irritation of eyes and throat;
Pollutant • Respiratory diseases, like asthma;
molecules: • Fine particles carried into lungs, leading to
VOCs and NO2 lung cancer, strokes and heart attacks;
• Breathing difficulties.
ACID RAIN • Acidification of ground water, making the
Pollutant water undrinkable;
molecules: • Can cause diarrhoea and stomach upset if the
SO2 and NO2 water is consumed;
• Aluminium leached from the soil to
groundwater;
• Acidification of groundwater damages tree
roots;
• Crop yields decline;
• Nutrients like calcium are leached out of the
soil;
• Fish die as acidity levels increase;
• Limestone buildings are chemically
weathered.
OZONE • Higher levels of ultraviolet radiation cause
DEPLETION sun burn, skin cancers, retina damage and
Pollutant cataracts;
molecules: • Extra ultraviolet radiation limits the
CFCs reproduction of phytoplankton, affecting the
entire food webs;
• Changes in biochemical composition of some
plant leaves make them less attractive as food.
CLIMATE • Melting of ice sheets, glaciers and permafrost
CHANGE cause a rise in sea-levels;
Pollutant • Damage to low-lying countries from flooding;
molecules: • Forced migration as people lose their homes
and farmland from rising sea-levels;

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Various • Loss of biodiversity, habitat or extinction

greenhouse if animals and plants can’t adapt;
gases • Increased droughts could lead
to desertification and famine;
• Sea-level rise leads to the loss of coastal
land and increased erosion.
Managing atmospheric pollution

• Reduction of carbon footprint:
- Carbon footprint: a measure of the impact of our activities
on the environment. It calculates all the greenhouse gases
expected to produce.
• Reduced use of fossil fuels:
- Low sulfur coal can be used;
- Increased use of renewable energy.
• Energy efficiency:
- Using energy efficient appliances.
• Carbon capture and storage:
- Waste carbon dioxide from power stations can be
transported via pipelines to storage sites.
• Transport policies:
- Creation of cycle lanes, bus lanes, metro systems and trams;
- Electric or hybrid cars can be encouraged;
- Biofuels can be used;
- Vehicles can be banned from certain parts of city by
pedestrianisation;
- Public transport and residential parking can be made free.
• International agreement and policies:
- Policies such as Montreal Protocol, Kyoto Protocol and
Paris Climate Conference can be passed on worldwide;
- An international cooperation is required.
• CFC replacement:

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- Reduction in the use of CFCs;

- Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) can be used as an
alternative;
- Safe disposal of items containing CFCs.
• Taxation:
- Higher road tax to decrease car ownership.
• Catalytic converters:
- Catalytic converters in vehicles reduce sulfur dioxide
emissions;
- They also convert nitrogen dioxide and carbon monoxide to
carbon dioxide and nitrogen;
- Low-sulfur vehicle fuels can also be used.
• Flue-gas desulfurisation:
- Scrubbers can be used to remove 95% of sulfur dioxide
emissions;
- Lining chimneys with lime also reduce the emissions.
• Reforestation and afforestation:
- Reforestation: replanting an area with trees;
- Afforestation: planting trees in a barren land.

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Key Terms
Tropopause: the upper limit of the troposphere.
Temperature inversion: when the temperature increase
with altitude.
Stratopause: the upper limit of the stratosphere.
Mesopause: the upper limit of the mesosphere,
temperatures remain constant in this boundary layer.
Thermopause: the upper limit of the thermosphere,
temperatures remain constant in this boundary layer.
Short-wave radiation: incoming or short-wave solar
radiation, visible light and ultraviolet radiation
commonly called shortwave radiation.
Long-wave radiation: outgoing or terrestrial radiation, as
the Earth produces very little visible light or ultraviolet
radiation, all radiation from the Earth is infrared.
Primary pollutant: a pollutant that is emitted directly
from the source.
Secondary pollutant: a pollutant that forms through
a chemical reactions with primary pollutants.
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): chemicals that easily
enter the atmosphere as gas, mainly from evaporation.

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CHAPTER 8
HUMAN POPULLATION
Changes in population size:
• Population: all the organisms of one species living in a defined
area at the same time.
• Lag phase: the period of time in population growth when an
organism is adapting to its new environment and the growth is
slow.
• Log/exponential phase: when the growth rate of a population
Increases overtime as all requirements are in superabundance.

• Stationary phase: when the growth rate of a population has
slowed down to zero as the carrying capacity is reached.
• Carrying capacity: the maximum size of a population that an
environment can support in terms of food, water and other
resources.
History of human population: about 10000 years ago, there

were about 5 million people living as hunter- gatherers.
Significant points in the growth of the human population since
then are:

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-About 6000 years ago, humans started growing crops and

rearing animals, which provided more food and allowed the
population to begin to grow;
- By the time the modern system of counting years started,
the population was about 250 million;
- It then took another 1800 years to reach 1 billion;
- After this, the growth become very rapid;
- By 1930, it was 2 billion;
- By 1975, it was 4 billion;
- By 2016, it was over 7 billion, a rise of 3 billion in just 37
years.
UN predictions for the human population in 2100 based on
evidence:

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• Birth rate: the number of live births per thousand of population

per year.
• Death rate: the number of deaths per thousand of population
per year.
• Natural increase: the difference between birth rate and death
rate.
• Factors effecting birth rate:
- In countries with a high death rate for the very young (high
infant mortality), birth rates are also high.
- In farming economies of many LEDCs, more people are
needed for manual labour ‫ ؞‬families tend to be larger.
- In MEDCs, it is expensive to have children and pensions
are provided by the state. As pensions are provided, they
do not need children to take care of them in their old age.
- Many social and political factors result in low use of birth
control in LEDCs, whereas in MEDCs birth control is
widely used, so both birth and death rates are lower.
• Migration: the movement of people into (immigration) or out of
(emigration) a region, country or an area.
- Most common worldwide movement is from rural to urban
areas in LEDCs.
- Sometimes urban to rural migrations also occur, mostly in
MEDCs.
- Population growth: (birth rate + immigration) – (death
rate + emigration).
Push and pull factors:

PUSH FACTORS: factors that encourage people to move away
from an area.
PULL FACTORS: factors that encourage people to move into
an area.

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Push from rural to urban Pull from rural to urban

Drought/famine; Good supplies of food whatever
the weather;
Poverty; Well-paid jobs;
Poor links with outside world; Good roads;
Poor services; Hospitals, schools, water,
electricity;
Work on the land only, Factory, shops, office work for a
subsistence; wage.
Desertification;
Sea-level rise; No comparable pull factors
Seasonal weather events.
Human population distribution and density:

• Population density: population per area (figures providing an
average value).
• Population distribution: how the population is spread over an
area.
Example: very few or no people live in deserts and mountains,
whereas populations are very high in coastal areas due to
availability of fresh water.

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Population structure:
• Population/age pyramid: a diagram that shows the proportion
of the population that is male and female in different age
groups (usually 5-year interval).

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• Expanding (young) populations: a typical pyramid for LEDCs

with high proportion of young people due to high birth rate.
• Stationary populations: population that is almost stationary,

with a rectangular shape, except at the top when old people die.

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• Contracting (old) populations (Japan 2016): population is

declining because of low birth rates, and its pyramid is top-
heavy because of low death rates.
• Dependent: those people in the population who are not

economically active (working) i.e. the young (<16) and old (65+)
and thus rely on those who are working for their needs.
• Independent: those people in the population who are
economically active (working) i.e. the middle-aged (between 17
and 65).
• Taxes from the independent population is used for:
- Education for the youngsters and provision of school
places for the children yet to reach school age.
- Creating care-home places and hospitals for the ageing
population.
Managing human population size:

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• Family planning: methods used by couples to decide the

number of children to have and when, which is mostly
encouraged by governments
- Contraception: used to prevent pregnancy.
• Improved health and education: makes people more aware of
methods to limit family size.
- Educated women may plan a career as well as having
children, the former frequently limiting how many children
are born.
- Education can also lead to a tendency for later marriages
and thus later child bearing.
- High infant mortality causes couples to have more
children. When it is reduced by better healthcare and
sanitation, the trend is reversed.
• National population policies:
- Pronatalist policy: a national or regional policy that aims
to encourage couples to have children.
▪ In countries like France, couples were encouraged to have
more than 2 children.
▪ Parents are paid the equivalent of the minimum wage for a
year after they have a third child.
▪ They enjoy subsidised train fares, pay less tax the more
children they have, and subsidised day care.
- Antinatalist policy: a national or regional policy that aims
to discourage couples to have children.
▪ In LEDCs, population increases too fast, and these policies
can form in weak measures such as the provision of family
planning, contraceptives and education, to laws encouraging
couples to have only one child.
▪ Some countries have no population policies at all and usually
have high birth rates.

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CHAPTER 9
NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES
The ecosystem:
• Ecosystem: all the living things (biotic components) together
with all the nonliving things (abiotic components) in an area.
• The living things in an ecosystem can be described at a number
of levels:
- Population: all the organisms of one species living in a
defined area at the same time.
- Community: a group of populations of different species
that live together in an area and interact with each other.
- Habitat: the place within an ecosystem where an organism
lives.
- Niche: the role of a species within the ecosystem.
Biotic factors:
- Producers: organisms within an ecosystem that can carry
out photosynthesis.
- Primary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that
derive their food from producers.
- Secondary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem
that derive their food from primary consumers.
- Tertiary consumers: organisms within an ecosystem that
derive their food from secondary consumers.
- Decomposers: organisms within an ecosystem that derive
their food from the bodies of dead organisms.
Abiotic factors:
• Temperature: usually expressed in °C. Living things have a
range of temperatures within which they can survive.

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• Humidity: a measure of how damp the air is; how much water
vapour it holds. Usually expressed as relative humidity (RH) – RH
expresses the humidity as a % of the amount of water vapour the
air could hold if fully saturated.
• Water: essential for all life as it’s a raw material for photosynthesis
and a medium for chemical reactions. Plants obtain water from the
soil and water content of soil is an important factor in determining
where exactly a plant species lives.
• Oxygen: nearly 21% in the air; decreases with increasing
altitude. Usually expressed as parts per million (ppm) in water.
Not very soluble in water so all aquatic organisms have
adaptations to get enough e.g. gills in fish.
• Salinity: how salty something is, measured as ppm or parts per
thousand (ppt) or concentration e.g. milligrams/litre).
▪ Brackish water: water that is salty (>0ppt) but not as salty as
seawater (<35ppt).
• Light: essential for photosynthesis; expressed as lumens.
• pH: (refer to chaptr 4. Impact of water pollution; pH).

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Ecosystem processes:
• Food chain: a diagram showing the relationship between a
single producer and primary, secondary and tertiary consumers.

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• Food web: a diagram showing the relationship between all (or

most) of the producers, primary, secondary and tertiary
consumers in an ecosystem.

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• Trophic level: a feeding level within a food chain or food web.

• Pyramid of numbers: a diagram that represents the number of
organisms at each trophic level in an ecosystem by a horizontal
bar whose length is proportional to the numbers at that level.
• The pyramid shape reflects the loss of energy at each trophic level.
A pyramid of energy represents how much energy, initially from the sun, is
retained or stored in the form of new biomass at each trophic level in an
ecosystem. Typically, about 10% of the energy is transferred from one trophic
level to the next, thus preventing a large number of trophic levels.
• Energy is:
- Lost during transfer as heat to the environment;
- Used for cellular respiration;
- Used for growth;
- Lost as faeces;
- Lost by incomplete digestion by higher trophic level.

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- ‫ ؞‬Food chains cannot have more than 4 or 5 trophic

levels as there’s not enough energy to pass on.
• Photosynthesis:
- Plants trap light energy with the help of chlorophyll.
- This green pigment splits water into hydrogen and oxygen.
- The hydrogen is added to CO2 to make glucose.
- The oxygen not used in respiration is given off to the
atmosphere.
- Plants obtain CO2 from the atmosphere through their
stomata in the leaves and water from the soil through
their roots.
- Glucose is used by plants in respiration to release energy
and is converted to substances the plant needs eg
starch, cellulose, proteins etc.
- Nitrogen is needed to form some substances such as
proteins, but in every case, chemical energy remains
stored in the substance.
• Respiration: the process by which living things release energy

from food to carry out the process of life, such as movement.

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Biotic interactions:
• Competition: living things need a range of resources from the
environment.
- Many more young are produced than will survive, so there
is often competition of resources.
- Individuals least adapted to the current conditions will
either die or fail to reproduce.
• Predation: when one animal eats another.
• Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains (male gametes) from the
anther to the stigma for it to fuse with the ovule (female gamete).
- In plants, male sex cells are found in pollen grain, made in
the anther.
- Pollen grains are either blown by wind or carried by insects.
- The anther is in the flower, attracting the animals with
bright colours, scent and the production of nectar.

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- The pollen grain lands on the stigma of another flower and

sends out a tube that grows down to where the ovule is.
- The ovule is then fertilised to form an embryo in a seed
that grows into a plant.
Mineral cycles:
- As a consumer is obtaining energy from the level below,
it is acquiring the minerals that it needs.
- These include carbon, oxygen, sulfur, phosphorus
and nitrogen.
The Carbon cycle

Ecosystem: all the living things (biotic components) together with all
non-living things (a biotic components) in an area.
Population: all the organisms of one species living in a defined area.
Community: a group of populations of different species that live

together in an area and interact with each other.
Habitat: the place within an ecosystem where an organism lives.
Niche: the role of species within an ecosystem.
Brackish water: water that is salty but not as salty seawater.
Trophic level: a feeding level within a food chain or web.

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Ecosystems under threat

Wetlands:
• Importance of wetlands:
- Shoreline protection;
- Maintenance of water quality;
- Flood control;
- Recharging of aquifers;
- Biological productivity;
- Provide habitats;
- Source of variety of products eg fish, fuel and fibres.
• Causes of habitat loss:
- The drainage of wetlands:
▪ Drainage for agriculture, forestry and mosquito control;
▪ Dredging for flood protection;
▪ Use for disposal of waste created by road construction;
▪ Discharge of pollutants;
▪ Peat removal;
▪ Removal of groundwater.
- Intensive agricultural practices: wetlands are drained
and other land is occupied to provide for intensive
agricultural practices, resulting in habitat loss.
▪ Overcultivation of soil leads to soil erosion, causing
habitat loss for decomposers living in the soil.
- Deforestation: Clearance of climax communities that
would otherwise provide habitat for a wide range of tree
and ground dwelling species.
▪ Climax community: An ecological community in which
populations of plants or animals remain stable and exist in
balance with each other and their environment.
• Impacts of habitat loss:
- Extinction: the process by which a species or other named
group ceases to exist on Earth or other named area.

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- Loss of biodiversity: various species die or relocate when

their habitat is destroyed.
- Genetic depletion: the loss of species containing
potentially useful genes.
▪ Species and genetic diversity that exist in the wild may have
many currently unknown uses e.g. medicinal, drought-resistant,
etc.
▪ These characteristics of modern crop plants may prove useful
in the future e.g. due to climate change, drought-resistant
strains are needed.
▪ These useful, ancient strains (genes) of important crop plants
should be retained.
▪ However, due to habitat destruction, genetic diversity is
reducing, leading to species becoming extinct, making the
genetic loss irretrievable.
▪ Modern strain of crop plants may not be able to adapt to
future changes.
Deforestation
- Causes of deforestation:
▪ Timber is needed in MEDCs for products ranging from luxury
furniture to paper, or as a source of energy.
▪ Lumber (planks and boards).
▪Clear land for:
- Farming;
- Roads and settlements (logging tends to be selective as
only a few species create timber, however building roads
for transporting logs is the most damaging process.)
▪ Rock and mineral extraction.

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• Impacts of deforestation:
- Habitat loss: biodiversity is lost when habitats are lost.
▪ Tropical rainforests are centers of great biodiversity, so loss of
habitat here is serious.
▪ Huge volume of trees acts as massive carbon stores that’s also
home for rare species which may be useful to us.
- Soil erosion and desertification:
▪ Forests reduce the impact of heavy rainfall on the ground,
reducing soil erosion.
▪ Tree roots bind the soil in place and the layer of fallen leaves
and branches protect the soil.

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▪ Overtime, after deforestation, the area that once supported

luxuriant growth may become a desert, because of desertification.
- Climate change:
▪ Changes caused in the levels of various greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere.
▪ CO2 and methane are rising and so are atmospheric
temperatures.
▪ Greenhouse gas: gas that stops energy in the form of heat
from being lost from the atmosphere.
▪ Rise in CO2: due to the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation,
industries.
▪ If the rate of trees photosynthesising and respiring were equal,
removal of trees would have no effect.
▪ However, permanent removal of trees leads to large quantities
of CO2 when burnt or decomposed.
▪ Moreover, the machinery of burning fossil fuels releases more
CO2.
- Loss of biodiversity and genetic depletion: (refer to
Ecosystems under threat; Loss of biodiversity and genetic
depletion).

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• Managing forests:
- Carbon sinks: a vegetated area where the intake of CO2
from the atmosphere in photosynthesis exceeds its output
from respiration, so the net flow of carbon is from the
atmosphere into plants.
- Carbon store: a mature vegetated area where the intake of
CO2 from the atmosphere by photosynthesis equals its
output from respiration, so the mature plants store carbon.
- Role in water cycle: forests add water to the atmosphere
during transpiration, leading to formation of clouds,
eventually releasing it by precipitation. During
deforestation, this process is reduced and local droughts
are caused in the area. Forests generate moisture in the
atmosphere that can affect rainfall around the world.
- Prevention of soil erosion:
- By intercepting rain, forests reduce heavy rainfall on the
forest floor. Debris such as tree leaves on the floor of the
forest slows run-off.
- Roots of trees hold soil in place. Forests on the coast

reduce erosion by absorbing energy from storms. (Refer
to chapter 3 Managing soil erosion).
- Ecotourism: responsible travel to a natural area

that promotes conservation of the environment.
- Visitors travel with the main aim of appreciating its

natural beauty.
- Ecotourism is both a reason to manage forests sustainably

and a method by which this can be achieved.

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- It may be mainly economic in focus, with success

measured by income, or focused on sustainability, with
success measured by a limit on numbers of visitors.
• Measuring and managing biodiversity

• Biodiversity is all the species within the ecosystem as well
as the variation with in the species (genetic diversity) and
many different ecosystems in an area.
• Measuring biodiversity:
- Types of sampling:
▪ Random sampling: a sampling method in which the sampling
device is placed using random tables or the roll of dice.
▪ Used when two areas are to be compared e.g. number of
insects in wet and dry areas.
▪ Systematic sampling: a sampling method in which the
sampling device is placed along a line or a pre- determined
pattern, usually a transect.
▪ Used to check how the species change along a gradient in the

environment e.g. from the shade of a woodland to an open field.
• Quadrat: a frame of known area placed on a part of the site to be
sampled.
▪ Used to sample sedentary organisms e.g. plants.

▪ The number of organisms of the species is then counted.
▪ Sometimes, the percentage cover of the organism in the quadrat is
calculated.

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Quadrat
• Transect: a sampling method in which sampling devices are laid

out along a line already placed across an area.
▪ Used to sample sedentary organisms.

▪ An example of systematic sampling.
Transect

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• Pitfall traps:
▪ Used to sample non-sedentary organisms (insects).

▪ Consists of a jar sunk up to its rim in the soil.
▪ The jar may or may not be covered (depending on the predicted
likelihood of rainfall).
▪ Traps should be inspected and emptied regularly.
▪ Can be used randomly or systematically.
▪ Drawback: measures the activity and number of the species.
• Pooter:
▪ Used to sample non-sedentary organisms e.g. insects.

▪ Insects in short vegetation or on trees are usually trapped in a net.
▪ A pooter is used to transport the organisms, from the nets or traps
to a laboratory, for example.

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METHOD ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

QUADRATS • Quick; • Not always very
• Inexpensive; accurate;
• Portable. • Unless many
quadrats are placed,
the sample can be
unintentionally biased.
TRANSECTS • Quick; Often used in
• Inexpensive; inappropriate
• Portable. situations.
PITFALL TRAPS • Inexpensive; Often kill the
• Easy to set up organisms
and use. captured;
• May oversample or
under sample.

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Strategies for conserving the biodiversity and genetic resource

of natural ecosystems:
Conservation can include the protection, preservation,
management and restoration of wildlife and habitats.
Sustainable harvesting of wild plant and animal species
• Many plants have medicinal properties because of the secondary
metabolites they produce.
▪ Secondary metabolites: organic compounds produced by
bacteria, fungi, or plants which are not directly involved in the
normal growth, development, or reproduction of the organism.
• Wild plants are preferred source as cultivated varieties only
produce small or none of the chemicals to be used.
- Management plan to control harvesting of wild-grown
medicinal plants:
▪ Assessing the abundance of the plant.

▪ Investigate species’ growth rate, reproductive biology and impact
of harvesting.
▪ Assess the yield that can be sustained by the wild population.
▪ Details of how the harvesting should be monitored.
• Sustainable forestry:
• Selective logging: removal of only mature trees of species that
are valuable. Other species and immature trees of value species
are left, allowing the forest to repair overtime.
▪ Non-valued trees still provide habitat for many species and
immature valued trees can be used years later.
• Agroforestry: land management system in which crops are
grown around trees.
▪ Trees enrich the soil when the leaves fall, provide food for animals,
firewood for people, and sometimes medicine.

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▪ Tree roots bind soil together, and in some cases, fix nitrogen,
further enriching the soil.
▪ Farmers obtain food and milk from the farm, and their animals
enrich the soil with manure.
▪ Alley cropping: planting rows of trees at wide spacings with a
companion crop grown in the alleyways between the rows.
▪ Trees are pruned and the prunings are used to improve the soil
and provide minerals to the crop. (if the tree is a legume, these
minerals would include nitrates)
▪ Mineral recycling and the suppression of weeds by the trees are
combined with cropping on the same land, these thereby allow the
long-term survival of farmland.
• National parks: an area of land protected by the government to
preserve entire ecosystems e.g. flora, fauna and landscape.
- Laws that ban/limit activities such as hunting, logging
and collection of wildflowers are implemented.
- Enforcement requires regular inspection and threat of
hefty fines or imprisonment for breaking the law.
- Extensive facilities for tourists are provided, that includes
a system of roadways, carparks and natural trails.
- An entry fee charged is used for conservation work.
- A guidebook/leaflet is provided that includes information
on the dos and don’ts, and the importance of the
conservation of wild nature.
- The largest national park in the world is the Northeast
Greenland National park, covering 972001km^2.
• Wildlife and ecological reserves: the practice of protecting wild
plant and animal species and their habitat that plays an
important role in balancing the ecosystems and different natural
processes eg rainfall, fertility of the soil, etc., thus also meeting
the needs of people.

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• Extractive reserves: Extractive reserves attempt to find a balance

between destroying the forest for short-term benefit and stopping
all economic activity, which can have an impact on local people.
• Wildlife corridors: are areas of land that link large reserves or
other wildlife habitats, generally native vegetation, which joins
two or more larger areas of similar wildlife habitat.
- Corridors are critical for the maintenance of ecological
processes including allowing for the movement of animals
and the continuation of viable populations.
• World biosphere reserves: an ecosystem with plants and
animals of unusual scientific and natural interest.
- The plan is to promote management, research and
education in ecosystem conservation.
- The ecosystems that need protection are located in the core
area, where human activities are restricted to monitoring
and possibly some research.
- The buffer zone is an area where more research is carried
out together with education and tourism.
- The transition zone is where local communities and
conservation organization work together to manage the
area for the benefit of people who live there.
The structure of a biosphere reserve.

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- Advantages:
▪ Recognised internationally via UNESCO.
▪ Attracts funding and support of experts in the conservation
community, improving the success of the reserve.
CORE AREA BUFFER ZONE TRANSITION ZONE
Ecosystems that • More research, Local communities

need protection. along with tourism and Conservation
and education. organisations work
Monitoring and May contain field together to manage
some research. stations with the area for the
laboratories and benefit of the people
recreational living there.
facilities.
• Seed banks: stores seeds to preserve genetic diversity when it’s not
possible to protect the area where the endangered plant lives.
- Wild plants carry genes that could be used in crop
plants to confer resistance to pests and diseases;
- Seeds occupy lesser space than plants, thus more
species can be held;
- Collecting small samples of seeds is unlikely to damage
the wild population as most plants produce large number
of seeds;
- Seeds are dormant and need minimal care, thus easier
to store than living plants.
• Role of zoos and captive breeding:

- Provide education about the illegal trade in animals and
products, and the need to maintain biodiversity;

164
-
Involved in scientific research on the control of diseases,
animal behaviour and techniques to improve breeding
success;
- Captive-breeding programmes increase species numbers,
thus reducing the risk of extinction;
- Aim to release captive-bred animals into the wild when
habitats have been restored;
- Such programmes try maintaining genetic biodiversity of a
species, as interbreeding leads to a reduction in diversity
and therefore reduces adaptability when the species is
placed back in the wild.
• Ways to reduce inbreeding:
- Organisms aren’t allowed to breed repeatedly with the
same partner;
- A variety of partners for an organism can be achieved
through in-vitro fertilisation and inter-zoo swapping of
individuals;
- Use a database (studbook) to record breeding history of
individuals in captivity.
• Sustainable tourism and ecotourism: management of
tourism in a sustainable way to prevent damage to habitat and
provide what people want.
- Key to successful sustainable ecotourism is realising that
the growth of the tourist industry depends on
maintaining the environment.
- Measures are taken to safeguard wildlife and the
resources are used sustainably.

Chapter 1 Rocks and Mineral and Their Extraction Notes

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CHAPTER 1

ROCKS AND MINERALS AND THEIR EXTRACTION

The structure of the Earth:

particles of gravels and small boulders can also be found in

Characteristics of the different rock types.

Igneous Sedimentary Metamorphic

Rock: a combination of one or more minerals

The rock cycle.

heat and pressure Weathering and erosion

melting melting magma

2. Add the names of the correct rock type to Table below:

Description Rock Type

Exploring for minerals:

• Surface mining: includes open-cast (open-pit, open-cut) and

 Open-pit mining is used when a valuable deposit is located

The minerals are extracted by digging (by machines and

1. The costs of exploration and extraction:

 There are fewer technical difficulties of mining on a large scale

using open-pit mining as there’d be low extraction costs per

tonne will be higher. So, only deposits of higher value can be

than low-grade ores.

 Small deposits of high-grade ore are worth mining.

 Small deposits of low-grade ore that cannot be mined at a

profit are left as reserves.

 Transporting the ore from the mine to processing plants can

be difficult and expensive.

 The cost of building road or rail links to the processing plant

or to the nearest port for export has to be considered.

 Carrying out some processing at the mine reduces transport

 A long-term agreement between the government and mining

company must be reached to avoid rapid rises in the tax,

which makes the mining unprofitable.

4. Environmental Impact Assessment:

 For a licence application to be approved, the company must

have a plan to keep the loss of habitat minimal, followed by

the restoration of land proceeding the completion of mining.

 The choice of site for mine waste should also be considered.

Supply and demand: the relation between how much of a

commodity is available and how much is needed or wanted by

 The profit from a working mine depends on changes in supply

 If the demand is too high, mines that were not profitable

before become worth mining.

to the transport and extraction expenses.

ore: a rock with enough of an important element to make it

Impacts on the environment from the extraction of rocks and

minerals range from large-scale habitat destruction to pollution of

affected by noise and visual pollution.

• Loss of habitat for some species of plants and animals. As the

vegetation is cleared, the plants removed have lost a place to grow,

• At the beginning of deep mining operations (as shafts have to be

destroyed as the amount of mine waste stored aboveground

• After the seams of valuable mineral have been removed, the

However, this vegetation will have less biodiversity compared with

the land surface has been restored.

• When a company applies for a licence to start working, an

environmental impact assessment is carried out. The licence

application is usually approved if the company has a plan to keep

after mining has finished.

• Environmental impact assessment: a process by which the

probable effects on the environment of a development are assessed