COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, ANIMAL SCIENCE AND VETERINARY

MEDICINE SCHOOL OF ANIMAL SCIENCE ANDVETERINARY

MEDICINE

DAIRY CATTLE FARMERS PERCEPTIONS ON

ANTIBIOTIC USE AND RESISTANCE IN MUSANZE
DISTRICT

A dissertation submitted to the University of Rwanda, School of Veterinary Medicine

in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the degree of

BACHELORS OF VETERINARY MEDICINE

Prepared By:

Adrien MANISHIMWE

Registration Number: 218005090

Supervisor: Dr.Marie-Francoise MWABONIMANA, PHD

Nyagatare, Academic year, 2021-2022

CHAPTER I. Introduction……………………………………………………………
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1.1. Background………………………………………………………………………
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1.2. Problem
statement……………………………………………………………….Error:
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1.3. Research
objectives……………………………………………………………...Error:
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1.3.1. General
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1.3.2. Specific objectives……………………………………………………………

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1.4. Research questions………………………………………………………………

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1.5. Hypothesis………………………………………………………………………
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1.6. Significance of study……………………………………………………………

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Chapter.II.Literature review……………………………………………………….

Chapter. III. Research Methodology.............................................................................5

III. 1. Description of the study area................................................................................5

III.2. Study design and targeted population...................................................................6

III.3.Sampling method and sample size determination..................................................6

3.1. Sampling method....................................................................................................6

3.2. Sample size..............................................................................................................7

3.3. Data collection.........................................................................................................7

3.4. Data Analysis..........................................................................................................7

Chapter.vi.References…...............................................................................................8

Chapter I: Introduction

1.1. Background

Globally, there are efforts to encourage responsible antibiotic management in animal

agriculture due to concerns that overuse and misuse of antibiotics contributes to the
development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including antibiotics important in the
treatment of human diseases. Antibiotic resistance is one of the biggest threats to
human and animal health worldwide (Fischer et al., 2019). The use of antibiotics in
animal feed can promote the development of antibiotic-resistant bacteria that can be
transmitted to humans through food-borne routes such as contaminated animal
products. Improper cooking or handling in general and antibiotic use and resistance in
particular (Téllez-Isaías, 2022). The use of veterinary medicines in livestock is
unavoidable since they are required for disease treatment and prevention, growth and
productivity enhancement. However, recent reports have indicated that overuse,
abuse, misuses and improper disposal of veterinary drugs can result in antimicrobial
residues in livestock products such as eggs, milk and meat, which are major health
risks to consumers. In addition, the misuse of antibiotics promotes the development of
antimicrobial resistance, allergy, reproductive disorder, and hypersensitivity reaction
(Bamidele Falowo & Akimoladun, 2019). When bacteria found in humans, animals,
food and the environment become increasingly resistant to antibiotics, their efficacy in
treating diseases can be reduced (WHO, 2020). In low- and middle-income countries,
uncontrolled antibiotic use is causing antibiotic resistance, affecting animal welfare
and public health.
1.3. Problem statement and Justification
Antibiotic resistance is a growing barrier to preventing and treating bacterial
infections (FAO, 2021). According to the 2019 report on antibiotic resistance, 2.8
million antibiotic-resistant infections occur each year in the United States, resulting in
more than 35,000 deaths (Wemette et al., 2021). The number of deaths from antibiotic
resistance is expected to increase from 700,000 to more than 10 million per year by
2050 (FAO, 2021). It also originated from antibiotic overuse due to farm owners
pressuring medical practitioners for antibiotic prescriptions in minor infections as well
as medical/ veterinary practitioners prescribing ineffective antibiotics and ineffective
doses of antibiotics. It is evident that farm owners need to be educated on responsible
antibiotic use. Farmers are facing a huge health problem when it comes to antibiotic
use and resistance. In Rwanda, E. coli and Salmonella isolated from cattle were
resistant to tetracycline (35.6%), ampicillin (19.6%), and streptomycin (16.5%) and
44.4% of farmers use antibiotics for disease prevention, 26.5% for growth promotion
and 55.6% use non-prescribed antibiotics for animal treatment (Manishimwe, 2021).
In Rwanda, more than half of the farmers (55.6%) reported using antibiotics not
prescribed in their animals. Although there are policies and laws in Rwanda that
govern the use of antibiotics in humans and animals, although farmers can buy
antibiotics without a prescription from a doctor or veterinarian. The inappropriate use
of antibiotics in humans and animals is closely linked to the increase in antibiotic-
resistant bacteria worldwide, including many antibiotics used in the veterinary field
(Antók et al., 2020).In Musanze District, information on antibiotic resistance in food
animals is scarce. Over use and misuse of antibiotics are potential causes of the
increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance (ABR), having information on dairy
farmers regarding dairy farmers’ perceptions toward antibiotics use by the public
might help to control antibiotic resistance growth in Muhoza sector, Musanze district,
Rwanda.

1.4. Objectives

1.4.1. General Objective

The objective of the study will be to assess dairy farmers’ perception toward
antibiotic use and resistance in Muhoza Sector of Musanze District, Rwanda.
1.4.2. Specific objectives

1. To determine dairy farmers’ knowledge level about antibiotic use and its residues in
Muhoza sector.
2. To determine if dairy farmer’s perception about antibiotics use affect antibiotic
resistance in Muhoza sector.
3. To identify dairy farmer’s practices on antibiotic use in Muhoza sector.
1.5.Research questions

1. What is the level of knowledge of dairy farmers regarding the use of antibiotics and
their residues in the Muhoza sector?

2. What extent are dairy farmers' perceptions on antibiotic use affecting

antibiotic resistance in the Muhoza Sector?

3. What are dairy farmers' practices regarding antibiotic use in the Muhoza
Sector?

1.6. Hypothesis

The overuse and misuse of antibiotics by dairy farmers is due to a lack of

knowledge about antibiotic use.

1.7. Significance of study

Antibiotics are an essential global resource and antibiotic resistance is

recognized as one of today's most serious threats to global public health. A
global action plan on antibiotic resistance has been launched, coordinated by the
World Health Organization (WHO), which includes a strategic objective to
optimize the health use of antibiotics in people and animals (Simon, 2020).
Discussion of the possible link between the use of antimicrobials in the
production of food animals and the emergence of antimicrobial resistance in
animals and human’s dates back more than four years’ decades ago in the report
(Chantziaras, 2013). This study identifies dairy farmers' perceptions of
antibiotic use and resistance. It will then be to raise awareness and
understanding of antibiotic resistance through effective communication,
education and training for farmers through public awareness and promotion of
health best practices general public, health care workers and policy makers to
prevent the emergence and spread of antibiotic resistance. The objective of this
study is to make farmers aware of the rational use of antibiotics and thus
contribute to the reduction of antibiotic resistance. This study will carried out in
Muhoza Sector of Musanze District. It will take about 3 months to complete the
project

Chapter III: Methodology

III. 1. Description of the study area: This study will carried out in Muhoza
sector of Musanze District, which is Muhoza Sector. The district is one of the
30 districts of Rwanda. Musanze District is among the five largest towns in
Rwanda and is divided into 15 sectors, 68 administrative cells, and 432 villages
with a population of 398,986 (Musanze district, 2021). In Muhoza sector,
commercial milk enterprises are developing due to the high demand of milk
consumers in the study area.
Map of Musanze District showing sectors where this study will carried out (Muhoza
Sector)

III.2. Study design and targeted population

A cross-sectional study will used to assess dairy farmers' perceptions on antibiotic use
as well as antibiotic residues and the impact of antibiotic resistance in the Muhoza
area. This study will be conducted from January to February 2023. Open and closed
questionnaires will used and face-to-face interviews with small and medium dairy
farmers and milk collection center owners will be conducted. Selected based on the
presence of one or more dairy cows on each farm including one cow per family of
GIRINKA. 103 dairy farmers will survey in this study.

III.3. Sampling method and sample size determination

3.1. Sampling method

Respondents will be randomly selected (simple random sampling) from the

population of dairy farmers in the study area.

3.2. Sample size determination

According to the report from Muhoza sector, there are 630 dairy farmers in this
N
sector. Sample size will be determined by using Yamane formula: n=
1+ N e 2
(Neilson, 2011). Where: N=Population, n= Sample size, e= Precision level, the
precision level is 9% .Therefore, by calculation sample size (n) is equal to
N 630
n= = =¿103 dairy farmers. Therefore, the sample size has been
1+ N e 1+630 ( 0.09 ) 2
2

calculated is 112 dairy cattle farmers.

3.3. Data collection

Data will collect through direct interviews with dairy farmers or from on-farm
participants. A team of 4 veterinary students will be required to help with data
collection. Participants will be selected based on their willingness to participate in the
study. Before the interview, the participants will be informed about the purpose of the
study. The participants will be trained in advance to get the correct information and
answer the questions provided. In addition, the questionnaires will be translated into
two languages, both mother tongue (Kinyarwanda) and foreign language (English) to
remove language barriers for local dairy farmers during data collection. The
questionnaire will cover the following aspects: education level of dairy farmers,
knowledge of antibiotics used and antibiotic resistance, antibiotic residues, and
practice of antibiotic use following withdraw period, means of access to storage
systems for antibiotics drug used and record keeping systems.

3.4. Data Analysis

103 completed questionnaires will import into SPSS version 20 (Statistical Package
for Social Sciences). Descriptive statistics will be performed to reveal the
demographic status of the participants and their knowledge, attitudes and practices
regarding antibiotic use and antibiotic resistance. The test of significance will be
assessed by chi-square test with a P value of 0.05 to observe the influence of dairy
farmers' educational level on the general perception of the use and resistance of dairy
cows. A confidence interval will be calculated for a rate at the 95% confidence
interval.
5. Estimated timeline of the research project
 Esti mated schedule 2023

P r e p a r a ti o n o f m a t e r i a l 4-Feb
s

D a t a c o l l e c ti o n 9 -Feb

D at a r ec o r d i n g 5- Mar

D a t a i n t e r p r e t a ti o n a n d
an al ysi s 10-Mar

R e p o r t w r i ti n g 18-Mar

6. References
 Antók, F. I., Mayrhofer, R., Marbach, H., Masengesho, J. C., Keinprecht,

H.,Nyirimbuga, V., Fischer, O., Lepuschitz, S., Ruppitsch, W., Ehling-Schulz,

M., Feßler, A. T., Schwarz, S., Monecke, S., Ehricht, R., Grunert, T.,

Spergser, J., & Loncaric, I. (2020). Characterization of Antibiotic and Biocide

Resistance Genes and Virulence Factors of Staphylococcus Species

Associated with Bovine Mastitis in Rwanda. Antibiotics, 9(1), Article 1.

https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9010001

Fischer, K., Sjöström, K., Stiernström, A., & Emanuelson, U. (2019). Dairy

farmers’ perspectives on antibiotic use: A qualitative study. Journal of Dairy

Science, 102(3), 2724–2737. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2018-15015

Hussein, H. (2022, January 1). Knowledge, attitudes, and perceptions of dairy

farmers regarding antibiotic use: Lessons from a developing country—

ScienceDirect.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022030221011012

Chantziaras. (2013, November 13). 4. Chantziaras, I. et al. Correlation between

veterinary... - Google Scholar.
https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=4.%09Chantzia
ras%2C+I.+et+al.+Correlation+between+veterinary+antimicrobial+use+and+a
ntimicrobial+resistance+in+foodproducing+animals
%3A+A+report+on+seven+countries.+J.+Antimicrob.+Ch emother.
+69%283%29%2C+827%E2%80%93834+%282014%29.+&btnG=
(Manishimwe. (2021, December 30). Assessment of antibiotic use in farm animals
in )| SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11250-0171290-z
Mapping the scientific knowledge of antimicrobial resistance in food-producing
animals—ScienceDirect. (n.d.). Retrieved November 28, 2022, from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2352771421001142
Simon. (2020, January 27). European perspectives on efforts to reduce antimicrobial
Approaches usage in food animal production | SpringerLink.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s13620-019-0154-4
Téllez-Isaías, G. (2022). The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic: Innovative
and Cutting-Edge Solutions. BoD – Books on Demand.
Wemette, M., Greiner Safi, A., Wolverton, A. K., Beauvais, W., Shapiro, M., Moroni,
P., Welcome, F. L., & Ivanek, R. (2021). Public perceptions of antibiotic use
on dairy farms in the United States. Journal of Dairy Science, 104(3), 2807–
2821. https://doi.org/10.3168/jds.2019-17673

Bamidele Falowo, A., & Akimoladun, F. (2019). O. Veterinary Drug Residues in

Meat and Meat Products: Occurrence, Detection and Implications. Vet. Med. Pharm,
3, 194 FAO. Te FAO Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance 2016–2020 (FAO,
2016).

7. Appendices
Research Questionnaire
University of Rwanda, Nyagatare Campus, Department of Veterinary Medicine
A Survey questionnaire designed to assess dairy farmers’ perceptions on antibiotic use
and resistance in Muhoza Sector
Name of the respondent……………………………………………
Date of questionnaire Interview:…………../……………../……………
Resident: Village……………………………. Cell ………………………………
Sector………………………………………………District………………………

A Respondents Social Demographic profile:

Letter Answer if yes by Corresponding code

for your choice
a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4
e 5
f 6

1. Age: a. between 18-35 b. between 36-45 C. between 46-60 d.

above 60
2. Gender: a. Male b. female
3. Educational background: a. never attended the school b. Primary school
C. secondary school d. University
4. Employment status
a. Farmer b. self-employed( business) C. Job employed
D. If other

B: knowledge of dairy farmers on antibiotic use, antibiotic residues, and antibiotic

resistance
Word options Answer by corresponding code
Yes 1
No 0
Please answer the following statement by yes or No
5. Antibiotic can kill bacteria. (Yes /No)

6. Antibiotic can kill viruses. (yes/No)

7. Proper hygiene can decrease bacterial infection. (Yes /No)
8. Antibiotic can used to treat diseases caused by virus. (Yes/No)
9. Inappropriate use of antibiotics makes them become ineffective. (yes/No)
10. You can share antibiotics from dairy farmer to another in case his /her cow have
similar clinical signs. (yes/No).
11. You can keep leftover antibiotics and use it later to treat your cow in the future.
(yes/No)
12. do you use prescribe antibiotics from Veterinary Doctor to treat your cow. (Yes
/No)
13. Veterinary Doctor often take time to tell you about how antibiotic should use.
(Yes/No).
14. I trust Veterinary Doctor Decision when she or he prescribes antibiotics. (Yes
/No)
15. What is antibiotic residues?
A. accumulation of antibiotics in animal body
B. accumulation of antibiotics in human body through ingestion of milk and meat
C.both a and b are correct
d. don’t know
16. Do you know that antibiotic has side effects? (yes/No)
17. Have you heard about withdrawal period of antibiotics? (Yes /No)
18. Antibiotic resistance means that antibiotics would not kill bacteria (Yes/No)
19. Have you heard about antibiotic resistance or antibiotic resistance bacteria?
(yes/No)
20. If bacteria are resistance to antibiotics, it can be very difficult to treat the
infections they may cause (Yes/No)
21. Government should create more awareness on antibiotic resistance (yes/No)
22. Overuse and misuse of antibiotics can cause antibiotic resistance (yes/No)

23. Not providing antibiotic as prescribed it can lead to antibiotic resistance (yes/No).

24. Bacteria, which are resistance to antibiotics, can spread from animals to humans
(yes/No)

25. Antibiotic resistance is problem in your country and all over the world (yes/No)

c. Dairy farmers practice on antibiotic use, antibiotic resistance and antibiotic residues
26. Use of antibiotics recommended by
Put 1 if answer is yes, put 0 if No
a. Veterinarian
B. shopkeeper
C.other cattle Farmers
d. Representative of veterinary pharmacy
E.Sector Veterinarian
F. self

27. Do you keep record of antibiotic used?

a) Always
b) Sometimes
c) Most frequently
d) Rarely
e) Never
F) Do not know
28. Do you follow withdraw periods. (yes/No)
29. Do you follow prescription of Veterinarian during buying antibiotic (Yes or No)
30. What do you do with leftover antibiotic?
A. keep for future use
B. put in the dustbin
C .give it to other farmers
d. Burn it
31. Do you add antibiotic to animal feed? (Yes /No)
Put 1 if answer is yes otherwise 0
32. How do store antibiotic c drug
A.Refrigerator
B. Cowshed
c. Room
D. other
33. Have you given antibiotics to your sick cow in the last one month ago? (yes/No)
34. Can you tell me the one common antibiotic often used in your farm?
Put 1 if answer is yes otherwise 0
A. oxytetracycline
B. penicillin
c. Tetracycline
D. streptomycin
e. Gentamycin
F. other