B.H.M.

- 2ND SEM
SESSION – 2019 – 2022
TOPIC – FLOUR OF THE WORLD
SAIKAT BISWAS
 INDEX
SL TOPIC PAGE REMARKS
NO. NO.
01. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 03

02. INTRODUCTION 04

03. CLASSIFICATION OF FLOUR 05-08

04. HISTORY OF WHEAT AND FLOUR MILLING 09-16

05. PRODUCTION 17

06. WHEAT & FLOUR QUALITY 17-18

MEASUREMENTS
07. FOOD SAFETY 19-21

08. WHOLE WHEAT FACT SHEET 21-22

09. OTHER WHOLE WHEAT PRODUCTS 22-23

10. NUTRITION 23-24

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

……I HAVE PREPARE THIS PROJECT UNDER THE GUIDANCE

OF MR. PRANTIK VANDARI & DONE MY NECESSARY EFFORT
FOR GATHERING THE INFORMATIONS.I AM DEDICATING
THIS PROJECT TO OWN RESPECTIVE TEACHERS & THOSE
WHO SUPPORTED ME……
 INTRODUCTION
Wheat (Figure 1A) flour is the product obtained by grinding whole wheat
kernels, sometimes called berries (Figure 1B). A wheat kernel consists of
three parts – the bran, germ, and endosperm (Figure 2). During the milling
process, these three parts are separated and recombined to make different
types of flour. For example, white flour is composed of the finely ground
endosperm, while whole wheat flour contains all three parts of the kernel.
Other common types of flour include all-purpose, bread, cake, self-rising,
pastry, semolina, durum, and gluten flours.
There are six classes of wheat grown in the U.S., including: Hard Red Winter,
Hard Red Spring, Soft Red Winter, Soft White, Hard White, and Durum.
These classes have unique characteristics, particularly protein and gluten
content, and are used to make different types of foods. Flours made from
hard wheats have higher protein content and are typically used for making
breads. Soft wheat flours are used for cakes, pastries, cookies, crackers, and
Asian noodles. Durum flour is used in pastas. All-purpose flour is milled from
a blend of hard and soft wheats and is therefore suitable for creating a wide
range of products.
Flour can be enriched, meaning processed; flour is supplemented with an
amount of nutrients equal to or greater than levels in the unprocessed flour,
including iron and B-vitamins (thiamin, niacin, riboflavin, and folic acid).
Flour can also be (chemically) bleached to whiten or enhance baking
qualities or unbleached (naturally aged and bleached by oxygen present in
the air).
When flour is mixed with water, the flour proteins; gliadin and glutenin,
combine to form the protein known as gluten. Gluten gives dough elasticity,
strength, and structure. Individuals with celiac disease, certain neurological
diseases, certain skin conditions, or gluten sensitivities of other etiologies
often benefit from a gluten-free diet.
Although usually derived from wheat, flour can also be milled from almond,
amaranth, barley, buckwheat, chickpea, coconut, corn, millet, oats, quinoa,
rice, rye, sorghum, soy, tapioca, and teff.
By-products of wheat milling, such as bran, “shorts” (inward layers of the
wheat seed coat that contain starchy or floury components), and
“middling’s” (a combination of bran and shorts), are used in the production
of animal feeds.
 THE CLASSIFICATION OF FLOUR

Diverse flour classification systems exist in North America and Europe.

Table III is adapted from a text by Scheunemann and True (6). The original
German edition of this textbook was published in 1986 to meet the technical
requirements of the West German educational program for apprentice
bakers. The English edition was published in 1988. Where appropriate, the
techniques and terminology were adapted to North American standards.
Table III depicts the types of wheat flour. Please note that Rye and Other
Flours, while depicted in Table III, are not part of this discussion.

Flour Types
HARD WHEAT
FLOURS
Top Patent 0.35 - 0.40% ash content: 11.0-12.0% protein
Uses: - Danishes, sweet doughs, yeast doughnuts and
smaller volume breads and buns.
First Baker's 0.50 - 0.55%. ash content: 13.0-13.8% protein
Uses: All-purpose strong baker's flour, breads, buns, soft rolls
and puff pastry.
First Clears 0.70-0.80% ash content: 15.5-17% protein
Uses: A dark very high protein flour used as a base for rye
bread production; poor color not a factor in finished product.
Second Clears Low grade flour, not used in food production. Constitutes less
than 5% of flour produced by a mill.

SOFT WHEAT
FLOURS
Cake Flour 0.36-0.40% ash content: 7.8 - 8.5% protein, chlorinated to 4.5-
5.0 ph.
Uses: High-ratio cakes (cakes with a high amount of sugar and
liquid in proportion to flour), angel food cakes and jelly rolls.
Pastry Flour 0.40-0.45% ash content/8.0-8.8% protein, chlorinated to 5.0-5.5
pH, (also available unchlorinated).
Uses: Cake, pastries and pies.
Cookie Flour 0.45-0.50% ash content: 9.0 - 10.5% protein
Uses: Cookies and blended flours. For large-scale
manufacturers, flour can be chlorinated to the user's
specifications.
Whole Wheat Various bran coat granulations produce coarse to fine whole-
Flour wheat

RYE FLOURS

Light Rye (75% extraction) 0.55-0.65% ash content [See Note below]
Uses: Can be blended up to 40% with white flour without a
major loss of loaf volume.
Medium Rye (87% extraction) 0.65 - 1.00% ash content.
Uses: Up to 30% blend with white flour.
Dark Rye (100% extraction) Limited to 20% flour blend before significant
volume reduction occurs in the product.
Rye Meals Fine/medium/coarse/pumpernickel and flaked. Consist of a
variety of broken or cracked rye grains after being classified
in a series of sieves.
OTHER FLOURS

Stone-Ground (100% extraction) Usually untreated and, because of germ

Flour content, is subject to limited shelf life.
Cracked Available in coarse, medium or fine granulations.
Wheat/Rye
Semolina Semolina A fine meal consisting of particles of coarsely-
ground durum.
NOTE: Extraction Rate is defined as the percentage of flour obtained
from a given amount of grain.
The data in Table IV was obtained from Boriani, Guido, Fabrizio Ostani (7). Italian
law 4.7. 1967. n. 580 establishes that common wheat flours destined for
commercial use can only be produced in the following types and with the
following characteristics:

PER 100 PARTS OF DRY SUBSTANCE

Type & Maximum Maximum Maximum Minimum
Denomination Moisture % Ash Cellulose Gluten

Flour Type 00 14.50 .50 NA 7

Flour Type 0 14.50 .65 .20 9
Flour Type 1 14.50 .80 .30 10
Flour Type 2 14.50 .95 .50 10
Flour -Wheat 14.50 1.40 – 1.60 1.60 10

FLOUR CLASSIFICATIONS IN FRANCE

The table below is adapted from Calvel, Raymond, James MacGuire, and
Ronald Wirtz, "The Taste of Bread", Gaithersburg.

CLASSIFICATION FOR SIX TYPES OF FLOUR IN FRANCE

Classification Ash content as % of Dry Matter Rate of Extraction

(Correlative Method)
Type 45 Below 0.50 67-70
Type 55 from 0.50 to 0.60/0.62 75-78
Type 65 from 0.62 to 0.75 78-82
Type 80 from 0.75 to 0.90 82-85
Type 110 from 1 to 1.20 85-90
Type 150 above 1.40 90-98
Likewise, the information below is also from Calvel et al. This chart
compares North American flour grades and offers comments relative to
French flour.

Flour grade protein level Comments

CAKE 7 to 8.5 protein It has been put forth in some circles that French
flours can be imitated by “cutting” the extra
PASTRY 8.5 to 9.5 protein strength of North American bread flours with
weaker cake or pastry flours. The logic of this is
attractive, but it does not pan out.
HOTEL AND 10 to 11.5 protein North American flour is an exact equivalent of
RESTAURANT French type 55 bread flour, and bakers must look
(ALL carefully for an appropriate flour and make certain
adjustments … Professor Calvel has had great
PURPOSE) success in North America with both “bread” flours
BREAD 11.5 to 12.2 on this lower end of the protein range and also with
protein “all purpose” (hotel and restaurant) flours of above
average strength. Significantly, many months of
flour testing conducted by Didier Rosada and Tom
McMahon at the National Baking Center in
Minneapolis corroborates this, for 12.5% appears
to be the maximum percentage of protein desirable
for hearth breads. Much work remains to be done,
and artisan bread movement has begun to spark an
interest on the part of mills to produce appropriate
flours.
Premium High 13.8 to 14.2 The high gluten flours are too high in gluten
Gluten protein despite Professor Calvel’s mention of stronger
flour for certain recipes.
Medium High 13.3 to 13.7
Gluten protein
Strong Spring 13 to 13.3 protein
Patent
First Clear 14 plus protein Clear flours can add strength to rye doughs when
used as the wheat portion, and where their darker
color is of little importance.
Whole Wheat 14 plus protein Stone ground whole-wheat flours are of uniform
granulation and contain no additives, but must be
used before the wheat germ oil oxidizes and
causes rancid flavors.
 HISTORY
THE HISTORY OF WHEAT AND FLOUR MILLING
Archeologists date the first tools of ancient man as early as 250,000 years
ago. Hand axes, stone knives and bludgeons were used in hunting food and
for protection. But it was only 10 or 15 thousand years ago that man began to
turn his tool-making skill to the production of agricultural implements. His
transition from hunting food to raising food marked the beginnings of
civilization. Within a few thousand years, larger urban centers of culture
known as cities came into existence.
 Planting
The first step in planting grain is breaking up the soil so that the seed may
be covered. The most primitive instrument for this probably was a sharp
digging stick or a sharp stone lashed to a handle. Egyptian drawings show
the use of a triangular tool made by hinging two sticks at one end. The longer
stick served as a handle and the shorter as a blade, swung with a chopping
or hoeing action. A hoe of this type dating from 1,000 B.C. has been found
intact. Other Egyptian drawings from 2,500 B.C. show such a hoe-like
instrument or plow equipped with a pair of handles, drawn by oxen. A
similar, one- handled-plow with a single point, dating from 300 B.C. was
found in Denmark. In many parts of the world today, farmers use
implements almost as crude and primitive.
Great changes in the agricultural revolution came with the development of
iron and steel and are today scarcely 160 years old. In 1819, a New York State
farmer, Jethro Wood, patented a cast iron plow. Iron was soon replaced by
steel, and a series of plowshares were attached to a single frame in an
implement called a gang plow. With his tractor, today’s farmer pulls a series
of steel points fitted to a single frame to help pulverize the soil after
plowing. This implement is called a spike harrow and is used to reduce the
soil to smaller fragments. Soil kept pulverized and free from weeds retains
moisture needed by the seeds and wheat plant.
To sow seeds into soil ancient Egyptians cast seed wheat directly into the
mud left by the retreat of annual floodwaters along the Nile. Cattle were
driven over the area to trample the seed into the ground. For thousands of
years, a more common method of sowing seed has been the broadcasting of
wheat – scattering it evenly by hand- a procedure still used today in many
parts of the world. Working in this fashion, with a sack of grain slung over
his shoulder, it would take a skilled man about 90 minutes to sow just one
acre of wheat.
The modern farmer seeds his field with a machine called a drill. Seed for
planting is contained in a hopper at the top, from which the seed is funneled
evenly down into the earth and covered lightly with soil.
 Reaping
As in planting, instruments used to harvest wheat evolved during ancient
times from the first sharp stones fitted into a wood or bone handle into
skillfully crafted cutting instruments. The adaptation of iron and steel helped
man develop the sickle, a balanced tool that was easy to swing. Even after
4,000 years sickles are still widely used. They are light enough for work by
women and children. They permit the cutting of wheat at any height, so that
the straw can be left standing or cut separately. The importance of the sickle
in the history of man reaches a point of symbolism – perpetuated in the
Russian hammer and sickle device, and in many works of art.
An improvement over the sickle was the scythe- a longer blade with only a
slight curve, fastened at right angles to a long wooden handle. Wheat could
be cut faster with a scythe, and the worker could stand upright. But the
straw had to be cut close to the ground, leaving it attached to the wheat
head. A scythe is also a heavier instrument that requires a strong man for
prolonged use.
As the wooden plow was displaced by iron and steel, better and more
efficient methods of cutting were developed. In 1831 Cyrus McCormick
invented a mechanical reaper. The two wheeled, horse-drawn invention
pushed a series of moving, scissor-like blades against the grain to clip if close
to the ground. A rotating paddle wheel swept the stalks against the cutting
bales so they fell on a platform as the machine moved forward.
 Threshing
The modern farmer usually takes a sample of wheat to a local elevator for
testing to check moisture content, which determines whether or not it is
ready to harvest and can be stored. Wheat is relatively hard and dry when
ripe. At this time, the crop is also an easy target for destructive fire, wind,
rain or hail during a critical week to 10-day period when the grain must be
cut.
A number of methods can be used to thresh out the cut grain and remove
the wheat from its glumes. For thousands of years, wheat heads were spread
on a plot of bare, hard ground or threshing floor. Cattle or horses were
driven around and around until hooves accomplished the removal of the
wheat from the chaff. Separation was completed by winnowing-or tossing
the mixture into the air so that the wind blew away the lighter chaff and the
heavier wheat dropped back.
The mechanical ingenuity that led to the development of a reaper also led to
the development of the threshing machine. Industrialization- the use of new
sources of power in steam and internal combustion engines, the
improvement of transportation, and the growth of cities with greater need
for food- served to revolutionize agriculture. During the 19th and early 20th
centuries, the time required for cultivation and complete harvest of one acre
of wheat declined from an estimated 83 hours to little more than two man-
hours. The invention of several machines made this saving possible.
One of the inventions, the threshing machine, used power fans to separate
the chaff from the grain. The machines were expensive and often purchased
by companies of farmers or independent businessmen. Local groups called
“threshing rings” were formed of ten to twenty-five growers, and the
farmers would cut and shock the grain in the fields belonging to members.
The shocked grain was hauled in from the field and fed into the threshing
machine. Chaff and straw were blown out into the pile on one side. Clean
grain poured into a wagon or bags on the other side. The “threshing rings”
also hired itinerant workers from the cities. This annual migration of
thousands of harvest hands came to an end after the end of the First World
War with the development of the combine, first as a unit to be drawn by
horse or tractor and finally self-propelled.
The modern combine, in one operation, performs the five basic jobs in
harvesting once done by hand labor:
 Cutting – replaces the sickle, scythe or cradle
 Feeding – eliminates hauling the cut or bunched stalks of wheat
 Threshing – formerly accomplished by flail or some other method of extracting
the whole grain from its hull
 Separating – tedious discarding of stalks
 Cleaning – separating the wheat berry from all other particles
The combine reduced the man hours of work of harvesting one acre of
wheat from 46 hours to 30 minutes or less and freed thousands of men
for productive work outside the farm.
  Early Milling
Wheat is transported from the field to a storage facility and eventually to a
mill. Since prehistoric times, the goal of milling has been the separation of
outer bran and germ from the inner, more digestible, endosperm of the
wheat berry. While primitive man probably simply chewed wheat as food,
and later learned to parch it for easier eating, archeological excavations of
even the earliest known villages indicate forms of grinding.
The teeth of people from excavated villages dating back to 6,700 BC show
no signs of wear that would indicate they chewed wheat. Apparently, those
early people already knew the use of stones for milling wheat. Pairs of
stones, one for pounding or rubbing against another, are found at sites of
ancient settlements in almost all parts of the world. Although crude, the
pounding or rubbing of whole grain effectively reduces the kernel into flour
or meal.
The pounding of two stones together would create wear at the point of
impact. A depression was created. If two stones of the right shape are
rubbed together the same wearing action evolved into simple mills in which
wheat was poured in from the top and flour emerged from the grinding
surfaces. The ancient Egyptians used saddle stones and mixed their crudely
sifted flour with a liquid containing natural yeast to create loaves of
leavened bread in many different shapes and varieties. The process is
illustrated in crude murals found in Tombs along the Nile River.
The addition of levers to millstones gave millers more power to grind
greater quantities of wheat. The extension of the top stone made a hopper
for the grain, a Grecian invention, called an “hourglass mill”. For thousands
of years, flour for man’s bread was produced by mills of exactly the same
principle, modified to harness the power of men, horses, or oxen, or water,
or wind power geared to turn the stones one against another. Fabric or mesh
was used to sift the flour even as today, and the stones were dressed or
scored with furrows to direct the flour out from the center to the outer edge
of the grinding surface. A combination of sifting and grinding produced
white flour.
The application of wind or waterpower to the task of turning the grinding
stones made possible larger mills with increased output of flour to sell in
bigger markets. The Romans are believed to have been the first to use
waterpower for milling flour, about 100 B.C.
  19th Century Milling
In the 19th century, the industrial development that made possible the
invention of reapers and threshing machines was also reflected in mill design
and construction. Power carried by shafts, belts and gears was used to turn
one or a series of stones. Water began to displace wind as a more
dependable source of power and larger milling plants were built near
sources of waterpower.
An American millwright, Oliver Evans, introduced screw conveyors to move
flour and wheat horizontally and bucket elevators to lift grain and its milled
products called grist. He assembled these machines, together with sifters or
bolters, in the first continuous system in which wheat was milled into flour
as a single uninterrupted operation. Machines were also added to clean the
wheat to produce purer flour.
The gradual adaptation of industrial techniques and the dependence on
water as a source of power, together with improved transportation by barge
or rail and the expansion of the wheat lands westward, forced the shifting
of milling centers in the same direction. From New York, Philadelphia, and
Baltimore, the center of milling represented by the largest output of flour
moved progressively to Rochester, St. Louis, Minneapolis and Buffalo-
wherever the ever-changing equation of transportation advantages and
lower power costs combined to make wheat readily available and the
shipment of finished flour more economical.
The use of harder wheat, initially imported from Canada in the middle of the
19th century, as well as the mechanization of milling, encouraged the
widespread adaptation of a method called “New Process.” First used in
Hungary, the miller using the “New Process” set his mill stones farther apart
to crack rather than crush the wheat. He slowed the turning speed of the
millstones at the same time to reduce the heat of friction and to grind and
separate the wheat gradually into bran and white flour.
The stone grinding of wheat soon reached a high degree of proficiency,
milling at extraction rates that produced about 72 percent flour and 28
percent mill feed. Only a few workers were needed to tend the machines and
handle the grain and flour. In 1870, the average mill employed fewer than
three persons. Flour milling is perhaps not only one of the oldest industries,
but also the first fully automated manufacturing process in the history of
man.
The “New Process” mills in the United States used repeated grinding and
bolting to eventually produce excellent white flour, equal to the best of
Europe. Stone-ground whole wheat flour is occasionally featured as
premium flour even today.
In the United States of 100 years ago, almost every settlement where there
was a source of waterpower included a small community mill. Although the
trend was toward larger plants of merchant mills that produced flour for
sale commercially in larger market areas, the smaller grist mill, grinding
either wheat or corn and sometimes alternating as a sawmill, continued to
operate. In 1870, more than 22,000 mills served the total population of about
30 million people. Most of the small grist mills were driven by waterpower.
The invention of the steam engine by James Watt in 1769, the introduction
of the more efficient roller mill system, and the application of the middling’s
purifier, combined to make possible model milling. The steam engine could
be geared directly to the turning of millstones or employed to raise water
into reservoirs, freeing the miller from his dependence on sources of natural
power. Watt designed an English mill powered by steam in 1780. Less than
30 years later, Oliver Evans used steam to drive a Pittsburgh flour mill. By
1870, steam was used in 5, 383 of the 22, 573 flour mills in America.
The first mention of rollers to replace grindstones first occurred in 1558 with
the publication of an engineering handbook by an Italian, Agostino Ramli.
His drawings illustrated a number of devices later adapted to modern
milling. In 1662, another mechanical genius, G.A. Buckler, developed a mill
using two corrugated rollers together with an agitating device for sifting the
grind. Eventually the use of rollers for milling was widely adopted in western
and central Europe. A concentration of roller mills in and around Budapest
gave the name, “Hungarian,” to the process.
Word of the new roller process came to America. In the beginning rollers
were used in combination with grindstones. An all-roller mill was
constructed and operated briefly in Philadelphia in 1876. The first installation
of commercial importance was made in Minneapolis in 1878.
Roller mills offered several advantages. They eliminated the cost of dressing
millstones. They permitted longer, more gradual extraction, or the making
of a larger amount of better grade flour from a given amount of wheat. The
product itself was more uniform, cleaner and more attractive. Rollers were
superior for milling harder bread wheats, reducing the kernel slowly into
flour fragments to separate the bran. Roller milling also made possible the
construction of larger, more efficient mills, hastening the abandonment of
community mills and stone grinding.
The third factor in the milling revolution, with new sources and application
of power and the roller system, was the use of the middling’s purifier.
Edmund La Croix in Minnesota first constructed this machine in the United
States in 1865. It first filled an urgent need in the making of flour by the “New
Process” method and was later adapted to roller milling. Flour made from
endosperm particles free of bran is usually the highest grade, and the “New
Process” yield of this type of flour was small. The middling’s purifier
improved the yield.
Rather than working the entire wheat berry into a powder in one grinding,
a miller using the gradual reduction process strives to break up the
endosperm into bran free granular “middling’s” or farina. Regrinding this
material makes the best grades of flour. In the LaCroix machine, the course
middling passed over a vibrating screen. An upward current of air lifted off
most of the branny particles, or “purified” the madlings.
Air currents produced by fans had long been used in milling to clean wheat.
Bolting cloth to sift the flour and obtain finer granulation had been
employed for hundreds of years. La Croix put the two together for a more
versatile and efficient system of flour separation. An earlier process to
separate bran from middling’s had been patented in 1865, and flour
produced with it was known as “patent,” a name still applied to more refined
grades of flour. The invention and use of the middling’s purifier made
possible the continuous improvement of the flour stream as progressed
through a mill to the final product.
The second half of the 19th century was a period of immense development
and change in flour milling. Hundreds of patents were issued for mechanical
purifiers, sifters, cleaners, dust collectors, grain washers and other milling
equipment. Together, these improvements and refinement of the basic
process- separating the outer bran and germ from floury, inner endosperm-
made possible the modern mill.

 20th Century Milling

Wheat arrives at modern mills and elevators by ship, barge, rail or truck.
Chemists in product control, who inspect and classify grain, take samples of
each shipment. A small quantity is milled into flour. The character of the
wheat itself, it’s milling and baking qualities, determine how it is handled.
Different wheats are usually blended before milling to achieve the desired
end product. Similarly, different types of flour are blended to customer
specifications and to provide desired baking characteristics.
The average bushel of wheat weighs about 60 pounds. At the standard
extraction rate, providing about 72 percent flour and 28 percent mill feed,
approximately 2.3 bushels of wheat are required to produce 100 pounds of
flour.
A simplified schematic flow chart of 20th century milling is available by
selecting the How Flour is Milled link. The flow chart displays the elementary
steps in processing wheat into flour and explains the use and value of each
separate machine. It is quite probable, however, that no two flour mills will
ever be quite alike in terms of an exact sequence, placement or identity of
machinery. The men who build the machinery, millwrights, constantly
modify and improve the equipment according to the suggestions of
technicians or the millers themselves. Equipment size, shape, housing,
source of power and daily capacity all serve to individualize each flour mill.
The chart below shows the average composition of wheat, white flour, and
bran
 Average Composition of Wheat, White Flour and Bran

SUBSTANCE WHEAT WHITE FLOUR BRAN PERCENT

PERCENT PERCENT
Water or moisture 12.00 13.50 13.00

Mineral mater or 1.80 .40 5.80

ash
Protein or 12.00 11.00 15.40
nitrogenous
matter
Cellulose or crude 2.20 .25 3.60
fiber
Fat or ether 2.10 1.25 3.60
extract
Nitrogen-free 69.90 73.60 53.20
extract
  PRODUCTION
In the U.S., wheat is grown in 42 states and is the third largest crop in terms
of acreage, production, and value, behind corn and soybeans. During the
2018/2019 growing season, U.S. farmers produced an estimated 1.884 billion
bushels of wheat on 47.8 million acres of cropland. Wheat planting
production peaked in the U.S. in 1981 but has since fallen by more than 30
million acres and 900 million bushels. Foreign competition, changes in U.S.
farm legislation, and changing consumer preferences have contributed to
this decline. In 2008, the top wheat-producing states (in order of production)
in the U.S. were Kansas, North Dakota, Washington, Montana, and
Oklahoma. Almost half of the U.S. wheat crop is exported.
The U.S. classifies wheat varieties as “winter” or “spring,” depending on the
season they are planted in. Winter wheat is planted in the fall and becomes
established before going into dormancy in the winter. During spring of the
following year, winter wheat resumes growth until being harvested in the
summer. Winter wheat represents 70-80% of total U.S. wheat production and
has a higher yield potential than spring wheat because of its longer growing
season. Spring wheat is planted in the spring and harvested in late summer
or fall of the same year. Spring wheat is primarily grown in the Northern
Great Plains region, where cold winter temperatures can kill winter wheat
during dormancy. Yield potential in this region is low due to suboptimal
moisture levels and higher growing-season temperatures, which cause
wheat plants to mature faster. Irrigation and application of fertilizer
increases crop yield potential, while drought conditions and freezing
temperatures during spring can reduce yield potential.

 Wheat & Flour Quality Measurements

 Test Weight: the weight of a specific volume of grain; provides an

indicator of grain quality and an estimate of flour yield
 Grain Protein: the concentrations of proteins in the grain; flours with
higher protein concentrations have higher water absorption and
stronger, more extensible dough properties
 Falling Number: a measure of the enzymatic activity of the grain;
enzymatic activity in dough is needed to convert starches to sugars for
the yeast
  Deoxynivalenol (DON) Content: the level of DON toxin present in the
grain; acceptable levels in finished products for human consumption
are <1ppm
Moisture Content: the measure of moisture content in the flour; higher
moisture contents are conducive to the growth of mold, bacteria, and
insects
Ash Content: the measure of mineral (ash) content in the flour or wheat;
provides an indication of the yield that can be expected during milling,
because ash is primarily concentrated in the bran
 Processing
Upon arrival at the mill, wheat proceeds through a cleaning process to
remove coarse impurities and is stored according to its quality.
Wheat is then further cleaned via screening, which removes coarse and fine
materials and separates grains by size, shape, and weight. Pure whole wheat
is moved into conditioning bins.
Conditioning occurs prior to milling to create a uniform moisture content
throughout the grain. This helps prevent breakup of the bran during milling
and improves separation from the endosperm.
After conditioning, different batches of wheat are mixed (gritted) together
to create a blend capable of producing a desired quality of flour.
Milling is the separation of the bran and germ from the endosperm, and the
reduction of the endosperm to uniform particle size (flour). Milling is
performed through a sequence of breaking, grinding, and separating
operations.
Quality of the wheat determines the type(s) of flour to be produced.
Different types of flour produced at a mill can be combined to create further
variations. Whole meal flour contains all parts of the kernel, including the
bran, germ, and endosperm. Brown flour also contains all parts, but with
some germ and bran removed. White flour is composed of only the
endosperm part of the kernel.
 Food Safety
Until recently, low-moisture foods such as flour have not generated food
safety concerns. However, flour is typically considered a raw agricultural
product that is not ready-to-eat or pasteurized. There are also multiple
opportunities for contamination along the farm-to-fork continuum as grain
is processed into flour. While kill steps during food preparation and
processing (such as boiling, baking, roasting, microwaving, or frying)
eliminate pathogens that cause foodborne illness and may be present in raw
flour, consumption of products containing raw flour that have not
undergone a kill step have been implicated in outbreaks. Implicated
products include prepackaged raw cookie dough, prepackaged baking
mixes, raw homemade doughs and batters, cake batter ice cream, and
homemade play dough. Potential also exists for cross-contamination when
utensils or containers that come in contact with raw flour are used with
cooked or ready-to-eat products.
In outbreaks of Salmonella associated with raw dough, raw or undercooked
eggs may be considered the most likely source of contamination, but flour
has recently emerged as a vehicle for infection and should be investigated.
A 2007 study reported Salmonella in 0.14% of wheat flour samples in the U.S.,
but earlier studies have reported the incidence of Salmonella as 1.34% and E.
coli as 12.5%. Additionally, grain is not usually treated to kill microbial
pathogens before being milled into flour, so any contamination that occurs
in the field can potentially be passed into the final product.
One study demonstrated the ability of E. coli O157:H7 to survive on flowering
wheat heads for at least 15 days and internalize in wheat seedlings via
contaminated seed, soil, and irrigation water, at internalization rates of 2, 5,
and 10%, respectively. Wheat fields in close proximity to cattle operations
present potential opportunities for contamination, via abundant rainfall or
contaminated irrigation water. Various studies have demonstrated that E.
coli is able to survive for 2 months, 6 months, or as long as 500 days in soil,
depending on temperature.
Flour should be stored in a cool, dry place in airtight containers. All-purpose,
bread, and cake flours will keep for 6 months to 1 year if stored at 70°F and
for 2 years if stored at 40°F. Wheat flour should be kept refrigerated or
frozen, if possible. Naturally occurring oils in flour, particularly whole wheat
flour, oxidize when exposed to air, especially at room temperature, and
cause flour to turn rancid.
Food safety programs in the grain milling industry designed to reduce and
prevent the risk of microbial and mycotoxin contamination include hazard
analysis & critical control point programs (HACCP), good manufacturing
practices (GMP), food defense programs, and audits. Ready-to-eat, heat-
treated flour is also available to consumers.
  Mycotoxin Contamination
Deoxynivalenol (DON) is a mycotoxin produced by the Fusarium species of
fungi that frequently infect grains, such as corn, wheat, oats, and barley, in
the field or during storage. DON is also known as a vomitoxin due to its
strong emetic effects after consumption. DON is associated with Fusarium
Head Blight, also called scab, a disease of wheat and barley that causes yield
loss, low weight, low seed germination, and mycotoxin contamination of
grain. There is a 1ppm limit set by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for
DON in all finished wheat products intended for human consumption.
Mycotoxins, including DON, are highly stable, able to withstand high
temperatures, and its levels in grain will remain unchanged even after years
in storage. DON has been detected in buckwheat, popcorn, sorghum,
triticale, flour, bread, breakfast cereals, noodles, infant foods, pancakes,
malt, and beer.
The best method for addressing DON contamination in flour is to prevent
contaminated grain from entering the milling process. Screening of
incoming wheat, using quick tests such as ELISA test kits, allows millers to
reject supply sources exceeding safe levels of DON. It is also possible to
remove DON contaminated kernels during the cleaning process, using
gravity tables and optical sorters, but this process concentrates DON in
wheat screenings, preventing its use in animal feeds.
 Microbial Contamination
Flour is a low moisture food with a water activity (Aw) level of 0.87 or lower.
Generally, an Aw of 0.95 or higher is required to support microbial growth.
The main concern with flour is that microbial contamination can be carried
through the milling process, survive in processed flour, and pose a risk for
foodborne illness when flour is incorporated into a food product.
One method that has proven effective in removing microbial contamination
is aggressive scouring or abrasion, also referred to as deranging or peeling,
of wheat to remove the outer bran layer during the conditioning process.
This process requires a high amount of energy and the rate of bran removal
is difficult to control. Additionally, it is not possible to entirely remove the
bran from the kernel. Deranging also results in the concentration of
microbial contamination in the removed bran.
Another method for controlling microbial contamination in wheat is
tempering water with ozone or chlorine. Chlorination is cheaper and more
effective than ozone but may leave residue.
Treatment of the final product, flour, is more expensive than treating grain.
Effective methods include gamma ray irradiation and heat treatment.
However, gamma ray irradiation has been shown to negatively impact
dough quality. Likewise, if performed improperly, heat treatment can also
negatively impact dough quality and cause browning.

WHOLE WHEAT FACT SHEET

 GRANULATION
By FDA definition, whole wheat flours must fall within a defined granulation.
Under these rules there are typically three granulations of whole wheat flour
produced – fine, medium and coarse.
 ULTRA-FINE
Ultra-Fine Whole Wheat Flour that is offered by some mills offers a particle
size similar to white patent flour but has the nutritional benefits of whole
wheat flour. Products made with Ultra Fine Whole Wheat Flour are smoother
and less gritty than products made with conventional whole wheat flour.
 FINE
Fine Whole Wheat Flour is ideal for all bread and roll applications where
optimum absorption, dough handling characteristics and loaf volume are
desired. Because the bran and germ are milled “fine” the impact on mixing
tolerance and finished baked volume are minimized. When producing 100%
whole wheat bread or rolls, Fine Whole Wheat Flour is often the flour of
choice.
The particular size of the whole wheat flour has a significant impact on its
ability to absorb water. Fine Whole Wheat Flour, because of its smaller
particle size and thus larger surface area, will absorb water at a much faster
and more consistent rate than will the medium and coarse whole wheat
flours. The finer granulation also exposes more of the endosperm protein,
enabling a more complete development of gluten.
 MEDIUM
Medium Whole Wheat Flour has a slightly coarser granulation than the Fine
Whole Wheat Flour. It can be used in all the same applications. However, due
to the larger particle size and the cutting action the bran imparts on the
gluten structure, a smaller finished loaf volume and a coarser crumb can be
expected.
  COARSE
Coarse Whole Wheat Flour is quite different than Fine Whole Wheat Flour.
Both contain the entire wheat berry, but due to the large particle size of the
bran, it is seldom used alone in bread baking. Ideal applications for Coarse
Whole Wheat Flour are specialty breads and rolls such as multi-grain. It is
often used as a topping to provide a rustic health look. It is also used in many
wheat breads to provide a ‘nutty’ flavor and texture.
 STONE GROUND
Stone-Ground Whole-Wheat Flour is a reference to the milling method used.
In the early days of milling, wheat was ground between heavy, slowly
rotating millstones. Stone-Ground Whole-Wheat Flour is often used for
marketing and promotional advantages.
 SHELF LIFE
Whole wheat flour has a short shelf life when compared to white flour.
Although the germ represents just 2-½% of the whole wheat flour, it has a
high-unsaturated oil content. Oil rancidity is the primary concern during
prolonged storage. This can result in an off flavor and odor. Under normal
storage conditions whole wheat flour should be used within 30 – 60 days.
Storing the flour under refrigeration can extend this time.
OTHER WHOLE WHEAT PRODUCTS
Whole wheat flour must meet two FDA criteria: the composition must be the
same as the wheat from which they were milled, and it must meet the
granulation requirement.
 Cracked Wheat
Cracked Wheat is produced by cutting or breaking cleaned wheat into
irregular sized pieces. The FDA requires a specific granulation in order for it
to be called cracked wheat. It is used in popular brands of cracked wheat and
multi-grain breads.
 Crushed Wheat
 Crushed Wheat is also a standardized whole wheat product. To make
crushed wheat the miller first tempers cleaned wheat to a higher
moisture level. The softened kernels then pass through a set of
smooth rollers. The wheat berries are literally flattened. Very little
flour is released.
  Rolled Wheat
Rolled Wheat is thinner and smaller than crushed wheat. It is not tempered
as long as Crushed Wheat and the wheat berries are cracked before being
rolled. Due to the initial cracking a little more flour is released. Crushed
Wheat and Rolled Wheat are often used in multi-grain and specialty breads.
 Cleaned Wheat
Cleaned Wheat usually is an unfilled, high protein Hard Red Spring wheat. It
is seldom used in unaltered form. Small bakeries purchase cleaned wheat
and mill their own bread flour on premise. It is also used to make sprouted
wheat bread. In this application, the wheat berries are soaked in water. Once
the grain has germinated it is coarsely ground and added to the dough.

NUTRITION
Nutrition Summary -
All-purpose, enriched, bleached wheat flour:

CALORIES (KCAL PER 1 CUP OR 125G) FAT CARBS PROTEIN

455 1g 95g 13g

 Calories by source: 2% fat, 86% carbs, 11% protein

Wheat flour contains dietary fiber, B vitamins (thiamin, riboflavin,
niacin, and folate), calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus,
potassium, and zinc and is also a good source of complex
carbohydrates. The bran component of a wheat kernel contains fiber,
the endosperm contains protein, carbohydrates, and small amounts
of B vitamins, and the germ contains trace minerals, unsaturated
fats, B vitamins, antioxidants, and phytonutrients. Dietary fiber helps
reduce blood cholesterol, lowers the risk of heart disease and type 2
diabetes, and aids in bowel function. B vitamins are important for
metabolism and a healthy nervous system. Folate (folic acid) helps
with the formation of red blood cells. It is also important for women
of child-bearing age who may become pregnant to consume
adequate amounts of folic acid to reduce the risk of neural tube
defects such as spina bifida and anencephaly, during fetal
development. Iron is required to carry oxygen in the blood and
inadequate amounts of iron can result in iron-deficiency anemia.
Food products made from wheat grain can be classified as whole
grain or refined grain. Whole grain products contain the entire wheat
kernel, including the bran, germ, and endosperm, while refined grain
products only contain the endosperm. Refined grain products
generally have a finer texture and longer shelf life, but less dietary
fiber, iron, and B vitamins than whole grain products. Many refined
grain products, such as white flour, are enriched with B vitamins
(thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, and folic acid) and iron, meaning
nutrients are added back to the processed product in equal or greater
amounts than those found in the unprocessed product. Likewise,
grain products may also be fortified with folic acid or calcium,
meaning the nutritional status of the product is higher than that of
the unprocessed product. Bleaching does not affect the nutritional
value of flour.
For a 2,000-calorie diet, the 2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines for
Americans, Healthy U.S.-Style Eating Pattern recommends
consuming 6 ounce-equivalents of grain per day, of which 3 or more
ounce-equivalents should be whole grain.
A “Good Source” contains half a serving of whole grains with at least
8g of whole grain per serving. An “Excellent Source” contains a full
serving of whole grains with at least 16g of whole grain per serving.
A “100% Excellent Source” contains a full serving of whole grains
with at least 16g of whole grain per serving and no refined grains.

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