Revision Notes

Class 10 Science
Chapter 12 - Electricity

Introduction
● The Greek words "Electrica" and "Elektron" were used to describe
electricity.
● Thales, a Greek philosopher, was the first to notice how certain elements
attract other materials when rubbed together.
● These materials were divided into two categories by Gilbert: vitreous and
resinous, as Positive charges and Negative charges.

Frictional Electricity
● Fur, flannel, wax, glass, cotton, paper, silk, human skin, wood, metals, rubber,
resin, amber, sulphur, and ebonite are just a few of the materials used.
● If any two materials in this series are rubbed together, the element that occurs
initially in the series will get positive charge, while the element that occurs
later in the series will gain negative charge.

Fundamental Laws of Electrostatics

● Positive and negative charges are the two types of charges.
● Charges that are similar repel each other, while charges that are dissimilar
attract each other.

Coulomb’s Law
qq
● F 1 2
 
r2
● The electrostatic attraction or repulsion force between two charges is
proportional to the product of their charges and inversely proportional to
the square of their distance.

● F=

Kq q
1 2 
r2
● K is the constant of proportionality and is equal to 9×109 Nm2 /C2 for free
space.
● The force is repulsive for similar charges and attracting for dissimilar ones.

Charge Conservation

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● When an ebonite rod is brushed with fur, the ebonite gains a negative charge,
while the fur gains a positive charge.
● This indicates that electrons have transferred from fur to ebonite.
● The system's net charge stays unchanged.
● As a result, charges are not generated or destroyed; rather, they are moved
from one material to another.

Insulators and Conductors

● Insulators are poor conductors of electricity, yet they can be quickly charged
through friction.
● Charges can flow freely through conductors..

Current
● The rate of charge flow is referred to as current.
● If the charge q is in coulomb and t is the time is seconds then,
current is
q
I=
t
● The SI unit of current is ampere  A  .
● Current is a scalar quantity.
● Example:
A current of 1A is drawn by a filament of an electric bulb for 20
minutes. Find the amount of electric charge that flows through the
circuit.
Ans:
The given data is,
I = 1A and
t = 20 minutes
t = 20  60
t = 1200 seconds
Therefore,
q
I=
t
Electric charge is
q = It
q = 1×1200
q = 1200 C
Symbols used in electric circuit

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 Electric Function/ Description Symbol
Component
A straight line represents a
connecting wire.
Connecting Wire It's commonly constructed of
copper and has insulation on
both ends to link two places
electrically.
A zip zap line is used to depict
the resistor.
Brass terminals are represented
Resistor by two heavy dots at the ends,
to which a wire is attached.
Alloys like as nichrome,
manganin, constantan, and
eureka are commonly used to
make resistor wire.
The positive terminal of a cell is
represented by a thin long line,
Cell while the negative terminal is
represented by a thick and short
line.
Electrical current source.

Fuse In an electric circuit, to limit the

current.

To build or break an electric

Plug key circuit for an extended period of
time.

A cell that is made up of two or

Battery more cells.
The cells are placed in a row
here.
Electrical current source.

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 When voltage is placed across
the terminals of an electric
Electric bulb device, such as an incandescent
lamp, glow lamp, or fluorescent
lamp, it creates light.

Connecting Wires are linked together.

wires

Connecting Crossing wires that aren't

wires linked.

It's a device that measures the

difference in potential between
Voltmeter two locations in an electric
circuit.

It's a tool for determining

Ammeter current in an electric circuit.

Alternating current is a type of

Alternating current that changes direction
current fast on its own.

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A circuit diagram is a diagram that displays how different components in a circuit
have been connected using traditional component symbols.

Electrical Potential
● Electric potential is the work done in carrying a unit positive charge from
infinity to a point.
● If W is the work done q is the charge, then electric potential
W
V=
q
● The SI unit of electric potential is Volts  V 

Electric Potential Difference

● The work done required to move a unit charge from one location to the other
is defined as the electric potential difference between two points in an electric
circuit carrying some current.
Work done  W 
Potential difference  V  between two points =
Charge  Q 
● The electric potential difference between points A and B is,
Work done to carry charge q from A to B
VAB =
Charge  Q 
● The SI unit of electric potential difference is Volts  V  .
● Example:
How much work is done in moving a charge of 4 C across two points
having a potential difference 24 V ?
Ans:
Given data is,
Charge, Q = 4 C
Potential difference, V = 24 V

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Therefore, the amount of work W done in moving the charge can be calculated
as,
W = V×Q
W = 24  4
W = 96 J

Electric Potential energy

● The work done required to transport charges to their proper places against the
electric field using a source of energy is known as electric potential energy.
● The potential energy of the charges is used to store the work done.

Ohm’s Law
● Under similar physical conditions, the current flowing through a wire is
directly proportional to the difference in potential applied across its ends.
V I
V
= Constant
I
V
=R
I
Therefore,
V = IR
Where R is the resistance offered.

Resistance

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● Resistance is the opposition to the flow of current.
● The SI unit of resistance is Ohm    .
● 1 Ohm is the resistance offered by a wire carrying 1 A current when 1 V is
applied across its ends.
V
● R=
I
1 Volt
1 Ohm =
1 Ampere
● Variable resistance is a component that regulates current without changing
the voltage source.
● A rheostat is a device that is commonly used to adjust the resistance in an
electric circuit.

Factors Affecting Resistance

● A conducting wire's resistance is determined by:
1. Nature of the material of the wire  Resistivity (Ω)
2. Length of the wire  l 
3. Cross-sectional area of the wire  A 
● Resistance is directly proportional to its length  l  and inversely proportional
to the area of cross-section  A  .
That is,
Rαl
1
Rα
A
Therefore,
l
Rα
A
l
R=
A
Where,
ρ  rho  is a proportionality constant that refers to the electrical resistivity
of the conductor's substance.

Resistivity
● The resistance offered by a wire of unit length and unit cross-sectional area is
called resistivity.
● Resistivity is also known as specific resistance.
● m ohm-meter is the SI unit for resistivity.

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● Metals and alloys have very low resistivity which in the range of
108 m to 106 m .
● The resistivity of insulators such as rubber and glass is on the order of
1012 m to 1017 m .
● Temperature affects both a material's resistance and its resistivity.
● An alloy's resistivity is usually higher than that of its constituent metals.
● At high temperatures, alloys do not easily oxidise (burn) and hence, they're
frequently used in electrical heating devices like electric irons and toasters.
● Tungsten is nearly exclusively utilised in electric bulb filaments, while copper
and aluminium are commonly used in electrical transmission lines.
● Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity.
● Conductivity can be calculated as;
l
=
Ω
● SI unit of conductivity is ohm-1m-1 or mho-m-1

Effect of Temperature
● A conductor's resistance increases linearly as the temperature rises.
● As the temperature rises, an insulator's resistance rises as well.
● As a semiconductor's temperature rises, its resistivity falls.
● The resistivity of an alloy increases as the temperature rises.

Semiconductors and Superconductors

 Semiconductors are materials with resistivity that fall between those of an
insulator and a conductor.
 Materials which lose their resistivity at low temperatures are called super
conductors.

Examples:
i. The potential difference between the terminals of an electric heater is
45 V when it draws a current of 3 A from the source. What current will
the heater draw if the potential difference is increased to 120 V ?
Ans:
Given data is,
Potential difference V = 45 V and current I = 3 A
According to Ohm’s law,
V
R=
I
45
R=
3

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R = 15 
When the potential difference is increased to 120 V the current is
given by
V
I=
R
120
I=
15
I=8A
As a result, the heater's current becomes 8 A .

ii. A wire of given material having length l and area of cross-section A has a
resistance of 8  . What would be the resistance of another wire of the
l
same material having length and area of cross-section 2A ?
4
Ans:
For first wire, resistance is;
l
R1 = ρ = 8Ω
A
Now, for the second wire, resistance is
l
R2 = ρ 4
2A
1
R2   4
2A
l
Since, l =
4
Therefore,
l
R2 = ρ
8A
l
R 2 = R1
8
Since, R1  8
Therefore, R 2 becomes
l
R2 =  8
8
R 2  1
As a result, the new wire's resistance is 1

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Resistances in Series
 The sum of the individual resistances of multiple resistors in series equals their
equivalent resistance.
 If resistances R1, R 2 and R 3 are connected in series, then the equivalent
resistance can be calculated as,
R s = R1  R 2  R 3
 When numerous resistors are connected in series, the combined resistance R s
equals the total of their individual resistances R1, R 2 ,R 3 and hence, R s is
greater than any individual resistance.
 In series circuit, current remains the same and potential difference vary.

 The current in a series circuit is constant throughout the electric circuit. As a

result, connecting an electric lamp and an electric heater in series is clearly
impractical, as they require currents of vastly different values to function
effectively.
 The main disadvantage of a series circuit is that if one component fails, the
circuit is broken and none of the other components works.
● Example:
An electric lamp, whose resistance is 25  , and a conductor of 5 
resistance are connected to a 9 V battery as shown in below figure. Calculate
a. The total resistance of the circuit,
b. The current through the circuit.

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Ans:
The resistance of electric lamp,
R1 = 25 
The resistance is connected in series,
R2 = 5 
Then the total resistance in the circuit can be calculated as,
R s = R1  R 2
R s = 25  5
R s = 30 
The overall difference in potential across the battery is
V=9V
According to Ohm’s law, the current through the circuit can be calculated as;
V
I=
Rs
9
I=
30
I = 0.3 A

Resistances in Parallel
 If resistances R1, R 2 and R 3 are connected in parallel, then the equivalent
resistance R p is given by
1 1 1 1
= + +
Rp R1 R 2 R 3
 The sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances is equal to the
reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances linked in
parallel.

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 In parallel circuit, potential difference remains the same and current will
be vary.
 The current flowing through the electrical devices is divided in a parallel
circuit.
 This is especially useful when each device has a different resistance and
requires a varied amount of current to function properly.

 Example:
In the circuit diagram given in below figure, suppose the resistors R1 , R 2
and R 3 have the values 2,4,6 respectively, which have been connected
to a battery of 9 V .
Calculate
a. The current through each resistor,
b. The total current in the circuit, and
c. The total circuit resistance.

Ans:
Given that

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R1 = 2 
R2 = 4 
R3 = 6 
The total potential difference across the battery is
V=9V
According to Ohm’s law,
V
The current I1 , through R1 =
R1
V
I1 =
R1
9
I1 = A
2
I1 = 4.5 A
V
The current I2 , through R 2 =
R2
V
I2 =
R2
9
I2 = A
4
I2 = 2.25 A
V
The current I3 , through R 3 =
R3
V
I3 =
R3
9
I3 = A
6
I3 = 1.5 A
Therefore, the total current in the circuit can be calculated as;
I = I1  I2  I3
I = 4.5  2.25  1.5
I = 8.25 A
The total resistance R p can be calculated as;
1 1 1 1
= + +
Rp R1 R 2 R 3
1 1 1 1
= + +
Rp 2 4 6

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 1 11
=
R p 12
Therefore,
12
Rp = Ω
11

Heating Effect of Electric Current

 The source energy is constantly dissipated fully in the form of heat if the
electric circuit is purely resistive, that is, a configuration of resistors
exclusively connected to a battery, this effect is called as the heating effect of
electric current.
 Electric heaters, electric irons, and other gadgets are operating on this effect.
 For a steady current I , the amount of heat H produced in time t can be
calculated as;
H = VIt
 Joule’s Law of Heating:
When a current I flows through a resistor R heat is produced and this
phenomena is called as Joule’s law of heating.
H = I2Rt
 Example:
120 J of heat is produced each second in a 6  resistance. Find the
potential difference across the resistor.
Ans:
Given data is
H = 120 J
R=6
t = 1 sec
According to Joule’s Law of Heating effect,
H = I2Rt
Therefore,
H
I=
Rt
120
I=
6 1
I = 20
I = 4.47 A
Thus the potential difference across the resistor V can be calculated as;
V = IR

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V = 4.47  6
V = 26.82 V

Applications of Heating Effect of Electric Current

 Heat creation in a conductor is an unavoidable result of electric current.
 Heat is undesirable because it converts useful electrical energy into heat.
 The electric laundry iron, electric toaster, electric oven, electric kettle, and
electric heater are all examples which are working on Joule’s heating effect.
 As in an electric bulb, electric heating is also employed to produce light.
 Bulb filaments are made of tungsten, a strong metal with a high melting point.
 The fuse used in electric circuits is another prominent application of Joule's
heating.

Fuse Wire:
 A fuse wire is a wire that melts, breaks the circuit, and protects various
appliances in household connections from damage.
 It protects circuits and appliances by interrupting any too high electric current
flow.
 The fuse is connected to the device in series.
 It consists of a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy with the proper melting
point, as well as a piece of wire made of a metal or an alloy with the appropriate
melting point.
 Aluminium, copper, iron, and lead alloys are used to make fuse wires.
 The maximum safe current that can pass through the fuse wire increases
as the thickness of the wire increases.

Electrical Energy
● Because of the existence of resistance to the flow of current work has to be
done in order to maintain the flow of current.
● Since the potential difference V is the work done to carry unit positive charge
from infinity to a point, the work done to carry a charge q is given by:
W = qV
q
But I =
t
Therefore,
W = ItV
Since V=IR
Therefore,

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 W = I2Rt
V2 t
W=
R
● This work done is stored as energy.
● SI unit of electrical energy is Joule.

Electric Power
● The rate at which electric energy is consumed is called electric power.
Work done
● Power =
Time
W
P=
t
P = V × I2R
P = V2R
P = VI
● SI unit of electric power is Watt.
● Example:
An electric bulb is connected to a 230 V generator. The current is 0.75 A .
What is the power of the bulb?
Ans:
We have
V = 230 V
I = 0.75 A
Thus, Power can be calculated as;
P = VI
P = 230  0.75
Therefore,
P = 172.5 W

Calculation of Power for House Hold Electricity

● The commercial unit for electrical energy is the kilowatt hour  kWh 
1kWh = 3,600,000 J
1kWh  3.6  106 J
● No. of units of electricity consumed in a household can be calculated as;
No. of units of electricity consumed in a household = No. of kWh
● Total cost of electricity = Total units × Cost per unit of electricity

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