See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/278805664

Influence of Nozzle Geometry on Spray Shape, Particle Size, Spray Velocity

and Air Entrainment of High Pressure Diesel Spray

Article · September 2010

CITATIONS READS

12 247

6 authors, including:

Camille Hespel Jean-Bernard Blaisot

Université d'Orléans Université de Rouen
35 PUBLICATIONS   188 CITATIONS    63 PUBLICATIONS   567 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Xandra Margot A. Cessou

Universitat Politècnica de València CORIA
42 PUBLICATIONS   718 CITATIONS    68 PUBLICATIONS   762 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Cavitation in fuel injection View project

Linear analysis of liquid jet stability View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Camille Hespel on 26 June 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 THIESEL 2010 Conference on Thermo- and Fluid Dynamic Processes in Diesel Engines

Influence of Nozzle Geometry on Spray Shape, Particle Size, Spray

Velocity and Air Entrainment of High Pressure Diesel Spray

C. Hespel1-2, J.B. Blaisot1, X Margot3, S. Patouna3, Cessou1, B. Lecordier1

1
CORIA – UMR 6614, CNRS, Université et INSA de Rouen
E-mail: Jean-Bernard.Blaisot@coria.fr
Telephone: +33 (0) 2 32 95 36 76
Fax: +33 (0) 2 32 91 04 85

2
INSTITUT PRISME, Université d’Orléans, 8 rue Léonard de Vinci 45072 – Orléans, FRANCE
E-mail: camille.hespel@univ-orleans.fr
Telephone: +33 (0)2 38 49 31 46
Fax: +33 (0)2 38 41 73 83

3
CMT–Motores Térmicos. Universidad Politécnica de Valencia. Camino de Vera s/n, 46022 Valencia,
SPAIN
E-mail: xmargot@mot.upv.es
Telephone: +34 963 877 650
Fax: +34 963 877 659

Abstract. Air/fuel mixing process in the combustion chamber of Diesel engines plays an important role
on the combustion efficiency. This mixing depends on the particle size distribution in the spray, on the
local velocity of fuel droplets in the spray and on the air entrainment. Nozzle geometry as well as
nozzle internal flow conditions influence many of these spray properties. An experimental study of the
influence of the nozzle geometry on these properties has been conducted. The spray structure and the
particle size distribution are determined using image shadowgraphy, the axial velocities near the
nozzle outlet have been measured using Laser Correlation Velocimetry. Gas velocities are measured
using Fluorescent Particle Image Velocimetry. It is found that the cavitation plays a role of major
importance on the atomization process and on the interaction between the liquid spray and the
surrounding gas.

Notation

Ca orifice area-contraction coefficient

Cd orifice Discharge Coefficient
Cv orifice velocity Coefficient
d orifice diameter
D30 arithmetic mean diameter
D32 Sauter mean diameter of droplets
D43 arithmetic mean diameter of volume-based drop-size distribution
Ke entrainment coefficient
m a mass flow rate x=a (air) x=f (fuel)
Pinj Injection pressure
Pc Discharge pressure
X radial coordinate of the spray
Z axial coordinate of the spray
Θ Spray cone angle
ρx density
384 C. Hespel, J. B. Blaisot, X. Margot, S. Patouna, A. Cessou, B. Lecordier

1. Introduction

Injection is one of the key parameters in engine control. Indeed, combustion processes in Diesel
engines greatly depend on the characteristics of the injection. Atomization and mixing are the first two
processes of a long a complex chain which ends in the formation of pollutants. Thus, in the context of
pollutant emission reduction, advanced knowledge of injection features is still needed. It is well-known
that the atomization of the jet strongly depends on the nozzle geometry. The shape of the nozzle
affects the cavitation phenomenon in the nozzle and therefore the spray characteristics. To visualise
the internal flow and the structure of cavitation in multi-holes and real-size nozzles is not obvious. This
has been done on large-scale transparent nozzles by Soteriou et al (1998) or on single-hole real-size
nozzles by Badock et al (1999). Here the internal flow is investigated through numerical simulations
while the jet emanating from the nozzle exit is characterized experimentally.
This work is a part of a program which aims at improving our capacity to predict in a fine way all the
processes of atomization. Numerical simulations of the flow in the nozzle as well as experiments on
the spray emanating from the nozzle have been done to characterize the injection process. Comple-
mentary results obtained through experiments and CFD simulations give a better understanding of the
injection.
The effect of the nozzle geometry on the atomization processes is straightforward. This study is
focused on the comparison of two nozzle geometries. Two 6-hole nozzles are used, one with cylinder-
shaped holes (Kf0) and the other with cone-shaped holes (Ks1.5). The main difference between these
two nozzles concerns the cavitation that is expected to occur more frequently for Kf0 nozzle.
Experimental conditions and measurement techniques used in this work are presented in the next
section. A comparison of the results for the two nozzle geometries follows, based on spray features
measured during the stationary phase of injection. The particular behavior of the injectors during
transient phases is then presented for experiments done in multi-injection conditions. A conclusion
ends this paper.

2. Methodology

For the analysis presented in this work, an experimental set-up described below was used that
included the injection system and the optical techniques for the measurement of the macro- and
micro-scale characteristics of the spray. In addition, some CFD calculations of the internal nozzle flow
were performed to help explain the behaviour of the sprays, which is known to be influenced by the
presence of cavitation.

2.1 Injection system and test bomb

2.1.1 Injection Nozzles

Two different six holes Common Rail Diesel injectors working under injection pressure of up to 1500
bar have been considered in this investigation, one with cylinder-shaped holes (type Kf0) with an
orifice diameter of 147 µm, the other with cone-shaped holes of type Ks1.5 with nozzle exit diameter of
138 µm.

Fig. 1. Silicone mould of injector Fig. 2. Nozzle with deflector

 Influence of Nozzle Geometry on Spray Shape, Particle Size, Spray Velocity and Air Entrainment 385

The geometry of the holes has been measured with a particular technique described in (Macián et
al., 2003), whereby a special type of silicone is used to obtain an internal mould of the nozzles (Fig. 1).
Photographs of the moulds are taken with a microscope, and then loaded on a computer aided design
(CAD) software with the appropriate scale factor. The dimensional characterization of the nozzle can
thus be obtained. This experimental technique is useful for the study of the Diesel nozzle internal flow,
as it allows establishing relationships between the internal geometry, the flow characteristics and the
subsequent spray behavior.
The nozzle geometries and operation conditions have been chosen in order to obtain different
cavitation levels. The cylindrical holes promote the cavitation, while the cone-shaped holes limit
significantly this phenomenon.
Only one of the six jets is investigated in each case. In order to avoid the interaction between jets, a
small deflector that does not change the behaviour of the injector is placed over the nozzle (Fig. 2)).
2.1.2 Measurement conditions
The experiments were performed in a high pressure bomb with different optical accesses. The
operating conditions are summarized in table 1. The test oil was dodecane, a non-fluorescent fuel with
physical properties similar to those of the Diesel fuel (ρf=750 kg/m3). The reference time was given by
the start of activation (SOA) of the main injection. Therefore, for the double injection the beginning of
pre-injection was -416.16 µs or -832.3 µs for 5°CA and 10°CA respectively. The hydraulic delay was
306 µs for the Kf0 nozzle and 340 µs for the Ks1.5 nozzle for a back-pressure of 1 MPa. The
difference between hydraulic delays disappeared for a back-pressure of 5 MPa

Table 1. Experimental test conditions

Parameters Values
Discharge pressure Pc 1 MPa, 5 MPa
Injection pressure Pinj 80 MPa, 150 MPa
Single injection duration 500 µs, 1000µs
Double injection duration 200 µs (pilot), 500 µs (main)
Dwell angle (double injection) 5°CA, 10°CA @ 2000 rpm

2.2 Internal nozzle flow CFD approach

Some calculations were computed with the commercial CFD code STAR-CD, v 4.06 for the different
measurement conditions, with the objective of better understanding the influence of the inner flow
characteristics on the spray evolution.
Considering the 60o periodic symmetry of the six-hole injector, the computational domain meshed
was a 60o sector, based on the exact geometry of one of the six nozzles chosen as being
representative of all. The calculations were performed for the full lift configuration (250 μm). Symmetry
boundaries were defined to model the geometric periodicity, and constant pressure was prescribed at
both the inlet and outlet boundaries. A grid independence study allowed to determine the mesh
fineness, which resulted in a total of about 600.000 cells, with a cell size of 10 µm approximately.
All calculations presented here were performed using the conventional k-ε turbulence model with
hybrid near wall treatment. The cavitation model implemented in this code is based on the Rayleigh
equation [Rayleigh 1917], which links the rate of change of the bubble radius with the local pressure.
In this model both the liquid and vapor densities are constant and there is no slip between bubbles
and liquid. Details of the complete numerical approach set-up are given in Margot et al. 2010. It should
be noted that the working liquid was Diesel fuel with the corresponding properties.
386 C. Hespel, J. B. Blaisot, X. Margot, S. Patouna, A. Cessou, B. Lecordier

2.3 Imagery

2.3.1 Large field

The experimental setup for shadowgraphy consists of a CCD-camera with a lens of 50 mm focal
length illuminated by a pulsed source in an on-axis configuration. A light panel connected to a
stroboscope provides a uniform background illumination. The field of view is 69x53mm² with a
resolution of 11pix/mm. At least 30 pictures per operating point were analyzed to provide the mean
penetration length and cone angle of the spray. Penetration length up to 80 mm was measurable
thanks to the inclined position of the jet in the field of view.
2.3.2 Small field
Granulometry measurements were performed by imagery. The setup (see Fig. 3) includes the same
camera, a long working distance microscope and nanolite source (flash duration about 11ns). A lens
arrangement provides a uniform illumination over the field of view which is 650x496 µm² (resolution
=1170 pix/mm). A specific image processing analyzes the gray levels images in order to determine the
diameter and the shape of droplets in a control volume limited by the field of view and depth from
focus (Blaisot and Yon 2005; Fdida and Blaisot 2010).

Fig. 3 Experimental setup of the granulometry by imagery

2.4 Long distance laser correlation velocimeter

This technique is an application to dense liquid sprays of the time-of-flight measurement principle
(Chaves et al 1993). The one-beam two images configuration (Schugger and Renz 2002) has been
adapted for the measurement in the pressure chamber with the replacement of the single imaging lens
by a long working distance microscope. The setup is composed of one laser beam (HeNe) illuminating
the spray and an optical system imaging the two measurement points on photomultipliers coupled to
optical fibres. The long distance microscope can image the spray at a reasonable distance between
the imagery system and the image plane with the needed magnification. The magnification factor is 40
for a distance between the objective and image plane of 930mm (Fig. 4). The interval between the
fibres is 940 µm, giving an interval of 50 µm between the measurement volumes. Since any structure
passing in the first measurement volume has a high probability of passing also in the second one, the
first signal precedes the second one by a minor delay. This time delay is used to calculate the spray
velocity. The time delay between the two signals, due to the time-of-flight, is calculated using a cross
correlation algorithm between the signals on sliding time windows. A detailed description of the
evaluation and validation method can be found in (Kirmse et al 2004), an error-analysis is carried out
in (Kirmse et al 2002).
 Influence of Nozzle Geometry on Spray Shape, Particle Size, Spray Velocity and Air Entrainment 387

300 mm 390 mm
930 mm
image
160µm
df=2
mm

objet
Long distance Microscope Δx=50
Vessel
Magnification 40 µm

Fig. 4: Experimental apparatus of the laser correlation long distance velocimeter

2.5 Fluorescent-Particle Image Velocimetry

Velocity fields are measured using the Particle Imaging Velocimetry (PIV) technique based on
fluorescent droplets for the liquid phase or on fluorescent seeds for the ambient gas (Fig. 5). Due to
the different dynamic velocities between air and fuel in Diesel jets, the ambient gas and fuel droplets
velocity fields are not measured simultaneously. Fluorescence images were preferred to Mie
scattering images because liquid and vapour phases can be discriminated and the multi-scattering
effect is reduced. The gas phase is seeded with small droplets tagged with pyrromethene 597 (2g/L).
This dye offers a relatively narrow emission spectrum around 590 nm for 532 Yag excitation (Wolff et
all 2007). The fluorescence signal is detected by an intensified CCD camera (Hamamatsu) through
high pass filter (OG550). The Mie scattering of laser light is strongly reduced by this filter. The time
delay between the two laser pulses is chosen between 50 µs and 200 µs for measurement on the gas
phase, and standard PIV algorithms are used to obtain the ambient gas velocity field. A typical mean
ambient gas velocity field is shown in Fig. 5b. The liquid phase velocity is determined by seeding the
fuel with the same fluorescent dye species (5mg/L of pyrromethene are fully soluble in dodecane). The
addition of this dye does not affect the injector behaviour. Liquid phase velocity fields are measured
with a time difference between the two exposures of 5 µs. The fuel droplets are well localized in the
images because the specific spectral filter avoids the problem of Mie multi-scattering. An in-house
post-processing is applied on images to extract each particle and the velocity field is determined on an
irregular mesh centred on each particle. The PIV algorithm used to determine velocity fields for the
liquid phase was developed in the laboratory (Kosiwckuk et al 2005). An example of the mean velocity
field is shown in Fig. 5c.

42.5°
21

(a) geometrical configuration (b) mean velocity field for the (c) mean velocity field for the
gas phase liquid phase
Fig. 5. Fluorescent particle image velocimetry

3. Comparison of nozzle geometries for the stationary phase

The influence of the nozzle geometry on the spray characteristics is investigated for the quasi-steady
phase of injection for activation duration of 1000 µs.

3.1 Spray cone angle

The cone angle is defined as the angle between both edges of the spray on the first third of the
penetration length. The variation of the cone angle versus time is presented in Fig. 6. As expected, the
cone angle increases significantly with back-pressure Pc and it is larger for the cylindrical nozzle Kf0.
388 C. Hespel, J. B. Blaisot, X. Margot, S. Patouna, A. Cessou, B. Lecordier

This figure also shows that the difference between the cone angles of the Kf0 and Ks1.5 nozzles
reduces when Pc increases. Indeed, the mean cone angle (determined along the stationary phase of
injection) for the Kf0 nozzle is 15.3°, while it is 12.6° for the Ks1.5 for Pc=1 MPa (with a standard
deviation of 0.7). So the difference in cone angles is 2,7o for Pc=1 MPa, whereas it is only around 1°
for Pc = 5 MPa.

30
Kf0 Pc=1MPa
28
Ks1.5 Pc=1MPa
26
Kf0 Pc=5 MPa
24
Ks1.5 Pc=5 MPa
cone angle [deg]

22

20

18

16

14

12

10
300 500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700
time [µs]

Fig. 6 : Development of spray cone angles, measured at 80 MPa of injection pressure

The computations performed for this case allow explaining these results, as illustrated in Fig. 7,
which shows the images of the volume fraction of vapour in both nozzles for the two different back
pressures. Indeed, for an injection pressure of 80 MPa, large cavitation zones develop along the
cylindrical nozzle for both Pc=1 MPa and Pc=5 MPa. In the case of 1 MPa back-pressure, however, the
cavitation bubbles reach the nozzle exit, while at higher back-pressure, they clearly do not. In the
conical nozzle, there is no cavitation for any of these operation conditions. This observation highlights
that when cavitation reaches the hole exit, the spray cone angle becomes wider for a given back-
pressure. When there is no cavitation at the nozzle exit, however, the spray cone angle is assumed to
be mainly related to the gas density. At 5 MPa back-pressure, the density of the flow is similar at the
exit of both nozzles, hence, the spray cone angles are also very similar.

Cylindrical nozzle Conical nozzle

800/10 bar 800/50 bar 800/10 bar 800/50 bar

Fig. 7 : Cavitation pattern for the cylindrical and conical nozzle at 80/1 and 80/5 MPa. Color scale: 0-1

3.2 Liquid phase velocity

The velocities in the liquid phase close to the nozzle exit were measured using the long distance Laser
Correlation Velocimeter (LCV). For the case of 80 MPa injection pressure and 1 MPa back-pressure,
radial profiles of the axial velocity normalized by the frictionless velocity are shown in Fig. 8 for two
positions: 10 mm (a) and 25 mm (b) downstream of the nozzle exit. The geometry of the nozzle does
 Influence of Nozzle Geometry on Spray Shape, Particle Size, Spray Velocity and Air Entrainment 389

not seem to affect the normalized profiles, which are very similar for both the Kf0 and the Ks1.5 holes.
The maximum velocity in the centre of the jet reaches about 35% of the frictionless velocity.
The mass flow rate measured using an EFS EMI2 mass flow meter is higher for the Ks1.5 nozzle,
although its orifice exit diameter is smaller than the cylindrical one. Indeed, it has a higher discharge
coefficient of 0.88, against 0.74 for the Kf0 nozzle.
The discharge coefficient is defined as the product between the area-contraction coefficient Ca and
the velocity coefficient Cv. Since the velocity profiles for both geometries are similar, it seems
reasonable to assume that the velocity coefficients are very close for the two nozzles. Hence, the
area-contraction coefficient Ca, which is an indicator of the effective flow area section compared to the
orifice section, is smaller for the cylindrical nozzle, due to the presence of the cavitation bubbles at the
exit. Indeed, it is known that the effective area can be reduced because of vapour bubbles reaching
the orifice exit (Chaves et al 1995).
LCV measurements did not indicate that there is an effective section reduction, probably due to the
fact that velocity is measured on every fluid structure passing through the LCV probe, whatever its
nature, i.e. a droplet, a ligament or a cavitation bubble.
0,6 0,6

0,5 0,5 Kf0

0,4 0,4 Ks1.5

Velocity/VBernoulli
Velocity/VBernouilli

0,3 0,3

0,2 0,2

0,1
0,1

0
0
-15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
X/d
X/d

a) 10 mm downstream of the nozzle b) 25 mm downstream of the nozzle

Fig. 8 Radial profiles of the axial spray of the velocities Kf0 and Ks1.5 nozzle, Pc=1MPa, Pinj=80Mpa.

3.3 Drop size distribution

The size of the droplets is estimated using the image processing of over 100 pictures for each point.
The mean diameters measured 10 mm downstream of the nozzle exit and at 2 mm from the jet axis
are reported in Table 2. As expected, the injection pressure has a significant influence on the
reduction of the droplets size in the spray, whatever the nozzle.

Table 2. Mean diameters of droplet size distributions

Kf0 Ks1.5
Pinj=80 MPa
Pc= 1 MPa 5 MPa 1 MPa 5 MPa
D30 [µm] 7.4 9.1 9 8.5
D32 [µm] 8.4 10.6 10.2 10.3
D43 [µm] 9.6 12.2 11.4 11.9
Pc=1 MPa
Pinj= 80 MPa 150 MPa 80 MPa 150 MPa
D30 [µm] 7.4 6.3 9 7.2
D32 [µm] 8.4 7.1 10.2 8
D43 [µm] 9.6 7.9 11.4 8.9
390 C. Hespel, J. B. Blaisot, X. Margot, S. Patouna, A. Cessou, B. Lecordier

250 200

Ks1.5 nozzle
200 150
Ks1.5 nozzle Kf0 nozzle
150 Kf0 nozzle 100

[mm-1]
[mm-1]

100
50
50

0 0

0,000

0,003

0,006

0,009

0,012

0,015

0,018

0,021

0,024

0,027
0,000

0,003

0,006

0,009

0,012

0,015

0,018

0,021

0,024

0,027
[mm] [mm]

Fig. 9 Droplets size distribution for Pinj=80 MPa and Fig. 10 Droplets size distribution for Pinj=80 MPa and
Pc=1 MPa Pc=5 MPa

Rising the ambient pressure from 1 MPa to 5 MPa has also an effect on the drop size distribution,
though only for the Kf0 nozzle, as illustrated in Fig. 9 and Fig. 10. Indeed, the droplets size distribu-
tions for the KS1.5 nozzle are very similar for both back-pressures, and Fig. 10 shows that for 5 MPa
back-pressure, the size distribution of the cylindrical nozzle is also very similar to that of the conical
nozzle. However, for the cavitating case, Kf0 and 1 MPa back-pressure, it differs significantly from the
others: the cavitation results in a production of larger droplets close to the nozzle exit, and smaller
droplets further downstream.

3.4 Gaseous Phase velocity and air entrainment

Mean gas velocity fields taken around 750 µs after SOA are presented in Fig. 11, which shows the
development of a vortex in the air. The centre of this vortex follows the variation of the penetration
length and remains located around 80% of spray length over the injection duration. Low velocities
(<2m/s) are measured in the gas, as also found in other studies (Le Moyne et al 2007). The slow
motion of the gaseous phase comes from a low momentum exchange between liquid and gas.

a) Ks1.5: 750-850µs after SOA b) Kf0: 650-750µs after SOA

Fig. 11 Mean air velocity fields for Pinj=80 MPa and Pc=1 MPa

The air entrainment has been calculated on the average velocity fields following the method of
Cossali et al (1991). A reference surface limited by a cylinder of radius R around the spray is defined
for each field. The air mass flow rate m a cumulated through this reference surface is determined by
dm a
equation 1. The local air flow rate is shown in Fig. 12(a) for Pinj = 80 MPa and Pc = 1 MPa. It
dz
takes a positive value near the nozzle, where the air motion is oriented towards the spray and
negative where the air is moving away from the spray at the spray tip. The zero crossing is located at
the centre of the vortex. The same maximum flow rate of 0.6 g/s is reached for the two nozzles. For
two-phase flows, Cossali et al (1991) proposed to estimate the mixing performance of nozzles by the
entrainment coefficient Ke given by equation 2.
 Influence of Nozzle Geometry on Spray Shape, Particle Size, Spray Velocity and Air Entrainment 391

z
m a  z   ρa 2π R  U r ξ  dξ Eq. 1
0

dm a d f
Ke  Eq. 2
dz m f a

This coefficient is greater for the Kf0 nozzle (see Fig. 12(b)) because the orifice diameter is greater
and the fuel flow rate is smaller for this nozzle.
The mixing rate, defined as the ratio between cumulated air mass flow rate and fuel mass flow rate,
is shown in Fig. 12(c). The maximum mixing rate is located at the vortex centre location. As the
velocity field measurements begin 8 mm downstream of the nozzle exit, the mixing rate is
underestimated.
0,8 0,3 5
Kf0
0,6 4,5
Ks1.5
0,2
0,4 4

0,2 3,5
0,1
flow rate g/s

mixing rate
3
0
Ke

0 2,5
‐0,2
2
‐0,4 ‐0,1
1,5
Kf0
‐0,6 1
‐0,2 Ks1.5
‐0,8 0,5
SIEBERS model
‐1 ‐0,3 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Z mm Z mm Z [mm]

m a
a) Flow rate b) entrainment coefficient c) mixing rate
m f
Fig. 12 Air entrainment performances of nozzles for Pc = 1 MPa and Pinj = 80 MPa, 950 µs after SOA

However, the slope is very similar to that predicted by Siebers model (Siebers 1999) expressed by
equations 3 and 4. It is worth noting that the wider cone-angle of the Kf0 nozzle improves the
performance of this nozzle in terms of momentum transfer from droplets to ambient air.
m a 1

m f 2
 ~
1  16 Z 2  1  Eq. 3

~ z
Z with a=0,66
 f d ca Eq. 4
 a a.tan 
2
 

4. Behaviour of injector during transient phases for multi-injection condition

4.1 Penetration length

Penetration lengths obtained for a single injection (500 µs) or a pilot (200 µs) and a main injection (500
µs) are reported in Fig. 13 for two injection pressures: 80 MPa and 150 MPa. The influence of the pilot
injection on the main injection is more significant for Pinj = 80 MPa. In the case of a pilot injection
occurring 5°CA before the main injection, the lapse of time between closing and opening is 216 µs
only, which is too short to obtain a complete closing of the needle at the end of the pilot injection.
When the delay between the pilot and main injections is greater than 10°CA, the effect of the first
injection disappears. In this case, the time between the two injections is long enough to obtain a
complete closing of the needle before the second activation. For high injection pressure (150 MPa),
the closing and opening times are shorter and there is sufficient time for the needle to close before the
second injection, whatever the delay. In this case, the evolution of the penetration length versus time
is very similar for all injections.
392 C. Hespel, J. B. Blaisot, X. Margot, S. Patouna, A. Cessou, B. Lecordier

a) Pinj = 80 MPa, Pc = 1 MPa b) Pinj = 150 MPa, Pc = 1 MPa

Fig. 13 : Penetration length versus time

4.2 Liquid phase velocity

The velocity measured by VLC shows that the main jet is faster at the beginning of the main injection
when there is a pilot injection than when there is a single injection. This effect persists for the Kf0
nozzle up to Z = 25 mm although it disappears at this distance for the Ks1.5 nozzle (see Fig. 14). The
longer penetration lengths obtained for the double injection confirm this.
120 120

100
Kf0
100

80 Ks1.5
velocity [m/s]

80
velocity [m/s]

60 60

40
40

20
20
0
0
400 900 1400 1900 2400
300 800 1300 1800 2300
time[µs] time [µs]

a) Pinj=80 MPa, Pc=1 MPa, Z=10 mm, X=-0.78 mm b) Pinj=80 MPa, Pc=1 MPa, Z=25 mm, X=-1.2 mm
Fig. 14 velocity versus time for the 200+500µs 5°AC

4.3 Gaseous phase velocity and air entrainment

The effect of the pilot injection on air entrainment is reported for the Kf0 nozzle only, at Pinj=80 MPa
and Pc=1 MPa. The effect of a pilot injection 5°CA before the main injection on the entrainment
coefficient is mainly related to the longer penetration length, whatever the delay after the main
injection activation.

0,15 2,5
0,3
s500µs s500µs
2
0,1 5 CA 0,2 5 CA
1,5 s500µs
10 CA 10 CA
0,1
0,05 5 CA
1
Mixing Rate

0 10 CA
0 0,5
Ke

Ke

-0,1
0
-0,05
-0,2
-0,5
-0,1
-0,3 -1

-0,15 -0,4 -1,5

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Z [mm]
Z Z

a) Entrainment coefficient t=450 µs b) Entrainment coefficient t=650µs c) Mixing rate t=650 µs

Fig. 15. Kf0 nozzle, Pinj=80 MPa Pc=1 MPa
 Influence of Nozzle Geometry on Spray Shape, Particle Size, Spray Velocity and Air Entrainment 393

This is illustrated in Fig. 15 (a) and (b). As the penetration length is greater with a pilot injection
5°CA before the main injection, the zone of induced gas flow oriented toward the spray axis is also
longer. The maximum mixing rate is thus greater with a pilot injection 5 °CA before main, just because
the spray is longer in this case. However, since the mixing rate slopes are the same for the three types
of injection, it seems that the pilot injection does not improve the momentum exchange induced by the
spray (Fig. 15c).

5. Conclusions

The investigations presented here for different nozzle geometries (cylindrical and conical) demonstrate
that the cavitation plays a major role on the atomization process and on the interaction between the
liquid spray and the surrounding gas. Calculations have shown that the cavitation bubbles may reach
the cylindrical nozzle exit, especially when the back-pressure is relatively low.
When the levels of cavitation are low and do not reach the nozzle exit, measurements show that the
two nozzles behave similarly. For example, at moderate injection pressure and high back pressure,
the spray cone angles as well as the drop size distributions of the two tested nozzles are very similar.
Differences occur when cavitation is generated in the cylindrical nozzle. The measurements have
shown that the cavitation favours a wider spray angle and so improves the air entrainment, and
promotes the production of smaller droplets. However, the cavitation does not seem to influence the
spray velocities: indeed, the velocity profiles and the penetration lengths are similar for the two
nozzles. These are more sensitive to the needle dynamics.

Acknowledgments

Part of this work has been performed in the framework of the PREDIT program "EMPhASE",
supported by the French Environment and Energy Management Agency (ADEME).

References

Blaisot J.B. and Yon J. (2005) Droplet size and morphology characterization for dense sprays by image
processing: application to the Diesel spray, Exp. Fluids 39, 977–94
Badock C., Wirth R. Fath A., Leipertz A.(1999) Investigation of cavitation in real size diesel injection nozzles,
International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow 20 pp538-544
Chaves H., Knapp M., Kubitzek A., and Obermeier F. (1993) High speed flow measurement within an injection
nozzle, SPIE, vol. 2052, Laser Anemometry Adv. and Applications
Chaves H., Knapp M., and Kubitzek A. (1995) Experimental study of cavitation in the nozzle hole of Diesel
injectors using transparent nozzles, SAE - 950290
Cossali G.E., Brunello G., Coghe A. (1991) LDV Characterization of air entrainment in transient diesel spray, SAE
- 910178
Fdida N. and Blaisot J.B. (2010) Drop size distribution measured by imaging: determination of the measurement
volume by the calibration of the point spread function, Meas. Sci. Technol. 21 025501 (15pp)
Kirmse C., Chaves H. and Obermeier F. (2002) Korrelationsvelocimetrische Untersuchungen des Diesel-
Einspritzstrahls einer Common-Rail Einspritzung, Proc. SPRAY, pp285-293
Kirmse C., Chaves H. and Obermeier F. (2004) Velocity measurements of dense Diesel fuel sprays in dense air,
Atomization and Sprays, vol 14 pp589-609
Kosiwckuk W., Cessou A., Trinité M., and Lecordier B. (2005) Simultaneous velocity field measurements in two-
phase flows for turbulent mixing of spray by means of two-phase PIV, Experiments in Fluids, 39, p.895-908
Lemoyne L., Guibert P., Roy R., and Jeanne B. (2007) Fluorescent-PIV spray/air interaction analysis of high-
pressure gasoline injector, SAE- 2007-01-1825, JSAE 20077121 pp109-118
Macián V., Bermúdez V., Payri R., and Gimeno J. (2003) New technique for the determination of the internal
geometry of Diesel nozzle with the use of silicone methodology, Experimental Techniques 27 (2), pp39-43
 394 C. Hespel, J. B. Blaisot, X. Margot, S. Patouna, A. Cessou, B. Lecordier

Margot X., García A., Fajardo P., and Patouna S. (2010) Analysis of the cavitating flow in real size diesel injectors
with fixed and moving needle lift simulations. Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference on Computational
Fluid Dynamics, ECCOMAS CFD 2010.
Rayleigh L (1917) On the pressure developed in a liquid during the collapse of a spherical cavity. Phil. Mag. vol
34: pp 94-98.
Schugger C. and Renz U. (2002) Influence of spray velocity and structure on the air entrainment in the primary
breakup zone of high pressure Diesel sprays, Proceedings of ASME Internal combustion Engine Division Fall
Technical Conference, ICE-Vol. 39, pp281-288
Soteriou C., Smith M., and Andrews R.(1998) Diesel Injector Laser Light Sheet Illumination of the Development
of Cavitation in Orifices, Proc. IMechE C529/018/98
Siebers D.L. (1999) Scaling liquid-phase fuel penetration in Diesel sprays base on mixing-limited vaporization,
SAE 1999-01-0528
Wolff M., Delconte A., Schmidt F., Gucher P., and Lemoine F. (2007) High pressure Diesel spray temperature
measurements using two-colour laser-induced fluorescence. Meas. Sci. and Technol. 18, pp 697-706

View publication stats