Today’s Objective:

▪ Explain dynamic characteristics of of measuring Instruments

▪ Calculate and analyze the mean ,Standard Deviation and Variance
▪ Understand Standards of Measurement

2
Characteristics of measuring Instruments

1. Static Characteristic 2. Dynamic Characteristic

Static Characteristic:
▪ Sensitivity
▪ Magnification
▪ Scale Interval
▪ Readability
▪ Calibration
▪ Repeatability
▪ Discrimination
▪ Precision
▪ Accuracy
▪ Reproducibility
▪ Hysteresis
▪ Linearity
https://learnmechanical.com/static-and-dynamic-characteristic-of-instrument/
Dynamic Characteristic:
▪ Measurement systems having inputs dynamic in nature, the input varies from instant to instant, so does
the output. The behaviour of the system under such conditions is dealt by the dynamic response of the
system and its dynamic characteristics of electrical measuring instruments

Sinuoidal signals
Exponential signals
Complex exponential signals
Unit step and unit ramp
Impulse functions
Dynamic Characteristic:
▪ Measurement systems having inputs dynamic in nature, the input varies from instant to instant, so does
the output. The behaviour of the system under such conditions is dealt by the dynamic response of the
system and its dynamic characteristics of electrical measuring instruments

Dynamic Characteristic:

❑ Responses Time
❑ Lag
❑ Step Response
❑ Ramp Response
❑ Standard Signals
❑ Overshoot
❑ Dynamic Error
❑ Fidelity
Dynamic Characteristic:
❑ Speed of Response and Response Time

Speed of Response is defined as the rapidity with which an instrument or measurement system responds to
changes in measured quantity.
❑ Response Time is the time required by instrument or system to settle to its final steady position after the
application of the input.
Dynamic Characteristic:
❑ Measuring Lag
As discussed earlier, an instrument does not react to a change in input immediately. The delay in the
response of an instrument to a change in the measured quantity is known as measuring lag. Thus it is the
retardation delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in the measured quantity. This lag is
usually quite small, but this small lag becomes highly important when high speed measurements are
required. In the high speed measurement systems, as in dynamic measurements, it becomes essential that
the time lag be reduced to minimum.
Measuring lag is of two types
i) Retardation type: In this type of measuring lag the response begins immediately after a change in
measured quantity has occurred.
ii) Time delay: In this type of measuring lag the response of the measurement system begins after a dead
zone after the application of the input.
Time delay lag means the instrument changes its value after some time even when the measured
quantity changes.
Dynamic Characteristic:

❑ Fidelity

Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the system to reproduce the output in the same form as
the input. It is the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the measured quantity
without any dynamic error. Supposing if a linearly varying quantity is applied to a system and if the
output is also a linearly varying quantity the system is said to have 100 percent fidelity. Ideally a system
should have 100 percent fidelity and the output should appear in the same form as that of input and
there is no distortion produced in the signal by the system. In the definition of fidelity any time lag or
phase difference between output and input is not included.
Dynamic Characteristic:
❑Dynamic Error
The dynamic error is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with
time and the value indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed.
However, the total dynamic error of the instrument is the combination of its fidelity and the
time lag or phase difference between input and output of the system.

Dynamic Error
The difference between the true value of the measured quantity to the value shown by the
measuring instrument under varying conditions.
Dynamic Characteristic:
❑ Overshoot
Moving parts of instruments have mass and thus possess inertia. When an input is applied to
instruments, the pointer does not immediately come to rest at its steady state (or final deflected)
position but goes beyond it or in other words (overshoots) its steady position.
The overshoot is evaluated as the maximum amount by which moving system moves beyond the
steady state position. In many instruments, especially galvanometers it is desirable to have a little
overshoot but an excessive overshoot is undesirable.
Dynamic Characteristic:
Overshoot
Example :

A step input of 5 A is applied to an ammeter. The pointer swings to a voltage of 5.18 A and finally comes to rest
at 5.02 A. (a) Determine the overshoot of the reading in ampere and in percentage of final reading. (b) Determine
the percentage error in the instrument.

Solution:
(a) Overshoot = 5.18 - 5.02 = 0.16 A

http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/resource/view.php?id=147086
Dynamic Characteristic:
Step Response
When the measured variable of a measuring instrument in control system technology encounters
changes from one steady state value to a second steady state value it is a step signal and the response
shown by the output of a measuring instrument is called the step response.

Example :
RC circuit
Dynamic Characteristic:
Ramp Response
In the ramp signal the value of signal changes slowly with time. The typical ramp response curve of a
temperature measuring instrument is shown in the figure below. The measured temperature lagged
behind the input temperature, then caught up the input after a certain period of time. This figure
allows us to view two response curves, the dynamic error and dynamic lag.

https://instrumentationapplication.com/static-characteristics-and-dynamic-characteristics-of-instruments/
 Statistical Treatment of Data
The experimental data is obtained in two forms of tests:
A) Multisample Tests
A) Single test

In order to get the exact value of the quantity under measurement , tests should be
done using as many different procedures , techniques , experiments and statistical
techniques
Statistical Treatment of Data
Graphical method
Line graph :
Example:

A student takes data for a resistor and fits the straight line shown to the data. What is the
conductance and resistance of the resistor?

The slope represents the conductance.

The reciprocal of the conductance is the resistance:

Histograms
A histogram displays numerical data by grouping data into "bins" of equal width. Each bin is plotted as a bar
whose height corresponds to how many data points are in that bin.
Statistical Treatment of Data
Mathematical methods

What is Mean?
Mean is the most commonly used measure of central tendency. It actually represents the average of the given collection of
data. It is applicable for both continuous and discrete data.
It is equal to the sum of all the values in the collection of data divided by the total number of values.
Suppose we have n values in a set of data namely as x1, x2, x3, …, xn, then the mean of data is given by:

Statistics in Math: Definition, Types, and Importance

https://byjus.com/maths/mean-median-mode/
(investopedia.com)
Statistical Treatment of Data
Mathematical methods

What is Median?
Generally median represents the mid-value of the given set of data when arranged in a particular order.
Median: Given that the data collection is arranged in ascending or descending order, the following method is applied:
•If number of values or observations in the given data is odd, then the median is given by [(n+1)/2] th observation.
•If in the given data set, the number of values or observations is even, then the median is given by the average of
(n/2)th and [(n/2) +1]th observation.

Example:
(a)Find the median for the following data set:
102, 56, 34, 99, 89, 101, 10. Median=89

(b) Find the median for the following data set:

102, 56, 34, 99, 89, 101, 10, 54. Median=72.5
Statistical Treatment of Data
Mathematical methods

What is Mode?
The most frequent number occurring in the data set is known as the mode.
Consider the following data
{5, 7, 8, 2, 1, 5, 6, 7, 5} the mode is 5, as it occurs most often.
Statistical Treatment of Data
Mathematical methods
Function rang and domain :

The range is the difference between the largest value and the smallest value.

Range = (Max. Value – Min. Value)

The domain of the function is the set of all possible values of the independent variable. That is, the domain is
the set of all the values of x that will work and will make the function return real values of y.

https://www.bing.com/videos/search?q=range+and+domain++for+sinwave&docid=608008941171060274&mid=1E8614C60FCEBFD0C7B91E8614C60FCEBFD0C7
B9&view=detail&FORM=VIRE
Statistical Treatment of Data
Mathematical methods

Example:

Calculate the asthmatic the mean of the following sets of data:

a) { -10,0,10,20,30}
b) { 8,9,10,11,12}
Statistical Treatment of Data
Mathematical methods

https://www.khanacademy.org/math/statistics-probability/summarizing-quantitative-data/variance-standard-
deviation-population/v/range-variance-and-standard-deviation-as-measures-of-dispersion
Statistical Treatment of Data
Mathematical methods

Mean Deviation
Mean deviation is used to compute how far the values in a data set are from the center point. Mean, median, and mode
all form center points of the data set. In other words, the mean deviation is used to calculate the average of the absolute
deviations of the data from the central point. Mean deviation can be calculated for both grouped and ungrouped data.

Example :
Suppose we have a set of observations given by {2, 7, 5, 10} and we want to calculate the mean deviation
about the mean.

Mean = (2+7+5+10)/4= 6

Then we subtract the mean from each value, take the absolute value of each result then add them and divide
this value by the total number of observations (4)

MD=(4+1+1+4)/4=2.5

https://www.cuemath.com/mean-deviation-formula/
Statistical Treatment of Data
Mathematical methods

Standard Deviation
Statistical Treatment of Data
Mathematical methods

Variance
International Standard ( IS)
An international standard is a document that has been developed through the consensus of experts from

many countries and is approved and published by a globally recognized body. It comprises rules, guidelines,

processes, or characteristics that allow users to achieve the same outcome time and time again.

International Standards are essential for:

• International standards form the basis for testing and certification.

• Quality and risk management;

• Help researchers understand the value of innovation

• Allow manufacturers to produce products of consistent quality and performance.

IEC International Standards are always used by technical experts; they are always voluntary and based on the

international consensus of experts from many countries.

https://www.iec.ch/publications/international-standards
 Standards of Measurement:
Classification of Standards
Depending upon the degree of accuracy required for the work, the standards are subdivided into following four categories:

1. Primary Standards (Reference Standards).

2. Secondary Standards (Calibration Standards).

3. Tertiary Standards (Inspection Standards).

4. Working Standards (Workshop Measuring Standards).

Measurement: Systems and Standards | Metrology (yourarticlelibrary.com)

 Standards of Measurement:
1. Primary Standards (Reference Standards).

▪ The primary standard is also known as Master Standard,

▪ Used for calibration and verification for the secondary standard
▪ Sometimes it is also called Reference Standards.

2. Secondary Standards (Calibration Standards).

▪ They are nearly close in accuracy with primary standards
▪ The secondary standard is compared at regular intervals with primary Stands and records their deviation.
▪ These Standards are distributed to a number of places where they are kept under safe custody.
▪ Each industry has it own secondary standards
▪ Secondary standards are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration laboratories in industries

Measurement: Systems and Standards | Metrology (yourarticlelibrary.com)

 Standards of Measurement:
3. Tertiary Standards (Inspection Standards).

The Tertiary standard is the first standard to be used for reference purpose in workshops

and laboratories. They are used for comparing the working standards.

4. Working Standards (Workshop Measuring Standards).

Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory.
These standards are used to check and calibrate laboratory instrument for accuracy and performance.
For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors, resistors, etc.
use a standard called a working Standards of Measurement for checking the component
values being manufactured,

Measurement: Systems and Standards | Metrology (yourarticlelibrary.com)

Next lecture

Quiz

Chapter 3:
Electro-mechanical Indicating instruments
34