Article

Influence on the Flexural Behaviour of High-Volume

Fly-Ash-Based Concrete Slab Reinforced with Sustainable
Glass-Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Sheets
Chinnasamy Samy Madan 1 , Krithika Panchapakesan 1 , Potlapalli Venkata Anil Reddy 1 ,
Philip Saratha Joanna 1, * , Jessy Rooby 1 , Beulah Gnana Ananthi Gurupatham 2 and Krishanu Roy 3, *

1 Department of Civil Engineering, Hindustan Institute of Technology and Science, Chennai 603103, India;
chinna_3_2001@yahoo.com (C.S.M.); keethu17111998@gmail.com (K.P.);
p.v.anilreddy19181@gmail.com (P.V.A.R.); jessyr@hindustanuniv.ac.in (J.R.)
2 Department of Civil Engineering, Anna University, Chennai 600025, India; beulah28@annauniv.edu
3 School of Engineering, Civil Engineering, The University of Waikato, Hamilton 3216, New Zealand
* Correspondence: joanna@hindustanuniv.ac.in (P.S.J.); krishanu.roy@waikato.ac.nz (K.R.)

Abstract: Concrete structures provided with steel bars may undergo deterioration due to fatigue and
corrosion, which leads to an increase in repair and maintenance costs. An innovative approach to
eliminating these drawbacks lies in the utilisation of glass-fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) sheets as
reinforcement in concrete structures instead of steel bars. This article relates to the investigation of
the flexural behaviour of ordinary portland cement (OPC) concrete slabs and high-volume fly ash
(HVFA) concrete slabs reinforced with bi-directional GFRP sheets. Slab specimens were cast with
60% fly ash as a replacement for cement and provided with a 1 mm-thick GFRP sheet in 2, 3 and
Citation: Madan, C.S.; 4 layers. The flexural behaviour of slabs reinforced with GFRP sheets was compared with that of the
Panchapakesan, K.; Anil Reddy, P.V.;
slabs reinforced with steel bars. Experiment results such as cracking behaviour, failure modes and
Joanna, P.S.; Rooby, J.; Gurupatham,
load–deflection, load–strain and moment–curvature relationships of the slab specimens are presented.
B.G.A.; Roy, K. Influence on the
Subsequently, the nonlinear finite-element method (NLFEM) using ANSYS Workbench 2022-R1 was
Flexural Behaviour of High-Volume
Fly-Ash-Based Concrete Slab
carried out and compared with the experimental results. The results obtained from the numerical
Reinforced with Sustainable investigation correlated with the experimental results. The experimental investigation showed that
Glass-Fibre-Reinforced Polymer the HVFA concrete slabs reinforced with GFRP sheet provided a better alternative compared to the
Sheets. J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169. steel reinforcement, which led to sustainable construction.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6060169
Keywords: glass-fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) sheets; flexural behaviour; high-volume fly ash;
Academic Editor: Francesco
cracking behaviour; load–deflection
Tornabene

Received: 21 May 2022

Accepted: 9 June 2022
Published: 10 June 2022 1. Introduction
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral There has been a significant increase worldwide in the utilisation of fibre-reinforced
with regard to jurisdictional claims in polymer (FRP) [1]. FRP has been accepted as an alternate material to traditional steel
published maps and institutional affil- reinforcement. The various types of FRP composites include aramid-fibre-reinforced poly-
iations. mers (AFRP), carbon-fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRP) and glass-fibre-reinforced polymers
(GFRP). FRPs are available in various forms such as rods, sheets and plates. FRP offers sev-
eral applications in concrete structures as they offer high resistance to corrosion, lightweight,
ease of handling and high strength [2,3]. GFRP is most often used because of its lower cost
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
than that of other FRP materials. GFRP sheet is used as an external reinforcement on the
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
top surface of the concrete [4].
This article is an open access article
The structural elements reinforced with GFRP bars/sheets are usually over reinforced
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
sections, which exhibit brittle failure. The use of nonmagnetic GFRP rebars as reinforcement
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
is gaining importance in preventing deterioration in the structural integrity in concrete
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
structures due to its corrosion resistance, lower maintenance costs and higher tensile
4.0/). strength than steel reinforcement [5–8]. Bidirectional binding of GFRP sheets with concrete

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcs6060169 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/jcs

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 2 of 21

attains superior mechanical performance, acting as a substitute for steel rods. Research car-
ried out on slabs, beams and columns with the GFRP rebars as reinforcement has reported
their structural performance as on par with the steel reinforcement [9–12]. The GFRP rods
could be utilised as reinforcement in prestressed concrete members and reinforced concrete
members, ground anchors and for strengthening the existing concrete structures [13–16].
The ultimate load-carrying capacity of the concrete slab reinforced with GFRP mesh is more
than the engineered cementitious composite (ECC) slab made by polyvinyl alcohol fibres
with 60% fly ash was used as a replacement for cement. Hence, reinforcing the concrete
slab with GFRP mesh would be a better choice when compared to the ECC slab [17].
In the construction industry, concrete consists of Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC). It
is the most commonly used construction material because of its raw material availability
and low cost. However, OPC production requires argillaceous and calcareous materials
and is energy-intensive. The main reasons for the emission of greenhouse gas during the
production of OPC are calcination and fossil-fuel combustion [18]. The manufacturing of
OPC contributes to around 8% of global carbon-dioxide emissions [19]. Waste materials
from the industries act as an ingredient for conventional concrete, which helps in bringing
down waste disposal problems. Many industrial waste materials such as ground granulated
blast-furnace slag (GGBS), fly ash and micro silica have the potential to replace cement
in concrete [20].
Fly ash, a by-product of the thermal power plant, is the widely accepted pozzolanic
material for the replacement of OPC in concrete. The use of fly ash in concrete is increasing
due to improvements in workability, strength and durability. Reinforced concrete beams
with 50% fly ash show a 10% increase in moment capacity compared with conventional
concrete [21]. Some drawbacks are seen when cement is replaced by fly ash as it attains
poor strength at its earlier stage due to slow polymerization action [22–25]. Incorporation
of micro silica (MS) in concrete enhances the mechanical properties related to uniformity,
workability, strength, impermeability, durability, constructability, resistance to chemical
attacks and reinforcement corrosion, and increases its compressive strength more than
that of cementitious materials [26]. To enhance the workability, a chemical admixture
known as superplasticiser (SP) was added in order to reduce the water content of the
concrete mixtures [27].
Beams with 50% of fly ash as a replacement to cement attain a strength less than
the conventional concrete at 28 days of curing [28,29]. A durable structure with less
greenhouse-gas emission and with less energy could be obtained by the addition of fly ash
to the concrete [30–32]. The electrical strain gauges were attached to measure the upward
movement of the slabs on one corner. This arrangement of electrical gauges was kept
constant throughout all the testing of the slab specimens [33]. The replacement of GFRP
rods in place of steel as reinforcement in both OPC and HVFA slab specimens improves
the flexural strength [34] Test results show lower split tensile and compressive strength
for higher mix percentage influencing the minimum strength of the concrete. Structural
elements with 50% fly ash have been found at later ages [35]. The wrapping of GFRP
sheets drastically improves the stress-strain, strength and behaviour of fibres under various
cooling regimes and heating temperatures [36]. With the application of GFRP sheets, a
significant increase in the load-carrying capacity of the column was found. With the increase
in the number of layers of GFRP, the load-carrying capacity was found to be increased [37].
An extensive literature review shows the potential of using fly ash in concrete. Despite
the extensive use of GFRP sheets in the strengthening and repair of concrete structures,
utilisation of GFRP sheets as reinforcement in structural elements is scanty. Hence, this
paper investigates the possibility of using GFRP sheets as reinforcement in OPC/fly ash
concrete slabs. Experimental investigations were carried out on 16 slabs, in which 12 slabs
were reinforced with GFRP sheets 1 mm thick in 2, 3 and 4 layers, and 4 slabs were
reinforced with steel bars. Parameters such as load-deflection behaviour, crack pattern,
failure modes, moment-curvature behaviour and load–strain relationship were used for
examination of all the slabs. This study also implements a nonlinear finite-element method
J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 3 of 21

(FEM) using ANSYS Workbench 2022-R1 [38] software to numerically investigate the
overall structural performance of the slab specimens with reference to the ultimate load
and deflection of slab specimens reinforced with steel/GFRP sheets.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Ingredients of OPC/HVFA Concrete
The slabs cast with M25 grade concrete consisted of 53-grade ordinary portland cement
(OPC) having a specific gravity of 3.1, crushed granite coarse aggregate of 20 mm nominal
size conforming to IS:383, manufactured sand (M-sand) as fine aggregate and 10% micro
silica by weight of cementitious material. In the fly-ash concrete, 60% of cement was
replaced by Class F-type fly ash. The mix design of the concrete is shown in Table 1. To
increase workability, 0.3% of Master Glenium sky 8233 superplasticizers were added with
concrete as per IS 9103. Details of the chemical composition of Class F fly ash are listed in
Table 2. The mix design of concrete arrived as per the Indian standard IS: 10262 and IS: 456.

Table 1. Mix proportion of concrete.

Materials/Type of Concrete Cement Fly Ash Microsilica M Sand Aggregate Water Super Plasticiser (%)
OPC concrete 1 - - 2.16 3.42 0.5 0.3
60% HVFA 0.4 0.6 0.1 2.1 3.32 0.5 0.3

Table 2. Chemical properties of fly ash.

Chemical Composition Content (% by Mass)

SiO2 52.52
Al2 O3 32.63
Fe2 O2 6.16
SO3 4.95
LOI 1.08
MnO 0.03
NAI-20 0.02
Cao Nil

2.2. Reinforcing System

The glass-fibre-reinforced polymer sheets were used as the reinforcing members in the
OPC/fly ash-based concrete slabs. The GFRP sheets (E-glass fibre type) are of woven-type
bidirectional mat, having a thickness of 1 mm with a fibre density of 2.6 g/cm3 . The first
layer of GFRP sheets was laid on the fresh concrete at a depth of 20 mm from the bottom,
and then it was folded to form the second layer, and then the concreting was completed.
Similarly, it was laid for slabs with 3 layers and 4 layers of GFRP sheets. Figure 1 shows
the GFRP sheets used as reinforcement in the slabs and the schematic view of placing
the sheets in the slab. The test methods were conducted by manufacturers concerning
the ASTM D3774/D3801 and ISO 10119/10618 standards. The specifications of the GFRP
sheets are shown in Table 3. For comparison, the OPC/fly-ash-based slabs reinforced with
conventional steel bars were also cast and tested. The steel rods of grade Fe 550D and
having a diameter of 10 mm were reinforced with the centre-to-centre spacing of 130 mm
along the longer direction and 240 mm along the shorter direction. Steel rods were placed
at 20 mm depth from the bottom.
J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 4 of 21

Figure 1. (a) Glass-fibre-reinforced polymer (GFRP) sheet (b) Schematic view of placing the sheet.

Table 3. Specification of the GFRP sheets.

Particulars Specification
Aerial weight (GSM) 400
Tensile strength (N/mm2 ) 2700
Modulus of elasticity (kN/mm2 ) 73
Poisson’s ratio 0.3
The thickness of GFRP sheet (mm) 1
Elongation at break (%) 5
Fibre density (g/cm3 ) 2.6

3. Experimental Investigation
3.1. Specimen Geometry and Detailing
In this experimental work, a total of 16 slabs 1000 mm long with a cross-section
of 450 mm × 100 mm were cast and tested at the end of 56 days of curing. They are
categorised into two groups, of which Group I consists of eight slabs of OPC concrete
reinforced with steel bars/GFRP sheets in layers 2, 3 and 4. Group II consists of eight
slabs made of HVFA concrete reinforced with steel bars/GFRP sheets in layers 2, 3 and
4. Two slabs were cast in each series. A five-lettered designation was allotted to the slab
specimens, where the first two letters indicate the reinforcement type as steel-reinforced
(SR)/glass-fibre-reinforced polymer sheets (GS). The third letter indicates the type of
concrete, i.e., OPC concrete as (C)/HVFA-based concrete as (F). The fourth identity denotes
the number of layers of GFRP sheets as 2, 3 and 4, and the fifth identity denotes the
trial numbers.
J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 5 of 21

3.2. Experimental Set-Up

The one-way slabs were subjected to two-point flexural loading. The slab specimens
were tested with roller support at one end and hinge support at the other end. A spreader
beam was placed for the application of two-point loading to the slab specimens. The
specimens were subjected to static load through a loading frame of 400 kN capacity. Electri-
cal strain gauges were placed at the bottom of the GFRP sheet, and they were protected
using coating tape to avoid any accidental damage while pouring concrete; and also on
the top concrete surface of the slab for measurement of the compressive strain at midspan.
The slabs were instrumented with linear voltage displacement transducers (LVDT), which
were placed at the mid-span to monitor the deflection. A load of 2 kN/min was applied
incrementally through a hydraulic jack via load cell up to the failure of the slabs. Electrical
signals captured from the strain gauges and the LVDT were transmitted to the computer via
a data logger. The schematic view of the experimental set-up for testing the slab specimens
is shown in Figure 2 and the testing of the slab specimens is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 2. Schematic view of experimental set-up.

Figure 3. Testing of the slab specimens.

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 6 of 21

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Cracking Behaviour
Propagation of cracks and the failure mode of the slab specimens are shown in
Figures 4–7. The summary of the test results of the slab specimens is shown in Table 4.
The average initial crack load of Group-I slab specimens GSC-2, GSC-3, GSC-4 and SRC
were 8.5 kN, 14.5 kN, 6.5 kN and 16 kN, respectively. The average first crack load of
Group-II slab specimens GSF-2, GSF-3, GSF-4 and SRF were 5.8 kN, 14.1 kN, 5.4 kN and
18.8 kN, respectively. Four modes of failure were observed in the slab specimens. The slab
specimens SRC and SRF exhibited flexural cracks under both the loading points (Mode-I).
Slab specimens GSC-2 and GSF-2 exhibited flexural crack with concrete crushing under
the mid-span of the slab specimens (Mode-II). At the bottom of GSC-3 and GSF-3 slabs,
fine vertical cracks began at an average load of 14.5 kN and 14.1 KN, respectively. With an
increase in load, the crack propagated towards the top of the slab with crack widening. At
an average load of 21.5 KN, which is 90% of the ultimate average load under the loading
point, a flexural crack with the initiation of horizontal cracks was formed at the junction of
GFRP sheet and concrete, which may be due to the debonding of GFRP sheets and concrete
surface (Mode-III). In the case of GSC-4 and GSF-4, flexural cracks at an average load of
6.5 kN and 5.4 kN, respectively, with the subsequent formation of horizontal cracks were
noticed over the entire span of the slab (Mode-IV). In the slabs reinforced with GFRP sheets,
the cracks propagated from the bottom of the slab to the top of the slab exhibited brittle
failure at the ultimate load level.

Figure 4. Crack propagation and failure mode of Mode-I slab specimens.

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 7 of 21

Figure 5. Crack propagation and failure mode of Mode-II slab specimens.

Figure 6. Crack propagation and failure mode of Mode-III slab specimen.

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 8 of 21

Figure 7. Crack propagation and the failure modes Mode-IV slab specimens.

Table 4. Summary of test results of the slab specimens.

Slab Trial Initial Crack Ultimate Modes of

Category
Designation Numbers Load (KN) Load (KN) Failure
Trial 1 8.3 16.8 Mode-II
GSC-2
Trial 2 8.7 17.5 Mode-II
Trial 1 14.2 23.7 Mode-III
GSC-3
GROUP-I Trial 2 14.7 24 Mode-III
Trial 1 6.7 16.4 Mode-IV
GSC-4
Trial 2 6.3 15.5 Mode-IV
Trial 1 16.3 23.8 Mode-I
SRC
Trial 2 15.7 24 Mode-I
Trial 1 5.9 17.1 Mode-II
GSF-2
Trial 2 5.7 16.7 Mode-II
Trial 1 14.1 23.9 Mode-II
GSF-3
GROUP-II Trial 2 14 23.7 Mode-II
Trial 1 5.2 15.3 Mode-IV
GSF-4
Trial 2 5.6 15.9 Mode-IV
Trial 1 18.5 27.3 Mode-I
SRF
Trial 2 19.1 28.5 Mode-I

4.2. Load–Deflection Behaviour

Details relating to load–deflection of the Group-I and Group-II slab specimens tested
after 56 days of curing were plotted. All the slab specimens showed linear elastic behaviour
up to the initial crack, and beyond that, the behaviour was nonlinear. Details of the load-
deflection behaviour of slabs GSC-2 and GSF-2; GSC-3 and GSF-3; GSC-4 and GSF-4; and
SRC and SRF are shown in Figures 8–11, respectively. The average ultimate load-carrying
capacity of the Group-I specimens (OPC slab) GSC-2, GSC-3, GSC-4 and SRC was 17.15 kN,
23.85 kN, 15.95 kN and 23.9 kN, respectively. The average ultimate load-carrying capacity
of the Group-II specimens (fly ash slab) GSF-2, GSF-3, GSF-4 and SRF was 16.9 kN, 23.8 kN,
15.6 kN and 27.9 kN, respectively. The SRF slab specimens reinforced with steel showed a
17% increase in their average ultimate load-carrying capacity compared with SRC slabs.
J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 9 of 21

The average ultimate load-carrying slab specimens GSC-2, GSC-4, GSF-2 and GSF-4 showed
28%, 33%, 29% and 34%, respectively, less than the SRC slab specimens. However, the
average ultimate load-carrying capacity of GSC-3 and GSF-3 was the same as that of SRC.
In the case of GSC-4 and GSF-4, flexural cracks at an average load of 6.5 kN and 5.4 kN,
respectively, with the subsequent formation of horizontal cracks over the entire span of
the slab, were observed. As the horizontal cracks formed at the earlier stage due to the
debonding of the sheets, the reduction in ultimate load was therefore observed. The
deflection in the slab specimens reinforced with GFRP sheets was less than the deflection
in the slab specimens reinforced with steel bars.

Figure 8. Load–deflection behaviour of (a) GSC-2 and (b) GSF-2.

Figure 9. Load–deflection behaviour of (a) GSC-3 and (b) GSF-3.

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 10 of 21

Figure 10. Load–deflection behaviour of (a) GSC-4 and (b) GSF-4.

Figure 11. Load–deflection behaviour of (a) SRC and (b) SRF.

4.3. Strain Distribution

The top positive strain indicates the compressive strain in concrete, while the bottom
negative strain indicates the tensile strain in the GFRP sheets/steel bars. For each load
increment, the strain values experienced by both strain gauges at the mid-span region of
the slab were plotted. The load vs. strain variations in the slab specimens were GSC-2 and
GSF-2; GSC-3 and GSF-3; GSC-4 and GSF-4; and SRC and SRF are shown in Figures 12–15,
respectively. The top strain development in the Group-I specimens (OPC slab) and Group-
II specimens (HVFA slab) reinforced with steel bars/GFRP sheets range from 2985 µ to
3099 µ. The bottom strain development in the Group-I specimens (OPC slab) and Group-
II specimens (HVFA slab) reinforced with GFRP sheets ranges from 3317 µ to 4315 µ.
However, the strain measured at the bottom of the steel bars in the SRC and SRF at failure
ranges from 19,080 µ to 21,900 µ, which was almost 21% of the failure strain of the GFRP
sheets. The result shows that the top and the bottom strain of GSC-3 and GSF-3 is higher
when compared with the slab reinforced with GFRP sheets of two layers and four layers.
J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 11 of 21

Figure 12. Load–strain behaviour of (a) GSC-2 and (b) GSF-2. TS—top strain, BS—bottom strain.

Figure 13. Load–strain behaviour of (a) GSC-3 and (b) GSF-3. TS—top strain, BS—bottom strain.

Figure 14. Load–strain behaviour of (a) GSC-4 and (b) GSF-4. TS—top strain, BS—bottom strain.
J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 12 of 21

Figure 15. Load–strain behaviour of (a) SRC and (b) SRF. TS—top strain, BS—bottom strain.

4.4. Moment–Curvature
The moment–curvature diagram defines the ultimate capacity of the slab elements
and is also used to access the energy absorption capacity of the slab elements. The moment–
curvature relationship was calculated for all the slab specimens based upon the top strain
(OPC/HVFA concrete) and the bottom strain (steel/GFRP sheets). The moment–curvature
relationship of GSC-2 and GSF-2; GSC-3 and GSF-3; GSC-4 and GSF-4 and SRC and SRF
are shown in Figures 16–19, respectively.

Figure 16. Moment–curvature behaviour of (a) GSC 2 and (b) GSF 2.

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 13 of 21

Figure 17. Moment–curvature behaviour of (a) GSC-3 and (b) GSF-3.

Figure 18. Moment–curvature behaviour of (a) GSC-4 and (b) GSF-4.

Figure 19. Moment–curvature behaviour of (a) SRC and (b) SRF.

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 14 of 21

The following equation was used for the calculation of curvature (∅),

εc + εr
∅= (1)
d
where,
d—Effective depth of the slab
εr —Tensile strain in the reinforcement (steel/GFRP sheets)
εc —Compressive strain in concrete
Moment vs. curvature relationships showed the average ultimate moment-carrying
capacity of the slabs of Group-I: GSC-2, GSC-3, GSC-4 and SRC as 2.28 kNm, 3.18 kNm,
2.13 kNm and 3.18 kNm, respectively. The average ultimate moment-carrying capacity of
the slabs of Group-II: GSF-2, GSF-3, GSF-4 and SRF were 2.25 kNm, 3.17 kNm, 2.08 kNm
and 3.25 kNm, respectively. The moment-carrying capacity of the slabs reinforced with
GFRP sheets (GSC-3 and GSF-3) was the same as that of the slab specimen reinforced with
the steel bars (SRC). Table 5 shows the details of the overall performance details of the
OPC/HVFA concrete slab reinforced with steel rod/GFRP sheets.

Table 5. Overall performance details of the concrete slab reinforced with steel rod/GFRP sheets.

Ultimate Strain Ultimate Strain in

Slab Max. Load Ultimate Moment
Category in Concrete Reinforcement
Designation (Pu ) (kN) (MExp ) (kNm)
at Max Load (εcu ) % at Max Load (εf )%
GSC-2 (1) 16.8 2.24 0.31 0.36
GSC-2 (2) 17.5 2.33 0.31 0.39
GSC-3 (1) 23.7 3.16 0.31 0.43
GSC-3 (2) 24 3.20 0.31 0.43
GROUP-I
GSC-4 (1) 16.4 2.19 0.30 0.35
GSC-4 (2) 15.5 2.07 0.30 0.34
SRC (1) 23.8 3.17 0.29 2.01
SRC (2) 24.0 3.20 0.31 1.91
GSF-2 (1) 17.1 2.28 0.31 0.36
GSF-2 (2) 16.7 2.22 0.30 0.36
GSF-3 (1) 23.9 3.19 0.31 0.41
GSF-3 (2) 23.7 3.16 0.31 0.42
GROUP-II
GSF-4 (1) 15.3 2.04 0.30 0.33
GSF-4 (2) 15.9 2.12 0.30 0.33
SRF (1) 27.3 3.70 0.30 2.03
SRF (2) 28.5 3.64 0.31 2.19

5. Numerical Analysis and Consecutive Models

The nonlinear finite-element analysis (NLFEA) comprises modelling of the slab speci-
mens, introducing the element type, material properties, boundary conditions, meshing
and loading. To obtain accurate results from the numerical simulations, all the necessary
components such as OPC/HVFA concrete, steel rods and GFRP sheets were modelled prop-
erly with the aid of nonlinear stress–strain graphs and the material properties. Numerical
analysis using ANSYS Workbench 2022-R1 was carried out to simulate the OPC/HVFA
concrete slabs reinforced with steel bars/GFRP sheets.
From the experimental investigation, it was observed that the OPC/HVFA concrete
slabs reinforced with three layers of GFRP sheets had the highest ultimate load-carrying
capacity when compared with the slabs reinforced with two and four layers of GFRP sheets.
Hence, the slab specimens SRC, SRF, GSC-3 and GSF-3 were analysed using nonlinear
finite-element analysis.

5.1. Considerations for Element Types

In ANSYS, M25 grade concrete was modelled using SOLID 65, which is an eight-noded
element consisting of 3 degrees of freedom in x, y and z directions and capable of cracking
J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 15 of 21

in three orthogonal directions. The GFRP sheet was modelled with four-noded SHELL 181
elements. Two-noded LINK 180 element was used to model the steel reinforcement [39].
The bonded contact was used between the GFRP sheet and concrete to prevent separation
between them.

5.2. Modelling and Numerical Solution

The modelling of the slab specimens was performed via a geometry design modeller
in the ANSYS Workbench 2022-R1. The effect of crack pattern, stress, strain, ultimate load,
ultimate deflection and displacement of concrete with different types of end conditions
could be analysed in the ANSYS [40–42]. Geometry with the support conditions and load
points of application and 3D meshed modelling of the slab specimen are shown in Figure 20.
Steel bars/GFRP sheet reinforcement with a sheet thickness of 3 mm was provided at 20 mm
from the bottom.

Figure 20. Slab specimen (a) Geometry and (b) 3D meshed model.

In NLFEM, an incremental loading that was the same as the sequence of loading used
for the experiment was applied until the failure of the specimens. The load–deflection
parameters were recorded during the loading step. The ultimate deflection of the SRC, SRF,
GSC-3 and GSF-3 slabs obtained from the numerical analysis is shown in Figure 21. The
ultimate load of the slab specimen SRC, SRF, GSC-3 and GSF-3 are 23 kN, 27 kN, 23.5 kN
and 23 kN, respectively, with the ultimate deflection of 15.9 mm, 16.4 mm, 2.5 mm and
2.2 mm, respectively.
J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 16 of 21

Figure 21. Cont.

J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 17 of 21

Figure 21. Ultimate deflection of slab (a) SRC, (b) SRF, (c) GSC-3, (d) GSF-3.

5.3. Comparison of Experimental Results with NLFEA Results

The comparison between experimental and NLFEA results is shown in Table 6. Less
than 10% difference in the ultimate load and ultimate deflection of the SRC, SRF, GSC-3
and GSF-3 was noticed between the experimental and NLFEA results. Figure 22 shows the
comparison of the load–deflection relationship of the SRC and SRF, and Figure 23 shows
the comparison of the load–deflection relationship of the GSC-3 and GSF-3 obtained from
the NLFEA analysis and the experimental investigation. From the results, it is observed
that both the experimental and numerical results are in good correlation. Hence, ANSYS
2022-R1 software can be used for the analysis of fly-ash concrete slabs reinforced with a
GFRP sheet.

Table 6. Comparison between experimental and numerical results.

Ultimate Load (kN) Deflection at Mid-Span (mm)

Specimen NLFEA NLFEA
Experimental Experimental
(ANSYS) (ANSYS)
SRC 24 23 16.2 15.9
SRF 28.5 27 17.9 16.4
GSC-3 24 23.5 2.7 2.5
GSF-3 23.9 23 2.4 2.2
J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 18 of 21

Figure 22. Comparison between experimental and numerical load–deflection relationship of (a) SRC
and (b) SRF.

Figure 23. Comparison between experimental and numerical load–deflection behaviour of (a) GSC-3
and (b) GSF-3.

6. Conclusions
This study presents the results of an experimental investigation involving sixteen
simply supported slab specimens made of OPC/HVFA concrete reinforced with steel
bars/GFRP sheets.
1. HVFA slabs reinforced with the steel bars (SRF) recorded a 17% increase in their
ultimate load-carrying capacity compared with the OPC slabs reinforced with the steel
bars (SRC).
2. All the specimens failed due to the formation of flexural cracks that propagate to the
top surface at failure with concrete crushing. Slabs reinforced with two layers of GFRP
sheets failed in the formation of flexural cracks under the two-loading point. However,
J. Compos. Sci. 2022, 6, 169 19 of 21

the slab reinforced with three layers and four layers of GFRP sheets showed flexural
cracks as well as horizontal cracks.
3. The average ultimate load-carrying capacity of OPC/HVFA concrete slabs reinforced
with three layers of GFRP sheets (GSC-3/GSF-3) has the same strength as that of slabs
reinforced with the steel bars (SRC).
4. The ultimate average load-carrying capacity of a slab reinforced with three layers of
GFRP sheets (GSC-3 and GSF-3) is more than that of the slabs reinforced with two and
four layers (GSC-2, GSC-4, GSF-2 and GSF-4) by 39%, 49%, 41% and 53%, respectively.
5. Less than 10% difference in the ultimate load and ultimate deflection of SRC, SRF,
GSC-3 and GSF-3 was observed between the experimental and NLFEM results. Hence,
ANSYS Workbench 2022-R1 software could be used for the numerical analysis of
fly-ash concrete slabs reinforced with a GFRP sheet.
From this study, it is evident that a one-way slab cast with OPC concrete/high-volume
fly-ash concrete could be reinforced with GFRP sheets instead of steel bars. This study also
reinstates the potential use of high-volume fly ash as a replacement of cement in concrete
slab. Thus, a reduction in OPC content in concrete could be an effective way of mitigating
the effect of greenhouse-gas emissions, leading to sustainable construction.

Author Contributions: C.S.M., K.P. and P.V.A.R.: Conceptualised the model and conducted the
experiments. P.S.J., J.R., B.G.A.G. and K.R.: Supervised the research as well as the analysis of results.
P.S.J., J.R., C.S.M. and K.P.: Introduced the idea of static loading in this project; designed the slab;
wrote, reviewed and submitted the paper; and collaborated in and coordinated the research. P.S.J.,
J.R., B.G.A.G. and K.R.: Suggested and chose the journal for submission. P.S.J., B.G.A.G. and K.R.:
Participated in the manuscript revision phase. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: This manuscript has not been submitted to, nor is it under review by, another
journal or other publishing venue. The authors have no affiliation with any organisation with a direct
or indirect financial interest in the subject matter discussed in the manuscript. The authors declare no
conflict of interest.

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